143

Physiological responses and energy cost during a

simulation of a Muay Thai boxing match
Antonio Crisafulli, Stefano Vitelli, Ivo Cappai, Raffaele Milia, Filippo Tocco,
Franco Melis, and Alberto Concu

Abstract: Muay Thai is a martial art that requires complex skills and tactical excellence for success. However, the energy
demand during a Muay Thai competition has never been studied. This study was devised to obtain an understanding of the
physiological capacities underlying Muay Thai performance. To that end, the aerobic energy expenditure and the recruitment of anaerobic metabolism were assessed in 10 male athletes during a simulation match of Muay Thai. Subjects were
studied while wearing a portable gas analyzer, which was able to provide data on oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide production, and heart rate (HR). The excess of CO2 production (CO2 excess) was also measured to obtain an index of anaerobic
glycolysis. During the match, group energy expenditure was, on average (mean standard error of the mean), 10.75
1.58 kcal
min1, corresponding to 9.39 1.38 metabolic equivalents. Oxygen uptake and HRs were always above the level
of the anaerobic threshold assessed in a preliminary incremental test. CO2 excess showed an abrupt increase in the first
round, and reached a value of 636 66.5 mL
min1. This parameter then gradually decreased throughout the simulation
match. These data suggest that Muay Thai is a physically demanding activity with great involvement of both the aerobic
metabolism and anaerobic glycolysis. In particular, it appears that, after an initial burst of anaerobic glycolysis, there was
a progressive increase in the aerobic energy supply. Thus, training protocols should include exercises that train both aerobic and anaerobic energetic pathways.
Key words: martial arts, exercise, energy expenditure, oxygen uptake, anaerobic glycolysis, carbon dioxide excess.
Resume : Le muay tha ou boxe thalandaise est un art martial exigeant des habiletes complexes et une tactique de haut
niveau pour reussir. Il ny a pas encore detude sur les sources denergie de cet art martial lors dune competition. Le but
` cette fin, on evalue la depense
de cette etude est devaluer les capacites physiologiques des individus en competition. A
denergie aerobie (EE) et limplication du metabolisme anaerobie chez dix sujets masculins au cours dune competition simulee de muay tha. Levaluation des sujets en competition se fait au moyen dun analyseur de gaz portable fournissant
les donnees de consommation doxyge`ne, de production de gaz carbonique et de frequence cardiaque (HR). On evalue
aussi le surplus de production de gaz carbonique afin dobtenir un indice de la sollicitation de la glycolyse anaerobie. Au
cours du match, la EE est en moyenne ( erreur type sur la moyenne) de 10,75 1,58 kcal
min1, ce qui equivaut a`
9,39 1,38 METs. Les valeurs de consommation doxygene et de HR sont toujours au-dessus du seuil anaerobie prealablement determine au cours dun test deffort progressif. Au cours du premier round, le surplus de dioxyde de carbone produit presente une augmentation marquee et affiche la valeur de 636 66,5 mL
min1. Cette valeur sabaisse graduellement
au cours du match. Dapre`s ces observations, le muay tha est une discipline sportive exigeante sur les plans de la sollicitation des deux metabolismes, aerobie et anaerobie. Apre`s une sollicitation marquee du metabolisme anaerobie au debut du
match, on observe un engagement graduel du metabolisme aerobie. Il faudrait donc veiller a` solliciter les deux modalites
de fourniture denergie dans lelaboration dun programme dentranement.
Mots-cles : arts martiaux, exercice physique, depense denergie, consommation doxyge`ne, glycolyse anaerobie, surplus de
production de gaz carbonique.
[Traduit par la Redaction]

Introduction
Muay Thai, often translated into English as Thai boxing,
is the national sport of Thailand and is a martial art with origins in the ancient battlefield tactics of the Siamese army.
During the latter half of the 20th century, Muay Thai was
exported to many countries, and now the International Federation of Muaythai Amateur claims 110 member countries

worldwide, with 5 continental federations, under a sole and

unified regulatory body.
Muay Thai requires complex skills and tactical excellence
for success. Matches are characterized by dynamic phases of
short duration, during which athletes try to strike their opponent or defend themselves from the attacks of their opponent. Fighters wear boxing gloves and use several parts of
the body for offensive and defensive purposes, including

Received 27 May 2008. Accepted 09 January 2009. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at apnm.nrc.ca on 28 March 2009.
A. Crisafulli,1 S. Vitelli, I. Cappai, R. Milia, F. Tocco, F. Melis, and A. Concu. Department of Science Applied to Biological
Systems, Section of Human Physiology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
1Corresponding

author (e-mail: crisafulli@tiscali.it).

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 34: 143150 (2009)

doi:10.1139/H09-002

Published by NRC Research Press

144

fists, elbows, knees, and feet, but headbutting an opponent is

not allowed. Therefore, Muay Thai shares many similarities
with several forms of martial arts and with boxing. A typical
match usually consists of 3 to 5 rounds (depending on the
category of fighters), 3 min per round, with a 1-min break
between each round.
From a physiological point of view, Muay Thai appears
to be an intermittent physically demanding sport, with
short phases of maximal or supramaximal intensity spaced
by brief recoveries. It is, thus, likely that both aerobic
and anaerobic energy systems are recruited during a
match.
To obtain an understanding of the physiological capacities
underlying Muay Thai performance, it would be useful to
know the energy demands and whether the anaerobic metabolism is recruited during a match. However, while there are
studies dealing with the energy demands of some martial
arts, such as Judo, Karate, and Taekwondo (Beneke et al.
2004; Degoutte et al. 2003; Francescato et al. 1995; Imamura et al. 1999), to the best of our knowledge, the energy
requirement during a Muay Thai competition has never been
studied. This information would provide benchmarks for improving and monitoring athletes training.
This study was devised to study energy demand during a
competition of Muay Thai and to test the hypothesis that
Muay Thai is a physically demanding activity that recruits
both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. In particular,
we were interested in measuring aerobic energy expenditure
during a competition and in discovering whether and to
what extent anaerobic glycolysis was recruited. This
information would be useful for coaches to design specific
training programmes capable of inducing the specific adaptations required by Muay Thai. To this end, some physiological variables, such as oxygen uptake (V_ O2), carbon
dioxide production (V_ CO2), pulmonary ventilation (V_ E),
and heart rate (HR), were assessed during a simulation
match, during which athletes wore a portable gas analyzer
able to measure these variables.

Materials and methods

Subjects
Ten male Muay Thai athletes (mean standard error of
the mean (SEM) of age, height, and body mass were
23.7 1.5 years, 174.3 0.9 cm, and 65.1 1.2 kg, respectively), who regularly took part in competitions in the
previous 2 years, were enrolled in the study. None had any
history of cardiac or respiratory disease or was taking any
medication at the time of the study, and none showed any
abnormalities on physical examination or on resting electrocardiogram. Subjects were skilled athletes who trained
for 8 to 10 h a week and had been involved in regular
training program for at least 3 years. In the previous year,
6 of them had participated in international competitions,
while the other 4 participated in matches at the national
level. Thus, our group represented the Muay Thai fighter
at the middleupper level. The study was performed according to the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved
by a local ethics committee. All subjects gave written informed consent.

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 34, 2009

Experimental protocol
Preliminary test
Each subject underwent a preliminary incremental exercise test on a motorised treadmill (Runrace, Technogym,
Forl`, Italy) to assess their anaerobic threshold (AT) and
maximal oxygen uptake (V_ O2 max). The test consisted of a
linear increase of running velocity of 2 km
h1 every 3 min,
starting at 6 km
h1, up to exhaustion, which was considered
the exercise level at which the subject was unable to maintain the running speed (i.e., muscular fatigue).
Fighting simulation test
On a separate day from this preliminary test (the interval
was at least 3 days), each subject underwent a simulation of
a Muay Thai match. To construct a fighting simulation as
real as possible, the assistance of a skilled trainer, who had
been involved in national and international competitions
with excellent results, was enlisted. This simulation was
conducted in our laboratory, where a space with the same
dimensions as a Muay Thai ring was prepared. The subject
under study performed a 15-min warm-up and then rested
on a bench until his cardiorespiratory variables returned to
the pre-exercise level. Recovery was considered complete
when HR was not more than 10 beats
min1 higher than
pre-exercise level, and when the respiratory ratio, calculated
as the carbon dioxide : oxygen uptake ratio, was less than
0.9. The last 3 min of sitting were used to gather the resting
values of the variables and, after this period, the simulation
match began.
The simulation consisted of 3 rounds, each followed by
1 min of recovery, during which the subject sat on a bench.
The rounds consisted of a series of 6 attacks and 6 defensive
actions, each lasting 15 s, for a total duration of 180 s
(3 min). During the attack phases, the subject fought against
a sparring partner, who was the aforementioned skilled
trainer equipped with padded arm-shields (Fig. 1). The sequence of strikes was planned ahead, and included strikes
with knees, elbows, fists, and kicks. The fighter was verbally encouraged to perform maximally throughout the test.
After the recovery following the last round, 3 min of further
recovery was allowed (final recovery). Hence, the whole
simulation test lasted a total of 18 min: 3 min of resting before the beginning of the match; 3 rounds, each lasting
3 min, spaced with 3 min of recovery (for a total of
12 min); and 3 min of final recovery. At the end of the test,
athletes were asked to compare the effort expended during
the simulation with that expended during a real Muay Thai
match. They gave a score ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating not similar and 5 indicating very similar.
All experiments were conducted between 0900 and 1400
hours in a temperature-controlled room (room temperature
set at 22 8C, relative humidity at 50%). Subjects had a light
meal at least 2 h before exercising. Subjects were also asked
to avoid caffeine and alcohol ingestion the day before tests
were scheduled.
Variables
Assessment of respiratory variables and heart rate
Values of V_ O2, V_ CO2, V_ E, and HR were obtained
Published by NRC Research Press

Crisafulli et al.
Fig. 1. (A) One of the subjects in the study wearing the portable
metabolic system (MedGraphics VO2000) while sitting on a bench
before starting the simulation. The face mask, breathing valve, harness, and battery pack can be seen. The metabolic unit, which is
placed on the back, can be seen in (B), which shows the subject
engaged in simulated fighting.

145

metabolic system, which provided average of V_ O2, V_ CO2,

V_ E, and HR values throughout the test.
Measurement of aerobic energy expenditure and anaerobic
glycolysis
During the simulation match, the aerobic energy expenditure (EE, expressed as kcal
min1) was calculated with the
Weir equation (Weir 1949; Mansell and Macdonald 1990):
EE 3:941  V_ O2 1:106  V_ CO2
This equation was used when the respiratory exchange ratio
(RER) was <1, while an oxygen caloric equivalent of 5.04
was used when EE became >1. In this case, it was assumed
that all aerobic energy was derived from carbohydrate oxidation. To obtain an index of anaerobic glycolysis, excess
CO2 production (CO2 excess) was assessed, as follows (Anderson and Rhodes 1989):
CO2 excess V_ CO2  RERrest  V_ O2
where RERrest is the respiratory exchange ratio at rest, and
CO2 excess represents an index of lactic acid and H+ accumulation, since, at tissue pH, lactic acid dissociates and produces H+, which is buffered by HCO3 and other cell
buffers. The amount being buffered by HCO3 leads to
H2CO3 production, then to H2O and CO2 (Beaver et al.
1986b; Hirakoba et al. 1993). In this way, CO2 excess is produced and is superimposed on the CO2 normally derived
from aerobic metabolism. Actually, CO2 excess was found to
correlate well with the rate of lactate accumulation in the
blood during exercise and with the anaerobic capacity (Hirakoba et al. 1993, 1996; Yano et al. 2002). The start of the
lactate increase and CO2 excess were found to have good intercorrelation, even though the interindividual prediction of
lactate concentrations from CO2 excess is not straightforward
(Roeker et al. 2000). This parameter has been recently utilized to assess the rate of anaerobic glycolysis during various kinds of exercise, including field testing and training
sessions involving dynamic phases and recoveries (Crisafulli
et al. 2002, 2006a, 2006b).

throughout the preliminary and the simulation tests, by

means of a portable metabolic system (MedGraphics
VO2000, St. Paul, Minn.), which provides a 3-breath average of variables through telemetric transmission. This system has been shown to be reliable and to have good
agreement with a standard metabolic cart for laboratory use
(Byard and Dengel 2002; Olson et al. 2003). The device
weighs about 1.2 kg and includes the metabolic unit, battery
pack, harness, chest belt for HR monitoring, face mask, and
breathing valve. It is worn on the subjects chest with a harness, and does not limit the athletes movements. Prior to
testing, the VO2000 was calibrated according to manufacturers instructions. During the incremental test, AT was determined using the V-slope method, which detects AT using
computerized regression analysis of the slopes the of V_ CO2
vs. V_ O2 plot during exercise (Beaver et al. 1986a), while
V_ O2 max was calculated as the average V_ O2 during the last
30 s of the exercise test.
During the simulation test, subjects wore the portable

Statistical analysis
Data were averaged for 3 min during the rest period before the simulation match, during rounds, and during recovery after the simulation, while a 1-min average was
employed for the recovery periods between rounds. In this
way, information about the time course of studied variables
was gathered, and differences among the various periods of
the protocol were detected. Responses are reported as
means SEM. Comparisons between periods were performed using the repeated measures analysis of variance
(ANOVA), followed by NeumanKeuls post hoc, when appropriate. Significance was set at a p value of < 0.05. Descriptive statistics were performed on each variable before
the ANOVA to confirm the assumptions of normality by
means of the KolmogorovSmirnov test. The a level was
set at p < 0.05. Statistics were calculated with a commercially available software (Graph-Pad Prism).

Results
All subjects completed the study protocol. Table 1 shows
Published by NRC Research Press

146

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 34, 2009

Table 1. Mean group values standard error of
the mean (SEM) of maximum oxygen uptake (expressed as absolute and indexed by body mass values), maximum heart rate, oxygen uptake at
anaerobic threshold, and HR at anaerobic threshold
reached by subjects during the preliminary incremental test.
Parameter
V_ O2 max (mL
min
kg1)
V_ O2 max (mL
min)
HRmax (beats
min1)
V_ O2 AT (mL
min
kg1)
V_ O2 AT (mL
min)
HRAT (beats
min1)

Mean
48.52
3158.6
182.9
30.8
2024.6
137.5

Fig. 4. Group values of HR (A) and V_ O2 (B) during the various

periods of the simulation. A horizontal dotted line identifies the level of anaerobic threshold. Values are means SEM (n = 10).
*, p < 0.05 vs. rest; {, p < 0.05 vs. final recovery.

SEM
1.7
102.4
1.6
1.6
101.6
4.5

Note: V_ O2 max, oxygen uptake; HRmax, maximum heart

rate; V_ O2 AT, oxygen uptake at anaerobic threshold;
HRAT, heart rate at anaerobic threshold.

Fig. 2. Example of time course of heart rate (HR) and pulmonary

ventilation (V_ E) of 1 subject during the simulated match.

Fig. 3. Example of time course of oxygen uptake (V_ O2) and carbon
dioxide production (V_ CO2) of 1 subject during the simulated
match.

the results of the incremental preliminary test. Figures 2 and

3 exhibit an example of HR, V_ E, V_ O2, and V_ CO2 time
course in 1 subject during the simulation match. Figures 46
depict results of the ANOVA test applied to the mean
value of variables during the various periods of the proto-

col, while Table 2 shows mean values of variables during

the active phases of the match (excluding recoveries).
HR (Fig. 4A) increased during the simulated fighting, in
comparison with rest. This HR elevation was present during
the whole test, including the recovery phases between
rounds and the 3 min of final recovery after the test. This
occurrence means that the resting periods between rounds
did not allow complete recovery. Moreover, it is noteworthy
that HR was above the value of AT assessed during the preliminary incremental test for the entire period of the simulation.
Similarly, V_ O2 (Fig. 4B) rose during the match, compared
with rest, reaching values well above the AT, with no significant difference between rounds and recoveries. However,
contrary to what was described for HR, during the period of
final recovery, V_ O2 returned to values no different from
rest. A very similar behaviour was shown by V_ CO2 and V_ E
(Fig. 5A and 5B, respectively), which increased throughout
the test but returned to baseline during the period of final
recovery.
Figure 6A shows the EE time course, which was obviously very similar to that of V_ O2. It should be noted that
the EE during the 9 min of the simulation match (i.e., excluding recoveries) was, on average, 13.94 0.7 kcal
min1
(or 0.21 0.01 kcal
min1
kg1), which corresponds to
12.15 0.64 metabolic equivalents (METs; Fig. 6B), while
during the whole test (i.e., including recoveries), this parameter was, on average, 10.75 1.58 kcal
min1 (or 9.39
Published by NRC Research Press

Crisafulli et al.
Fig. 5. Group values of V_ CO2 (A) and V_ E (B) during the various
periods of the simulation. Values are means SEM (n = 10). *, p <
0.05 vs. rest; {, p < 0.05 vs. final recovery.

147
Fig. 6. Group values of aerobic energy expenditure (EE), expressed
as kcal
min1 (A) and as metabolic equivalents (METs) (B), during
the various periods of the simulation. (C) Time course of excess of
carbon dioxide production (CO2 excess). Values are means SEM
(n = 10). *, p < 0.05 vs. rest; {, p < 0.05 vs. final recovery; {, p <
0.05 vs. recovery 1.

1.38 METs). Figure 6C depicts the behaviour of CO2 excess.

This variable showed an abrupt increase in the first round,
and reached its maximum during the first recovery min between rounds, when it reached a value of 636
66.5 mL
min1. CO2 excess then gradually decreased, even
though it never returned to baseline.
Finally, as far as the similarity of the simulation to a real
match was concerned, the mean score given by athletes was
4.1 0.3 (with 5 being very similar).

Discussion
This study aimed at characterizing the energetic requirements during a typical Muay Thai match. According to the
initial hypothesis, from our data, it appears that Muay Thai
is a physically demanding activity that recruits both aerobic
and anaerobic energy systems. This finding is in accordance
with what has been found in studies dealing with the energy
demands of other martial arts (Beneke et al. 2004; Francescato et al. 1995). On average, during the whole simulation,
including both active phases and recoveries, V_ O2 and HR
were above the values of AT previously assessed, and approached the level of V_ O2 max. Also, V_ E greatly increased,
reaching, on average, the maximum value of 117.5
12.7 L
min1 during the second round, with peaks in some
subjects that reached 200 L
min1. It is noteworthy that
even during the recovery periods between rounds, the physiological variables did not decrease to resting values. Thus,

1 min was probably not sufficient to recover from the effort

made during the previous round.
The suggestion that Muay Thai is physically demanding
also emerges from the analysis of the EE; during the whole
simulation, which lasted 18 min, EE was, on average,
10.75 1.58 kcal
min1, which corresponds to 9.39
1.38 METs, while during the 9 min of the 3 rounds, it was,
on average, 13.94 0.7 kcal
min1, (or 12.15 0.64 METs).
The sixth edition of the American College of Sports Medicine (2000) guidelines for exercise testing and prescription
reports that the aerobic requirements for ring boxing and
Judo correspond to 13.3 and 13.5 METs, respectively. These
values are very similar to what we found for Muay Thai,
Published by NRC Research Press

148

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 34, 2009

Table 2. Mean group values SEM of heart rate, oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide production, pulmonary ventilation, energy expenditure (expressed as
kcal
min1 and as METs), and carbon dioxide excess during the 3 rounds (i.e.,
excluding recovery phases) of the simulation match.

HR (beats
min1)
V_ O2 (mL
min1)
V_ CO2 (mL
min1)
V_ E (L
min1)
EE (kcal
min1)
EE (METs)
CO2 excess (mL
min1)

Round 1
159.713.7
2526.5112.5
2685122.9
90.58.3
12.60.5
10.90.4
307.377.5

Round 2
165.216.4
2927.5185.2
3166.4178.6
117.512.6
14.60.9
12.70.8
405.895.5

Round 3
17410.9
2912.7125.4
2939.179.1
1108.4
14.50.6
12.70.6
195.793.6

Note: For statistical results, see figures. HR, heart rate; V_ O2, oxygen uptake;
V_ CO2, carbon dioxide production; V_ E, pulmonary ventilation; EE, energy expenditure; CO2 excess, carbon dioxide excess.

suggesting that these fighting activities have similar metabolic requirements.

It is to be noted that this EE very likely underestimated
the real energy requirement, since it did not take into account the energy derived from the anaerobic metabolism.
Actually, even the anaerobic lactacid metabolism seems to
have been widely recruited, as can be seen by the high level
of CO2 excess reached in athletes, especially during the first
recovery between rounds (Fig. 6C). This respiratory index
has been found to correlate well with the rate of lactate accumulation in the blood and the anaerobic capacity during
exercise (Hirakoba et al. 1993, 1996; Volkov et al. 1975;
Yano et al. 2002). Thus, its assessment allows continuous
measuring of the recruitment of anaerobic lactacid metabolism during exercise, without requiring the athlete to stop so
that blood can be drawn. This parameter has been recently
used in various kinds of efforts to detect whether the lactacid metabolism is involved in the exercise being performed
(Crisafulli et al. 2002, 2006a, 2006b). In our investigation,
the mean group value of CO2 excess during the active phases
of the test was about 341.9 51.7 mL
min1, with a peak of
636.2 66.5 mL
min1 during the first recovery between
rounds. This value is similar to what was reported in previous investigations, where athletes performed maximal or
even supramaximal exercise tests requiring massive recruitment of anaerobic glycolysis (Crisafulli et al. 2002, 2006a).
Moreover, it should be noted that during the dynamic phases
of the simulation fight, mean values of V_ O2 were above the
level of AT, and close to 90% of V_ O2 max, especially during
rounds 2 and 3 (Table 2). This high metabolic requirement
likely led to lactate generation, as suggested by previous
findings examining the production of lactate in humans over
a range of power outputs, from 25% to 250% of V_ O2 max
(Spriet et al. 2000). Taken together, these findings (i.e., elevated CO2 excess and V_ O2 constantly above the level of AT
throughout the simulation and close to 90% V_ O2 max during
the dynamic phases) strengthen the concept that during a
Muay Thai match there is the recruitment of lactacid capacity (i.e., the capacity of anaerobic glycolysis to resynthesise ATP).
From the results of this work, it appears that anaerobic
glycolysis was recruited especially during the first round

and the following recovery, whereas, during the remaining

time, there was a progressive reduction in its utilization.
This is in accordance with previous findings showing that,
during intermittent maximal bouts of exercise, the EE of the
first bout is derived mainly from phosphocreatine degradation and anaerobic glycolysis, while, during the latter stages
of exercise, there is a significant shift to aerobic metabolism
and a reduced anaerobic energy yield (Bogdanis et al. 1996;
Gaitanos et al. 1993). Thus, it appears that in our simulation
test, after an initial burst of anaerobic metabolism, there was
a progressive increase in the aerobic energy supply. This
suggestion can also be seen in Table 2, which shows that
V_ O2 was higher during rounds 2 and 3 than during round 1,
even though statistics applied to the overall protocol phases
(i.e., including rest and recoveries) did not find any difference among these conditions, probably because the number
of subjects enrolled was not sufficient to reach significance.
Another finding deserving attention is that, among measured variables, HR was the only one that did not return to
rest level during the 3 min of final recovery, with the noteworthy exception of CO2 excess. This means that this variable
had a slower recovery time course than V_ O2, V_ CO2, and
V_ E. In particular, this occurrence suggests that there was a
sort of dissociation between HR and V_ O2, which caused an
increase in HR over the real metabolic engagement. A very
similar HR behaviour was described in a recent paper (Crisafulli et al. 2006a), which reported that when a substantial
amount of CO2 is produced, such as when the exercise is
characterized by alternate phases of maximal exercise and
recovery, HR provides overestimated values of oxygen uptake. Magosso and Ursino 2001 explained this phenomenon
by considering that carbon dioxide has a significant impact
on the systems controlling the cardiovascular apparatus, and
that hypercapnia may induce tachycardia. In our study, a
substantial elevation of CO2 excess was present throughout
the test, explaining the HR behaviour. Furthermore, maximal
and supramaximal bouts of exercise have a profound impact
on cardiovascular homeostasis, since they modify cardiac
preload, afterload, and contractility, which stress the cardiovascular regulatory systems and induce compensatory tachycardia (Crisafulli et al. 2004, 2006c). Hence, our study
supports the concept that the use of HR monitoring to assess
Published by NRC Research Press

Crisafulli et al.

the intensity of exercise may be unreliable in activities that involve repeated bouts of maximal and supramaximal exercise
and lead to a massive recruitment of anaerobic glycolysis.
Yet, other factors, such as heat stress and dehydration,
may have caused disproportionate HR elevation in relation
to metabolic stress (Gilman 1996). All these factors (i.e.,
CO2 excess, cardiovascular stress caused by modifications in
preload and afterload, heat stress, and dehydration) may explain the noticed dissociation between HR and V_ O2 during
the final recovery period, and suggest that caution should
be used in drawing conclusions about the intensity of an effort from HR.
Limitations of the study
One possible limitation of our study is that it did not analyze a real Muay Thai match but a simulation. However, inasmuch as portable gas exchange analyzers are not allowed
in official competitions, it is impossible to measure variables
during a real fight. Therefore, a simulation test was set with
the assistance of a skilled trainer. As testified by the mean
score given by the fighters enrolled in the study, the effort
made during this simulation was similar to that experienced
during a real match. Hence, it is conceivable that the simulation resembled a typical Muay Thai competition. The
number of subjects enrolled was only 10 because of the difficulty of recruiting Muay Thai fighters who met the inclusion criteria. However, subjects appeared to be very
homogenous in terms of age, height, body mass, and training level. Therefore, it is conceivable that the number of
subjects enrolled represent the typical Muay Thai fighter at
the middleupper level. Moreover, other studies dealing
with martial arts employed the same or fewer subjects
(Beneke et al. 2004; Francescato et al. 1995). Another potential limitation is the use of CO2 excess as a measure of
blood lactate accumulation. The relationship between this
parameter and blood lactate has been investigated several
times, and some studies found a good correlation (Volkov
et al. 1975; Hirakoba et al. 1993, 1996; Yano et al. 2002),
while others did not (Roeker et al. 2000). In particular,
Roeker et al. (2000) concluded that the start of the lactate
increase and excess-CO2 showed good intercorrelation,
even though an inter-individual prediction of lactate concentrations from the excess-CO2 would be difficult. They
also thought that this parameter could be more a measure
for the formation rate of new lactate than the blood lactate
concentration alone. Our study was not intended to indirectly assess blood lactate level; rather, it was devised to
gather qualitative information (i.e., whether the anaerobic
lactacid metabolism was recruited or not). To the best of
our knowledge, no studies have questioned the concept that
CO2 excess during exercise qualitatively reflects the recruitment of anaerobic glicolysys and capacity. The only concern
is whether it is possible to extrapolate a blood lactate value
from CO2 excess. Therefore, it is likely that the use of this indirect index, on which the conclusions of our study depend,
did not influence the outcome, since the measurement of absolute values of blood lactate was not essential to detect the
involvement of anaerobic glycolysis in the exercise performed.
A further limitation of this study may be the use of indirect calorimetry and the Weir equation to assess EE. This

149

method is based on 2 assumptions: that the proteins oxidation during exercise is negligible; and that when RER becomes >1, only carbohydrates are being oxidized. Both
assumptions are clearly wrong, since a slight quantity of
proteins is oxidized during exercise and a RER > 1 does
not necessarily mean that fat oxidation is not occurring, as
lactate accumulation and the consequent CO2 excess generation lead to an overestimation of the actual RER. Thus, there
is considerable uncertainty when assessing substrate oxidation rates in vivo from gas exchange (Frayn 1983). However, the potential error in assessing EE with this method is
not wide, and was calculated within 2.5% (Mansell and
MacDonald 1990). Furthermore, it should be considered
that there is not a reliable alternative method for estimating
EE during exercise, especially during field tests. A final
consideration is the fact that the exercise protocol did not
control for the effect of fatigue on power output being performed. For instance, whether or not fatigue was impairing
performance during the final round, compared with the first
round, was not controlled for. This is a clear limitation of all
field studies not conducted in the laboratory setting, where it
is possible to obtain physiological-biomechanical indexes of
fatigue. Nevertheless, it is likely that athletes performed
maximally during the third round, as can be argued by
Fig. 4 and Table 2; neither HR nor V_ O2 decreased during
round 3, compared with the other 2 rounds. However, it can
not be excluded that power output was lower (i.e., that efficiency decreased) in the last round.
In conclusion, these data suggest that Muay Thai is a
physically demanding sport with great involvement of both
aerobic metabolism and anaerobic glycolysis. This leads us
to speculate that training protocols should include exercise
that train this metabolic pathway. Moreover, interval periods
between rounds do not allow a complete recovery. Coaches
should consider these suggestions when preparing the training program of athletes.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the University of Cagliari,
the Italian Ministry of Scientific Research, and PRISMA
Onlus.

References
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). 2000. General
principles of exercise prescription. In ACSMs guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, Philidelphia, Penn. pp. 152153.
Anderson, G.S., and Rhodes, E.C. 1989. A review of blood lactate
and ventilatory methods of detecting transition thresholds.
Sports Med. 8(1): 4355. doi:10.2165/00007256-19890801000005. PMID:2675254.
Beaver, W.L., Wasserman, K., and Whipp, B.J. 1986a. A new
method for detecting anaerobic threshold by gas exchange. J.
Appl. Physiol. 60(6): 20202027. PMID:3087938.
Beaver, W.L., Wasserman, K., and Whipp, B.J. 1986b. Bicarbonate
buffering of lactic acid generated during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 60(2): 472478. PMID:3949651.
Beneke, R., Beyer, T., Jachner, C., Erasmus, J., and Hutler, M.
2004. Energetics of karate kumite. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 92(4
5): 518523. doi:10.1007/s00421-004-1073-x. PMID:15138826.
Bogdanis, G.C., Nevill, M.E., Boobis, L.H., and Lakomy, H.K.A.
Published by NRC Research Press

150
1996. Contribution of phosphocreatine and aerobic metabolism
to energy supply during repeated sprint exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 80(3): 876884. PMID:8964751.
Byard, A.D., and Dengel, D.R. 2002. Validity of a portable metabolic measurement system. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 34(5):
S149. doi:10.1097/00005768-200205001-00829.
Crisafulli, A., Melis, F., Tocco, F., Laconi, P., Lai, C., and Concu,
A. 2002. External mechanical work versus oxidative energy consumption ratio during a basketball field test. J. Sports Med.
Phys. Fitness, 42(4): 409417. PMID:12391434.
Crisafulli A., Carta, C., Melis, F., Tocco, F., Frongia, F., Santoboni,
P., et al. 2004. Hemodynamic responses following intermittent
supramaximal exercise in athletes. Exp. Physiol. 89(6): 665
674. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2004.027946. PMID:15328308.
Crisafulli, A., Pittau, G.L., Lorrai, L., Cominu, M., Tocco, F., Melis,
F., et al. 2006a. Poor reliability of heart rate monitoring to assess
oxygen consumption during field training. Int. J. Sports Med.
27(1): 5559. doi:10.1055/s-2005-837504. PMID:16388443.
Crisafulli, A., Salis, E., Pittau, G., Lorrai, L., Tocco, F., Melis, F.,
et al. 2006b. Modulation of cardiac contractility by muscle metaboreflex following efforts of different intensities in humans.
Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 291(6): H3035H3042.
doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00221.2006. PMID:16782848.
Crisafulli, A., Tocco, F., Pittau, G.L., Lorrai, L., Porru, C., Salis,
E., et al. 2006c. Effect of differences in post-exercise lactate accumulation in athletes hemodynamics. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 31(4): 423431. doi:10.1139/H06-017. PMID:16900232.
Degoutte, F., Jouanel, P., and Filaire, E. 2003. Energy demands
during a judo match and recovery. Br. J. Sports Med. 37(3):
245249. doi:10.1136/bjsm.37.3.245. PMID:12782550.
Francescato, M.P., Talon, T., and di Prampero, P.E. 1995. Energy cost
and energy sources in karate. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol.
71(4): 355361. doi:10.1007/BF00240417. PMID:8549580.
Frayn, K.N. 1983. Calculation of substrate oxidation rates in vivo
from gaseous exchange. J. Appl. Physiol. 55(2): 628634.
PMID:6618956.
Gaitanos, G.C., Williams, C., Boobis, L.H., and Brooks, S. 1993.
Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 75(2): 712719. PMID:8226473.
Gilman, M.B. 1996. The use of heart rate to monitor the intensity
of endurance training. Sports Med. 21(2): 7379.
PMID:8775514.

Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. Vol. 34, 2009

Hirakoba, K., Maruyama, A., and Misaka, K. 1993. Effect of acute
sodium bicarbonate ingestion on excess CO2 output during incremental exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol.
66(6): 536541. doi:10.1007/BF00634306. PMID:8394808.
Hirakoba, K., Maruyama, A., and Misaka, K. 1996. Prediction of
blood lactate accumulation from excess CO2 output during constant exercise. Appl. Human Sci. 15(5): 205210. doi:10.2114/
jpa.15.205. PMID:8979401.
Imamura, H., Yoshimura, Y., Nishimura, S., Nakazawa, A.T.,
Nishimura, C., and Shirota, T. 1999. Oxygen uptake, heart rate,
and blood lactate responses during and following karate training.
Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 31(2): 342347. doi:10.1097/00005768199902000-00019. PMID:10063825.
Magosso, E., and Ursino, M. 2001. A mathematical model of CO2
effect on cardiovascular regulation. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ.
Physiol. 281(5): H2036H2052. PMID:11668065.
Mansell, P.I., and Macdonald, I.A. 1990. Reappraisal of the Weir
equation for calculation of metabolic rate. Am. J. Physiol.
258(6 Pt 2): R1347R1354. PMID:2360685.
Olson, T.P., Tracy, J.E., and Dengel, D.R. 2003. Validity of a lowflow pneumotach and portable metabolic system for measurement of basal metabolic rate. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 35(5):
S143.
Roeker, K., Mayer, F., Striegel, H., and Dixkhuth, H.H. 2000. Increase characteristics of the cumulated excess-CO2 and the lactate concentration during exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 21(6):
419423. doi:10.1055/s-2000-3836. PMID:10961517.
Spriet, L.L., Howlett, R.A., and Heigenhauser, G.J.F. 2000. An enzymatic approach to lactate production in human skeletal muscle
during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32(4): 756763. doi:10.
1097/00005768-200004000-00007. PMID:10776894.
Volkov, N.I., Shirkovets, E.A., and Borilkevich, V.E. 1975. Assessment of aerobic and anaerobic capacity of athletes in treadmill
running tests. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 34: 121
130. doi:10.1007/BF00999924. PMID:1193088.
Weir, J.B. 1949. New methods for calculating metabolic rate with
special reference to protein metabolism. J. Physiol. 109: 19.
PMID:15394301.
Yano, T., Horiuchi, M., Yunoki, T., and Ogata, H. 2002. Kinetics
of CO2 excessive expiration in constant-load exercise. J. Sports
Med. Phys. Fitness, 42(2): 152157. PMID:12032409.

Published by NRC Research Press