Sands National Academy

English Grammar Booklet

2015-2016

Contents
*Ch.1-The part of a sentence
1

1 -Sentence or Fragment
2-Subject and Predicate
3-The Verb Phrase
4- Kinds of Sentences
*Ch.2 Parts of Speech
1-Pronouns
11- 15
2-Nouns
16- 24
3-Verbs
25- 136
4-Adjectives
137- 152
5-Adverbs
153- 162

Completing Sentence Fragments Worksheet

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a

complete thought. A sentence fragment fails to be a
sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself.
Direction : Complete each sentence fragment below by adding a
subject or predicate. Re write the entire sentence on the lines
provided.
Example A : Sarah rode ________________ .
Answer :
Sarah rode her bike .
1. John hit __________________________.
2. _______________________ walked to the store.
3. The basketball player _____________________________________.
4. __________________________ played the guitar.
5. My mother ______________________________________.
6. The baseball player _________________________________.
7. The author __________________________________.
8. __________________________ ran around the track.
9. The man ___________________________________.

Complete Subjects and Predicates

* Every sentence has two main parts: a complete subject
and a complete predicate.
The complete subject includes all words that tell who or what
the subject is.
Example: Most birds | can fly.
The complete predicate includes all words that state the
action or condition of the subject.
3

Example: Most birds | can fly.

Directions: Draw a line between the complete subject and the
complete predicate in the following sentences.
Example: The dusty old car | wont start anymore.
1) I want a new car.
2) James is nice.
3) The sun is moving.
4) Max wrote the letter.
5) The letter was written by Max.
6) The farmers are plowing the field.
7) Billy Reynolds is an amazing baseball player.
8) The storm clouds are getting darker.
9) Dogs, cats, and turtles make the best pets.
10) The stern judge ruled that the defendant was not guilty.
11) Only I am able to know what I am thinking.
12) All of the townspeople ran from the burning building.
13) His broken leg will heal in three months.
14) The saber toothed tiger is a good example of an extinct
predator.
Directions: Now try to write two sentences of your own. Draw a
line between the complete subject and the complete predicate.
1)________________________________________________________________
2)________________________________________________________________

The Verb Phrase

The simple predicate, or verb, may consist of two or more
words. These words are called the verb phrase. A verb
phrase is made up of a main verb and one or more
helping verbs. A main verb can stand by itself as the
simple predicate of a sentence.

Examples :
1-Many different people lived in the American colonies.
MAIN VERB (action)
2-The colonists were hardworking.
MAIN VERB (linking)
*Helping verbs help the main verb express action or show
time.
Example:
5

1-Ships from England would bring supplies to the

settlers.
VERB PHRASE (Would is the helping verb.)
Direction :Identifying Verb Phrases Underline the

verb phrase in each sentence. Include main verbs

and helping verbs.
Example : 1. The colonists would build a home as quickly
as possible.
2. Wood from nearby forests was used for their homes.
3. In later years, some houses were made of brick.
4. Poor settlers could make their furniture from the many
trees of the forest.
5. Wealthy families could order fancy furniture from
England. 6. The colonists may have brought some tools
and household items with them.
7. They did eat some new foods, such as corn.
8. Most colonists would wear rough, homemade clothing
called homespun.
6

9. Adults and children did like games and contests.

10. Sometimes, they might fly a kite.
11. Colonial children might have become good at familiar
games such as marbles and hopscotch.

Kinds of Sentences
*Declarative - A declarative sentence makes a
statement. A declarative sentence ends with a period.
Example: The house will be built on a hill.
*Interrogative - An interrogative sentence asks a
question. An interrogative sentence ends with a
question mark.
Example: How did you find the card?

*Exclamatory - An exclamatory sentence shows strong

feeling. An exclamatory sentence ends with an
exclamation mark.
Example: The monster is attacking!

Imperative - An imperative sentence gives a

command. *
Example: Cheryl, try the other door.

*Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence

(you) is understood.
Example: Look in the closet. (You, look in the closet.)

Direction : Identify the kind of sentence. The first

two have been done for you.
8

Example : 1.

Why do you believe that? interrogative

Example : 2.

I want to know why you believe that.

declarative (This is not a question.)

3.

Please accept my apology.

4.

Your face is frightening the baby!

5.

My shoe is on fire!

6.

When did you first notice that your shoe was on

fire?
7.

My doctor told me to take these vitamins.

8.

Ask Doris for the recipe.

9.

Did you solve the puzzle yet?

10. Ann, hand me your coat.

11. Its hard to believe that this paper is made from wood.
12. There are more apples in the refrigerator.
13. Were on the wrong planet!
14. Will Patricia pause to place poached pickles on Paulas
pretty plate?

15. I would send her a gift if I were you.

16. Send her a nice gift.

Pronouns
Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.
10

Pronou Subject
ns

Object

Possessive Posses
Adj.
sive

Reflexive

Singula
r

Me

My

Mine

Myself

Singula
r

You

You

Your

Yours

Yourself

Singula
r

He

Him

His

His

Himself

Singula
r

She

Her

Her

Hers

Herself

Singula
r

It

It

Its

Its

Itself

Plural

We

Us

Our

Ours

Ourselv
es

Plural

You

You

Your

Yours

Yourselv
es

plural

They

Them

Their

Theirs

themsel
ves

Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.

Subject Pronouns :We use subject pronouns as subject

of the verb:
-I like your dress.
-You are late.
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-He is my friend.

-It is raining.
-She is on holiday.
-We live in England.
-They come from London.

Object Pronouns: We use object pronouns as the object

of the verb:
-Can you help me please?
-I can see you.
-She doesnt like him.
-I saw her in town today.
-We saw them in town yesterday, but they didnt see us.
Question 1 - Circle the pronoun that best completes each
sentence.
Example : (We/Us) are going the supermarket this weekend.
We
1. (I / Us) think that you are one of the brightest students in
the class.
2. (We / Us) are going to the football game this weekend.
3. I can tell that (him / you) really enjoyed the movie.
4. (That / It) is one of the best movies I have seen all year.
5. (He / They) is a very bright young man.
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6. I can tell (her / she) really tried hard to perform well.

7. (They / Them) are going to the movies after school today.
Question 2-Directions : Read each sentence. Write a
pronoun for each underlined word or words. Re-write the
sentence with the pronoun.
Example : The book was about magicians. The book was
entertaining.
Answer : It was entertaining.
8. I did my homework after school. The homework was
difficult.
_____________________________________________________________
9. My best friend is Sarah. Sarah always listens to my
problems.
_____________________________________________________________
10. The boys played baseball. The boys improved a lot.
_____________________________________________________________
11. Everyone liked Sharons hair-style. Sharons hair-style
was unique.
____________________________________________________________

Possessive Pronouns

1. We can use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun

phrase:

Is that Johns car?

Whose coat is this?

No, its [my

car]
Is it [your
13

>

No, its mine.

>

Is it yours?

coat]?
Her coat is grey, [my Her coat is
coat]is brown.
grey,

>

Mine is brown.

2. We can use possessive pronouns after of :

We can say:
1. Susan is one of my friends.
2. Susan is a friend of mine.
3. I am one of Susan's friends.
4. I am a friend of Susan's.

But not Susan is a friend of me.

But not I am a friend of Susan.

Q 2. Write the correct possessive pronoun in the space

provided :
1.
2.
3.

This is your room and this is --------.

Shall we watch the match at their house or --------?
My dessert was the ice cream and -------- was the

chocolate cake.
4. Is the party at our place or --------?

Reflexive Pronouns
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We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back

to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive
pronouns end in "self" (singular) or "selves" (plural).
I saw myself in the mirror.
Why do you hurt yourself?
Ahmad draws himself a picture.
Sarah sent herself a copy of the email.
My pet hurt itself.
We blame ourselves.
Can you help yourselves?
Children cant look after themselves.

*We do not use a reflexive pronoun after verbs which

describe things people usually do for themselves,
such as wash, shave, dress:
-He washed [himself] in cold water.
-He always shaved [himself] before going out in the evening.
-Michael dressed [himself] and got ready for the party.
*We only use reflexives with these verbs for emphasis:
-He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.
-Shes old enough to wash herself
Question 1 -Circle the reflexive pronoun in each sentence.
Draw a line back to the subject it is reflecting.
1. I dressed myself this morning.
2. He made breakfast all by himself.
3. We had to cook for ourselves since mom didnt want to
make dinner.
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4. When you go shopping for me, buy a present for yourself.

5. She created all the Christmas decorations by herself.
6. The new robotic toys can put themselves away.
7. They used to camera on the cell phone to take pictures of
themselves.
8. The man talked to himself as he walked down the street.
9. The parrot admired itself in the mirror for several hours
each day.
10. I used a video to teach myself how to knit.
Q 3. Write the correct reflexive pronouns to complete each
sentence :
1. Girl, you shouldnt blame ------------- for the accident.
2. Dont worry about us. We can amuse ------------ for an
hour.
3. I never took lessons, I just taught ------------.
4. Its a very clever machine. It turns ------------ off.
5. Ladies. There is so much food, so please help -------------.

Nouns
What is a noun?
A noun is a part of speech that is used to name a person, place,
thing, quality, or action. A noun can function as a subject, object,
complement, appositive, or object of a preposition.

1. Singular and plural nouns.

In order to change a singular noun to its plural form in English, you
usually add "s". For example, the plural of book is books. The plural
of table is tables. These are regular plurals.
16

But there are many nouns which don't follow this rule. For example
the plural of fish is fish. The plural of tooth is teeth. These are
irregular plurals

Spelling of regular plurals:

-

The plural form of most nouns is created by adding s

and es.
Window Windows
Girl Girls

-Words that end in (ch, x, s or s) like sounds, however, will require

an es for
the plural:
Witch Witches
Box Boxes
Gas Gases
Bus Buses
-

Nouns that end in a vowel + y take the letter s.

Boy Boys
Way Ways

Nouns that end in a consonant + y drop the y and take

ies.
Baby Babies
Lorry Lorries

Nouns that end in f or fe usually change the f sound

to a v and add s or es.
17

Knife Knives
Self Selves

Spelling of irregular plurals :

-

There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms.

Child Children
Sheep Sheep
Foot Feet
Goose Geese
Man Men
Woman Women
Mouse Mice
Person People
Tooth Teeth

Q. Write the plural form of each of the following nouns :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Monkey --------Car
--------Church --------Child ---------Dictionary ---------Bus
---------Himself ----------

2. Different types of Nouns.

1. Proper and Common Nouns.
Every noun can further be classified as common or proper. A
proper noun has two distinctive features: 1) it will name a
18

specific item, and 2) it will begin with a capital letter no matter

where it occurs in a sentence.
Common Nouns
Cookie
City
Animal
Place

Proper Nouns
Oreo
Amman
Dog
Park

Q. Determine if the following nouns are Common Nouns or

Proper Nouns :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Lets eat lunch at McDonalds. ----------------- .

There are 12 months in a year. -----------------.
My favorite movie is Greece. -----------------.
Lisa works as a programmer at Microsoft. -----------------.
I live in a small town in England. ----------------.

2. Abstract Nouns.
One class of nouns is abstract. Your five senses cannot detect
this group of nouns. You cannot see them, hear them, smell them,
taste them, or feel them.
Check out the following example:
When Joseph dived into the violent waves to rescue a
drowning puppy, his bravery amazed the crowd of fishermen
standing on the dock.
*Bravery, one of the nouns in this sentence, is an example of an
abstract noun. You can see Joseph, the water, and the crowd. But
19

you cannot see bravery itself. Bravery has no color, size, shape,
sound, odor, flavor, or texture; it has no quality that you can see,
hear, smell, taste, or touch. Any noun that escapes your five
senses is an abstract noun.
Question 1 -In each sentence, underline the noun or
nouns. Above it, write a C if it is concrete or an A if it is
abstract.
1. On the path we spotted a large, slimy snake.
2. We felt tremendous relief after the snake passed us.
3. When I stepped outside, I could feel the wind blowing.
4. Mary could feel nothing but joy when she took first place
in the science fair.
5. Tom felt pride when he got an A on his math test.
6. My most comfortable shirt is made out of cotton.
7. Bills anger began to build as the bullies made fun of
him.
8. Judy had the gift of forgiveness and was able to forgive
people easily. Question 2 -Complete each sentence with
an appropriate noun. Write what kind of noun it is on the
line. (Concrete or abstract)
9. Max gave the permission slip to his ___________________.
10. My family went to _________________for our vacation.
11. Lynn was full of ______________as she watched the
movie.
12. My favorite food is ____________________.
13. _________________is my next-door neighbor.
14. It takes ____________________to compete in a decathlon.
15. Last night we played __________________at the party.
Collective Nouns.
20

Collective nouns, a special class that names a group

composed of members [usually people]. Check out the
following examples :
-

A
A
A
A
A

flock of sheep.
bunch of keys.
pack of playing cards.
pack of wolves.
series of events.

3. Countable and Uncountable Nouns.

Countable Nouns.
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that
we can count. For example: "pen". We can count pens. We can
have one, two, three or more pens.
* We can use the indefinite article ( a/an ) with
countable nouns:
- A dog is an animal.
* When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word
like (a, the, my, this ) with it:
-I want an orange.
-Where is my bottle?
* When a countable noun is plural, we can use it
alone:
-I like oranges.
-Bottles can break.
21

* We can use some and any with countable nouns:

-I've got some dollars.
-Have you got any pens?
* We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
-I've got a few dollars.
-I haven't got many pens.
Uncountable Nouns.
Uncountable nouns are the nouns that we cannot "count". For
example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk"
or " liters of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself.
* Expressions of quantity.
-There are a lot of apples on the trees.
-There is a lot of snow on the road.

*A lot of can be used with both countable and uncountable

nouns.
Bill Gates has much money. X
*Notice that we dont usually use much or many in
positive sentences. We use a lot of.
-Bill Gates has a lot of money.
-There are a lot of carrots but there arent many potatoes.
* We can use (some) and (any) with uncountable
nouns:
22

-I've got some money.

- Have you got any rice?
* We can use (a little) and (much) with uncountable
nouns:
-

I've got a little money.

I haven't got much rice.

Q 1. Decide whether these nouns are countable or

uncountable:
1. I dont like milk. ------------2. The children are playing in the garden. ------------3. We need some glue to fix this vase. ------------4. Id like some juice please. -------------5. The exercises are interesting. --------------Q 2. Fill in the blanks with the suitable word from those in
brackets ( few, a few, little, a little ) :
23

1.
2.
3.
4.

Luckily, ------------- milk was split on the carpet.

We have ------------- sugar. We need to buy more.
I am glad that ------------ pupils failed the exam.
There are ------------- pens on the table. They are enough
for you all.
5. Unfortunately, ------------- parents did not attend the school
meeting.

Verbs
Verb is : A word used to describe an action, state, or
occurrence, and forming the main part of the
predicate of a sentence.
Verbs in English have four basic parts :
Base form

-ing form

Past tense

Work
Play
Listen

working
playing
listening

worked
played
listened

Past
participle
Worked
Played
Listened

1. Most verbs have past tense and past participle in ed.

But many of the most frequent verbs are irregular:
Base form

Past tense
24

Past participle

Be
Begin
Break
Bring
Buy
Build
Choose
Come
Cost
Cut
Do
Draw
Drive
Eat
Feel
Find
Get
Give
Go
Have
Hear
Hold
Keep
Know
Leave
Lead
Let
Lie
Lose
Make
Mean
Meet
Pay

Was\were
Began
Broke
Brought
Bought
Built
Chose
Came
Cost
Cut
Did
Drew
Drove
Ate
Felt
Found
Got
Gave
Went
Had
Heard
Held
Kept
Knew
Left
Led
Let
Lay
Lost
Made
Meant
Met
Paid
25

Been
Begun
Broken
Brought
Bought
Built
Chosen
Come
Cost
Cut
Done
Drawn
Driven
Eaten
Felt
Found
Got
Given
Gone
Had
Heard
Held
Kept
Known
Left
Led
Let
Lain
Lost
Made
Meant
Met
Paid

Put
Run
Say
See
Sell
Send
Set
Sit
Speak
Spend
Stand
Take
Teach
Tell
Think
Understand
Wear
Win
Write

Put
Ran
Said
Saw
Sold
Sent
Set
Sat
Spoke
Spent
Stood
Took
Taught
Told
Thought
Understood
Wore
Won
Wrote

Put
Run
Said
Seen
Sold
Sent
Set
Sat
Spoken
Spent
Stood
Taken
Taught
Told
Thought
Understood
Worn
Won
Written

Q. Fill in each empty box with the suitable verb form :

Base form
Cut
------------------------------------See
--------------------

Past form
-----------------Find
------------------------------------Lay

Past participle
Cut
------------------Bought
-------------------------------------

Action Verbs

Action verbs are verbs that specifically describe what

the subject of the sentence is doing. These types of
verbs carry a great deal of information in a sentence and can
26

convey emotion and a sense of purpose that extends beyond

the literal meanings of the words.

Types of action verbs :

Regular Verbs
The following list of tenses shows the different verb forms for
regular verbs:
Base - To discover
Present I discover something new every day.
Present progressive I am discovering myself.
Present perfect I have discovered a new way.
Present perfect progressive I have been discovering
new music.
Past I discovered that already.
Past progressive I was discovering something this
morning.
Past perfect I had discovered that I was lost.
Past perfect progressive I had been discovering an
interesting place.
Future I will discover that when I get there.
Future progressive I am discovering that tomorrow.
Future perfect I will have discovered that by the time I
get home.

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Future perfect progressive I will have been

discovering that for week by the time you arrive.

Rules for Past Tense of Regular Verbs :

The general rule for past tense is that you add ed to

the base of the verb. However, the past tense verb
form becomes more complicated depending on what
letter the base of the verb ends with. The following
rules apply to most cases of regular verbs.
When the base form of the verb ends with:
* ( -e ): This is the simplest situation: just add a d. For
example devise becomes devised.
* ( -y ): When the base form ends in y, simply change the
y to (ied). For example fortify becomes fortified.
* ( -c ): If the base of the verb ends in c add (ked). For
example panic becomes panicked.
* ( -p, -g, or m ) : en a verb ends in -p, -g, or -m, the
consonant is typically doubled. For example flip
becomes flipped, and rig becomes rigged.
* For verbs that end in a consonant and the final syllable is
stressed, the ending consonant is typically doubled. For
example plan becomes planned.

Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs don't conform to the above spelling

rules and therefore must be learned individually. The
following is an example of the different verb forms for an
irregular verb:
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Base - To drink
Present I drink when I am thirsty.
Present progressive I am drinking orange juice.
Present perfect She has drunk the new cocktail.
Present perfect progressive I have been drinking
plenty of water.
Past I drank my share of water.
Past progressive I was drinking coffee when you called.
Past perfect I had drunk all the tea in the pitcher.
Past perfect progressive The team had been drinking
coffee before we got here.
Future I will drink hot cider tonight.
Future progressive I am going to drink homemade
milk.
Future perfect He will have drunk everything in sight by
morning.
Future perfect progressive I will be drinking sweet tea
when we get to Carolina.
Question 1-Directions: Circle the action verb or verbs in each
sentence given below.

Example: The student had to draw between the lines.

29

Answer: Draw
1. My sister turned in her homework late.
2. I had to fix my bike before I rode it.
3. I held my mothers hand when I walked into the amusement
park.
4. My younger brother slept early the night before his test.
5. I always raise my hand during class to let the teacher know
I have something to say. Directions:
Question 2-Write a sentence with each action verb given
below and label it Mental Action or Physical Action.
Example : run
Answer :Physical Action
John had to run to the store immediately.
6. thought- ___________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. escaped- ___________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

The verbs (can, could, will, would, should, may, might,

must, ought and shall ) are verbs which 'help' other verbs

30

to express a meaning: it is important to realize that these

"modal verbs" have no meaning by themselves.
* A few basic grammatical rules applying to modal
verbs :
1. Modal verbs are NEVER used with other auxiliary verbs
such as do, does, did etc. The negative is formed
simply by adding "not" after the verb; questions are
formed by inversion of the verb and subject:
- You should not do that.
- Could you pick me up when I've finished?
2. Modal verbs NEVER change form: you can never add
an "-s" or "-ed", for example.
3. Modal verbs are NEVER followed by (to), with the
exception of ought to.

1. Will
*Making personal predictions
- I don't think the Queen will ever surrender.
- I doubt if I will stay here much longer.
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*Talking about the present with certainty (making

deductions)
- I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the
Department can do.
- There's a letter for you. It will be from the bank: they said
they'd be writing.
*Talking about the future with certainty
- I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.
- Don't bother ringing: they will have left for their 10 o'clock
lecture.
*Talking about the past with certainty
- I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen
sharply.
*Reassuring someone
- Don't worry! You will settle down quickly, I'm sure.
- It will be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself.
*Making a decision
- For the main course I will have grilled tuna.
- I'm very tired. I think I will stay at home tonight.
*Making a semi-formal request
- Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here.
- Sign this, will you?

32

*Offering to do something
- You stay there! I will bring the basket.
*Insistence; habitual behavior
- I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You will keep
talking in class.
- My car won't start. I will have to call the garage.
*Making a promise or a threat
- You can count on me! I will be there at 8 o'clock sharp.
- If you don't finish your dinner off, you will go straight to bed!

2. Shall
Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first person.
The only time you do need to use it is in questions,
when:
*Making offers
- Shall I bring you another glass of juice?
*Making suggestions
- Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

3. May and Might.

May & might sometimes have virtually the same
meaning; they are used to talk about possibilities in
the past, present or future.
33

May is sometimes a little bit "more sure" (50% chance);

whereas might expresses more doubt (maybe only a
30% chance).
- May & might are used for:
* Talking about the present or future with uncertainty.
- She may be back in her office: the lecture finished ten
minutes ago.
- I may go shopping tonight, I haven't decided yet.
- England might win the World Cup, you never know.
*Talking about the past with uncertainty
- I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have been ill on
the day of the exam.

4. May
*Talking about things that can happen in certain
situations.
- If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some users may
experience headaches.
- Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty patients.
*With a similar meaning to although.
- The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a
lot of work to be done. (= Although it was a success, there is
still ...)

5. Might
34

*Saying that something was possible, but did not

actually happen.
- You saw me standing at the bus stop! You might have
stopped and given me a lift!

6. Would
*As the past of will, for example in indirect speech
-"The next meeting will be in a month's time" becomes
He said the next meeting would be in a month's time.
*Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will).
- Would you like another cup of tea?
- Would you give me a ring after lunch?
- I would like the roast duck, please.
*In conditionals, to indicate 'distance from reality':
imagined, unreal, impossible situations.
- If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day of
Spring.
- It would have been better if you'd word processed your
assignment.
*After 'wish', to show regret or irritation over someone
(or something's) refusal or insistence on doing
something (present or future).
- I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me.
35

- I wish it would snow.

*Talking about past habits.

- When I was small, we would always visit relatives on
Christmas Day.
*Future in the past.
- The assassination would become one of the key events of
the century.

7. Can and Could.

*Talking about ability.
- Can you speak Mandarin? (present)
- She could play the piano when she was five. (past)
*Making requests
- Can you give me a ring at about 10?
- Could you speak up a bit please?
*Asking permission
- Can I ask you a question?
- Could I ask you a personal question?

*Reported speech
36

Could is used as the past of can.

- He asked me if I could pick him up after work.
*General possibility
- You can drive when you're 17. (present)
- Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War.
*Choice and opportunities
- If you want some help with your writing, you can come to
classes, or you can get some help.
- We could go to Stratford tomorrow, but the forecast's not
brilliant.
*Future probability
Could (NOT can). is sometimes used in the same way as
might or may, often indicating something less definite
- When I leave university I might travel around a bit, I might
do an MA or I suppose I could even get a job.
*Present possibility
- I think you could be right you know. (NOT can)
- That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense.
*Past possibility
- If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have
stayed in bed longer.
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8. Must
*Necessity and obligation
Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation;
what you think you yourself or other people/things
must do. If the obligation comes from outside (e.g. a rule or
law), then have to is often (but not always) preferred:
- I really must get some exercise.
- People must try to be more tolerant of each other.
- You must not look - promise?
*Strong advice and invitations
- I think you really must make more of an effort.
- You must go and see the film - it's brilliant.
- You must come and see me next time you're in town.
*Saying you think something is certain
- This must be the place - there's a white car parked outside.
- You must be mad.

9. Should
*Giving advice
- I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the Audi.
- You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're
not going to finish it.
*Obligation: weak form of must.
- The university should provide more sports facilities.
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- The equipment should be inspected regularly.

*Deduction.
- The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it first
class.
*Things which didn't or may/may not have happened.
- I should have renewed my TV license last month, but I
forgot.
- You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first
question.

10, Ought to.

Ought to usually has the same meaning as should,
particularly in affirmative statements in the present:
- You should/ought to get your hair cut.
-Should is much more common (and easier to say!), so
if you're not sure, use should.
Q. Fill in the blanks with the suitable modal auxiliary
verb.
1. Its a hospital. You ------------ smoke.
2. I ------------ English fluently.
3. ------------- you stand on your head for more than one
minute?

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4. Drivers ------------- stop when the traffic lights are red.

5. Take u n umbrella. It ------------- rain later.
6. You ------------- leave small objects lying around. Such
objects -------be swallowed by children.
Directions: Identify the verb in each sentence. Underline the
modal
verbs once and the action verbs twice.
Example A: I could find out my test score next week.
Answer: I could find out my test score next week.
1. He shall bring the food very soon.
2. We can definitely win the championship game.
3. We ran for the hills.
4. You should stop smoking because it is bad for you.
5. May I sit down now?
6. I jumped towards the basketball hoop to get the rebound.
7. I must go now.
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8. I threw the Frisbee about fifteen feet.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

1. The Transitive Verb

A verb that has a direct object to complete the
sentence is a transitive verb. A transitive verb must have
an object. Without an object, it does not convey a clear
meaning.
Example: He bought.
The question inevitably arises: What did he buy? No one in
the world knows the answer to this question as there is no
direct object to tell us what he bought. The meaning
becomes clear when an object is added: He bought a
cake.
The subject (he) performs the action: bought. The object of
the action verb bought is cake.
-They sold their house.
-I moved the chair.
-She baked some cookies.
A transitive verb may take an indirect object. An indirect
object is something or someone to whom or for whom the
action is carried out.
-He bought her a cake. He bought a cake for her.
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*In this sentence, the indirect object is her as it is for her

that the cake was bought.
-She is reading grandma the news. She is reading the news
to grandma.
*In this sentence, the indirect object is grandma as it is to
her that the news was read.
The indirect object usually comes before the direct
object as shown in above two sentences.
2. The Intransitive Verb
A verb that does not need an object to make its meaning
clear is an intransitive verb. An intransitive verb does not
have an object. Without an object, the meaning is not
affected.
-She smiles.
-The dog is barking.
-We laughed.
*Verbs that are always intransitive :
Laugh

Lie

Abound

Ache

Arrive

Linger

Occur

Bloom

Come

Pause

Cough

Pray

Cry

Dance

Remain

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Die

Rise

Exist

Sit

Faint

Sleep

Fall

Sneeze

Gallop

Talk

Go

Thrive

Hesitate

Yawn

3. Verbs that are both transitive and intransitive :

Adapt

Fail

Obey

Answer

Fill

Open

Ask

Fly

Pull

Begin

Grow

Read

Borrow

Hang

Ring

Break

Help

Run

Burn

Hold

See

Choose

Hurry

Sell

Climb

Hurt

Sing

Continue

Jump

Touch

Dance

Know

Turn

Drop

Leave

Wash

Eat

Marry

Watch

End

Meet

Win

Entre

Move

Write
43

She left the house early. (Transitive)

She left early. (Intransitive)

He borrowed some money from the bank.

(Transitive)

He borrowed heavily from the bank. (Intransitive)

They sold their house to a friend. (Transitive)

Their house was sold cheap to a friend.

(Intransitive)

Q. Decide whether the verbs in bold are transitive or

intransitive.
1. She was crying all day long. -----------------2. We showed her the photo album. ----------------3. The doctor advised me to exercise regularly. -----------------4. It was raining at that time. -----------------5. She laughed at the joke. -------------------6. She gave a cookie to the child. -----------------7. They slept in the street. ------------------8. I ate the cherries. ------------------44

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes, identifies, modifies, or
quantifies something (a noun or a pronoun). In the phrase, "the
black cat" the word black is an adjective because it describes
the cat.

An adjective usually comes before the noun it describes.

- The tall professor.
-A blue shirt.
-We ate a delicious meal.

Adjectives may also follow the word they modify.

-That puppy looks cute.
-Their house is beautiful.
*If you are asked questions with which, whose, what
45

kind, or how many, you need an adjective to be able to

answer.

Kinds of Adjectives

-Descriptive Adjectives or adjectives of quality.

-Adjectives of quantity or Numeric adjectives.
-Predicative Adjectives.
-Personal Titles.
-Possessive Adjectives.
-Demonstrative Adjectives.
-Indefinite Adjectives.
-Interrogative adjectives.
-Comparative Adjectives.
-Superlative Adjectives.
1. Descriptive Adjectives or adjectives of quality
Descriptive adjectives are those adjectives which
describe nouns or the noun phrases. For example: (A
beautiful day). In this case, (beautiful) is the adjective
which qualifies or describes the noun (day).

Descriptive adjectives have several forms.

-Colors as adjectives: Black, Blue, White, Green, etc.
-A black dog.
-A green house.
-Touch as adjective: Slippery, Sticky, etc.
-A sticky gum.
-The hallway is slippery, so watch your step.
46

-Feelings as adjectives: Happy, Sad, Angry, etc.

-I saw a happy man.
-The angry child broke the vase.
-Sizes as adjectives: Big, Small, Thin, Thick, etc.
-We bought a big house.
-He needs a small chair.
-Origin as adjectives: European, Latin, Greek, etc.
-She is Greek.
-European countries are beautiful.
-Shapes as adjectives: Triangular, Rectangular, Square,
Circular, etc.
-Our table is square.
-Your pencils are in the rectangular box.
-Qualities as adjectives: Good, Bad, Average, etc.
-Dont talk to him; hes a bad student.
-Shes a good employee.
-Time as adjective: Yearly, Monthly, etc.
-A monthly magazine.
-A yearly medical examination.

-Age as adjectives: Young, Ancient, Old, etc.

-A young woman.
-An ancient tale.
-Material as adjectives: Wood, Cotton, Gold, etc.
-A wood bucket.
47

-A glass tray.
-Opinions as adjectives: Pretty, hot, expensive, etc.
-She has a pretty face.
-They threw an expensive party.
2. Adjectives of quantity or Numeric adjectives
Adjective of quantity talks about the quantity of the noun
being talked about and provides answer to the
question of (how much). It shows the quantity or the
numbers present in the sentence. For example: (there
were three boys playing in the ground). Here the word
(three) signifies the quantity or the number of boys playing.
-She ate the whole apple.
- I ate some rice.
-He has little knowledge.
-He spent all his money.
-There was no milk in the jug.

3. Predicative Adjectives
Predicative adjectives are those which follow a linking
verb and not placed before a noun. Predicative adjective
does not act as a part of the noun it modifies but
serves as a complement of a linking verb which
connects it to the noun of the sentence. Take for
instance (The bag is heavy). Here the predicative adjective
(heavy) is associated with the linking verb (is) and links to
the noun (bag).
-The weather will be cool and dry.
48

-That child is young.

A linking verb is a verb which connects a subject to its

predicate without expressing an action. A linking verb is
used to re-identify or describe its subject.
4. Personal Titles
Personal titles are adjectives where the titles such as,
Mr., Master, Miss, Mrs., Uncle, Auntie, Lord, Dr, Prof.
and so on, are used as adjectives to describe the
position of the noun. These titles could be placed in
the front or even at the end.
-The day after tomorrow, you can visit Auntie Pauline and
Uncle John.
-The classes on Monday will be presented by Dr. Mary and
Prof. Kate.

5. Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives are used where the sentence shows
possession or belongingness. They are similar to
possessive pronouns and, in this case, are used as
adjectives which modify a noun or a noun phrase.
Words such as, our, my, your, his, her, it's and their/s, are
used.
-Have you seen their house?
-This is his room.
6. Demonstrative Adjectives

49

Demonstrative adjectives are used when there is a need

to point specific things. The adjectives function as a
way to demonstrate something and are similar to
demonstrative pronouns. Words such as this, that,
these, those and what are used. Take, for instance, the
sentence: (If I hear that sound again, I will call the
Police). Here (that) refers to a specific sound.
-Whose is this bag?
-These mangoes are sour.

7. Indefinite Adjectives
Indefinite adjectives are used when the sentence has
nothing to point out or specify. These adjectives are
formed from indefinite pronouns and do not indicate
anything in particular. It uses words such as, any, many,
few and several, etc. Here is an example explained in
detail:
(The chief has heard many people make the same
promise). The word (Many) is an indefinite adjective
which does not specify the quantity of people and
modifies the noun (people) without pointing out
exactly who all have made the said same promise.
-Many children like dinosaurs.
-Is there any water in the bottle?
8. Interrogative adjectives

50

An Interrogative adjective modifies a noun or a noun

phrase and is similar to the interrogative pronoun. It
does not stand on its own and includes words such as,
which, what, who, whose, whom, where and so on.
For example: (What dress are you wearing?) Here,
(what) modifies the noun (dress) and is the object of the
compound verb (are wearing).
-Which leaves turn color first?
-Whose son is he?

9. Comparative Adjectives
Comparative Adjectives are used to compare the
differences between 2 nouns. Examples:
-The black dog is older, than the white dog.
-My house is bigger than my sister's house.
-The yellow hat is more expensive, than the green hat.

Irregular Adjectives ( Comparatives, Superlatives )

The regular way to make comparative/superlative adjectives is to
add (-er/-est) or to use (more/most). A small number of
adjectives, however, are irregular :
Adjective
Good
Well( healthy )
Bad

Comparative
Superlative
Example
Better
The best Ola is the best athlete in the school.
Better
The best Hes better than he was last week.
Worse
The worst Shes the worst driver I have ever

Far

Further

The
51

seen.
My house is the furthest one.
furthest

Far
Farthest
Old(people in a family)
Elder
Old(general use)
Older

The farthestMy house is the farthest one.

The eldest Sami is my elder brother.
The oldest Your teacher is older than my
teacher.

Adjective Order

In English, it is common to use more than one adjective before a

noun. For example, (Shes a smart, energetic woman). When
you use more than one adjective, you have to put them in
the right order, according to type :
Opinion Size Age Shape Color Origen Material
Purpose

Examples:

-I love that really big old green car that always parked at
the end of the street.
(Quality - age - size - color)
-My uncle adopted a beautiful big white bulldog.
(Quality size color)
-A big square blue box.
(Size shape color)
-A wonderful old Italian clock.
(Opinion age origin)
52

When there are two or more adjectives that are from the
same group, the word and is placed between the two
adjectives:
-The house is green and yellow.
-The library has old and new books.

When there are three or more adjectives from the same

adjective group, place a comma between each of the
coordinate adjectives:

-We live in the big green, white and red house at the end of
the street.
-My friend lost a red, black and white watch.

Compound Adjectives

Compound Adjectives are two or more words that act as a

single idea to modify a noun. Also called phrasal
adjective or compound modifier.
As a general rule, the words in a compound adjective are
hyphenated when they come before a noun (a wellknown actor) but not when they come after (The actor is
well known).
-A part-time employee.
-A high-speed chase.

53

-An English-speaking county.

-A thirty-floor building.

Q. Fill in the correct form of the words in brackets

( comparative or superlative ).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

My house is ------------- than yours. ( big )

This flower is --------------- than that one. ( beautiful )
This is the ----------------- book I have ever read. ( interesting )
Non-smokers usually live ------------- than smokers. ( long )
Which is the ----------------- animal in the world? ( dangerous )
A holiday by the sea is --------------- than a holiday here. ( good )
Who is the --------------- woman on earth? ( rich )
He was the --------------- thief of all. ( clever )

Q. Choose the correct adjective order :

1. a. A blue beautiful sailing boat.
54

b. A sailing beautiful blue boat.

c. A beautiful blue sailing boat.
d. A blue sailing beautiful boat.
2. a. A small serving Japanese bowl.
b. A small Japanese serving bowl.
c. A serving small Japanese bowl.
d. A Japanese small serving bowl.
3. a. A carving steel new knife.
b. A new carving steel knife.
c. A new steel carving knife.
d. A steel new carving knife.
4. a. An old square wooden table.
b. A square wooden old table.
c. A wooden old square table.
d. An old wooden square table.

Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other
adverbs.

Adverbs vs. Adjectives

The difference between an adverb and an adjective is the
following:
An adjective modifies a noun.
Example:
-John is tall.
55

(The adjective tall modifies the noun John).

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another
adverb.
Examples:
-That idea is simply ridiculous.
(The adverb simply modifies the adjective ridiculous).
-She sings nicely.
(The adverb nicely modifies the verb sing).
-She did it really well.
(The adverb really modifies the adverb well).

Types of Adverbs

1. Adverbs of time
An adverb of time tells us when something is done or
happens. We use it at the beginning or at the end of a
sentence. We use it as a form of emphasis when we place
it at the beginning. Adverbs of time include : afterwards,
already, always, immediately, last month, now, soon, then,
and yesterday.
-He collapsed and died yesterday.
-His factory was burned down a few months ago.
-Last week, we were stuck in the lift for an hour.
2. Adverbs of Place
56

An adverb of place tells us where something is done or

happens. We use it after the verb, object or at the end of a
sentence. Adverbs of place include words such as above,
below, here, outside, over there, there, under, upstairs.
-We can stop here for lunch.
-The school boy was knocked over by a school bus.
-They rushed for their lives when the fire broke out in the floor
below.

3. Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner tells us how something is done or
happens. Most adverbs of manner end in (ly) such as
badly, happily, sadly, slowly, quickly, and others that
include well, hard, fast, etc.
-The brothers were badly injured in the fight.
-They had to act fast to save the others floating in the water.
-At the advanced age of 88, she still sang very well.
4. Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree tells us the level or extent that
something is done or happens. Words of adverb of degree are
almost, much, nearly, quite, really, so, too, very, etc.
-It was too dark for us to find our way out of the cave.
-The referee had to stop the match when it began to rain very
heavily.
57

-The accident victim nearly died from his injuries.

5. Adverbs of Frequency
An adverb of frequency tells us how often something is done
or happens. Words used as adverbs of frequency include :
again, almost, always, ever, frequently, generally, hardly
ever, nearly, nearly always, never, occasionally, often,
rarely, seldom, sometimes, twice, usually, and weekly.
-They were almost fifty when they got married.
-He hardly ever says something nice to his wife.
-While overseas, he frequently phoned home.
-She is not nearly always right although she thinks she is
always right.
-He complained that she never smiled back.
-We only write to each other very occasionally.
-Peter seldom reads the Bible.
-Sometimes he stays late in the office to complete his work.
-Our cat was bitten twice by the same dog.
-The man usually proposes marriage.
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59