Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Rowe
Rowe Lecture
lecture
The role of diffusion in environmental geotechnics
Confrence Rowe
Le rle de la diffusion en gotechnique environnementale
Shackelford C.
127
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
a mr
(3)
C
D* 2C
2C
C Da
C
t
Rd x 2
x 2
(4)
2 WHAT IS DIFFUSION?
Diffusion is a fundamental, irreversible process whereby
random molecular motions result in the net transport of a
chemical species (e.g., ion, molecule, compound,
radionuclide, etc.) from a region of higher chemical
potential to a region of lower chemical potential (Quigley
et al. 1987, Shackelford and Daniel 1991a, Shackelford
and Moore 2013). Since chemical potential is directly
related to chemical concentration, diffusion is more
commonly described as the net transport of a chemical
species due to a gradient in the concentration of the
chemical species.
The mass flux of a chemical species in a porous
medium due to diffusion can be described by Fick's first
law, which for one-dimensional diffusion may be written
as follows (e.g. Shackelford and Daniel 1991a,
Shackelford and Rowe 1998):
J d nD*ic n a Do ic
(2)
Rd 1 d K d
n
(1)
2
128
(5)
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1
0.8
0.7
Pure
Advection
(b)
Advection
+
Diffusion
0.6
Advection
+
Mechanical
Dispersion
0.5
21.8 yr
0.4
14.8 yr
0.9
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
-10
k = 5 x 10
h
m/s
L = 0.91 m
n = 0.5
i = 1.33
h
10
20
30
40
50
Elapsed Time, t (yr)
60
-8
-11
10
48.5 yr
-10
10
Pure
Diffusion
(i = 0)
Pure
Advection
14.8 yr
21.8 yr
-9
10
(c)
L = 0.91 m
n = 0.5
i = 1.33
h
10
k = 2.2 x
h
Advection
+
Diffusion
10
-10
m/s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Transit Time @ C(L,t)/C = 0.5, t (yr)
o
0.5
4
130
Depth (m)
M e c h a n ic a l
D is p e rs io n
P u re
A d v e c tio n
4
5
k
= 10
-8
m /s
(b )
R e la t iv e C o n c e n tr a t io n , C (x , t )/ C
0
0 . 2 0 . 4 0 .6 0 .8
1 o
0
Depth (m)
1
2
3
4
5
P u re
A d v e c t io n
A d v e c t io n
+
M e c h a n ic a l
D is p e rs io n
A d v e c t io n
+
D if f u s io n
k
= 10
-9
m /s
Depth (m)
4
5
6
P u re
A d v e c tio n
(c )
R e l a t iv e C o n c e n t r a t io n , C ( x , t ) / C
0
0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8
1
0
A d v e c t io n
+
M e c h a n ic a l
D is p e r s i o n
A d v e c t io n
+
D if f u s io n
k
= 10
-10
m /s
(d )
131
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(a)
Depth (m)
5.5
Bottom of Landfill
+
2+
Na Ca2+
Mg
0.3 m
~ Extent of
Diffusive
Front
Glacial Till
6.5
Background
0
2
Depth (m)
Na
2.5
(b)
2+
Mg
0.4 m Ca2+
~ Extent of
Diffusive Front
3
Consolidation
Flow Gradient
Glacial Till
(c)
Bottom of Landfill
+
Depth (m)
2.5
Na
Ca
2+
2+
Mg
0.4 m
~ Extent of
Diffusive Front
Consolidation
Flow Gradient
Glacial Till
3.5
132
0
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Xylene
Interface
Toluene
Ethylbenzene
Brown
Clayey
Liner
Benzene
133
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
r=0
0.1
-11
v = 4.0 x 10
s
m/s
Depth (m)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Measured-Source
0.6
Measured-Soil
0.7
-10
D* = 3.0 x 10
-10
0.8
D* = 5.5x 10
0.9
D* = 8.0 x 10
0
0.1
-10
m /s
2
m /s
2
m /s
v = 4.0 x 10
s
(c)
m/s
Depth (m)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Measured-Source
Measured-Soil (r = 0.53 m)
Measured-Soil (r = 0.63 m)
-10
D* = 3.0 x 10
-10
D* = 5.5x 10
-10
D* = 8.0 x 10
m /s
2
m /s
2
m /s
134
C Ce
J d Dg K g o
Lg
(6)
Diffusion
135
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
Source KCl Concentration, Co (M)
3
D* (x 10-10 m2 /s)
(b)
1
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
Source KCl Concentration, Co (M)
D* (x 10 -10 m2/s)
(c)
0.2
a,max = 0.12
0.1
1
0
a
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Membrane Efficiency Coefficient,
Membrane
Behavior
(0 < < 1)
4
3
KCl
(n = 0.78 - 0.8)
2
1
0
0.001
NaCl
(n = 0.71)
No
Membrane
Behavior
( = 0)
0.01
0.1
1
Source Salt Concentration, Co (M)
10
Membrane Efficiency
Coefficient,
136
Diffusion
(a)
Upgradient Side
Transient
Profiles
Lifespan = 8 yr
Lifespan =
0.5 10 yr
1
1.5
C(0+,t) = KgCo
GML
(Lg-,t) = KgCi
Lifespan = 0 yr
Lifespan = 4 yr
Lifespan = 6 yr
(Lg+,t) = Ci
CCL or GCL
CCL Parameters:
*
-10
m /s
-10
m/s
D = 7 x 10
(0-,t) = Co
Measured
kh = 2 x 10
(Lg+Lc,t) = Ce
Downgradient Side
n = 0.45 @ 0.0-0.25 m
e
(b)
= 0.42 @ 0.25-0.5 m
= 0.38 > 0.5 m
2.5
11
137
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Direction of
Advection
4
3
Direction of
Diffusion
+x
2
1
ES
>0
-1
-2
=0
PAL
Clay
Composite
>0
=0
>0
=0
Diffusion through Bentonite Buffers for HighLevel Radioactive Waste (HLRW) Disposal
Diffusion of radionuclides through highly compacted
bentonites being considered as buffer barriers in HLRW
disposal scenarios has been an area of substantial research
over the past several decades, and in particular the past
approximate decade. In fact, the number of referenced
publications focused on evaluating diffusion of
radionuclides through bentonite buffer barriers for HLRW
disposal is too voluminous to cite here, but a representative
listing can be found in Shackelford and Moore (2013). The
high number of publications in this area results from the
need for safe and secure, long-term disposal of HLRW
(e.g., 10,000 yr) resulting from the significant past and
present roles of nuclear energy in several countries (e.g.,
Belgium, Canada, France, Japan, Spain, Switzerland,
United Kingdom, and the USA).
In particular, two issues related to radionuclide
diffusion through highly compacted bentonite buffers have
been identified, viz., the influence of surface and/or
interlayer diffusion, and the existence of semipermeable
membrane behavior as a result of ion exclusion
(Shackelford and Moore 2013). Surface or interlayer
diffusion refers to the diffusion of cations, typically metals,
sorbed to clay particles in addition to diffusion of cations
within the mobile pore water between particles, i.e.,
outside the extent of influence of the negative electrical
potentials associated with the individual clay particle
surfaces. This phenomenon is attributed to the excess of
sorbed cations in the diffuse double layers surrounding
negatively charged clay surfaces relative to the
concentration of cations that exists in the mobile pore
water, and is known as interlayer diffusion when referring
to the excess of sorbed cations within the interlayer regions
of smectitic based clays, such as bentonites (Glaus et al.
2007, Appelo et al. 2010). When prevalent, surface and/or
interlayer diffusion can result in enhanced diffusion of
cations, and diminished diffusion of anions, relative to the
diffusion of neutral tracers such as tritium and deuterium
(Appelo et al. 2010). However, Shackelford and Moore
(2013) noted that conflicting results have been reported as
to the significance of surface and/or interlayer diffusion,
and that the phenomenon is likely to be significant only in
high activity clays, such as bentonites, compacted at
relatively high dry densities. Also, the significance of
surface and/or interlayer diffusion will be a function of the
chemical speciation of the diffusing radionuclide.
In terms of semipermeable membrane behavior,
numerous studies have reported significant ion
exclusionary properties of bentonite buffer barriers, but
these properties historically have been taken into account
qualitatively or indirectly by incorporating a correction
(anion exclusion) factor within the form of Fick's first law
(Shackelford and Moore 2013). However, recent advances
in simultaneously testing for both solute diffusion and
semipermeable membrane behavior as previously
documented for GCLs have largely eliminated this
restriction, such that quantification of the effect of
semipermeable membrane behavior of radionuclide
diffusion can now be assessed (e.g., see Fig. 9 and
4.2.7
4.3
139
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
25
gp
-8
= = 6.0x10 s
-1
pl
20
15
gp
10
-5
-1
-7
-1
= 4.0x10 s
= 4.0x10 s
pl
-5
gp
= = 4.0x10 s
20
-1
pl
40
60
80
Pore Volumes of Flow
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5
Test 6
Predicted
High
Low
100
120
140
Cover
H2O
Tailings
Dam
O2
Sulphidic
Tailings
Tailings
Dam
(a)
Cover
Tailings
Dam
H 2O
Radon
Uranium
Tailings
Tailings
Dam
Radionulcides
(b)
DN
10/3
De
a
De,max n
(7)
15
141
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Capillary
Barrier
60
mm
15 mm
60
mm
30
mm
Resistive
Cover
Monolithic
Cover
45
mm
Gravel
(k = 0.1 m/s)
Uncompacted Soil
(k = 1.4 x 10-6 m/s)
Compacted Soil
(k = 6.9 x 10-8 m/s)
(a)
-1
-2
10
-3
10
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
Capillary Barrier
Monolithic Cover
Resistive Cover
-7
10
-8
10
100
200
300
Time (d)
(b)
400
Da t
z
D*t
(8)
; T*
Hd
Rd H d 2 H d 2
and Hd is the maximum diffusive distance (= H/2 or 0.5 m
in this example). The definition for the dimensionless
Z
16
142
0.01
T*=
0.3 0.2
1.0
(a)
0
5.2
0.4
0.7
0.5
1.5
0.03
0.1
0.5
0.001
0.05
0.02
0.005
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
(b)
20
40
60
80
100
0.5
1
T* ~ 0.76
1.5
143
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Air
Water
Capping Layer
Advection
+
Diffusion
Contaminated
Sediments
6 CONCLUSIONS
The role of diffusion in environmental geotechnics was
reviewed. Diffusion has been shown to be a significant
contaminant transport process through low-permeability
barrier materials, including natural and engineered clay
barriers such as compacted clay liners (CCLs) and
geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs), with values of hydraulic
conductivity, kh, lower than 10-9 m/s, and a dominant
transport process for kh values lower than about 2-5 x 10-10
m/s. The increasing significance of diffusion with
decreasing kh results in a situation whereby design of
engineered clay barriers solely based on achieving low kh
is not only incorrect but also unconservative with respect
to the duration of contaminant containment in such
situations. As a result, achieving low kh is a necessary, but
not sufficient condition for assuring effective containment
of contaminants with low- kh barriers.
The existence of semipermeable membrane behavior is
shown to affect the diffusion of simple salt solutions
through bentonite based GCLs via ion exclusion. The
greater the magnitude of the membrane behavior, the lower
the effective diffusion coefficient. However, membrane
behavior also is shown to diminish with increasing salt
concentration, such that membrane behavior likely will
play a minor, if any, role in affecting solute diffusion
through traditional sodium bentonite based GCLs in many
practical applications, such as landfills. Nonetheless,
membrane behavior is likely to play a more significant role
in terms of the diffusion of contaminants through other
types of bentonite based barriers. For example,
semipermeable membrane behavior is likely to be
important in assessing diffusion of radionuclides through
the highly compacted bentonite buffers being considered
for containment of high-level radioactive waste, especially
given the extremely long containment durations (e.g.,
10,000 yr) associated with this application.
Diffusion is known to be the dominant liquid-phase
transport process of VOCs through intact geomembrane
liners (GMLs), either alone or as a component of a
composite liner overlying and in intimate contact with an
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author expresses his sincere gratitude to David Daniel,
R. Kerry Rowe, Robert Quigley (deceased), John Cherry,
Robert Gillham, and Donald Gray for their guidance and
assistance during his PhD graduate studies on the topic of
diffusion through clay barriers. The author also thanks
Mario Manassero, Chair of ISSMGE Technical Committee
TC215 on Environmental Geotechnics, for his support in
receipt of the first R. Kerry Rowe Honorary Lecture which
served as the basis for this paper. Finally, the author
appreciates the assistance of his Ph.D. graduate student,
Kristin Sample-Lord, in the preparation of this paper.
8 REFERENCES
Aachib, M., Mbonimpa, M., and Aubertin, M. 2004.
Measurement and prediction of the oxygen coefficient
in unsaturated media, with applications to soil covers.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 156 (1-4), 163-193.
Alonso, E.E., Olivella, S., and Arnedo, D. 2006.
Mechanisms of gas transport through clay barriers.
Journal of Iberian Geology, 32 (2), 175-196.
Alshawabkeh, A.N., and Rahbar, N. 2006. Parametric
study of one-dimensional solute transport in
deformable porous media. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 132 (8), 1001-1010.
Alshawabkeh, A.N., Rahbar, N., and Sheahan, T. 2005. A
model for contaminant mass flux in capped sediment
under consolidation. Journal of Contaminant
Hydrology, 78 (3), 147-165.
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