1.

SOAP
1.1 Preparation of soap (by saponification)
-

Soap are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids with
12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule. The general formula of a soap is
RCOO-Na+ or RCOO-K+.
Example of soap :
Fatty acid
C15H31COOH
Palmitic acid
C17H33COOH
Oleic acid
C17H35COOH
Stearic acid

Soap is produced by the reaction between sodium hydroxide or

potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is
known as saponification.
Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring ester molecules.
When fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, saponification occurs and ester
molecules are broken down into soap and glycerol.
Fats and
oils
(natural
ester) (an
Glycerol
alcohol with three
OH groups)

Example of soap
C15H31COO-Na+
Sodium palminate
C17H33COO-K+
Potassium oleate
C17H35COO-K+
Potassium stearate

NaOH (aq)
+
or KOH (aq)
(alkali)
Soap
+ (RCOONa or
RCOOK)

Saponification is alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From

a chemical aspect, soap is sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain
fatty acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule).
Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring ester commonly found in
animal fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline
hydrolysis) occurs and a mixture sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is
obtained.

CH2COOC17H35
CHCOOC17H35
3C17H35COO- Na+

CH2OH
+

3NaOH (aq)

saponification

CHOH

boil

soap

CH2COOC17H35
(sodium stearate)
Glyceryl tristearate (in fats and oils)

CH2OH
Glycerol

The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium

chloride) to the reaction mixture. Sodium chloride reduces the solubility
of the soap in aqueous solution and causes the soap to be precipitated
out.
The properties of soap depend on :
a) The type of alkali used for saponification.
b) The type of animal fats or vegetables oils used.
Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard whereas soaps
produced from potassium hydroxide are soft.
Animal fats (tallow) from cow and vegetable oils (such as palm oils and
olive oils) are used for making soap.

1.2 Structure of soap

C17H35COONa (s)
+
Na+ (aq)
Sodium stearate
Sodium ions

C17H35COO- (aq)

H2O

Water

Wh
en

Stearate ions

soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions

and carboxylate ions (RCOO-). For example, sodium stearate (soap)
dissolves in water to form sodium ions and stearate ions.

The stearate ions take part in the removal of dirt but the sodium ions do
not. The stearate ion consists of two parts: the head and the tail. The
head is negatively-charged and the tail is a long hydrocarbon chain.
O

The head contains the C O ion which dissolves in water

(hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the tail contains
a long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but
dissolves readily in oil.
Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium palmitate. Figure
5.2 shows the structure of the palmitate ion (C15H31COO-) in soap.
O

CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CO

CH3

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

CH2

the tail is negatively-charged

and is hydrophilic in
nature.

The tail of a long hydrocarbon chain which is hydrophobic in nature

Figure above: The structure of palmitate ion

Figure 5.3 (a) shows the molecular model of palmitate ion and Figure
5.3 (b) shows the simple representation of the structure of the
palmitate ion.

hydrophilic head

hydrophobic tail

(a) The molecular model of palmitate ion

representation of the soap ion

(b)

The diagrammatic

Figure above: The palmitate ion

1.3 Cleaning action soap

1. Soap is a cleansing agent that is used to remove organic dirt.
2. When added into water, soap molecules will dissociate into sodium (or
potassium) ions and soap ions (soap anions).
3. Soap ions consists of two parts, that is the
a)

b)

head that
consists of the anion region
is ionic
is also called the hydrophilic region
dissolves in water
tail that
consists of the hydrocarbon region (hydrocarbon chain)
its molecule has covalent characteristics
its also called the hydrophobic region
4

dissolves in grease or oil (dirt)

4. Generally, the soap ion

structure in figure below.

structure can be represented by the

Hydrocarbon tail region

ionic head region

The tail
region that
dissolves in
dirt such as
oil or grease

The head
region that
dissolves in
water

Figure above: General structure of soap ions

1.4 Advantage and disadvantage using soap

Cleansing
agent
Soap

Advantages

Disadvantages

1. very effective in soft water to wash

1. Ineffective in hard water.
clothes.( water does not contain Mg & Ca
ions)
2. A grey scum (Magnesium stearate &
calcium stearate) will be produced in hard
2. Do not cause pollution as soaps are
water.
made from fats and oils and can be
decomposed by the action of bacteria.
3. Not effective in acid water.( exist as
molecules & do not have hydrophilic
5

ends)
- H ion from rainwater (acid) will react
with soap ions to produce carboxylic acid
molecules of large molecular size that are
insoluble in water. Example,

2.DETERGENT
2.1 Preparation of detergent
-

The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols

with chain length of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

Step 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

O
ROH
+
H + H2O

HOSOH

ROSO

O
Long chain alcohol
hydrogen sulphate

concentrated sulphuric acid

alkyl

Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution

O

ROSOH
O- Na+
+
H2O

NaOH

ROS

alkyl hydrogen sulphate

sodium alkyl sulphate

An example of long chain alcohol is laundry alcohol (dodecan-1-ol),

CH3(CH2)10OH. The detergent prepared from dodecan-1-ol is called
sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium laundry sulphate
(common name), CH3 (CH2)10CH2O-SO3- Na+.
The equation for the preparation of sodium laundry sulphate is shown
below:

Step 1: Preparation of laundry hydrogen sulphate

CH3 (CH2)10CH2OH + H2SO4
CH3 (CH2)10CH2OSO3H
H2O
Laundry alcohol

Laundry hydrogen sulphate

Step 2: Preparation of sodium laundry sulphate

CH3 (CH2)10CH2OSO3H
+ NaOH
CH3 (CH2)10CH2OSO3- Na+
+ H2O
Laundry hydrogen sulphate

Sodium laundry sulphate

Sodium alkyl benzene sulphinate, were first used in 1940s. It can be

prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this
detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH2, obtained from the
cracking of petroleum.

a) Step 1 : Alkylation

RCH = CH2 +
alkene

benzene

alkylbenzene

where R is along-chain hydrocarbon

Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic

molecule.

b) Step 2 : Sulphonation
Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric
acid to form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid.

R + HO SO3H
alkylbenzene

(H2SO4)

SO3H + H2O

Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid

Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group,

-SO3H to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid.

c) Step 3 : Neutralisation
Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced is the reacted with sodium
hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the
detergent

SO3 -Na +
+ H2O

SO3H + NaOH

Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate (detergent)

2.2 Cleansing agent of detergent

1. The cleansing action of detergent and soap is fundamentally the same.
2. When a detergent dissolves in water, its molecule will dissociate toform
sodium (or potassium) ion and detergent ion (detergent anion).
3. The detergent ion (detergent anion) such as R O SO can be
represented in a simplified form by the structure below.

O - SO

Hydrocarbon tail
region/ hydrophobic

Ionic head
hydrophilic

Dissolves in
dirt such as
grease

Dissolves in
water

4. The cleansing action of detergent can be summarized as shown in the

flow chart in figure below.

Detergent molecule dissociates to form sodium

ion (or potassium ion) and detergent ion.
Hydrophilic region (head) dissolves in water.
Hydrophobic region 9tail) dissolves in grease
and emulsifies (breaks up) the grease.
When the water is shaken, the detergent ion
will remove the dirt

2.3Additives in detergents
-

Modern detergent used for washing clothes usually contain a few types
of additives to
a) Increase their cleaning power.
b) Make them attractive and saleable.
Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cleansing agents
(sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other
substances are additives. The examples of addictives and their
functions are described as follows :

Builders: Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)

a) Sodium tripolyphospathe is used to soften hard water. In the
presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are
removed.
b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this
way, muddy dirt can be removed.
Whitening / bleaching agents: sodium perborate
a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation
process. When coloured stains are oxidized, the colour will
disappear.

10

b) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly use in detergent is

sodium perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate
decomposes in hot water to release oxygen (an oxidising agent)
which is responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action.
c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are
not damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate
bleaches make fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the
colorful dyes of the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are
removed.
d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can
also be used as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of
sodium hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).
e) Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty
stains. However, high concentrations of chlorine can be quite
damaging to fabrics. These bleaches do not work well on
synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics), often causing a yellowing
rather than the desire whitening. Also chlorine causes the dyes
on fabrics to fade.

Biological enzymes: Amylase, lipase, and protease

a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be
removed by the ordinary detergents because these types of
stains are insoluble in water.
b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein
molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino
acids produced are soluble in water and are removed during
washing.
Brighteners
a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners
absorb the invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.

Brightener

11

Cloth

b) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the

blue light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added
to the yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them look white.
Drying agents: Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate
Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as
drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always
in a dry condition.
Stabilisers
a) The functions of stabilizers are to prevent the formation of foam.
b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the
pump working. So, washing powders for automatic washing
machine are made using detergents that are good at removing
and emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam.
Fragrances
Fragrances are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

2.4 Advantage and disadvantage using detergents

Cleansing
agent
Detergent

Advantages

Disadvantages

1. effective in soft water and hard water.

( magnesium salt and calcium salts are
formed and soluble in water)
( scum is not formed)

1. non-biodegradable

2. Synthetic cleansing agents

- structure of hydrocarbon chain can be
modified to produce detergent.

3. Decrease in oxygen content in water and

the aquatic lives are given the harm.
( phosphates in detergents)

3. effective in acidic water as H ions is

not combine with detergent ions.

4. a lot of foam will be produced in water

that prevent oxygen from dissolving in
water. As a result, fish and other aquatic
lives face the death.
12

2. water pollution occurs.

5. Additives (sodium hypochlorite )

releases chlorine gas that is highly toxic
and kills aquatic life.

3. FOOD ADDITIVES
Types of additives and examples
-

Food preservatives have been used since ancient times. Ancient

civilization used salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to
improve the flavor of food.
Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities
for specific purposes such as
a) Making food last longer by preventing the growth of microorganism.
b) Making food last longer by preventing the oxidation of fats and oils
by oxygen in air.
c) Making food taste or smell better.
d) Improving the texture of food and to prevent food from becoming
liquid.
e) Restoring the colour of food destroyed during food processing.
13

f) Adding colouring to food so as to make the food look fresher, more

-

interesting or more appetizing.

There are six types of food additives as shown below :

PRESERVATIVES
ANTIOXIDANTS
TYPE
OF FOOD

STABILISERS
THICKENERS

ADDITIVES
FLAVOURING
DYES
AGENTS

Functions of food additives

Preservatives
-

Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to

prevent the growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or
fungus, so that the food can be stored for a long time.
In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt,
sugar and vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food
taste better.
Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are use, table below shows the
types of preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are
organic acids and salts of organic acids.
14

Preservative
Sodium nitrite
Sodium nitrate

Molecular formula
NaNO2
NaNO3

Benzoic acid
Sodium
benzoate
Sulphur dioxide
Sodium
sulphite

C6H5COOH
C6H5COONa
SO2
Na2SO3

Uses
To preserve meat, cheese and dried
fish.
To prevent food poisoning in canned
foods.
To maintain the natural colour of
meat and to make them look fresh
To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato
or chilli), fruit juice, jam and
margarine
Used as bleaches and antioxidants
to prevent browning in fruit juices.
Maintain the colour and freshness of
vegetables.
To prevents the growth of yeast

Antioxidants
-

Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the

oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.
Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when
exposed to air.
When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This
makes the food unpalatable. The rancid products are volatile organic
compound with foul odors (for example, butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).
Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried
foods to slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not
become rancid.
Flavouring
agents

There are two types of flavouring agents: artificial flavours and flavour
enhancer. They are added to foods to make them taste better.
Flavour enhancers have little or no taste of their own. They are
chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours or to
enhance the taste of food.
An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG).
MSG is used to enhance the flavours of other foods.
15

Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as

peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of
artificial sweeteners.
Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to
enhance the sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of
saccharin is banned in many countries because it is carcinogenic.
Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin as the artificial sweetener or
choice.
Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial
flavours. Table below shows some examples of esters that are used in
making drinks.
Ester
Flavour

Benzyl
Octyl
ethanoate ethanoate
Strawberry Orange

Ethyl
butanoate
Pineapple

Stabilisers and thickening agents

-

Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending
of foods.
Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the
food to mix together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and
water. Examples of stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum.

16

Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples,

stabilisers are added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them
smooth and creamy.
In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate
from water. This means that the stabilisers improve the stability of
some foods such as ice-cream and salad dressings (mayonnaise).
Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream, particles of
chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad
dressing will separate as soon as mixing is stopped.
Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the
liquid and to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening
agents (also called thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in
foods to produce a jelly-like structure.
Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin
are added to help jams and jellies to set.
Dyes

Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give
them colour so as to improve their appearance.
Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food
processing. The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :
a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing.
b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of
foods.
c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.
Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically
prepared. The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl
compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds.
The synthetic dye, brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound.
The synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo
compounds.
Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N
= N -, and are usually yellow, red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl
compounds are organic compounds containing three phenyl groups,
-C6H5, and are usually green. Blue or purple in colour.

Effect of food additives on health

The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted are
controlled by the 1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation.
The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and the food
additives. For example, benzoic acid added must not exceed 800 mg
17

per kg in cordial drinks, whereas sodium nitrite must not exceed 100
mg per kg in meat product.
The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period of time
will ruin our health. The side effects arising from taking food additives
are allergy, cancer, brain damage and hyperactivity.
Allergy
a) Food additives such as sodium sulphite (preservative), BHA and
BHT (antioxidants), MSG (flavouring) and some food colours (e.g,
Yellow No. 5) can cause allergic reactions in some people.
b) The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest pain and
difficulty in breathing. This condition is called the Chinese
restaurant syndrome
c) The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite in food can
cause blue baby syndrome that is fatal for babies. This
syndrome is due to the lack of oxygen in the blood. Hence, the
use of nitrate and nitrite is allowed in baby foods.
Cancer
a) Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens. Sodium
nitrite (a preservative) is a potent carcinogen.
b) The nitrite reacts with the amines in food to produce nitrosamine
which can cause cancer.
Brain damage
Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can cause
brain damage. In this condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is
disrupted and this cause brain damage.

Hyperactivity
a) Food additives such as tartrazine can cause hyperactivity.
b) Children who are hyperactivity become very active, find it
difficult to relax or sleep and are very restless.

Reading the Food Label

-

You must read the label on the food package to identify

a) Brand name
b) The net weight
18

c) The halal symbol for Muslim consumers

d) The nutrient content (for example, carbohydrates, proteins and fats,
minerals and vitamins).
e) Food additives used
f) Expiry date
g) Address of the manufacturer
Food additives listed in the food labels are usually represented by the
code number E. This code number shows that the food additives have
been approved.
Figure 5.5 shows a typical food label for an orange drink.

absorbic
acid

XYZ Orange drink

Ingredient: Water, sugar,
citric acid,E330
before:
Stabilisers: E466, preservative E211
31-1-2010
Sweetener: aspartame
Colouring agents: E110, E102, vitamins A and D
yellow-orange (dye)

sodium
benzoate

expiry
date

Use

tartrazine (dye)

Figure above: A typical food label

The rationale for using food additives

Advantages
1. To prevent food spoilage
a) Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are the main causes
in the decomposition of food. In hot climate, meat and fish rot
easily. The use of preservatives is an effective way to prevent food
spoilage. If the used of preservatives is an effective way to prevent
food spoilage.

19

b) If preservatives are not used, food spoilage might drastically reduce

the food supply, making for costlier food.
c) Few deaths are associated with the used of food additives. However,
many people have die due to food poisoning caused by bacterial
toxins.
2. For medical reason
a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make food and drink sweet
without using sugar. These food additives are particularly useful as
artificial sweeteners for diabetic patients.
b) Artificial sweetener give the sweet taste but without adding calories
to the food. Thus, they can be used to reduce obesity.
Disadvantage
1. Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and flavour
enhancers is excess quantities over a long period of time is detrimental
to health.
2. Some food additives are used to make foods look more appealing.
These additives have little nutritional value. Eating such foods
increases the risk of health hazard.
3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients, such as
vitamins A and D, or of trace elements, such as copper and zinc. Eating
foods with excessive amounts of nutrients can ruin our health.
Live without food additives
Imagine life without food additives. The following situations will occur.
1. Food spoilage will drastically reduce the food supply. This will result in
food shortages around the world.
2. Diseases will flourish again due to deficiencies of vitamins and
minerals in our food.
3. Loss of appetite will be common particularly among the younger
generation because our food will not look, taste, and smell good and
this will affect their appetites.

4. MEDICINE
Sources and uses of traditional medicines
1. A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to
reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses.
20

2. Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural sources such

as plants and animals without being processed chemically.
3. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and roots,
animals and animal part to cure diseases.
4. Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines. The
sources and uses of some herbal medicines are shown in table below :
Plant
Garlic
Ginger

Part of the plant

used
Corm
Rhizome
(horizontal
underground
stem) and leaves

Uses
-

Aloe vera

Leaves

Lemon (lime)

Fruits

Bark of Chinchona
tree
Roots

Quinine
Ginseng

Lemon grass
Tongkat Ali

Stem/leaves

Roots

For preventing flu or asthma

attack
For reducing high blood pressure
For treating stomach pain due to
wind in the stomach
For supplying heat energy to keep
the body warm
For preventing flu attack
For preventing itchy skin
For treating burns (scalding) on the
skin
For treating boils or abscesses on
the skin
For preventing flu attack
For treating skin diseases
For treating malaria
For preventing muscle cramps
As a tonic to improve the overall
health of human beings
For increasing energy, endurance
and reducing fatigue
Has antibacterial and antifungal
properties
For treating cough
As a tonic for after a birth and
general health

Modern medicine
-

Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their effects on

the human body.
Some examples of modern medicines are:
21

a) Analgesics
b) Antibiotics
c) Psychotherapeutic drugs
Type of modern drug
Analgesics
Antibiotics
Psychotherapeutic
drugs

Example
Aspirin, paracetamol, codeine
Penicillin, streptomycin
Stimulant, antidepressant,
antipsychotic

Fucntion of each type of modern drug

Analgesics
-

Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are

aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called
painkillers.
Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is
powerful painkillers.
Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease. Table 5.6 shows the
chemical aspect and functions of some analgesics.

Type of
analgesic
Aspirin

Chemical aspect
IUPAC name: acetyl salicylic
acid
Functional groups: a carboxylic
acid
group and
ester group
COOH
carboxylic acid
O

O C CH3

Function
-

ester group

Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature.

Paracetamol

Structural formula:
H
O

HO
N C CH3
22

Relief pain and has antiinflammatory action.

Used to:
a) Reduce fever
b) Relieve headaches,
muscle aches and joint
aches.
c) Treat arthritis, a disease
caused by inflammation
of the joints.
d) Act as an anticoagulant.
It prevents the clotting
of blood and reduces
the risk of heart attacks
and stroke.
Similar to aspirin in its
effects but it does not
reduce inflammation.
Reduces or relieves flu

symptoms such as fever,

bone aches and runny
nose.

Thus, unlike aspirin,

paracetamol is neutral in
nature.
Codeine

Codeine is an organic
compound that contains the
elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen.

Used relieves minor to

moderate pain. It is more
powerful than aspirin and
paracetamol but less
powerful than morphine.
Codeine and morphine are
narcotic drugs.
Also used in cough
mixtures for suppressing
coughs.

Table above: Types of analgesics and their functions

Antibiotics : Antibacterial medicine

-

Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of

infectious microorganism.
Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.
Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.
Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral infections
such as influenza, measles, or small pox.
Penicillin
a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium chrysogenum.
b) Penicillin is used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria, such as
pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.
c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it
cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.

Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective in treating tuberculosis.

Psychotherapeutic medicines
-

Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs that change the

emotional and behavior of the patient and are used for treating mental
or emotional illnesses.
23

Table 5.7 shows the types and functions of psychotherapeutic drugs.

Type of
psychotherapeutic
drug
Stimulants
These are drugs
that stimulate
(excite) the
activity of the
brain and the
central nervous
system

Function

Antidepressants
These are drugs
that increase the
brains level of
neurotransmitters
and thus improve
mood

Antipsychotic
medicine

Examples

To
maintain
or
increase
alertness
To
counterac
t normal
fatigue
To elevate
mood

Caffeine

Amphetamine

To
alleviate
depressio
n
- To relieve
anxiety or
tension
- To make a
person
feel calm
and
sleepy
To treat mental
illness such as
schizophrenia
(madness)

Barbiturate
Tranquiliser

Lithium carbonate
(Li2CO3)
Chloropromazine
Haloperidol

24

Comments

It is found in
coffee, tea, and
Cola drinks
- It is a weak,
naturally
occurring
stimulant
- A strong
synthetic
stimulant
- It increases the
heart and
respiration
rates as well as
blood pressure
They are substances
that depress the
central nervous
system and cause
drowsiness

Mental
(psychotic)
patients have
extreme mood
swings. Their
mood changes
rapidly from
high spirits to

deep
depression
Antipsychotic
medicine do not
cure mental
illness but it can
reduce some of
the symptoms
to help the
person live a
more normal
life

Table above: Types and functions of psychotherapeutic drugs

Side effects of traditional medicines

-

It is generally believed that traditional medicines have little side effects

compared to modern medicines. In fact, traditional medicines are
sometimes used to counteract the side effects of some modern
medicines.
However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period may
cause hearing loss. German health officials recently reported 40 cases
of liver damage which were linked to the herbal medicine containing
kava-kava.
While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health experts
have insufficient data about how it affects patients.
The World Health Organization (WHO) hopes to set up a global
monitoring system to monitor the adverse side effects of traditional
medicines.

Side effects of modern medicines

Type of
modern drug
Aspirin

Side effects
Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is vey
acidic.
Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic
attacks
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Amphetamine
s

Codeine
Penicillin
Streptomycin
Stimulants
Antidepressan
ts
Antipsychotic
drugs

People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and

talkative.
Psychologically additive and can cause heart attack.
Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behavior
and decrease appetite.
Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and
trembling hands.
Can cause addiction.
Can cause allergic reactions.
Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.
Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever.
Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.
Can cause addiction.
Can cause addiction.
Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite.
Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention,
constipation.
Can cause tremor and restlessness.
Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people sleepy)
Table above:Side effects of modern medicine

Correct ways of using medicines

In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how
the medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed,
what special diet should be followed, what is the side effect and what
storage conditions are needed. In addition, we should note the following
points:
a) Self-medication
Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other
people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him concerning the
medicine to be taken.
b) Follow the instructions given
Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist concerning
the dosage and method of taking the medicine.
Dosage: Never take larger or more frequent doses and do not take
drug for longer than directed.

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c)
d)

e)

f)

Method of taking: Different drugs are taken in different ways. For

example, medicines that are acidic (such as aspirin) must be taken
after food. If taken on an empty stomach, the medicine will damage
the stomach lining. Conversely, antadic tablets are usually taken
before food.
Medicines for adult and children
Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.
Use of antibiotics
Complete the whole course of antibiotic treatment given by your
doctor. Do not stop taking the antibiotic just because you are already
feeling well. If not, the remaining bacteria will mutate and develop
resistance to the antibiotic and render it ineffective in the future.
Side effects
Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or other
effects of the drugs.
Expiry date
Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take medicines
after their expiry dates.

Appreciating the existence of chemicals

-

Since the last 100 years, thousands of new chemicals are synthesized.
These new chemicals include synthetic polymers, composite materials,
antibiotics, detergents and modern medicine. These chemicals improve
the quality of life.
Modern chemical substances have brought enormous benefits to
mankind. However, the chemicals have side effects on life and the
environment. We practice proper management of chemicals towards a
better life, hygiene and health.
Intensive scientific research must be carried out to produce new
substances and this takes time. Scientists must have patience,
meticulousness and perseverance for their research and development
to produce new products.
Modern living depends on chemical substances. Try to imagine the
world without chemicals. For example, without petroleum, the
transport systems will break down; without modern medicine, diseases
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will spread and without soap and detergent, the world will become
dirty and less hygienic.

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