Eulers constant, e, and

the exponential growth

formula

A PPENDIX

A1 Eulers constant, e
1
The proof that the expression
h
 approaches a limiting value as h becomes larger and
h
h

larger (i.e. as h ) is beyond the scope of this course. However, you can verify the truth of
this statement by evaluating the expression for larger and larger values of h. You should
understand that no amount of verification of a statement constitutes a proof because you have
not tested the statement for all possible cases. No matter how many tests you perform for
different values of h, there is still the possibility that for some untested value the statement does
not hold true.
1 h
For example, using your calculator, evaluate the expression h
 when h  1, 10, 100,
h
1000, . . .

In the eighteenth century, the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler discovered that although the
value of this expression becomes larger and larger as h increases, this value does not increase
without limit but approaches a value that is known as e. We say that the limit of the value of
1 h
h
 as h becomes larger and larger is e. Mathematicians abbreviate this statement to
h
1 h
lim h
  e.
h
h

This value, like the value of , has been calculated to thousands of decimal places and  2.718.
Its value is such a useful number in mathematics that your calculator has keys on it that enable
you to find the value of ex, ex and logarithms to the base e.

A2 Proof of the formula for

exponential growth: Q  Q0  ekt
The amount after 1 year of compound interest at r% per year when the interest is paid and
compounded n times per year is given by:
nr n
AP 1

100

Appendix A Eulers Constant, e, and the Exponential Growth Formula

99

r
which  P  1

100n

1

P 1

100n

r

 P





1
1

h

1

P 1

100n

r
r
100n
  
100
r

 P



1
1

100n

r

100n

r

r

100

r

h 100

100n
, where h  
r

1 h
As n , h  and so 1
 e.
h

APe
r
i.e. A P  ek, where k  , the interest rate expressed as a decimal.
100
During the second year we have $(P  ek) invested under the same conditions.
r

100

at the end of the second year:

A  $(P  ek)  ek  $P  e2k

at the end of the third year:

A  $(P  e2k)  ek  $P  e3k

At the end of t years:

A
P  ekt

This formula does not, of course, apply to only a sum of money but to any quantity that grows
exponentially.
The general formula for exponential growth is:
Q
Q0  ekt

where

100

Q is the quantity originally present (i.e. the value of Q when t  0)

k is the percentage rate of increase per some specified period of time expressed as a
decimal
t is the number of these growth periods

Mathematics for Technicians

A PPENDIX

Mass and weight

An acceleration of a m/s per second means that the velocity increases by a m/s each second.
For example, a body that starts from rest and has an acceleration of 7 m/s per second
(i.e. 7 m/s/s, 7 m/s2) will have velocities on each successive second of 0 m/s, 7 m/s, 14 m/s,
21 m/s, etc.
A body that has no resultant force acting upon it will continue to remain at rest or will continue
to move with a constant speed in a straight line (Newtons first law of motion). In order to give
a body an acceleration (i.e. a change in speed or direction of motion, or both), a resultant force
must act upon it. The force required to give a body a particular acceleration is proportional to
the mass (inertia) of the body and to the magnitude of the acceleration.
The force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2 is called a newton (N).
The force required to give a mass of m kg an acceleration of a m/s2 is given by the formula F  ma.
When a body is in free fall in a vacuum (i.e. with no resistance from air, water etc.), the only
force acting upon it is the gravitational attraction towards the centre of the earth, which will
give it an acceleration that is independent of its mass and is known as g. Because the earth is
not a perfect sphere this force and acceleration depend on its location on the earth (i.e. on how
far it is from the centre of gravity of the earth). The value of g throughout Australasia has the
value of 9.80 m/s2 correct to 3 significant figures but in other places can vary from this value by
about 0.2%. In our work we will take the value of g to be 9.80 m/s2.
The force of gravitational attraction that produces this acceleration in free fall is commonly
called the weight of the body and is given by given by F  mg. For example, a body of mass
13.7 kg has a weight of approximately 13.7  9.80 N  134 N. A mass of 1.649 t (1649 kg) has
a weight of approximately 1649  9.80 N  16 200 N (i.e. 16.2 kN).
Remember : Weight is a forcethe force with which the earth attracts the body (for a reason
still undiscovered by scientists). This is the force required to support the body or to lift the body.

Isaac Newton (16421727) is commonly associated with the concept of the falling apple and
gravity so it is appropriate that the unit of force is called the newton (N) and that 1 N is
approximately the weight of a medium-size apple. Remember when you hold an apple in your
hand that the force on your hand is approximately 1 newton (1 N).

Appendix B Mass and Weight

101

Note: In some exercises you will need to use the fact that on any body of mass m kg, there is a
vertically downward force acting upon it of m  9.80 N (correct to 3 significant figures). This is
the weight of the bodythe vertical force required to lift it or to prevent it from falling.

102

Mathematics for Technicians

A PPENDIX

2  2 determinants and
their use in solving
simultaneous equations

There is another method for solving simultaneous linear equations that is applicable to all such
equations and often saves a lot of time. Once learnt, this method is very concise, very simple to
use and provides less opportunity for careless error.
However (there is always a catch, of course), there are a few facts that you will have to learn
first.

C1 Definition and evaluation of a

2  2 determinant

a c
is called a two-by-two determinant. It is an array of numbers having two rows
b d
and two columns enclosed between vertical bars. It is shorthand notation for ad bc.

Note:

a
b

c
d

bc
ad

Examples
1

 (2  5) (4  3)  2

 (2  5) (4  3)  10
12  22

Exercises C1
Evaluate the following 2  2 determinants:
1

Appendix C 2  2 Determinants and their Use in Solving Simultaneous Equations

103

3 1

4 2

6.72 3.91
4.84 5.06

C2 Solution of simultaneous
equations using 2  2
determinants
If we have two simultaneous equations, for example:

{5x2x

3y6y  47
 is the determinant we obtain from the coefficients on the left-hand sides, in the same order
and arrangement as they appear in the equations.
In this case, x 

 12 15  3

x is the same determinant as above, except that the x-coefficients are replaced by the righthand numbers of the equations.
In this case, x 

 24 21  3

y is the same determinant as  but with the y-coefficients replaced by the right-hand numbers
of the equations.
In this case, y 

 14 20  6

Examples
1

If

{6x3x

4y5y  72

then  

104

x 

y 

 12  30

 8  35

 21  12

 18

 27

 9

Mathematics for Technicians

If

4x  3y  5
{2x
y6

then  

4 3

x 

2 1

5 3

y 

6 1

4 5

2

 (4)  (6)

 (5)  (18)

 24  10

 4  6

 5
18

 14

 10

 23

Exercises C2
1

{ 4xx

2y3y51

Given that
evaluate:

x

y

m

t

V

e

{ 2mm
5t4t  31

Given that
evaluate:

2.8e  1.8
{ 3.6V
1.2V 5.7e  3.3

Given that
evaluate:

Solution of simultaneous equations

Consider any two simultaneous linear equations:
a1x
b1y  c1

{ax
byc
2

a1b2x
b1b2y  b2c1

a2b1x
b1b2y  b1c2

 b2
 b1

Subtracting: a1b2x a2b1x  b2c1 b1c2

x(a1b2 a2b1)  b2c1 b1c2
b2c1 b1c2

x

a1b2 a2b1
c1 b1
c2 b2

a1 b1
a2 b2

 x

y
Similarly, it may be shown that y  .

Appendix C 2  2 Determinants and their Use in Solving Simultaneous Equations

105

Summary
The solution of two simultaneous linear equations:
a1x
b1y  c1

{ax
byc
2

x
y
is : x  ,
y  


This is known as Cramers Rule. To apply this rule, both equations must be expressed with the
constants, c1 and c2 on the right-hand sides.

Example
Solve:

16.7I  58.7  0
{ 23.5I
81.2I 34.2I
13.9  0
2

We first rearrange the equations:

16.7I1
23.5I2  58.7

81.2I1  34.2I2  13.9

 

16.7
81.2

23.5
 571.14  1908.2  2479.34
34.2

I1 

58.7 23.5
 2007.54
326.65  1680.89
13.9 34.2

I2 

16.7
81.2

58.7
 232.13  4766.44  4998.57
13.9

I1
1680.89
I1      0.678

2479.34

I
4998.57
I2  2    2.02

2479.34

Answer: I1  0.678, I2  2.02

Note the advantage of this method. The substitution or elimination method would be very tedious
to apply for such equations.

Exercises C2 (continued)
Solve the following simultaneous equations correct to 3 significant figures:
4

106

7E
19V  24
{13E
5V  9
2.70x 1.40y  3.40
{3.80x

4.60y  1.30

Mathematics for Technicians

13L 15W  87
{17L
11W  231
29.3I 37.8I  83.7
{41.2I
26.4I  16.3
1