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This article is about the 145466 war. For other conicts Prussian Confederation and Poland and in the Second
termed Thirteen Years War, see Thirteen Years War.
Peace of Thorn (1466). This was soon followed by the
The Thirteen Years War (German: Dreizehnjhriger War of the Priests (146779), a drawn-out dispute with
Poland over the independence of the Prussian PrinceBishopric of Warmia (Ermland).
1 Preliminaries
1.1 Reasons behind the war
INTERNATIONAL SITUATION
In 1397 Prussian knights had founded a secret organisation called the Eidechsenbund (English translation:
Lizard Union), more or less against the Teutonic Knights,
but that organization had failed as it was not supported
by the urban population. After the victory by the Polish and Lithuanian forces at Grnfelde near Tannenberg
(the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg)) during the Polish
LithuanianTeutonic War (14091411), the Prussian estates eagerly pledged allegiance to King Wadysaw II
Jagieo (Jogaila) of Poland, but they quickly returned
to the orders rule after the Poles were unable to conquer Marienburg (Malbork). A clause in the peace treaty
stated that it was guaranteed by the Prussian states, which
would gain the right to defy the Teutonic Order if it broke
the treaty. In the succeeding wars the Prussian estates opposed any conict, and pushed the Grand Masters of the
Teutonic Knights to make peace.
Poland sent the Grand Master a declaration of war, predated to 22 February. Both sides expected the war to end
On February 21, 1440, a group made up of individu- quickly.
als from the Prussian cities, nobility and clergy, formed
the Prussian Confederation. The main contributors were
from the nobility of Culmerland (Chemno Land), Thorn,
Culm (Chemno), and from the Hanseatic cities of Elbing
2 International situation
(Elblg) and Danzig. Grand Master Paul von Rusdorf
was seen to approve the existence of the confederacy, but
his successor, Konrad von Erlichshausen, opposed it. His In 1454 Poland was in conict with the Grand Duchy
non-compromising policy was followed and intensied by of Lithuania, which meant that although Casimir IV was
Ludwig von Erlichshausen who took that oce in 1449 Grand Duke of Lithuania as well as King of Poland,
Lithuania sent no aid during the war to Poland, and aside
or 1450.
from a few ineective raids, did not participate during
the conict. There was also the threat of attack by the
Grand Duchy of Moscow and by the Ottoman Empire,
1.2 1452-1454 negotiations
which sacked Constantinople in 1453.
In 1452, the Prussian Confederation asked Emperor Elsewhere, the international situation was quite good for
Frederick III for mediation in their conict with the TeuPoland, as no outside states were likely to intervene. The
tonic Order. Disagreeing with the confederacy, Frederick southern border of Poland was more or less secure bebanned it and ordered it to obey the Teutonic Order on 5
cause of the weakness of the Bohemian lands, which reDecember 1453.
sulted from the Hussite Wars. Because of its internal
In January 1454, the year, when Casimir IV was married to Elisabeth Habsburg, the Prussian faction asked
Casimir IV to incorporate Prussia into the Kingdom of
Poland. Casimir asked the Prussian Confederation for a
more formal petition. On 4 February 1454, the Secret
Council of the Prussian Confederation sent a formal act
4.1
First phase
3
second half of March 1454, from the direction of the
Neumark. It was able to take the highly important strategic city of Konitz, which was situated on the important
route from Poland to the mouth of the Vistula. Johannes
von Baysen moved conscript and mercenary forces there,
and they were soon followed by Mikoaj Szarlejski of the
Clan of Ostoja, who was the representative of the Polish
kingdom and received the title of Supreme Commander
of Forces in Prussia.
The main part of the Polish army of that period was conscripted. All noblemen, when called by the king, had to
appear accompanied by their village-mayors and villageadministrators. Cities gave wagons with horses, food, and
service to them (including escorts). Units were divided
into choragwie (standards) of two kinds: family, which
were made by very large clans, and land which were from
nobles from particular territory. Peasants also partici- In 1454 and 1455, the Teutonic Knights rst pawned,
pated as infantrymen. The highest command belonged to then sold the Neumark back to the Margraviate of Branthe king. The total army could amount to 30,000 cavalry. denburg in the Treaties of Clln and Mewe.
From the beginning of the 15th century, the Polish Crown
started to hire mercenaries, who usually fought under the
ag of St. George (especially Bohemian (Czech) mercenaries). The ag was either a red cross on white, or
a white cross on red; the latter was used only when two
Bohemian units met on opposite sides of a battleeld and
had to be dierentiated. The concept of tabor, learned
from the Bohemians, was an important tactic.
The Poles had artillery, at rst primitive cannons such as
bombards. Pistols, or handguns, were used but were ineective. More important were crossbows, which, when
properly used, could cause large losses.
The army of the Prussian estates consisted of conscripts
and small units provided by cities (around 750 people per
unit). In total they could provide about 16,000 soldiers,
plus a few thousand armed peasant infantry. They also
had more artillery than the Polish army.
The Prussian cities were also able to raise a small navy,
partially from armed trade ships, partially from hired
privateers from other cities.
The Teutonic Order in 1454 lost most of its arsenals, but
later it was able to raise armies from loyal knights (free
Prussians) and peasants. However, most of its forces were
hired mercenaries, mainly from Germany and Bohemia.
4
4.1
Overview
First phase
4
withdrew from Marienburg, and Stuhm was recovered
by the Teutonic Order. They were also able to take
other large towns, such as Mewe (Gniew) and Dirschau
(Tczew). Impressed by the crusaders victory, some Prussian lands also capitulated. This was a great victory for the
Teutonic Knights, although they lacked enough money to
pay the victorious mercenaries. On October 9, the Grand
Master promised them that if he could not pay them by
February 19, 1455, they would receive all cities, castles
and lands of Prussia, with the rights to sell them.
Mercenaries later captured two other cities,
Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) and Lessen (asin), near
Marienburg. None of the largest and most important
cities of Prussia, such as Knigsberg, surrendered, and
they were determined to continue the war. As a result,
the Teutonic Order was totally dependent on help from
the Holy Roman Empire.
5 1455
the eastern part of Prussia. They were helped by rebellions in a few cities, which were caused by new large war
taxes in the Knigsberg towns of Altstadt and Lbenicht
on April 17, 1455. The last East Prussian town loyal to
the Polish king, Kneiphof, was taken after a long siege
by the Teutonic Knights commanded by Heinrich Reuss
von Plauen the Elder on June 14, 1455. The Poles suffered defeat after defeat, and they later also lost Warmia
(Ermeland).
However, the Grand Master was unable to pay his mercenaries and they took Marienburg, Dirschau, and Eylau
(Iawa) in May 1455. Mercenaries under the Bohemian
Ulrich Czerwonka (or Oldrzych) immediately started negotiations with Poland to discuss selling the castles.
The international situation also became signicantly
worse. On March 25, Emperor Frederick III banned the
Prussian Confederation, which caused that everybody
could claim its property and forbade any trade with its
members. On September 24, 1455, Pope Callixtus III
warned that he would excommunicate the Prussian Confederation and all its allies if it would not settle peace
with the Teutonic Order. In June 1455 the Teutonic
Knights gained a new ally, King Christian I of Denmark,
who declared war against Poland and the Prussian Confederation. This meant nothing more than a disturbance
in trade, however, since Denmark was still busy ghting
with Sweden.
5
(Ryn) on January 1, 1456. Land-based military actions nus as king of Hungary.
were limited to raids and local skirmishes.
In spring 1458 Casimir IV again called for a leve en
In the maritime arena, Casimir urged Danzig to build a masse which included the Masovians. Ignoring the meeet which would be able to break sea connections be- diation of John Giskra (Jan Jiskra), a Czech mercenary
tween the Teutonic Order and its allies. In May 1456 who hoped for an end to war with Prussia and the start
privateers hired by Danzig captured Dutch ships, which of a new conict with Hungary, the Polish army slowly
caused conict with Amsterdam and the Duke of Bur- marched into Prussia, crossing the Vistula via a pontoon
gundy, Philip the Good. In two weeks in August 1457, bridge near Thorn in June. Again the army was supported
three ships from Danzig defeated a combined Danish- by Tatar auxiliary forces from the Lithuania and by the
Livonian eet of 16 ships near Bornholm.
kings own army. The army was commanded by Piotr
After long negotiations, Teutonic mercenaries agreed to of Szamotuly, the castellan of Pozna. The Polish army
sell three castles in Prussia, including Marienburg, to marched directly to Marienburg, reaching the city on AuPoland. Heavy new taxes caused rebellions in Danzig gust 10. This time it was well equipped with artillery sent
and Thorn which were bloodily suppressed by the cities by Danzig and Elbing. The siege, however, was another
with help from the kings army. The Polish and Prus- asco, due partly to lengthy negotiations, and partly to Pisian estates were able to gather 190,000 Hungarian gold otrs lack of aggression on the battleeld. His inept leadpieces, most of which had been borrowed from Danzig. ership allowed Fritz Raweneck to take yet another casOn June 6, 1457, the castles of Marienburg, Dirschau, tle. The nobles demanded the storming of the castle, and
and Eylau were transferred to the Polish army. Two days when this did not happen, they started deserting and relater Casimir entered the castle of Marienburg, and its turning to Poland.
burghers paid homage to him. Ulrich Czerwonka became the rst Polish sheri of the castle, and also received
three other counties. The king again granted broad privileges to the Prussian cities. It was generally expected
that now, with the fall of the Teutonic Orders capital,
the war would end quickly. Optimism faded, however,
when the Polish army commanded by Prandota Lubieszowski was unable to take Mewe, which was again defended by Raweneck. Casimir had to return to Poland
to seek money to pay his debts and mercenaries. The
mood worsened when the grand master organised a new
oensive. The Teutonic Knights received signicant aid
from the burghers of Knigsberg, free Prussian knights,
and others. Although they were unable to take Wehlau
(Znamensk) and Schippenbeil (Spopol), the two Polishcontrolled castles which were the initial target of the offensive, they again defeated the Polish army in September
1457.
With the assistance of the towns burghers, Teutonic
forces under the command of Bernard von Zinnenberg,
who had been released from service with the Poles, took
Marienburg by surprise on September 28, 1457; only the
castle commanded by Czerwonka remained in Polish control. Lubieszowski was able to stop some further advances of the Teutonic army. However, they recaptured
Eylau, which again pledged allegiance to the Teutonic Order, Culm, and Preuisch Stargard (Starogard Gdaski).
The situation was saved for the Poles by a new army sent
from Greater Poland.
The international situation became increasingly complicated. The new Prince-Bishop of Ermeland was Cardinal Eneas Silvio Piccolomini, known for his pro-Teutonic
sympathies. In 1458, Piccolomini was elected Pope Pius
II. Another complication was the death of Ladislaus the
Posthumous and the election of George of Podbrady as
the new (Hussite) king of Bohemia, and Matthias Corvi-
6
jected the arrival of the papal legate, Hieronymus Lando.
On June 3, 1460, the pope reactivated the ban against
Prussia, Poland, and the Polish king. At the same time the
Bohemian king George of Podbrady banned and jailed
Ulrich Czerwonka and his comrades, and agreed to hire
Teutonic soldiers in the territory of his kingdom.
On 21 March 1460, the Polish army, supported by
Danzigers and peasants, began a siege of the town of
Marienburg; the towns castle was already in Polish control. This time the army had a more capable commander,
Lubieszowski, and enough artillery. Lubieszowski died
during the siege and was replaced by Jan Koscielecki with
Johann Meydeburg of Danzig as his advisor. The town of
Marienburg nally capitulated on 5 July. Marienburgs
mayor, Burgomaster Blume, was hanged as traitor, since
he had pledged allegiance to the Polish king, but later
opened the gates of Marienburg to the Teutonic Knights.
This Polish success was quickly countered by the Teutonic Knights, who regained other cities in western Prussia. They defeated the army of Danzig near Praust
(Pruszcz Gdaski) in July 1460, and burnt the suburbs of
Danzig; the Hanseatic city then asked Casimir for help.
The Teutonic Order also conquered Lauenburg (Lbork)
and Btow (Bytw), which had been in the possession of
Eric II of Pomerania, Leba (eba), and Putzig (Puck); the
latter was garrisoned by mercenaries hired by the former
Swedish king Charles VIII. Bernard von Zinnenberg also
captured the castle of Schwetz (wiecie). Thorn immediately sent soldiers there, who, helped by the kings army,
started a siege. In the Bishopric of Warmia, the administration of Paul von Legensdorf commenced. He was appointed by the pope, and promised neutrality between the
Teutonic Knights and the Polish king. The neutrality of
Legendorf made him popular amongst the burghers and
peasants, who were tired of war.
The situation of Poland became desperate. One by one,
the castles and cities in Prussia were recovered by the
Teutonic army. The internal situation was pessimistic because of the conict between the pope and the king over
nominating the new bishop of Krakw, since both king
and pope were convinced that the other lacked the right
to choose the new bishop.
The Polish king again called for leve en masse , but
most of the nobility refused to participate after Tczynski
was killed in Krakw by burghers in a dispute over payment for his armor. Commanders, amongst them Piotr
of Szamotuly, were disorganized, and, after raids to Eric
IIs Duchy of Pomerania, the army returned home after a
few weeks.
The failure of the latest leve en masse and the Teutonic
recovery of Warmia, capturing the last Polish points of
resistance, convinced Casimir that the war should be left
to professionals. The nobility agreed to pay new taxes for
the hiring and maintaining of a more regular army. The
new commander was Piotr Dunin, an innovative leader.
5 1455
castle of Schwetz. Polish privateers hired by Danzig were
far more successful, although they had to ght not only
Teutonic ships and privateers, but also with ships from
Lbeck.
7
Holy Roman Empire. Their mercenaries, the core of
the Teutonic army, were not paid and refused to make
any serious oensives. At the same time the armies of
Poland and the Prussian Confederation (mainly Danzig)
were continuing their oensive.
However, Casimir was unable to prot from these successes because of troubles in Lithuania. The Lithuanians rejected the idea of moving the Teutonic Order
to Podolia, even if Lithuania would acquire territories
in Prussia. This forced the king to open new negotiations with the Teutonic Order, with the Hanseatic League
as mediators. On July 3, 1462, negotiations started in
Thorn. The Polish negotiators included Jan Dugosz and
the rector of the Krakw Academy, Jan of Dbrwka.
The Prussian representatives included Gabriel von Baysen and Scibor von Baysen, as well as envoys from larger
cities. The Poles and Prussians argued that Pomerania
from time immemorial belonged to Poland, pointing out
Slavic names in Pomerania, the Slavic language of inhabitants, the tax of St. Peter paid by Pomerania, and that
Pomerania belonged to the Polish Diocese of Wocawek.
They also strongly emphasized that Prussians of their own
will asked for the incorporation of Prussia into Poland.
They also tried to prove that even eastern Prussia was,
in times past, tied in some way to Poland. The Teutonic
Knights questioned all the arguments and past papal judgments. Instead, they strongly underlined that Poland had
ocially resigned all claims to Pomerania and Culmerland, and also pointed to the emperors statement of 1453
when he forbade all opposition in Prussia. Hanseatic mediators proposed a ceasere for 20 years, but this was refused. The Poles again proposed moving the Teutonic Order to Podolia, which was also rejected. Unocially, the
Poles unsuccessfully proposed leaving the Teutonic Order
in Sambia as Polish vassals. Finally, the Poles demanded
at least Pomerellia, Culmerland, Marienburg, and Elbing,
and when this was rejected too, negotiations broke down.
Dunin continued on the oensive, capturing more and
more castles. Masovians, enraged by Teutonic raids, organised a leve en masse and captured the castle of Soldau
(Dziadowo), but again the king had to leave Poland for
Lithuania, and nancial problems stopped further advances. This caused another round of negotiations in
1465, which were again unsuccessful.
In 1466 the Prince-Bishop of Warmia, Paul von Legensdorf, decided to join the Polish forces and declare war on
the Teutonic Knights. Polish forces under Dunin were nally also able to capture Konitz on September 28, 1466.
Earlier, in 1454, Jan Janski de Turze (pl:Jan z Jani)
of the Clan of Ostoja become rst polish Voivode of
Gdask and Pomerania. The Clan have been ghting
Teutonic side since the days of Stibor of Stiboricz, the
Duke of Transylvania and one of most loyal Lords of King
Sigismund von Luksemburg. The strategy of the Clan
of Ostoja was in the beginning of 15th century not only
use of military forces but also to use diplomatic game
6 References
[1] (German) Kriegsreisende.de
7 External links
Photocopy of the request of the Prussian Confederation for Polish protection (Polish)
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