Air pollution

Humans probably first experienced harm from air pollution when they built
fires in poorly ventilated caves. Since then we have gone on to pollute more of
the earth's surface. Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been
local and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor
quantities of pollutants. The industrialization of society, the introduction of
motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the population, are factors contributing
toward the growing air pollution problem. At this time it is urgent that we find
methods to clean up the air.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological

materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or
damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere.

The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential

to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution
has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's
ecosystems.

The primary air pollutants found in most urban areas are carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid
and liquid). These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's atmosphere in
concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health problems. Serious
health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated, such as
when massive injections of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are
emitted by a large volcanic eruption.
Air pollutants

An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to
humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles,
liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary

pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a
volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or
sulfur dioxide released from factories.

Figure 1 : emission from a motor vehicle exhaust

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary

2
pollutant is ground level ozone — one of the many secondary pollutants that
make up photochemical smog.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

• Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound

with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various
industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur
compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation
of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4,
and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the
environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from
high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome
above or plume downwind of cities.Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical
compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides.
This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2
is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
• Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very
poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as
natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon
monoxide.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but
is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the
atmosphere.
• Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air
pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories
of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global

3
 warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse
gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of
methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local
air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene,
toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia
through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous
compound which is often associated with industrial uses.

• Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate

matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid
suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas
together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural.
Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust
storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray.
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power
plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts
of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those
made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the
total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine
particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,
altered lung function and lung cancer.

• Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from
products currently banned from use.
• Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a
compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas
with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to
the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to
foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also
a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in
wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
• Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes

4
 • Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war
explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon

Secondary pollutants include:

• Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and

compounds in photochemical smog .Smog is a kind of air pollution; the
word "smog" is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results
from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of
smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from
coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the
atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine
with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a
key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of
certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone
layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of
the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night.
At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities
(largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent
of smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Sources of air pollution:

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which
are responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources
can be classified into two major categories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different

kinds of fuel

5
 • "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants,
manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as well as
furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices

• "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and

the effect of sound etc.

• Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry

management. Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes
used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse
gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology
and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning
stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing
the forest.

• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not

toxic; however, it is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures
with air. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an
enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if the oxygen
concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement

• Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and

rocketry

Natural sources

• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no
vegetation.
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example
cattle.
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a
colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is

6
 formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard.
Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in buildings, especially
in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent
cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.

• Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Major pollutants : emission sources : SO2

The largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power
plants (66%) and other industrial facilities (29%). Smaller sources of SO2
emissions include industrial processes such as extracting metal from ore, and the
burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships, and non-
road equipment. SO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the
respiratory system"Power plants and factories emit 90% to 95% of the sulfur
dioxide and 57% of the nitrogen oxides in the United States. Almost 60% of the
SO2 emissions are released by tall smoke stakes, enabling the emissions to
travel long distances".

7
Figure : SO2 emissions from smoke stakes

As emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide from stationary sources are
transported long distances by winds, they form secondary pollutants such as
nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets containing solutions of sulfuric
acid, sulfate, and nitrate salts. These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in
wet form as rain or snow and in dry form as a gases fog, dew, or solid particles.
This is known as acid deposition or acid rain.

Nitrogen oxides : emissions

NOx is a generic term for mono-nitrogen oxides (NO and NO 2). These oxides
are produced during combustion, especially combustion at high temperatures.
When NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of
sunlight, they form photochemical smog, a significant form of air pollution,
especially in the summer. Mono-nitrogen oxides eventually form nitric acid

8
when dissolved in atmospheric moisture, forming a component of acid rain. The
following chemical reaction occurs when nitrogen dioxide reacts with water:

2 NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3

Nitrous acid then decomposes as follows:

3 HNO2 → HNO3 + 2 NO + H2O

where nitric oxide will oxidize to form nitrogen dioxide that again reacts with
water, ultimately forming nitric acid:

4 NO + 3 O2 + 2 H2O → 4 HNO3

Mono-nitrogen oxides are also involved in tropospheric production of ozone.

Emission sources

Industrial sources

The three primary sources of NOx in combustion processes:

• thermal NOx
• fuel NOx
• prompt NOx

Thermal NOx formation, which is highly temperature dependent, is recognized

as the most relevant source when combusting natural gas. Fuel NO x tends to
dominate during the combustion of fuels, such as coal, which have a significant
nitrogen content, particularly when burned in combustors designed to minimise
thermal NOx.

9
Thermal

Thermal NOx refers to NOx formed through high temperature oxidation of the
diatomic nitrogen found in combustion air. The formation rate is primarily a
function of temperature and the residence time of nitrogen at that temperature.

Figure : emission of NOx

At high temperatures, usually above 1600°C (2900°F), molecular nitrogen (N2)

and oxygen (O2) in the combustion air disassociate into their atomic states and
participate in a series of reactions.The three principal reactions (the extended
Zeldovich mechanism) producing thermal NOx are:

N2 + O → NO + N
N + O2 → NO + O
N + OH → NO + H

All 3 reactions are reversible. Zeldovich was the first to suggest the importance
of the first two reactions. The last reaction of atomic nitrogen with the hydroxyl
radical, OH, was added by Lavoie, Heywood and Keck to the mechanism and
makes a significiant contribution to the formation of thermal NOx.

10
Fuel

The major source of NOx production from nitrogen-bearing fuels such as certain
coals and oil, is the conversion of fuel bound nitrogen to NO x during
combustion. During combustion, the nitrogen bound in the fuel is released as a
free radical and ultimately forms free N2, or NO. Fuel NOx can contribute as
much as 50% of total emissions when combusting oil and as much as 80% when
combusting coal

Prompt

This third source is attributed to the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen, N 2, with

radicals such as C, CH, and CH2 fragments derived from fuel, where this cannot
be explained by either the aforementioned thermal or fuel processes. Occurring
in the earliest stage of combustion, this results in the formation of fixed species
of nitrogen such as NH (nitrogen monohydride), HCN (hydrogen cyanide),
H2CN (dihydrogen cyanide) and CN- (cyano radical) which can oxidize to NO.
In fuels that contain nitrogen, the incidence of prompt NOx is especially minimal
and it is generally only of interest for the most exacting emission targets.

11
PARTICULATE MATTER
Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine
particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas or liquid. In
contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate
matter can be man made or natural. Particulate Matter—(Water quality) In
water pollution, particulates can either be in a solid or dissolved state. Solid
particulates can be removed by filters or settle from the water, and is referred to
as insoluble particulate matter.

Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms,

forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities,
such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged
over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—
currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our
atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health
hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.

12
Scale classification

Among the most common categorizations imposed on particulates are those

with respect to size, referred to as fractions. As particles are often non-
spherical (for example, asbestos fibers), there are many definitions of
particle size. The most widely used definition is the aerodynamic
diameter.

A particle with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 micrometers moves in a

gas like a sphere of unit density (1 gram per cubic centimeter) with a
diameter of 10 micrometers. PM diameters range from less than 10
nanometers to more than 10 micrometers.

These dimensions represent the continuum from a few molecules up to the size
where particles can no longer be carried by a gas

The notation PM10 is used to describe particles of 10 micrometers or less and

PM2.5 represents particles less than 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic diameter.

13
But because no sampler is perfect in the sense that no particle larger than its
cutoff diameter passes the inlet, all reference methods allow a high margin of
error. These are also sometimes referred to with other equivalent numeric
values. Everything below 100 nm, down to the size of individual molecules is
classified as ultrafine particles (UFP or UP).

Fraction Size range

PM10 (thoracic fraction) <=10 μm
PM2.5 (respirable fraction) <=2.5 μm
PM1 <=1 μm
Ultrafine (UFP or UP) <=0.1 μm
PM10-PM2.5 (coarse fraction) 2.5 μm - 10 μm

PM10-PM2.5 is the difference of PM10 and PM2.5, so that it only includes the
coarse fraction of PM10..

In winter the air can become loaded with the products of incomplete combustion
such as particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon
monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The severity of the resulting winter
smog depends on the degree of atmospheric dispersion. The lower the level of
atmospheric dispersion, the higher the level of winter smog. Atmospheric
dispersion is mainly determined by wind speed and mixing height.

1. Wind speed pushes and disperses the pollutants horizontally. No wind means
stagnant air and allows levels of pollutants to build up in the air (smog).

14
 2. The mixing
height refers to
the maximum
height the
pollutants can
reach if
dispersed
vertically. In
normal
situations, the
mixing height
is enough to
disperse the
pollutants high
into the
atmosphere.
The pollutants
are carried up
by the layer of
warm rising air to the colder air higher up

3.In the case of temperature inversion, the pollutants are trapped at ground level
where it causes most harm. This inversion occurs for example when ahead of a
warm front or in broad surface ridge. Cold air becomes trapped under the layer
of warm air that acts as a lid. The pollutants in the cooler layer cannot be
dispersed and the pollutants stay concentrated at ground level

3. In summer, large-scale smog episodes are typically associated with slow-

moving high pressure systems, which bring with them very high temperatures,
light winds and at times stagnant conditions, both of which allow the build-up of
locally emitted pollutants. In winter, large-scale smog episodes are typically
associated with high levels of PM, often brought about by a build-up of locally
emitted pollutants under stagnant air.

15
Pollutants and their adverse impact on health :

Current scientific evidence links short-term exposures to SO2, ranging from 5

minutes to 24 hours, with an array of adverse respiratory effects including
bronchoconstriction and increased asthma symptoms. These effects are
particularly important for asthmatics at elevated ventilation rates (e.g., while
exercising or playing.)

Studies also show a connection between short-term exposure and increased

visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory
illnesses, particularly in at-risk populations including children, the elderly, and
asthmatics.

EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Standard for SO2 is designed to protect
against exposure to the entire group of sulfur oxides (SOx). SO2 is the
component of greatest concern and is used as the indicator for the larger group
of gaseous sulfur oxides (SOx). Other gaseous sulfur oxides (e.g. SO3) are
found in the atmosphere at concentrations much lower than SO2.

Emissions that lead to high concentrations of SO2 generally also lead to the
formation of other SOx. Control measures that reduce SO2 can generally be
expected to reduce people’s exposures to all gaseous SOx. This may have the
important co-benefit of reducing the formation of fine sulfate particles, which
pose significant public health threats.

SOx can react with other compounds in the atmosphere to form small particles.
These particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause
or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and can
aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and

16
premature death. EPA’s NAAQS for particulate matter (PM) are designed to
provide protection against these health effects.

Health effects of NOx :

The emission of nitrogen oxides into the air can contribute to a wide range of
human health and environmental impacts. Its contribution to some problems are
better understood than others.Those identified as being of concern in a recent
EPA report include:

• Respiratory diseases. NOx reacts with volatile organic compounds in

the presence of sunlight to form ozone, a key component of smog.
Ozone contributes to a variety of respiratory problems for the young,
elderly, those with lung ailments or people who exert themselves during
periods of high ozone concentrations in the air.
• Acid rain and its effects: Sulfur dioxide and NOx are the two key air
pollutants that cause acid rain. Acid rain can change soil chemistry
which, in turn, can reduce growth in some trees, as well as their ability
to resist disease. As lakes and streams become acidified, they may lose
fish biodiversity, including some sensitive species such as trout. Sudden
acidic "pulses" can release aluminum-which is highly toxic to fish-into
streams, especially during spring spawning periods when rain and snow
melt contribute large amounts of acid at once. It can damage a wide
range of materials, from galvanized steel and copper to stone in
buildings and monuments.
• Genetic disorders: High nitrate levels in drinking water is a health
hazard, particularly for infants, as it can contribute to the "blue baby"
syndrome. High levels in water may also increase cancer risks for all
ages. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition in sensitive watersheds can

17
 increase stream water nitrate concentrations, where it can remain in the
water and be carried long distances downstream.

Mutation linked disorders: Airborne particles derived from NOx

emissions react in the atmosphere to form various nitrogen-containing
compounds, some of which may be mutagenic.

Visibility and regional haze interference : NOx emissions lead to the

formation of compounds that can interfere with the transmission of light,
limiting visual range and color discrimination. Most visibility and regional
haze problems can be traced to airborne particles in the atmosphere that
include carbon compounds, nitrate and sulfate aerosols and soil dust. The
major cause of visibility impairment in the eastern United States is sulfates,
while in the West the other particle types play a greater role

Exposure to NO2, another breakdown form of NOx, is associated with a

variety of acute and chronic health effects. Those of most concern include
mild changes in airway responsiveness and pulmonary function in
individuals with pre-existing respiratory illnesses as well as an increase in
respiratory illnesses in children.

Nitrogen saturation of terrestrial ecosystems. Nitrogen can accumulate in

watersheds with high atmospheric deposition. In most ecosystems, nitrogen
deposition has a fertilizing effect that accelerates plant growth. Although this is
often considered beneficial, it can also cause adverse changes such as shifts in
plant species composition, decreases in species diversity and nitrate leaching to
surface and ground waters. Studies in prairie ecosystems have shown that
increased nitrogen loadings lead to an increased abundance of nonnative
species, the loss of native species and the disruption of ecosystem functioning.
Some trees and plants in nitrogen-saturated areas may be more susceptible to
insect and disease attacks.

• Particulate matter and illnesses: NOx compounds react with other

compounds in the atmosphere to form nitrate particles and acid aerosols.

18
 Because of their small size, nitrate particles have the ability to be
transported hundreds, even thousands, of miles though the atmosphere.
Small particles can also penetrate deeply in the lungs where they may
contribute to a range of adverse health effects.
• Stratospheric ozone depletion. Stratospheric ozone protects people,
plants and animals on the Earth's surface from ultraviolet radiation.
Nitrous oxide, which is very stable in the lower atmosphere
(troposphere) slowly migrates to the stratosphere where solar radiation
breaks it into nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen (N). The NO reacts with
ozone to form nitrogen dioxide and molecular oxygen, so additional
nitrous oxide emissions would result in some decrease in stratospheric
ozone.
• . Global warming. Nitrous oxide, a breakdown form of NOx,is a
greenhouse gas, and anthropogenic emissions contribute about 2 percent
of the "greenhouse effect" relative to total anthropogenic emissions of
greenhouse gases in the United States

Health effects: particulate matter

• Particulate matter rupturing, blocking and/or passing through alveoli,

leading to cancer, alzheimers, atherosclerosis and permanent
declines in lung capacity
• The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been widely studied in
humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular
issues, and premature death. The size of the particle is a main
determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will come to
rest when inhaled. Because of the size of the particle, they can penetrate
the deepest part of the lungs. PM10, can settle in the bronchi and lungs
and cause health problems. The 10 micrometer size does not represent a
strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles, but has
been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most
regulatory agencies.

19
• Particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers, PM2.5, tend to penetrate into the
gas-exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (< 100
nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. In
particular, a study published in the Journal of the American Medical
Association indicates that PM2.5 leads to high plaque deposits in
arteries, causing vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis — a
hardening of the arteries that reduces elasticity, which can lead to
heart attacks and other cardiovascular problems. Researchers suggest
that even short-term exposure at elevated concentrations could
significantly contribute to heart disease.
• Coarse particles are airborne pollutants that fall between 2.5 and 10
micrometers in diameter. The study, published in the May 14, 2008,
edition of JAMA, found evidence of an association with hospital
admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association
with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases
• The smallest particles, less than 100 nanometers (nanoparticles), may be
even more damaging to the cardiovascular system. There is evidence
that particles smaller than 100 nanometers can pass through cell
membranes and migrate into other organs, including the brain. It has
been suggested that particulate matter can cause similar brain damage as
that found in Alzheimer patients. Particles emitted from modern diesel
engines (commonly referred to as Diesel Particulate Matter, or DPM) are
typically in the size range of 100 nanometers (0.1 micrometer).
• In addition, these soot particles also carry carcinogenic components
like benzopyrenes adsorbed on their surface. It is becoming increasingly
clear that the legislative limits for engines, which are in terms of emitted
mass, are not a proper measure of the health hazard.
• The dangerous feathery shape of asbestos is widely recognised to lodge
itself in the lungs with often dire consequences. Geometrically angular
shapes have more surface area than rounder shapes, which in turn affects
the binding capacity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous
substances.The large number of deaths and other health problems

20
 associated with particulate pollution was first demonstrated in the early
1970s and has been reproduced many times since. PM pollution is
estimated to cause 22,000-52,000 deaths per year in the United States
(from 2000) and 200,000 deaths per year in Europe.
• Effects on COPD : Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
include diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and some
forms of asthma. A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the
Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with 477 residents
of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low
reported death rates from chronic bronchitis.The study controlled for age
and smoking habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely
cause of the observed differences.
• It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban
environment serious health hazards become more apparent. Studies have
shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower
levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis
and emphysema

REDUCTION EFFORTS: REGULATION STRATEGIES FOR

THE CONTROL OF POLLUTANTS :

There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning
strategies available to reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use
planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In
most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social
policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider
economy and population as well as to protect the environment.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation

(many developing countries have permissive regulations),expanding regulation
to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small

21
gas-powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles),
increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles),
conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to
electric vehicles).

Control devices

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry
or transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them
from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

• Particulate control
o Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
o Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or
electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that
removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force
of an induced electrostatic charge.

Fig:electrostatic precipitator mechanism outline

22
Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally
impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine
particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream.

o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector

consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a
dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished from air
cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).

o Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control

technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use
pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas streams. In a
wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with
the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it
through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as
to remove the pollutants.

NOx control

• Low NOx burners

• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
• Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

Acid Gas/SO2 control

o Wet scrubbers
o Dry scrubbers
o Flue gas desulfurization

23
Fig: flue gas desulfurization

SO2 INITIATES GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE :

Global climate change, prior to the 20 th century, appears to have been initiated
primarily by major changes in volcanic activity. Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) is the
most voluminous chemically active gas emitted by volcanoes and is readily
oxidized to sulfuric acid normally within weeks. But trace amounts of SO 2 exert
significant influence on climate. All major historic volcanic eruptions have
formed sulfuric acid aerosols in the lower stratosphere that cooled the earth's
surface ~0.5 o C for typically three years.

24
Fig: Emission from a volcano

While such events are currently happening once every 80 years, there are times
in geologic history when they occurred every few to a dozen years. These were
times when the earth was cooled incrementally into major ice ages. There have
also been dozens of times during the past 46,000 years when major volcanic
eruptions occurred every year or two or even several times per year for decades.

Each of these times was contemporaneous with very rapid global warming.
Large volumes of SO 2 erupted frequently overdrive the oxidizing capacity of
the atmosphere resulting in very rapid warming. Such warming and associated
acid rain becomes extreme when millions of cubic kilometers of basalt are
erupted in much less than one million years. These are the times of the greatest
mass extinctions. When major volcanic eruptions do not occur for decades to
hundreds of years, the atmosphere can oxidize all pollutants, leading to a very
thin atmosphere, global cooling and decadal drought. Prior to the 20th century,
increases in atmospheric CO 2followed increases in temperature initiated by
changes in SO 2 .

By 1962, man burning fossil fuels was adding SO 2 to the atmosphere at a rate
equivalent to one "large" volcanic eruption each 1.7 years. SO 2 is playing a far

25
more active role in global warming than recognized by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. But man is also adding two to three orders of
magnitude more CO 2 per year to the climate than one "large" volcanic eruption
added in the past. Thus CO 2 , a greenhouse gas, is now also causing warming.
Both SO 2 and CO 2 must be reduced to reduce global warming. We have already
significantly reduced SO 2 emissions in order to reduce acid rain.
In the past, sudden climate change was typically triggered by sudden
increases in volcanic activity. Slow increases in greenhouse gases, therefore, do
not appear as likely as currently thought to trigger tipping points where the
climate suddenly changes.

Nitrous Oxide : Now Top Ozone-Depleting Emission :

Nitrous oxide has now become the largest ozone-depleting substance emitted
through human activities, and is expected to remain the largest
throughout the 21st century, NOAA scientists say in a new study.

For the first time, this study has evaluated nitrous oxide emissions from human
activities in terms of their potential impact on Earth's ozone layer. As
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which have been phased out by international
agreement, ebb in the atmosphere, nitrous oxide will remain a significant ozone-

26
destroyer, the study found. Today, nitrous oxide emissions from human
activities are more than twice as high as the next leading ozone-depleting gas.

Nitrous oxide is emitted from natural sources and as a byproduct of agricultural

fertilization and other industrial processes. Calculating the effect on the ozone
layer now and in the future, NOAA researchers found that emissions of nitrous
oxide from human activities erode the ozone layer and will continue to do so for
many decades.

The ozone layer serves to shield plants, animals and people from excessive
ultraviolet light from the sun. Thinning of the ozone layer allows more
ultraviolet light to reach the Earth's surface where it can damage crops and
aquatic life and harm human health.

Though the role of nitrous oxide in ozone depletion has been known for several
decades, the new study is the first to explicitly calculate that role using the same
measures that have been applied to CFCs, halons and other chlorine- and
bromine-containing ozone-depleting substances.

With CFCs and certain other ozone-depleting gases coming in check as a result
of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, the international treaty that phased out ozone-

27
destroying compounds, manmade nitrous oxide is becoming an increasingly
larger fraction of the emissions of ozone-depleting substances. Nitrous oxide is
not regulated by the Montreal Protocol.

Nitrous oxide is also a greenhouse gas, so reducing its emission from manmade
sources would be good for both the ozone layer and climate, the scientists said.

In addition to soil fertilization, nitrous oxide is emitted from livestock manure,

sewage treatment, combustion and certain other industrial processes.
Dentists use it as a sedative (so-called "laughing gas"). In nature,
bacteria in soil and the oceans break down nitrogen-containing
compounds, releasing nitrous oxide. About one-third of global nitrous
oxide emissions are from human activities. Nitrous oxide, like CFCs, is
stable when emitted at ground level, but breaks down when it reaches the
stratosphere to form other gases, called nitrogen oxides, that trigger
ozone-destroying reactions

28
Climate effects

climate effects can be extremely catastrophic; sulfur dioxide ejected from the
eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 1601
- 1603, leading to the deaths of two million.

Particles can affect the climate in two different ways. The "direct effect" is
caused by the fact that the particles scatter and absorb solar and infrared
radiation in the atmosphere. As particles become increasingly absorbing, a point
is reached where the overall effect of the particle layer changes from cooling to
heating. The result of the scattering of sunlight caused by particles is an increase
in the amount of light reflected back into space, which results in a decrease in
the amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface.

The "indirect effect" of particles are more complex and more difficult to assess.
Changes in the number concentration of aerosols in the atmosphere causes
variations in the population and size of cloud droplets. There is a set amount of
water available for clouds. The water can form large droplets within the clouds,
which causes precipitation (a major removal mechanism for aerosols). The
addition of PM into the atmosphere causes the water to condense on to the

29
particles. This results in more, but smaller droplets in the clouds, which
increases the cloud albedo. In addition to increasing the albedo, this effect tends
to decrease the chance of precipitation. If precipitation is suppressed, this results
in excess water remaining in the atmosphere.

30
Combating global warming : international efforts

The COP15

The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as

the Copenhagen Summit, was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen,
Denmark, between 7 December and 18 December. The conference included the
15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change and the 5th Meeting of the Parties (COP/MOP
5) to the Kyoto Protocol. According to the Bali Road Map, a framework for
climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there.

The conference was preceded by the Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges
and Decisions scientific conference, which took place in March 2009 and was
also held at the Bella Center. The negotiations began to take a new format when
in May 2009 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon attended the World Business

31
Summit on Climate Change in Copenhagen, organised by the Copenhagen
Climate Council (COC), where he requested that COC councillors attend New
York's Climate Week at the Summit on Climate Change on 22 September and
engage with heads of government on the topic of the climate problem.

COP15 is the official name of the Copenhagen climate change summit — the
15th Conference of the Parties (COP) under the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The COP is the highest body of the
UNFCCC and consists of environment ministers who meet once a year to
discuss developments in the convention.

One hundred and ninety-two countries have signed the climate change
convention. More than 15,000 officials, advisers, diplomats, campaigners and
journalists are expected to attend COP15, joined by heads of state and
government.

Developing countries, including China and India, believe it is the responsibility

of wealthy industrialised nations such as the UK and US to set a clear example
on cutting carbon emissions. Significantly, the US rejected the 1997 Kyoto
protocol, with George Bush arguing that the 5% reductions required by Kyoto
would "wreck [the American] economy" while making no demands on
emerging economies. COP15's chances of success have been improved by
President Barack Obama's stated intention to achieve an 80% reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.

LISTING OF PROPOSED ACTIONS:

During the conference some countries stated what actions they were proposing
to take if a binding agreement was achieved. In the end, no such agreement was
reached and the actions will instead be debated in 2010.

32
Proposed changes in absolute emissions

Area 1990→2020 Reference base

Norway −30% CO2e w/o LULUCF

Japan −25%

CO2e w/o LULUCF @ 20%

EU −20 to −30%
CO2e w/- LULUCF @ 30%

Russia −20 to −25%

South Africa −18%

New Zealand −10 to −20% CO2e w/- COP15 LULUCF

−4 to −24% CO2e w/o LULUCF

Australia
−15 to −33% CO2e w/- human LULUCF

Canada −3% CO2e (LULUCF undecided)

United States −1.3%

Brazil +5 to −1.8%

Area 2005→2020 Reference base

33
China −40 to −45% CO2 emissions intensity

India −20 to −25% CO2e emissions intensity

34
35
 SO2,PM10,NOx
for study are :
The pollutants taken

Prepared questionnaire
owing to the effect of
pollutants on mortality

Collected data
pertaining to factors
such as :

Temperature recorded

Relative humidity

Pollutant concentration

No. of deaths recorded

Performed SPSS
analysis on the
data.

Obtained correlation,
scatter ,boxplot analysis
of data.

Interpreted the output

and obtained significant
relation.

Concluded that pollutants

share significant
relationship with
increasing mortality rate

Figure : procedural flowchart demonstrating the

protocol
Objective:

The main objective implied during the tests conducted upon our data is
considerate upon focussing the attention towards the estimation of a significant
relationship of these pollutants namely SO2,NOx,PM10 with the death rate for
the year 2004.
The various methods employed to aid the process include :

• A correlation analysis for predicting the nature of relationship among the

pollutants themselves i.e if it employs any significance whether the
behaviour and concentration of one tends to change or modify or alter
the concentration or behaviour of other.

• The graphical representation by scatterplot diagrams lays emphasis on

the better visualisation and improvement of the interface by providing an
easy understanding of the relationship b/w different variables for e.g the
scatterplots demonstrating the seasonal variation with the no. of deaths
predict which seasons report the highest deaths recorded thereby
indicating the link b/w the concentration of pollutants with the no. of
deaths.

• The boxplot diagrams provide a comparison b/w the concentration of

SO2 and NOx levels for various seasons based on their quartile values.

37
38
39
Figure:SPSSdataview

Figure: spss: variable view

Softwares employed:
SPSS : Statistical package for the Social Sciences was released in its first
version in 1968 after being developed by Norman H. Nie and C.Hadlai Hull.
SPSS is among the most widely used programs for statistical analysis in social
science.

40
In addition to statistical analysis, data management (case selection, file
reshaping, creating derived data) and data documentation (a metadata dictionary
is stored in the datafile) are features of the base software.
Statistics included in the base software:
 Descriptive statistics: Cross tabulation, Frequencies, Descriptives,
Explore, Descriptive Ratio Statistics

 Bivariate statistics: Means, t-test, ANOVA, Correlation (bivariate,

partial, distances), Nonparametric tests

 Prediction for numerical outcomes: Linear regression

 Prediction for identifying groups: Factor analysis, cluster analysis

(two-step, K-means, hierarchical), Discriminant

 SPSS places constraints on internal file structure, data types, data

processing and matching files, which together considerably simplify
programming. SPSS datasets have a 2-dimensional table structure where
the rows typically represent cases (such as individuals or households)
and the columns represent measurements (such as age, sex or household
income). Only 2 data types are defined: numeric and text (or
"string"). All data processing occurs sequentially case-by-case through
the file. Files can be matched one-to-one and one-to-many, but not
many-to-many.

 The graphical user interface has two views which can be toggled by
clicking on one of the two tabs in the bottom left of the SPSS window.
The 'Data View' shows a spreadsheet view of the cases (rows) and
variables (columns). Unlike spreadsheets, the data cells can only contain
numbers or text and formulas cannot be stored in these cells. The
'Variable View' displays the metadata dictionary where each row
represents a variable and shows the variable name, variable label, value
label(s), print width, measurement type and a variety of other
characteristics. Cells in both views can be manually edited, defining the

41
 file structure and allowing data entry without using command syntax.
This may be sufficient for small datasets.

 SPSS can read and write data from ASCII text files (including
hierarchical files), other statistics packages, spreadsheets and databases.
SPSS can read and write to external relational database tables via ODBC
and SQL.

 Statistical output is to a proprietary file format (*.spv file, supporting

pivot tables) for which, in addition to the in-package viewer, a stand-
alone reader can be downloaded. The proprietary output can be exported
to text or Microsoft Word. Alternatively, output can be captured as data
(using the OMS command), as text, tab-delimited text, PDF, XLS,
HTML, XML, SPSS dataset or a variety of graphic image formats
(JPEG, PNG, BMP and EMF)

42
Correlation :

Correlation measures the statistical relationship between two or more random

variables or observed data values.correlations are useful because they can
predict the relationship that can be exploited in practice.in general statistical
usage,correlation can refer to a more specialized type of relationship between
mean values. There are several correlation coefficients, measuring the degree of
correlation. The most common of these is the Pearson correlation coefficient
which is mainly sensitive to a linear relationship between two variables.other
correlation coefficients have been developed to be more robust than the Pearson
correlation, or more sensitive to nonlinear relationships
The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient measures the strength of
the linear association between the variables.generally the correlation coefficient
of a sample is denoted by r,and the correlation coefficient of a population is
denoted by R.

Interpreting a correlation coefficient :

• The sign and the absolute value of a correlation coefficient describe the
direction and magnitude of the relationship between two variables.

The value of a correlation coefficient lies between -1 and 1

• The greater the absolute value of a correlation coefficient, the stronger
the linear relationship.

• The strongest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient

of -1 or 1.

• The weakest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient

equal to 0.

43
 • A positive correlation means that if one variable gets bigger,the other
variable tends to get bigger.

• A negative correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the other
variable tend to get smaller.

QUESTIONNAIRE

(A) General account :

• DATE :

• DAY:

• MONTH :

(B) Temperature record :

• 1. The maximum temperature recorded on the day was :

• 2. What was the minimum temperature of the day:

(C) Concentration of pollutants :

• What was the concentration of SO2 in the air ?

• What was the amount of Particulate matter emissions in the

air ?

• What was the concentration of NOx recorded on the day?

(D) Other factors:

• Wind speed :

44
 • Mean RH:

• THE NO. OF DEATHS RECORDED ON THE DAY :

Data collected :

45
Methodology

The correlation analysis was performed on the data with the pollutants
SO2,NOx, PM10 as the three variables. The first dialog box shows the
analysis selected as a bivariate correlation analysis. In the analyze column
on the toolbar select correlate > bivariate

In the next window that

appears variables were
added one by one by
dragging them into the
variables column.The
correlation coefficient
selected is Pearson’s as
its used to study the
linear relation among
the variables.the test of

46
significance is two tailed for the distribution and significant correlations
are flagged .

BOXPLOT ANALYSIS:

From the Graphs menu on the

toolbar selected legacy dialogs from
the drop down list then selected
Boxplot in the next set of options
from the pull down menu.

The next dialog box involves the various features of a boxplot.

47
The boxplot selected for the comparison of SO2 and NOx is
clustered type

The data to be displayed as summaries of individual variables to

obtain discrete value information.

CLUSTERED BOXPLOT : FEATURES

The boxplot is exclusively used for comparison of variables and

identify the extreme values and outliers bearing no statistical
significance.

The boxes used for comparison here represent variables SO2 and
NOx and they have been used to be categorized individually with
respect to seasons(the variable V4 represents seasons.

48
49
Results and interpretation

Correlation analysis among the three pollutants :

• Correlation among the three variables: SO2,NOx,PM10 uses the

pearson correlation to measure the strength of linear association between
two scale variables.

• The correlation is represented in a table format as Pearson correlation

"r," in which case, the greater the absolute value of "r," the higher the
correlation.

• The correlation analysis includes an output with the variables across the
top and left. the columns and rows for two variables that intersect reveal
the information about the r-value and p-value.

Significant correlations are starred :

Correlations
PM10 SO2 Nox
PM Pearson 1 .490** .294**
10 Correlation(r)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 287 286 286
SO2 Pearson .490** 1 .469**
Correlation(r)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 286 286 286
Nox Pearson .294** .469** 1
Correlation(r)
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
50
N 286 286 286
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
One star means p < .05,
Two stars mean p < .01
The null hypothesis Ho = 0 which means that variables that give an r-value of
0 or close to it i.e bearing no significant difference share no significant
correlation and thus are rejected right away, with the null hypothesis being
accepted at the 0.01 level of significance.
VS
The alternate hypothesis which takes into account the possibility of HA = 0
considers that when the value of r > 0.05 then Ho is rejected and the variables
share a positive linear correlation .

• Larger absolute value of r indicates stronger positive correlation

among the variables.

• The values taken in bold indicate the r-value such as

• SO2 and PM 10 with r value of .490 have a significant positive

correlation.

• SO2 and NOx have a strong correlation with value of .469 which means
the share a significant linear correlation.

51
 • NOx and PM10 produce the similar pattern with r value of 0.294
meaning significant correlation.

Scatterplots demonstrating the seasonal variation with the no of

deaths:

summer

50
45
40
Number of deaths

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 30 60 90 120
Days

• Scatterplots give a visual implication of the mortality rate with

the no of days for each season categorised as summer,rainy

52
 and winter and then indicating which season accounts for the
higher no of deaths.

Rainy
40

35
30
Number of deaths

25

20

15
10

0
0 30 60 90 120
Days

Scatterplot for no. of deaths recorded in the rainy and winter

seasons
Number of deaths

53
 Winter

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
30 60 90 120
Days

• The scatterplot for the summer season accounts for the highest
no of deaths followed by winter and then the rainy with the
least no of deaths. This can be accounted for the fact that the
summer season has the highest mean temperature owing to the
larger concentration of pollutants and thus raising the
mortality rate,which can be seen in the following scatterplot
b/w mean temperature and no of deaths.

54
 40

35

30
BOXPLOT ANALYSIS

55

25
• Boxplots allow to compare each group using a five-number summary:
the median, the 25th and 75th percentiles, and the minimum and
maximum observed values that are not statistically outlying. Outliers and
extreme values are given special attention

• The heavy black line inside each box marks the 50th percentile, or
median, of that distribution

• The lower and upper hinges, or box boundaries, mark the 25th and 75th
percentiles of each distribution, respectivelyWhiskers appear above and

below the hinges. Whiskers are vertical lines ending in horizontal lines
at the largest and smallest observed values that are not statistical outliers

• Outliers are identified with an O.. The label refers to the row number in
the Data Editor where that observation is found

• Extreme values are marked with an asterisk (*).

56
• Boxplots provide a quick, visual summary of any number of groups.
Further, all the groups within a single factor are arrayed on the same
axes, making comparisons easier.

57
CLUSTERED BOXPLOT COMPARISON OF SO2 and NOx
with respect to seasons

• Between comparison of SO2 and NOx :

The concentration of both the pollutants is compared in the boxplot

for all the seasons and the concentration of NOx is found to be
higher than SO2.

58
 Distribution or skewness comparison for individual seasons :

Winter
SO2 : the skewness for SO2 is moderately positively skewed.
NOx : the skewness for NOx is recorded to be negatively
skewed.

Summer:
SO2: the skewness is recorded as negatively skewed.
NOx: the skewness is reported to be positively skewed.

Rainy:
SO2: the skewness for SO2 is found to be almost symmetrical.
NOx: the skewness is recorded as almost symmetrical.

• Within comparison of SO2 and NOx:

NOx: is compared to be higher in summer as compared to

winter and rainy season.
SO2 : is compared to be higher in winter than summer and
autumn.

59
Discussion and conclusion :

The main objective behind the tests conducted in the project report is
the study of any significant relationship of the pollutants amongst
themselves( tracing the possibility of a significant correlation)
and sharing any form of relation with the no. of deaths i.e if they
induce any effect on the mortality rate ( a regression analysis reveals
any such relation)

The studies were based on the recorded values of pollutants in the

air for different days and months.The data collected for the analysis
was based on the controlled conditions and the various factors taken
into consideration for the control analysis were :
Date,Maximum and minimum temperature recorded,Concentration
of the three pollutants in the air namely : SO2,NOx,PM10,Relative
humidity(morning and evening),Wind speed,No of deaths recorded
on the day in question.

60
 • The use of scatterplots and boxplots reveal the other
secondary but contributing factors towards the increase in
mortality rate.

The correlation analysis was performed with the aid of the

statistical tool SPSS. The data variables entered for the correlation
were the recorded values of SO2,NOx,PM10 and the output was
presented in the format of a correlation matrix.The output evidently
revealed the presence of a significant positive correlation amongst
the pollutants with all the values for pearson correlation
coefficient(r) evaluated to be significant.

The scatterplot diagrams focus on evaluating the discrete values of

the no of deaths recorded on each day for individual seasons and
then assessing that the summer season accounted for the highest no.
of deaths because of the close relationship of the mortality rate with
the mean temperature.

• The boxplot analysis facilitated an easier and

understandable comparison b/w SO2 and NOx for every
season and for signifying their relationship with each
other by the use of principles of skewness and kurtosis
also providing with the knowledge that NOx among the
three contributes more to the increase in mortality.

61
The inference drawn from the various tests and analysis
conducted on the data is – the pollutants indeed share a
significant correlation among each other, and thus obtained
have an impact on the increase in mortality rate which proves
the presence of relationship amongst them.

References:

Website references:

www.epa.gov/

www.sciencedaily.com

http://www.rtmagazine.com/issues/articles/1999-10_06.asp.

bibliographic references:

works cited on air pollution:

• Breuer, Georg, Air in Danger: Ecological Perspectives of the

Atmosphere. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.

62
 • Stewart, T. Charles, Air Pollution, Human Health and Public Policy.
New York: Lexington Books, 1979
• Miller, G. Tyler, Living in the Environment: an introduction to
environmental science. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1990.
• Zoidis, John D. (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD". RT: for
Decision Makers in Respiratory Care.
• Holland WW, Reid DD. The urban factor in chronic bronchitis. Lancet.
1965;I:445-448.
• J. Sunyer (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary disease: a review". European Respiratory Journal 17: 1024–
1033.

Abstract

This project concerns a very familiar concept

known commonly known as enhanced
greenhouse effect or global
warming.Although the topic itself is very huge
one, the project confines itself to the
knowledge of a few of the basic but hazardous
contributors to the overall effect. a brief insight
to the growing problem of global warming,the
causes behind it,its impacts on the earth and

63
the steps taken so far across the world to deal
with the menace is provided.

The tests conducted take into account the no.

of deaths or the mortality rate taken on an
average for the year 2004 and then testing
whether the pollutants such as SO2, PM10 and
NOx have any significant correlation with the
rate of mortality.

The study, analysis and statistical interpretation

is based on the controlled tests performed on
the daily recorded values of the concentration
of these pollutants in the air and the no of
deaths due to global warming.The statistical
analysis and interpretation have been done
through the use of a statistical tool SPSS 18
which provides us a better understanding of the
behaviour of these air pollutants and the effects
induced due to the changes in the
concentration levels of the same. It also aids us
in knowing whether these share a correlation
with each other and the reason behind it. The
use of scatter plot and box plot diagrams
facilitates the interpretation by providing a
better visual interface and making it easier to
draw conclusions by a graphically interactive
approach .

64