Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars (18031815) were a series of major conicts pitting the French Empire led by Emperor
Napoleon I against an array of European powers formed
into various coalitions. They revolutionized European
armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly
owing to the application of modern mass conscription.
The wars are traditionally seen as a continuation of the
Revolutionary Wars, which broke out in 1792 during the
French Revolution. Initially, French power rose quickly
as the armies of Napoleon conquered much of Europe. In
his military career, Napoleon fought about 60 battles and
lost seven, mostly at the end of his reign.[19] The great
French dominion collapsed rapidly after the disastrous
invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon was defeated in
1814, and then once more in 1815 at Waterloo after a
brief return to power. The Allies then reversed all French
gains since the Revolutionary Wars at the Congress of Vienna.

1815, although skirmishing continued as late as 3 July

1815 at the Battle of Issy. The Second Treaty of Paris
ocially ended the wars on 20 November 1815.

1 Background 17891802
Main articles: French Revolution, French Revolutionary
Wars, War of the First Coalition and War of the Second
Coalition
News of the French Revolution of 1789 was received with
great alarm by the rulers of Frances neighbors, which
only increased with the arrest and eventual execution of
King Louis XVI of France. The rst attempt to crush
the French Republic came in 1793 when Austria, the
Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Naples, Prussia,
Spain and the Kingdom of Great Britain formed the First
Coalition. French measures, including general conscription (leve en masse), military reform, and total war,
contributed to the defeat of the First Coalition, despite
the civil war occurring in France. The war ended when
General Napoleon Bonaparte forced the Austrians to accept his terms in the Treaty of Campo Formio. Only
Great Britain remained opposed to the French Republic.

Before a nal victory against Napoleon, ve of seven

coalitions saw defeat at the hands of France. France defeated the rst and second coalitions during the French
Revolutionary Wars, the third (notably at Austerlitz), the
fourth (notably at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland) and the
fth coalition (notably at Wagram) under the leadership
of Napoleon. These great victories gave the French Army
a sense of invulnerability, especially when it approached
Moscow. But after the retreat from Russia, in spite of
incomplete victories, France was defeated by the sixth The Second Coalition was formed in 1798 by Austria,
coalition at Leipzig, in the Peninsular War at Vitoria and Great Britain, the Kingdom of Naples, the Ottoman Empire, the Papal States, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and other
at the hands of the seventh coalition at Waterloo.
countries. During the War of the Second Coalition, the
The wars resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman French Republic suered from corruption and internal
Empire and sowed the seeds of nationalism that would division under the Directory (ve directeurs holding exlead to the consolidations of Germany and Italy later in ecutive power). France also lacked funds, and no longer
the century. Meanwhile, the global Spanish Empire be- had the services of Lazare Carnot, the war minister who
gan to unravel as French occupation of Spain weakened had guided it to successive victories following extensive
Spains hold over its colonies, providing an opening for reforms during the early 1790s. Bonaparte, the main arnationalist revolutions in Spanish America. As a direct chitect of victory in the last years of the First Coalition,
result of the Napoleonic wars, the British Empire became had gone to campaign in Egypt. Missing two of its most
the foremost world power for the next century,[20] thus important military gures from the previous conict, the
beginning Pax Britannica.
Republic suered successive defeats against revitalized
No consensus exists about when the French Revolution- enemies whom British nancial support brought back into
ary Wars ended and the Napoleonic Wars began. An early the war.
candidate is 9 November 1799, the date of Bonapartes Bonaparte returned from Egypt to France on 23 August
coup seizing power in France. However, the most com- 1799, and seized control of the French government on
mon date is 18 May 1803, when renewed war broke 9 November 1799 in the coup of 18 Brumaire replacing
out between Britain and France, ending the one-year-old the Directory with the Consulate led by himself. He rePeace of Amiens, the only period of general peace in Eu- organized the French military and created a reserve army
rope between 1792 and 1814. Most actual ghting ceased positioned to support campaigns either on the Rhine or in
following Napoleons nal defeat at Waterloo on 18 June Italy.
1

2 PRELUDE

On all fronts, French advances caught the Austrians o

guard and knocked Russia out of the war. In Italy,
Bonaparte won a notable victory against the Austrians at Marengo in 1800, but the decisive win came at
Hohenlinden later that year. The defeated Austrians left
the conict after the Treaty of Lunville (9 February
1801), forcing Britain to sign the Peace of Amiens with
France.

1.1

Start date and nomenclature

2 Prelude
Britain was irritated by a number of French actions following the Treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte had annexed
Piedmont and Elba, made himself President of the Italian
Republic, a state in northern Italy that France had set
up, and failed to evacuate Holland. France continued
to interfere with British trade despite peace having been
made and complained about Britain harboring certain
individuals and not cracking down on their anti-French
press.[28]:220239

No consensus exists as to when the French Revolutionary Wars ended and the Napoleonic Wars began. Possible dates include 9 November 1799, when Bonaparte
seized power on 18 Brumaire in France;[21] or 18 May
1803, when Britain and France ended the one short period of peace between 1792 and 1814, or 2 December
1804, when Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor.[22]

Malta had been captured by Britain during the war and

was subject to an complex arrangement in the 10th article
of the Treaty of Amiens where it was to be restored to the
Knights of St. John with a Neapolitan garrison and placed
under the guarantee of third powers. However, the weakening of the Knights of St. John by the conscation of
their assets in France and Spain along with delays in obBritish historians occasionally refer to the nearly contin- taining guarantees prevented the British from evacuating
[28]:239247
uous period of warfare from 1792 to 1815 as the Great it after three months as stipulated in the treaty.
French War, or as the nal phase of the Anglo-French The Helvetian Republic had been set up by France when
Second Hundred Years War, spanning the period 1689 they invaded Switzerland in 1798. France had withdrawn
to 1815.[23]
its troops, but violent strife subsequently broke out against
In France, the Napoleonic Wars are generally integrated the government, which many Swiss saw as overly cenwith the French Revolutionary Wars : Les guerres de la tralized. Alarmed, Bonaparte reoccupied the country in
October 1802 and imposed a compromise settlement.
Rvolution et de l'Empire.[24]
This action caused widespread outrage in Britain, who
protested this as violation of the Treaty of Luneville. Although continental powers were unprepared to act, the
1.2 Napoleons tactics
British decided to send an agent who would help the Swiss
obtain supplies, and also sent orders for their military not
Napoleon was, and remains, famous for his battleeld vic- to return Cape Colony to Holland as they had committed
tories, and historians have spent enormous attention in to do so in the Treaty of Amiens.[28]:248252
analyzing them.[25] In 2008, Donald Sutherland wrote:
Swiss resistance collapsed, however, before anything
could be accomplished and after a month Britain counThe ideal Napoleonic battle was to maniptermanded the orders not to restore Cape Colony. At
ulate the enemy into an unfavourable position
the same time Russia nally joined the guarantee with
through maneuver and deception, force him
regards to Malta. Concerned that there would be hosto commit his main forces and reserve to the
tilities when Bonaparte found out that Cape Colony had
main battle and then undertake an enveloping
been retained, the British began to deliberately procrasattack with uncommitted or reserve troops on
tinate on the evacuation of Malta.[28]:252258 In January
the ank or rear. Such a surprise attack either
1803 an ocial government paper in France published a
would produce a devastating eect on morale
report from a commercial agent which noted the ease with
or force him to weaken his main battle line. Eiwhich Egypt could be conquered. The British seized on
ther way, the enemys own impulsiveness bethis to demand some sort of satisfaction and security began the process by which even a smaller French
fore evacuating Malta, which was a convenient stepping
army could defeat the enemys forces one by
stone to Egypt. France disclaimed any desire to seize
one.[26]
Egypt and asked what sort of satisfaction was required
but the British were unable to give a response.[28]:258264
After 1807, Napoleons creation of a highly mobile, well- There was still no thought of going to war, Prime Minisarmed Britain was in a state of
armed artillery force gave artillery usage increased tac- ter Addington publicly
[28]:265
profound
peace.
tical importance. Napoleon, rather than relying on infantry to wear away the enemys defenses, now could use
massed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in the
enemys line. Once that was achieved he sent in infantry
and cavalry.[27]

In early March 1803 the Addington ministry received

word that Cape Colony had been re-occupied by the
British army in accordance with the orders which had
subsequently been countermanded. On 8 March they

3.1

British motivations

ordered military preparations to guard against possible

French retaliation, but publicly justied them by falsely
claiming that it was only in response to French preparations and that they were conducting serious negotiations
with France. In a few days it was known that Cape Colony
had been surrendered in accordance with the counterorders, but it was too late. Bonaparte berated the British
ambassador in front of 200 spectators over its unjustied
military preparations.[28]:264268

Amiens when it declared war on France in May 1803.

The British were increasingly angered by Napoleons
reordering of the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the
Netherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was insulted and
alarmed especially by Napoleons assertion of control
over Switzerland. Britons felt insulted when Napoleon
said it deserved no voice in European aairs (even though
King George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire),
the London newspapers that were
The Addington ministry realized they would face an in- and ought to shut down
vilifying Napoleon.[31]
quiry over their false reasons for the military preparations,
and during the month of April unsuccessfully attempted Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of
to secure the support of William Pitt the Younger to markets, and was worried by Napoleons possible threat
shield them from damage.[28]:277 That same month the to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went
ministry suddenly issued an ultimatum to France de- to war in 1803 out of a mixture of economic motives and
manding the retention of Malta for at least ten years, the national neuroses an irrational anxiety about Napoleons
permanent acquisition of the island of Lampedusa from motives and intentions. However McLynn concludes that
the Kingdom of Sicily, and the evacuation of Holland. In in the long run it proved to be the right choice for Britain,
addition they oered to recognize French gains in Italy if because in the long run Napoleons intentions were hostile
they evacuated Switzerland and compensated the King of to British national interest. Furthermore, Napoleon was
Sardinia for his territorial losses. France oered to place not ready for war and this was the best time for Britain to
Malta in the hands of Russia to satisfy British concerns, stop them. Britain therefore seized upon the Malta issue,
pull out of Holland when Malta was evacuated, and form refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and
a convention to give satisfaction to Britain on other is- evacuate the island.[32]
sues. The British falsely denied that Russia had made an The deeper British grievance was their perception that
oer and their ambassador left Paris.[28]:268278 Desper- Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, makate to avoid war Bonaparte sent a secret oer where he ing the international system unstable, and forcing Britain
agreed to let Britain retain Malta if France could occupy to the sidelines.[33][34][35][36]
the Otranto peninsula in Naples.[29] All eorts were futile
Numerous scholars have argued that Napoleons aggresand Britain declared war on 18 May 1803.
sive posture made him numerous enemies while costing potential allies.[37] The Continental powers as late as
3 War between Britain and France, 1808 armed most of his remarkable gains and titles,
but the continuing conict with Britain led him to start
18031814
the Peninsula War and the invasion of Russia which many
scholars see as a dramatic miscalculation.[38][39][40][41][42]

3.1

British motivations

There was one serious attempt to negotiate peace with

France during the war, made by Charles James Fox in
1806. The British wanted to retain their overseas conquests and have Hanover restored to George III in exchange for accepting French conquests on the continent.
The French were willing to conrm Malta, Cape Colony,
Tobago, and French Indian posts to Britain but wanted to
obtain Sicily in exchange for the restoration of Hanover,
a condition the British refused.[43]

Unlike its many coalition partners, Britain remained at

war throughout the period of the Napoleonic Wars. Protected by naval supremacy (in the words of Admiral Jervis
to the House of Lords I do not say, my Lords, that the
French will not come. I say only they will not come by
sea), Britain maintained low-intensity land warfare on a
global scale for over a decade. The British government
Maniac-ravings-or-Little Boney in a strong t by James Gillpaid out large sums of money to other European states,
ray. His caricatures ridiculing Napoleon greatly annoyed
so that they could pay armies in the eld against France.
the Frenchman, who wanted them suppressed by the British
These payments are colloquially known as the Golden
[30]
government.
Cavalry of St George. The British Army provided longterm support to the Spanish rebellion in the Peninsular
Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of

4 WAR OF THE THIRD COALITION 1805

War of 18081814, assisted by Spanish guerrilla ('little war') tactics. Anglo-Portuguese forces under Arthur
Wellesley supported the Spanish, which campaigned successfully against the French armies, eventually driving
them from Spain, thus allowing Britain to invade southern France. By 1815, the British Army played the central
role in the nal defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo.
Beyond minor naval actions against British imperial interests, the Napoleonic Wars were much less global in
scope than preceding conicts such as the Seven Years
War, which historians term a "world war".

3.2

Economic warfare

men in 1813.[45][46] By the terms of the Anglo-Russian

agreement of 1803, Britain paid a subsidy of 1.5 million for every 100,000 Russian soldiers in the eld.[47]
Most important, the British national output remained
strong and the well-organized business sector channeled
products into what the military needed. Britain used its
economic power to expand the Royal Navy, doubling the
number of frigates and increasing the number of large
ships of the line by 50%, while increasing the roster of
sailors from 15,000 to 133,000 in eight years after the
war began in 1793. France, meanwhile, saw its navy
shrink by more than half.[48] The system of smuggling
nished products into the continent undermined French
eorts to ruin the British economy by cutting o markets. Subsidies to Russia and Austria kept them in the
war. The British budget in 1814 reached 66,000,000,
including 10 million for the Royal Navy, 40 million
for the army, 10 million for the allies, and 38 million as
interest on the national debt. The national debt soared to
679 million, more than double the GDP. It was willingly
supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax
payers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new income
tax. The whole cost of the war came to 831 million. By
contrast the French nancial system was inadequate and
Napoleons forces had to rely in part on requisitions from
conquered lands.[49][50][51]

In response to the naval blockade of the French coasts

enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806,
Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November
1806, which brought into eect the Continental System.[44] This policy aimed to eliminate the threat from
Britain by closing French-controlled territory to its trade.
Britain maintained a standing army of just 220,000 at the
height of the Napoleonic Wars, of which less than half
was available for campaigning, the rest being necessary
for garrisoning Ireland and the colonies or providing security for England, whereas Frances strength peaked at
around 2,500,000 full-time and part-time soldiers including several hundred-thousand National Guardsmen that
Napoleon could draft into the military if necessary. Both 4 War of the Third Coalition 1805
nations also enlisted large numbers of sedentary militia but they were unsuited for actual campaigning and
Main article: Third Coalition
were mostly employed to release regular forces for active
Britain gathered together allies to form the Third
duty.[45] The Royal Navy eectively disrupted Frances
extra-continental trade both by seizing and threatening
French shipping and by seizing French colonial possessions but could do nothing about Frances trade with
the major continental economies and posed little threat
to French territory in Europe. Also, Frances population
and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain.
However, Britain had the greatest industrial capacity in
Europe, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to build
up considerable economic strength through trade. That
suced to ensure that France could never consolidate
its control over Europe in peace. However, many in the
French government believed that cutting Britain o from
the Continent would end its economic inuence over EuThe British HMS Sandwich res to the French agship
rope and isolate it.

3.3

Financing the war

A key element in British success was its ability to mobilize the nations industrial and nancial resources and
apply them to defeating France. With a population of 16
million Britain was half the size of France with 30 million. In terms of soldiers the French advantage was oset
by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the
Austrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000

Bucentaure (completely dismasted) in the battle of Trafalgar.

The Bucentaure also ghts HMS Victory (behind her) and HMS
Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich never
fought at Trafalgar and her depiction is a mistake by Auguste
Mayer, the painter.[52]

Coalition against France.[53][54] In response, Napoleon

seriously considered an invasion of Great Britain,[55][56]
and massed 180,000 eectives at Boulogne. However,
before he could invade, he needed to achieve naval
superiorityor at least to pull the British eet away from
the English Channel. A complex plan to distract the

5
British by threatening their possessions in the West Indies failed when a Franco-Spanish eet under Admiral
Villeneuve turned back after an indecisive action o Cape
Finisterre on 22 July 1805. The Royal Navy blockaded
Villeneuve in Cdiz until he left for Naples on 19 October; the British squadron caught and overwhelmingly defeated the combined enemy eet in the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October (the British commander, Lord Nelson,
died in the battle). Napoleon would never again have the
opportunity to challenge the British at sea, nor to threaten
an invasion. He again turned his attention to enemies on
the Continent.
Surrender of the town of Ulm, 20 October 1805

European strategic situation in 1805 before the War of the Third

Coalition

In April 1805, Britain and Russia signed a treaty with

the aim of removing the French from the Batavian Republic (roughly present-day Netherlands) and the Swiss
Confederation (Switzerland). Austria joined the alliance
after the annexation of Genoa and the proclamation of
Napoleon as King of Italy on 17 March 1805. Sweden,
which had already agreed to lease Swedish Pomerania as
a military base for British troops against France, formally
entered the coalition on 9 August.
The Austrians began the war by invading Bavaria with an
army of about 70,000 under Karl Mack von Leiberich,
and the French army marched out from Boulogne in late
July 1805 to confront them. At Ulm (25 September 20
October) Napoleon surrounded Macks army, forcing its
surrender without signicant losses. With the main Austrian army north of the Alps defeated (another army under Archduke Charles manoeuvred inconclusively against
Andr Massna's French army in Italy), Napoleon occupied Vienna. Far from his supply lines, he faced a larger
Austro-Russian army under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov, with the Emperor Alexander I of Russia personally
present. On 2 December, Napoleon crushed the joint
Austro-Russian army in Moravia at Austerlitz (usually
considered his greatest victory). He inicted a total of
25,000 casualties on a numerically superior enemy army
while sustaining fewer than 7,000 in his own force.

1805) and left the Coalition. The Treaty required the

Austrians to give up Venetia to the French-dominated
Kingdom of Italy and the Tyrol to Bavaria. With the
withdrawal of Austria from the war, stalemate ensued.
Napoleons army had a record of continuous unbroken
victories on land, but the full force of the Russian army
had not yet come into play. Napoleon had now consolidated his hold on France, had taken control of Belgium,
the Netherlands, Switzerland, and most of Western Germany and northern Italy. His admirers say that Napoleon
wanted to stop now, but was forced to continue in order to
gain additional security from a concert of countries that
refused to accept his conquests. Esdaille, however, rejects that explanation and instead says that it was a good
time to stop expansion, for the major powers were ready
to accept Napoleon as he was:
in 1806 both Russia and Britain had been positively eager to make peace, and they might
well have agreed to terms that would have left
the Napoleonic imperium almost completely
intact. As for Austria and Prussia, they simply wanted to be left alone. To have secured
a compromise peace, then, would have been
comparatively easy. But...Napoleon was prepared to make no concessions.[57]

5 War of the Fourth Coalition

18061807

Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition

Within months of the collapse of the Third Coalition, the
Fourth Coalition (180607) against France was formed
by Britain, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. In July
1806, Napoleon formed the Confederation of the Rhine
out of the many tiny German states which constituted the
Rhineland and most other western parts of Germany. He
amalgamated many of the smaller states into larger electorates, duchies, and kingdoms to make the governance
of non-Prussian Germany smoother. Napoleon elevated
Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg (26 December the rulers of the two largest Confederation states, Saxony

5 WAR OF THE FOURTH COALITION 18061807

In the next stage of the war, the French drove Russian

forces out of Poland and employed many Polish and German soldiers in several sieges in Silesia and Pomerania,
with the assistance of Dutch and Italian soldiers in the
latter case. Then Napoleon turned north to confront the
remainder of the Russian army and to try to capture
the temporary Prussian capital at Knigsberg. A tactical draw at Eylau (78 February 1807), followed by capitulation at Danzig (24 May 1807) and the Battle of
Heilsberg (10 June 1807), forced the Russians to withdraw further north. Napoleon then routed the Russian
army at Friedland (14 June 1807). Following this defeat, Alexander had to make peace with Napoleon at Tilsit
Napoleon in Berlin (Meynier). After defeating Prussian forces (7 July 1807). In Germany and Poland, new Napoleonic
at Jena, the French Army entered Berlin on 27 October 1806
client states, such as the Kingdom of Westphalia, Duchy
of Warsaw, and Republic of Danzig, were established.
By September, Marshal Brune completed the occupation
of Swedish Pomerania, allowing the Swedish army, howIn August 1806, the Prussian king, Frederick William III, ever, to withdraw with all its munitions of war.
decided to go to war independently of any other great
Britains rst response To to Napoleons Continental syspower. The army of Russia, a Prussian ally, in particular
tem was to launch a major naval attack on the weakest
was too far away to assist. On 8 October 1806, Napoleon
link in Napoleons coalition, Denmark. Although ostenunleashed all the French forces east of the Rhine into
sibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and RusPrussia. Napoleon himself defeated a Prussian army at
sian pressure to pledge its eet to Napoleon. London
Jena (14 October 1806), and Davout defeated another at
could not take the chance of ignoring the Danish threat.
Auerstdt on the same day. Some 160,000 French solIn November 1807, the Royal Navy bombarded Copendiers (increasing in number as the campaign went on)
hagen, capturing the Danish eet, and assuring use of
attacked Prussia, moving with such speed that they dethe sea lanes in the North and Baltic seas for the British
stroyed the entire Prussian army as an eective milimerchant eet. Denmark did join the war on the side of
tary force. Out of 250,000 troops the Prussians susFrance, but without a eet it had little to oer.[58][59]
tained 25,000 casualties, lost a further 150,000 as prisoners, 4,000 artillery pieces, and over 100,000 muskets. At the Congress of Erfurt (SeptemberOctober 1808),
At Jena, Napoleon had fought only a detachment of the Napoleon and Alexander agreed that Russia should force
Prussian force. The battle at Auerstdt involved a sin- Sweden to join the Continental System, which led to the
gle French corps defeating the bulk of the Prussian army. Finnish War of 180809 and to the division of Sweden
Napoleon entered Berlin on 27 October 1806. He visited into two parts separated by the Gulf of Bothnia. The eastthe tomb of Frederick the Great and instructed his mar- ern part became the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland.
shals to remove their hats there, saying, If he were alive
we wouldn't be here today. In total, Napoleon had taken
only 19 days from beginning his attack on Prussia until
knocking it out of the war with the capture of Berlin and
the destruction of its principal armies at Jena and Auerstdt. Saxony quit Prussia and together with small states
from north Germany allied with France.
and Bavaria, to the status of kings.

Polish cavalry at the Battle of Somosierra in Spain, 1808

Charge of the Russian Imperial Guard cavalry against French
cuirassiers at the Battle of Friedland, 14 June 1807

5.1

Poland

Main article: Duchy of Warsaw

In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his empire in Eastern Europe. Poland had recently been partitioned by its three large neighbors, but Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended on
France from the very beginning. The duchy consisted
of lands seized by Austria and Prussia; its Grand Duke
was Napoleons ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleon
appointed the intendants who ran the country. The population of 4.3 million was released from occupation and
by 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleons armies.
That included about 90,000 who marched with him to
Moscow; few marched back.[60] The Russians strongly
opposed any move toward an independent Poland and
one reason Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 was to
punish them. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815
and Poland would not be a state until 1918. However
Napoleons impact on Poland was dramatic, including the
Napoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the
introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies.[61][62]

War of the Fifth Coalition 1809

French pressure. It ended in disaster after the Army commander, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, failed to capture the objective, the naval base of French-controlled
Antwerp. For the most part of the years of the Fifth
Coalition, British military operations on land (apart from
the Iberian Peninsula) remained restricted to hit-and-run
operations executed by the Royal Navy, which dominated
the sea after having beaten down almost all substantial
naval opposition from France and its allies and blockading
what remained of Frances naval forces in heavily fortied
French-controlled ports. These rapid-attack operations
were aimed mostly at destroying blockaded French naval
and mercantile shipping and the disruption of French supplies, communications, and military units stationed near
the coasts. Often, when British allies attempted military
actions within several dozen miles or so of the sea, the
Royal Navy would arrive and would land troops and supplies and aid the Coalitions land forces in a concerted operation. Royal Navy ships even provided artillery support
against French units when ghting strayed near enough to
the coastline. However, the ability and quality of the land
forces governed these operations. For example, when operating with inexperienced guerrilla forces in Spain, the
Royal Navy sometimes failed to achieve its objectives
simply because of the lack of manpower that the Navys
guerrilla allies had promised to supply.

Main articles: War of the Fifth Coalition and Peninsular

War
The Fifth Coalition (1809) of Britain and Austria against

The European strategic situation in February 1809

France formed as Britain engaged in the Peninsular War

in Spain and Portugal. Again Britain stood alone, and the
sea became the major theatre of war against Napoleons
allies. During the time of the Fifth Coalition, the Royal
Navy won a succession of victories in the French colonies.

Economic warfare continued: the French Continental

System against the British naval blockade of Frenchcontrolled territory. Due to military shortages and lack
of organisation in French territory, many breaches of the
Continental System occurred as French-dominated states
tolerated or even encouraged trade with British smugglers. In terms of economic damage to Great Britain, the
blockade was largely ineective. As Napoleon realized
that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia,
he invaded those two countries. He tied down his forces
in Spain, and lost very badly in Russia in 1812.[63]

On land, the Fifth Coalition attempted few extensive military endeavours. One, the Walcheren Expedition of
1809, involved a dual eort by the British Army and
the Royal Navy to relieve Austrian forces under intense

Both sides entered additional conicts in attempts to enforce their blockade; the British fought the United States
in the War of 1812 (181215), and the French engaged in
the Peninsular War (180814) to shut o smuggling into

Surrender of Madrid (Gros), 1808. Napoleon enters Spains capital during the Peninsular War

WAR OF THE FIFTH COALITION 1809

Spain. The Iberian conict began when Portugal continued trade with Britain despite French restrictions. When
Spain failed to maintain the continental system, the uneasy Spanish alliance with France ended in all but name.
French troops gradually encroached on Spanish territory
until they occupied Madrid, and installed a client monarchy. This provoked an explosion of popular rebellions
across Spain. Heavy British involvement soon followed.
Austria, previously an ally of France, took the opportunity to attempt to restore its imperial territories in Germany as held prior to Austerlitz. Austria achieved a number of initial victories against the thinly spread army of
Marshal Berthier. Napoleon had left Berthier with only The French Empire in Europe in 1812, near its peak extent.
170,000 men to defend Frances entire eastern frontier (in
the 1790s, 800,000 men had carried out the same task,
but holding a much shorter front).
was stripped of his command after retreating contrary to
After defeats in Spain suered by France, Napoleon took Napoleons orders. Shortly thereafter, Bernadotte took
charge and enjoyed success, retaking Madrid, defeating up the oer from Sweden to ll the vacant position of
the Spanish and forcing a withdrawal of the heavily out- Crown Prince there. Later he would actively participate
numbered British army from the Iberian Peninsula (Battle in wars against his former Emperor.)
of Corunna, 16 January 1809). But when he left, the The War of the Fifth Coalition ended with the Treaty
guerrilla war against his forces in the countryside contin- of Schnbrunn (14 October 1809). In the east, only
ued to tie down great numbers of troops. Austrias attack the Tyrolese rebels led by Andreas Hofer continued to
prevented Napoleon from successfully wrapping up op- ght the French-Bavarian army until nally defeated in
erations against British forces by necessitating his depar- November 1809, while in the west the Peninsular War
ture for Austria, and he never returned to the Peninsular continued.
theatre. The British then sent in a fresh army under Sir
Arthur Wellesley (later called the Duke of Wellington) In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent.
On the continent, the British and Portuguese remained
whom the French could not stop.[64]
restricted to the area around Lisbon (behind their impregThe Peninsular war proved a major disaster for France. nable lines of Torres Vedras) and to besieged Cadiz.
Napoleon did well in when he was in direct charge, but
that followed severe losses, and was followed by worse Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Archlosses. He severely underestimated how much manpower duchess, with the aim of ensuring a more stable alliance
would be needed. Spain proved to be a major, long- with Austria and of providing the Emperor with an heir
term drain on money, manpower and prestige. Historian (something his rst wife, Josephine, had failed to do).
David Gates called it the Spanish ulcer.[65] France lost As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled the
the Peninsular War; Napoleon realized it had been a dis- Swiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, the
aster for his cause, writing later, That unfortunate war Duchy of Warsaw and the Kingdom of Italy. Territories
destroyed me ... All the circumstances of my disasters allied with the French included:
are bound up in that fatal knot.[66]
Meanwhile, the Austrians drove into the Duchy of Warsaw, but suered defeat at the Battle of Raszyn on 19
April 1809. The Polish army captured West Galicia following its earlier success.
Napoleon assumed personal command in the east and bolstered the army there for his counter-attack on Austria.
After a few small battles, the well-run campaign forced
the Austrians to withdraw from Bavaria, and Napoleon
advanced into Austria. His hurried attempt to cross the
Danube resulted in the massive Battle of Aspern-Essling
(22 May 1809) Napoleons rst signicant tactical defeat. But the Austrian commander, Archduke Charles,
failed to follow up on his indecisive victory, allowing
Napoleon to prepare and seize Vienna in early July. He
defeated the Austrians at Wagram, on 56 July. (It was
during the middle of that battle that Marshal Bernadotte

the Kingdom of Spain (under Joseph Bonaparte,

Napoleons elder brother)
the Kingdom of Westphalia (Jrme Bonaparte,
Napoleons younger brother)
the Kingdom of Naples (under Joachim Murat, husband of Napoleons sister Caroline)
the Principality of Lucca and Piombino (under
Elisa Bonaparte (Napoleons sister) and her husband
Felice Baciocchi);

and Napoleons former enemies, Prussia and Austria.

Subsidiary Wars

The Napoleonic wars were the direct cause of a number

of wars in the Americas and elsewhere.

7.1

War of 1812

Main article: War of 1812

Coinciding with the War of the Sixth Coalition, though
technically not considered part of the Napoleonic Wars,
was the War of 1812. The neutral United States declared
war on Britain. One main reason was British interference with American merchant ships and forced enlistment into the British navy. France had interfered too (and
at one point the U.S. considered declaring war on France.)
The war ended in a military stalemate and there were no
boundary changes at the Treaty of Ghent which took effect in early 1815, when Napoleon was on Elba. The main
eect of the War of 1812 on the Napoleonic Wars was
to let the Americans distract the British navy, giving the
French a slight advantage. The Louisiana Purchase of
1803 came during the peaceful lull after Napoleon decided against building a New World empire. So he took
Louisiana from Spain and sold it to the U.S. for $15 million, including $11 million in gold.[67]

The Battle of Borodino as depicted by Louis Lejeune. The battle

was the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the Napoleonic
Wars.

The central issue for both Napoleon and Tsar Alexander

I was control over Poland. Each wanted a semiindependent Poland he could control. As Esdaile notes,
Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course,
a war against Napoleon.[69] Schroeder says Poland was
the root cause of Napoleons war with Russia but Russias refusal to support the Continental System was also a
factor.[70]

In 1812, at the height of his power, Napoleon invaded

Russia with a pan-European Grande Arme, consisting of
650,000 men (270,000 Frenchmen and many soldiers of
allies or subject areas). The French forces crossed the
Main article: Spanish American wars of independence
Niemen River on 24 June 1812. Russia proclaimed a
Patriotic War, while Napoleon proclaimed a Second PolThe abdication of kings Carlos IV and Fernando VII ish war. The Poles supplied almost 100,000 men for the
of Spain and the installation of Napoleons brother as invasion-force, but against their expectations, Napoleon
King Jos provoked civil wars and revolutions leading to avoided any concessions to Poland, having in mind furthe independence of most of Spains mainland American ther negotiations with Russia.[71]
colonies.
The Grande Arme marched through Russia, winning a
number of relatively minor engagements and the major
Battle of Smolensk on 1618 August. However, in the
8 The Invasion of Russia 1812
same days, a part of the French Army led by Marshal
Nicolas Oudinot was stopped in the Battle of Polotsk by
Main article: Napoleons invasion of Russia
the right wing of the Russian Army, under command of
The Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 resulted in the Anglo- General Peter Wittgenstein. This prevented the French
Russian War (180712). Emperor Alexander I declared march on the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg; the fate
war on Britain after the British attack on Denmark in of the invasion was to be decided in Moscow, where
September 1807. British men-of-war supported the Napoleon himself led his forces.
Swedish eet during the Finnish War and scored victories over the Russians in the Gulf of Finland in July 1808 Russians used scorched-earth tactics, and harried the
The
and August 1809. However, the success of the Russian Grande Arme with light Cossack cavalry.
Grande
Arme
did
not
adjust
its
operational
methods
in
army on the land forced Sweden to sign peace treaties
[72]
This
refusal
led
to
most
of
the
losses
of
the
response.
with Russia in 1809 and with France in 1810 and to join
the Continental Blockade against Britain. But Franco- main column of the Grande Arme, which in one case
to 95,000 men, including deserters, in a single
Russian relations became progressively worse after 1810, amounted
[73]
week.
and the Russian war with Britain eectively ended. In
April 1812, Britain, Russia and Sweden signed secret At the same time, the main Russian army retreated for
almost three months. This constant retreat led to the unagreements directed against Napoleon.[68]

7.2

The Latin American Revolutions

10

9 WAR OF THE SIXTH COALITION 18121814

eas along the Smolensk road. In the following weeks, the
Grande Arme was dealt a catastrophic blow by the onset of the Russian Winter, the lack of supplies and constant guerrilla warfare by Russian peasants and irregular
troops.

When the remnants of the Napoleons army crossed the

Berezina River in November, only 27,000 t soldiers
survived, with some 380,000 men dead or missing and
100,000 captured.[77] Napoleon then left his men and returned to Paris, to prepare the defence against the advancing Russians, and the campaign eectively ended on 14
December 1812, when the last enemy troops left Russia.
The Russians had lost around 210,000 men, but with their
Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, a painting by Adolph shorter supply lines, they soon replenished their armies.
Northen.

popularity of Field Marshal Michael Andreas Barclay de

Tolly and a veteran, Prince Mikhail Kutuzov, was made
the new Commander-in-Chief by Tsar Alexander I. Finally, the two armies engaged in the Battle of Borodino
on 7 September,[74] in the vicinity of Moscow. The battle was the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the
Napoleonic Wars, involving more than 250,000 men and
resulting in at least 70,000 casualties. It was indecisive.
The French captured the main positions on the battleeld,
but failed to destroy the Russian army; logistical diculties meant that French losses were irreplaceable, unlike
Russian ones.
Napoleon entered Moscow on 14 September, after the
Russian Army retreated yet again.[75] But by then, the
Russians had largely evacuated the city and even released criminals from the prisons to inconvenience the
French; furthermore, the governor, Count Fyodor Rostopchin, ordered the city to be burnt.[76] Alexander I refused to capitulate, and the peace talks, attempted by
Napoleon, failed. In October, with no sign of clear victory in sight, Napoleon began the disastrous Great Retreat
from Moscow.

9 War of the Sixth Coalition 1812

1814
Main article: Sixth Coalition
Seeing an opportunity in Napoleons historic defeat, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, and a number of German states
re-entered the war.[78] Napoleon vowed that he would
create a new army as large as the one he had sent into
Russia, and quickly built up his forces in the east from
30,000 to 130,000 and eventually to 400,000. Napoleon
inicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies at Ltzen (2 May
1813) and Bautzen (2021 May 1813). Both battles involved total forces of over 250,000, making them some
of the largest conicts of the wars so far. Metternich in
November 1813 oered Napoleon the Frankfurt proposals. They would allow Napoleon to remain Emperor but
France would be reduced to its natural frontiers and lose
control of most of Italy and Germany and the Netherlands. Napoleon still expected to win the wars, and rejected the terms. By 1814, as the Allies were closing in
on Paris, Napoleon did agree to the Frankfurt proposals,
but it was too late and he rejected the new harsher terms
proposed by the Allies.J. P. Riley (2013). Napoleon and
the World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warghting.
Routledge. p. 206.

Charles Joseph Minard's famous graph of the decreasing size

of the Grande Arme represented by the width of the line as it
marches to Moscow (tan) and back (black).

At the Battle of Maloyaroslavets the French tried to reach

Kaluga, where they could nd food and forage supplies. The Battle of Leipzig involved over 600,000 soldiers, making it
But the replenished Russian Army blocked the road, the largest battle in Europe prior to World War I.
and Napoleon was forced to retreat the same way he
had come to Moscow, through the heavily ravaged ar- Meanwhile, in the Peninsular War, Arthur Wellesley re-

11
newed the Anglo-Portuguese advance into Spain just after New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the fortied towns of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and in the
Battle of Salamanca (which was a damaging defeat of
the French). As the French regrouped, the Anglo
Portuguese entered Madrid and advanced towards Burgos, before retreating all the way to Portugal when renewed French concentrations threatened to trap them. As
a consequence of the Salamanca campaign, the French
were forced to end their long siege of Cadiz and to permanently evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and Asturias.
In a strategic move, Wellesley planned to move his supply
base from Lisbon to Santander. The AngloPortuguese
forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos.
On 21 June, at Vitoria, the combined Anglo-Portuguese
and Spanish armies won against Joseph Bonaparte, nally
breaking French power in Spain. The French had to retreat out of the Iberian peninsula, over the Pyrenees.[79]
The belligerents declared an armistice from 4 June 1813
(continuing until 13 August) during which time both
sides attempted to recover from the loss of approximately
a quarter of a million total men in the preceding two
months. During this time Coalition negotiations nally
brought Austria out in open opposition to France. Two
principal Austrian armies took the eld, adding 300,000
men to the Coalition armies in Germany. In total the
Allies now had around 800,000 front-line soldiers in
the German theatre, with a strategic reserve of 350,000
formed to support the frontline operations.

diers (including the strategic reserve under formation in

Germany). The gross gures may mislead slightly, as
most of the German troops ghting on the side of the
French fought at best unreliably and stood on the verge
of defecting to the Allies. One can reasonably say that
Napoleon could count on no more than 450,000 men in
Germanywhich left him outnumbered about four to
one.
Following the end of the armistice, Napoleon seemed to
have regained the initiative at Dresden (August 1813),
where he once again defeated a numerically superior
Coalition army and inicted enormous casualties, while
sustaining relatively few. However, the failures of his
marshals and a slow resumption of the oensive on his
part cost him any advantage that this victory might have
secured. At the Battle of Leipzig in Saxony (1619
October 1813), also called the Battle of the Nations,
191,000 French fought more than 300,000 Allies, and
the defeated French had to retreat into France. Napoleon
then fought a series of battles, including the Battle of
Arcis-sur-Aube, in France itself, but the overwhelming
numbers of the Allies steadily forced him back. His remaining ally Denmark-Norway became isolated and fell
to the coalition.[80]

The Russian army enters Paris in 1814

The Allies entered Paris on 30 March 1814. During this

time Napoleon fought his Six Days Campaign, in which
he won multiple battles against the enemy forces advancThe Battle of Hanau (3031 October 1813), took part between ing towards Paris. However, during this entire campaign
Austro-Bavarian and French forces.
he never managed to eld more than 70,000 men against
more than half a million Coalition soldiers. At the Treaty
Napoleon succeeded in bringing the total imperial forces of Chaumont (9 March 1814), the Allies agreed to prein the region to around 650,000although only 250,000 serve the Coalition until Napoleons total defeat.
came under his direct command, with another 120,000
under Nicolas Charles Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout. Napoleon determined to ght on, even now, incapable
The remainder of imperial forces came mostly from of fathoming his massive fall from power. During the
the Confederation of the Rhine, especially Saxony and campaign he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh conBavaria. In addition, to the south, Murats King- scripts, but only a fraction of these ever materialized, and
dom of Naples and Eugne de Beauharnais's King- Napoleons schemes for victory eventually gave way to
dom of Italy had a total of 100,000 armed men. In the reality of the hopeless situation. Napoleon abdicated
Spain, another 150,000 to 200,000 French troops steadily on 6 April. However, occasional military actions continItaly, Spain, and Holland throughout the spring of
retreated before AngloPortuguese forces numbering ued in[81]
1814.
around 100,000. Thus in total, around 900,000 Frenchmen in all theatres faced around 1,800,000 Coalition sol- The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, and

12

11

WAR OF THE SEVENTH COALITION 1815

restored the French Bourbon monarchy in the person of

Louis XVIII. They signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (11
April 1814) and initiated the Congress of Vienna to redraw the map of Europe.

among several armies. To add to the 90,000-strong standing army, he recalled well over a quarter of a million veterans from past campaigns and issued a decree for the
eventual draft of around 2.5 million new men into the
French army. This faced an initial Coalition force of
about 700,000although Coalition campaign-plans provided for one million front-line soldiers, supported by
10 Gunboat War 18071814
around 200,000 garrison, logistics and other auxiliary
personnel. The Coalition intended this force to have overMain article: Gunboat War
whelming numbers against the numerically inferior imperial French armywhich in fact never came close to
Initially, Denmark-Norway declared itself neutral in the reaching Napoleons goal of more than 2.5 million under
Napoleonic Wars, established a navy, and traded with arms.
both sides. But the British attacked and captured or destroyed large portions of the Dano-Norwegian eet in the
First Battle of Copenhagen (2 April 1801), and again
in the Second Battle of Copenhagen (AugustSeptember
1807). This ended Dano-Norwegian neutrality, beginning an engagement in a naval guerrilla war in which small
gunboats would attack larger British ships in Danish and
Norwegian waters. The Gunboat War eectively ended
with a British victory at the Battle of Lyngr in 1812, involving the destruction of the last large Dano-Norwegian
shipthe frigate Najaden.

11

War of the Seventh Coalition

1815

The Princes Flag was used as a battle ag by the Dutch forces

during the Battle of Waterloo.

Napoleon took about 124,000 men of the Army of

the North on a pre-emptive strike against the Allies in
Belgium.[82] He intended to attack the Coalition armies
before they combined, in hope of driving the British into
the sea and the Prussians out of the war. His march to
the frontier achieved the surprise he had planned, catching the Anglo-Dutch Army in a dispersed arrangement.
The Prussians had been more wary, concentrating 3/4 of
their Army in and around Ligny. The Prussians forced the
Arme du Nord to ght all the day of the 15th to reach
Ligny in a delaying action by the Prussian 1st Corps. He
forced Prussia to ght at Ligny on 16 June 1815, and the
defeated Prussians retreated in some disorder. On the
same day, the left wing of the Arme du Nord, under the
command of Marshal Michel Ney, succeeded in stopping
any of Wellingtons forces going to aid Blchers Prussians by ghting a blocking action at Quatre Bras. Ney
failed to clear the cross-roads and Wellington reinforced
Wellington at Waterloo by Robert Alexander Hillingford.
the position. But with the Prussian retreat, Wellington too
The Seventh Coalition (1815) pitted Britain, Russia, had to retreat. He fell back to a previously reconnoitred
Prussia, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands position on an escarpment at Mont St Jean, a few miles
and a number of German states against France. The pe- south of the village of Waterloo.
riod known as the Hundred Days began after Napoleon Napoleon took the reserve of the Army of the North, and
escaped from Elba and landed at Cannes (1 March 1815). reunited his forces with those of Ney to pursue WellingTravelling to Paris, picking up support as he went, he tons army, after he ordered Marshal Grouchy to take the
eventually overthrew the restored Louis XVIII. The Al- right wing of the Army of the North and stop the Pruslies rapidly gathered their armies to meet him again. sians re-grouping. In the rst of a series of miscalculaNapoleon raised 280,000 men, whom he distributed tions, both Grouchy and Napoleon failed to realize that
See also: Hundred Days and the Neapolitan
War between the Kingdom of Naples and the
Austrian Empire.

13
Rochefort. The Allies exiled him to the remote South
Atlantic island of Saint Helena, where he died on 5 May
1821.
Meanwhile, in Italy, Joachim Murat, whom the Allies had
allowed to remain King of Naples after Napoleons initial
defeat, once again allied with his brother-in-law, triggering the Neapolitan War (March to May, 1815). Hoping
to nd support among Italian nationalists fearing the increasing inuence of the Habsburgs in Italy, Murat issued
the Rimini Proclamation inciting them to war. But the
proclamation failed and the Austrians soon crushed Murat at the Battle of Tolentino (2 May to 3 May 1815), forcing him to ee. The Bourbons returned to the throne of
Naples on 20 May 1815. Murat tried to regain his throne,
but after that failed, he was executed by ring squad on
13 October 1815.

12 Political eects
Map of the Waterloo campaign

the Prussian forces were already reorganized and were assembling at the village of Wavre. In any event the French
army did nothing to stop a rather leisurely retreat that
took place throughout the night and into the early morning by the Prussians. As the 4th, 1st, and 2nd Prussian
Corps marched through the town towards Waterloo the
3rd Prussian Corps took up blocking positions across the
river, and although Grouchy engaged and defeated the
Prussian rearguard under the command of Lt-Gen von
Thielmann in the Battle of Wavre (1819 June) it was
12 hours too late. In the end, 17,000 Prussians had kept
33,000 badly needed French reinforcements o the eld.
Napoleon delayed the start of ghting at the Battle of Waterloo on the morning of 18 June for several hours while
he waited for the ground to dry after the previous nights
rain. By late afternoon, the French army had not succeeded in driving Wellingtons forces from the escarpment on which they stood. When the Prussians arrived
and attacked the French right ank in ever-increasing
numbers, Napoleons strategy of keeping the Coalition
armies divided had failed and a combined Coalition general advance drove his army from the eld in confusion.
Grouchy organized a successful and well-ordered retreat
towards Paris, where Marshal Davout had 117,000 men
ready to turn back the 116,000 men of Blcher and
Wellington. Davout was defeated at the Battle of Issy and
negotiations for surrender had begun.
On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo, Napoleon
still clung to the hope of a concerted national resistance;
but the temper of the legislative chambers, and of the
public generally, did not favour his view. Lacking support Napoleon abdicated again on 22 June 1815 and on
15 July, surrendered himself to the British squadron at

Napoleon as King of Italy (Appiani)

The Napoleonic Wars brought radical changes to Europe,

but the reactionary forces returned to power and tried
to reverse some of them.[83] Napoleon had succeeded in
bringing most of Western Europe under one rule. However, Frances constant warfare with the combined forces
of the other major powers of Europe for over two decades
nally took its toll. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars,
France no longer held the role of the dominant power in
Continental Europe, as it had since the times of Louis
XIV. Britain emerged as the most important economic

14

13 MILITARY LEGACY

power, and its Royal Navy held unquestioned naval supe- inows relative to the U.S. population rose to record levriority across the globe well into the 20th century.
els (peaking at 1.6% in 1850-51)[87] as some 30 million
relocated to the United States between 1815
In most European countries, subjugation in the French Europeans[88]
and
1914.
Empire brought with it many liberal methods of the
French Revolution including democracy, due process in
courts, abolition of serfdom, reduction of the power of
the Catholic Church, and a demand for constitutional
limits on monarchs. The increasing voice of the middle classes with rising commerce and industry meant that
restored European monarchs found it dicult to restore
pre-revolutionary absolutism, and had to retain many of
the reforms enacted during Napoleons rule. Institutional
legacies remain to this day in the form of civil-law legal
systems, with clearly redacted codes compiling their basic
lawsan enduring legacy of the Napoleonic Code.

Another concept emerged from the Congress of Vienna

that of a unied Europe. After his defeat, Napoleon deplored the fact that his dream of a free and peaceful European association remained unaccomplished. Such a
European association would share the same principles of
government, system of measurement, currency and Civil
Code. Some one-and-a-half centuries later, and after two
world wars several of these ideals re-emerged in the form
of the European Union.

During the wake of the Napoleonic period, nationalism, 13 Military legacy

a relatively new movement, became increasingly significant. This would shape much of the course of future
European history. Its growth spelled the beginning of
some states and the end of others, as the map of Europe
changed dramatically in the hundred years following the
Napoleonic Era. Rule by efdoms and aristocracy was
widely replaced by national ideologies based on shared
origins and culture. Importantly, Bonapartes reign over
Europe sowed the seeds for the founding of the nationstates of Germany and Italy by starting the process of
consolidating city-states, kingdoms and principalities. At
the end of the war Denmark was forced to cede Norway
to Sweden, but because Norway had signed its own constitution on the 17th of May 1814, Sweden was forced to
ght for the right to own Norway. The resulting union between Sweden and Norway gave Norway more independence than under Denmark and would end with Norway In 1800 Bonaparte took the French Army across the Alps, eventually defeating the Austrians at Marengo
becoming an independent country in 1905.
The Napoleonic wars also played a key role in the independence of the Latin American colonies from Spain
and Portugal. The conict signicantly weakened the authority and military power of Spain, especially after the
Battle of Trafalgar. There were many uprisings in Spanish America, leading to the wars of independence. In
Portuguese America, Brazil experienced greater autonomy as it now served as seat of the Portuguese Empire
and ascended politically to the status of Kingdom. These
events also contributed to the Portuguese Liberal Revolution in 1820 and the Independence of Brazil in 1822.[84]

13.1 Enlarged scope

The Napoleonic Wars also had a profound military impact. Until the time of Napoleon, European states employed relatively small armies, made up of both national
soldiers and mercenaries. These regulars were highly
drilled professional soldiers. These Ancien Rgime
armies could only deploy small eld armies due to rudimentary stas and comprehensive yet cumbersome logistics. Both issues combined to limit actual eld forces to
Afterwards, in order to prevent another such war, The approximately 30,000 men under a single commander.
Congress of Vienna in 181415 reassigned territories in
However, military innovators in the mid-18th century beorder to create a balance of power in which no one state
gan to recognize the potential of an entire nation at war:
would be able to dominate Europe the way Napoleonic
a nation in arms.[89]
France had. The balance on the whole kept Europe
peaceful for 100 years. The century of transatlantic peace The scale of warfare dramatically enlarged during the
after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, and up to the out- Revolutionary and subsequent Napoleonic Wars. Before,
break of World War I in 1914, enabled the greatest in- it was rare for a battle to involve more than 30,000 soltercontinental migration in human history,[85] beginning diers on each side. The French twin innovations of sepwith a a big spurt of immigration after the release of the arate corps (allowing a single commander to eciently
dam erected by the Napoleonic Wars.[86] Immigration command more than the traditional command span of
30,000 men) and living o the land (which allowed eld

13.1

Enlarged scope

15

armies to deploy more men without requiring an equal increase in supply arrangements such as depots and supply
trains) allowed the French republic to eld much larger
armies than their more traditional opponents. Napoleon
subsequently ensured that what were eectively separate
French eld armies during the time of the French republic
operated as a single army under his control as Emperor,
often allowing him to substantially outnumber his opponents. This forced his continental opponents to increase
the size of their armies as well, moving away from the traditional small, well drilled Ancien Rgime armies of the
18th century to mass conscript armies with its attendant
political consequences.
Napoleons retreat from Russia in 1812. His Grande Arme had
lost about half a million men.

Napoleon on the eld of Eylau

pre-revolutionary war, the Seven Years War of 1756

1763, few armies ever numbered more than 200,000 in
total with actual eld forces often numbering less than
30,000. By contrast, the French army peaked in size in
the 1790s with 1.5 million Frenchmen enlisted although
actual strength was much less. Haphazard bookkeeping,
rudimentary medical support and lax recruitment standards ensured that strength on paper never came close to
actual strength as soldiers either never existed, fell ill or
were unable to withstand the physical demands of soldiering. And lastly, the French republic could never have
aorded such a large force.

In total, about 2.8 million Frenchmen fought on land and

The Battle of Marengo, which largely ended the War about 150,000 at sea, bringing the total for France to
of the Second Coalition was fought with fewer than almost 3 million combatants during almost 25 years of
60,000 men on both sides. The Battle of Austerlitz which warfare.[93]
ended the War of the Third Coalition involved fewer than
160,000 men. The Battle of Friedland which led to peace
with Russia in 1807 involved about 150,000 men.
After these defeats, the continental powers developed
various forms of mass conscription to allow them to face
France on even terms and the size of eld armies increased rapidly. The battle of Wagram of 1809 involved
300,000 men, and 500,000 fought at Leipzig in 1813, of
whom 150,000 were killed or wounded.
About a million French soldiers became casualties
(wounded, invalided or killed), a higher proportion
than in the First World War. The European total
may have reached 5,000,000 military deaths, including
disease.[90][91]
France had after Russia the largest population in Europe
by the end of the 18th century (27 million, as compared
to Britains 12 million and Russias 35 to 40 million).[92]
It was well poised to take advantage of the leve en masse.
Before Napoleons eorts, Lazare Carnot played a large
part in the reorganization of the French army from 1793
to 1794a time which saw previous French misfortunes
reversed, with Republican armies advancing on all fronts.

The Battle of Trafalgar

Britain had a total 750,000 men under arms between

1792 and 1815 as its army expanded from 40,000 men
in 1793[94] to a peak of 250,000 men in 1813.[95] Over
250,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy. In September 1812, Russia had 900,000 enlisted men in its land
forces, and between 1799 and 1815 a total of 2.1 million men served in the its army. Another 200,000 served
The sizes of the armies involved give an obvious indica- in the Russian Navy. Indicative of the discrepance betion of the changes in warfare. During Europes major tween paper gures and actual eld strength is that out

16

13 MILITARY LEGACY

of the alleged 900,000 men, the actual eld armies de- to the major powers. The percentage of French troops in
ployed against France had numbered less than 250,000 the Grande Armee which Napoleon led into Russia was
all together.
about 50% while the French allies also provided a signifThere are no consistent statistics for other major combat- icant contribution to the French forces in Spain. As these
ants. Austrias forces peaked at about 576,000 (during small nations joined the Coalition forces in 1813-1814,
the war of the sixth coalition) and had little or no naval they provided a useful addition to the coalition while decomponent yet never elded more than 250,000 men in priving Napoleon of much needed cannon fodder.
eld armies. After Britain, Austria proved the most persistent enemy of France, more than a million Austrians
served during the long wars. Its large army was overall quite homogeneous and solid and in 1813 operated in
Germany (140,000 men), Italy and the Balkans (90,000
men at its peak, about 50,000 men during most of the
campaigning on these fronts). However, Austrias manpower was becoming quite limited toward the end of the
wars, hence leading its generals to favor cautious and conservative strategies, to limit their losses.

All the participants in the Napoleonic Wars. Blue: The Coalition

and their colonies and allies. Green: The First French Empire,
its protectorates and colonies, allies and co-belligerents.

13.2 Innovations

French soldiers in skirmish with Bashkirs and Cossacks in 1813

Prussia never had more than 320,000 men under arms at

any time. In 1813-1815, while the core of its army (about
100,000 men) was characterized by its extreme competence and determination, the bulk of its forces consisted
of second-line and third line troops as well as militiamen
of variable strength. Many of these troops performed reasonably well and often displayed considerable bravery but
lacked the professionalism of their regular counterparts
and were not as well equipped. Others were largely unt for actual operations, except sieges. During the 1813
campaign, 130,000 men were actually used in the military operations, with 100,000 eectively participating in
the main German campaign, and about 30,000 being used
to besiege isolated French garrisons.[96]

The initial stages of the Industrial Revolution had much to

do with larger military forcesit became easy to massproduce weapons and thus to equip signicantly larger
forces. Britain served as the largest single manufacturer
of armaments in this period. It was the arsenal that supplied most of the weapons used by the Coalition powers
throughout the conicts. France produced the secondlargest total of armaments, equipping its own huge forces
as well as those of the Confederation of the Rhine and
other allies.[97]
Napoleon himself showed innovative tendencies in his
use of mobility to oset numerical disadvantages, as brilliantly demonstrated in the rout of the Austro-Russian
forces in 1805 in the Battle of Austerlitz. The French
Army reorganized the role of artillery, forming independent, mobile units, as opposed to the previous tradition
of attaching artillery pieces in support of troops.[98]

Another advance aected warfare: the semaphore system

had allowed the French War-Minister, Carnot, to communicate with French forces on the frontiers throughout the 1790s. The French continued to use this system throughout the Napoleonic wars. Additionally, aerial
surveillance came into use for the rst time when the
posiSpains armies also peaked at around 200,000 men, not French used a hot-air balloon to survey Coalition [99]
Battle
of
Fleurus,
on
26
June
1794.
tions
before
the
including more than 50,000 guerrillas scattered over
Spain. In addition the Maratha Confederation, the
Ottoman Empire, Italy, Naples and the Duchy of Warsaw each had more than 100,000 men under arms. Even 13.3 Total war
small nations now had armies rivalling the size of the
Great Powers' forces of past wars but in reality, most of Main article: Total War
these were poor quality forces only suitable for garrison
duties. The size of their actual combat troops remained Historians have explored how the Napoleonic wars bemodest yet these could still provide a welcome addition came total wars. Most historians argue that the escala-

17
tion in size and scope came from two sources. First was
the ideological clash between revolutionary/equalitarian
and conservative/hierarchical belief systems. Second was
the emerging nationalism in France, Germany, Spain,
and elsewhere that made these peoples wars instead
of contests between monarchs.[100] Bell has argued that
even more important than ideology and nationalism were
the intellectual transformations in the culture of war that
came about through The Enlightenment.[101] One factor,
he says, is that war was no longer a routine event but
a transforming experience for societiesa total experience. Secondly the military emerged in its own right as
a separate sphere of society distinct from the ordinary
civilian world. The French Revolution made every civilian a part of the war machine, either as a soldier through
universal conscription, or as a vital cog in the home front
machinery supporting and supplying the army. Out of
that, says Bell, came militarism, the belief that the military role was morally superior to the civilian role in times
of great national crisis. The ghting army represented
the essence of the nations soul.[102] As Napoleon himself proclaimed, It is the soldier who founds a Republic
and it is the soldier who maintains it.[103]

14

Last veterans

Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (17881899) was the

last surviving veteran. He fought for France in the
33me Rgiment Lger[104]
Josephine Mazurkewicz (17941896) was the last
female veteran. She was an assistant surgeon
in Napoleons army and later participated in the
Crimean War.
Pvt Morris Shea (17951892) of the 73rd Foot
was the last British veteran.[105]
Pictures of French veterans in uniform

15

In ction

Leo Tolstoy's epic novel, War and Peace recounts

Napoleons wars between 1805 and 1812 (especially
the disastrous 1812 invasion of Russia and subsequent retreat) from a Russian perspective.
Stendhal's novel The Charterhouse of Parma opens
with a ground-level recounting of the Battle of Waterloo and the subsequent chaotic retreat of French
forces.
Les Misrables by Victor Hugo takes place against
the backdrop of the Napoleonic War and subsequent
decades, and in its unabridged form contains an epic
telling of the Battle of Waterloo.

Adieu is a novella by Honor de Balzac in which

can be found a short description of the French retreat from Russia, particularly the battle of Berezina,
where the ctional couple of the story are tragically
separated. Years later after imprisonment, the husband returns to nd his wife still in a state of utter
shock and amnesia. He has the battle and their separation reenacted, hoping the memory will heal her
state.
William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair
takes place during the Napoleonic Warsone of its
protagonists dies at the Battle of Waterloo.
The Duel, a short story by Joseph Conrad, recounts
the story based on true events of two French Hussar
ocers who carry a long grudge and ght in duels
each time they meet during the Napoleonic wars.
The short story was adapted by director Ridley Scott
into the 1977 Cannes Film Festival's Best First
Work award winning lm The Duellists.
Le Colonel Chabert by Honor de Balzac. After
being severely wounded during the battle of Eylau
(1807), Chabert, a famous colonel of the cuirassiers,
was erroneously recorded as dead and buried unconscious with French casualties. After extricating
himself from his own grave and being nursed back
to health by local peasants, it takes several years
for him to recover. When he returns in the Paris
of the Bourbon Restoration, he discovers that his
widow, a former prostitute that Chabert made rich
and honourable, has married the wealthy Count Ferraud. She has also liquidated all of Chaberts belongings and pretends to not recognize her rst husband. Seeking to regain his name and monies that
were wrongly given away as inheritance, he hires
Derville, an attorney, to win back his money and his
honor.
A poem Borodino by Mikhail Lermontov describes
the Battle of Borodino from the perspective of poets
uncle, a Russian ocer.
The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas,
pre starts during the tail-end of the Napoleonic
Wars. The main character, Edmond Dants, suers
imprisonment following false accusations of Bonapartist leanings.
The novelist Jane Austen lived much of her life during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,
and two of her brothers served in the Royal Navy.
Austen almost never refers to specic dates or historical events in her novels, but wartime England forms
part of the general backdrop to several of them: in
Pride and Prejudice (1813, but possibly written during the 1790s), the local militia (civilian volunteers)
has been called up for home defence and its ocers play an important role in the plot; in Manseld

18

15 IN FICTION
Park (1814), Fanny Prices brother William is a
midshipman (ocer in training) in the Royal Navy;
and in Persuasion (1818), Frederic Wentworth and
several other characters are naval ocers recently
returned from service.

Charlotte Bront's novel Shirley (1849), set during

the Napoleonic Wars, explores some of the economic eects of war on rural Yorkshire.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard serves
as a French soldier during the Napoleonic Wars
Fyodor Dostoevsky's book The Idiot had a character,
General Ivolgin, who witnessed and recounted his
relationship with Napoleon during the Campaign of
Russia.
The Hornblower books by C.S. Forester follow
the naval career of Horatio Hornblower during the
Napoleonic Wars.
The AubreyMaturin series of novels is a sequence
of 20 historical novels by Patrick O'Brian portraying
the rise of Jack Aubrey from Lieutenant to Rear Admiral during the Napoleonic Wars. The lm Master
and Commander: The Far Side of the World starring
Russell Crowe and directed by Peter Weir is based
on this series of books.

Julian Stockwin's Thomas Kydd series portrays one

mans journey from pressed man to Admiral in the
time of the French and Napoleonic Wars
Simon Scarrow Napoleonic series. Rise of
Napoleon and Wellington from humble beginnings
to historys most remarkable and notable leaders. 4
books in the series.
The Lord Ramage series by Dudley Pope takes place
during the Napoleonic Wars.
Jeanette Winterson's 1987 novel The Passion (book)
Georgette Heyer's 1937 novel An Infamous Army
recounts the fortunes of a family in the run up to,
and during the course of, the Battle of Waterloo.
Heyers novel is noted for its meticulous research on
the progress of the battle, combining her noted period romance writing with her detailed research into
regency history.
The Battle (French: La Bataille) is a historical novel
by the French author Patrick Rambaud that was rst
published in 1997 and again in English in 2000. The
book describes the 1809 Battle of Aspern-Essling
between the French Empire under Napoleon and
the Austrian Empire. The novel was awarded the
Prix Goncourt and the Grand Prix du roman de
l'Acadmie franaise for 1997.

The Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell star the character Richard Sharpe, a soldier in the British Army, Science ction and fantasy
who ghts throughout the Napoleonic Wars.
The Bloody Jack book series by Louis A. Meyer is
set during the Second Coalition of the Napoleonic
Wars, and retells many famous battles of the age.
The heroine, Jacky, soon meets none other than
Bonaparte himself.
The Napoleonic Wars provide the backdrop for The
Emperor, The Victory, The Regency and The Campaigners, Volumes 11, 12, 13 and 14 respectively of
The Morland Dynasty, a series of historical novels
by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles.
The Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent novels portray this period of history from a naval perspective.

Bryan Talbot's graphic novel Grandville is set in

an alternate history in which France won the
Napoleonic War, invaded Britain and guillotined the
British Royal Family.
The Temeraire series by Naomi Novik takes place in
alternate-universe Napoleonic Wars where dragons
exist and serve in combat.
Susanna Clarke's historical fantasy novel, Jonathan
Strange & Mr. Norrell, takes place during the
Napoleonic Wars. Much of the plot is driven by
Mr. Norrells successful campaign to convince the
British government that magic can be employed to
prosecute the Peninsular War.

Dinah Dean's series of historical novels are set Video games

against the background of the Napoleonic Wars and
are told from a Russian perspective The Road
Napoleon: Total War is a strategy game focusing
to Kaluga, Flight From the Eagle, The Eagles
on the Napoleonic Wars, allowing the player to ght
Fate, The Wheel of Fortune, The Green Galreal-time battles.
lant follow a small group of soldiers (and their
Age of Empires III: The Napoleonic Era is an unrelatives) over months of campaigning from the fall
ocial modication of the history-based real time
of Moscow up to the liberation of Paris, the last 3
strategy game for PC by Ensemble Studios, Age of
books The Ice King, Tatyas Story, The River
Empires III, that focuses on the Napoleonic Wars.
of Time fall some years later but have the same
The game peaks in 1815 which marks the end of
cast of characters.

19
the Napoleonic Era and Wars which, according to
the creators, are the inuential military events during the time period of the original Age of Empires
III which focuses on the colonization of America.

16

See also

British Army during the Napoleonic Wars

Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars
Imperial and Royal Army during the Napoleonic
Wars
Royal Prussian Army of the Napoleonic Wars
List of Napoleonic battles
Battle of Waterloo
Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte
Uniforms of La Grande Arme

17

Notes

18

Further reading

Bell, David A. The First Total War: Napoleons Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (2008)
excerpt and text search
Bruce, Robert B. et al. Fighting Techniques of the
Napoleonic Age 17921815: Equipment, Combat
Skills, and Tactics (2008) excerpt and text search
Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon
(1973) 1172 pp; a detailed guide to all major battles excerpt and text search
Chandler, David G., ed. Napoleons Marshals
(1987) short scholarly biographies
Dupuy, Trevor N. and Dupuy, R. Ernest. The Encyclopedia of Military History (2nd ed. 1970) pp
730770
Dwyer, Philip. Napoleon: The Path to Power (2008)
excerpt vol 1; Citizen Emperor: Napoleon in Power
(2013) excerpt and text search v 2; most recent
scholarly biography
Elting, John R. Swords Around a Throne:
Napoleons Grand Armee (1988).
Esdaile, Charles. Napoleons Wars: An International
History 1803-1815 (2008), 621pp
Forrest, Alan I. Napoleons Men: The Soldiers of the
Empire Revolution and Empire (2002).

Forrest, Alan. Conscripts and Deserters: The Army

and French Society during Revolution and the Empire
(1989) excerpt and text search
Gates, David. The Napoleonic Wars 1803-1815
(NY: Random House, 2011)
Grith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary
France, 17891802 (1998) excerpt and text search
Hall, Christopher D. British Strategy in the
Napoleonic War, 180315 (1992)
Harvey, Robert (2013). The War of Wars. Constable & Robinson. p. 328., well-written popular
survey of these wars
Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Napoleons Military Machine (1995) excerpt and text search
Hazen, Charles Downer. The French Revolution and
Napoleon (1917) online free
Kagan, Frederick W. The End of the Old Order:
Napoleon and Europe, 1801-1805 (2007)
McLynn, Frank. Napoleon: A Biography (1997)
Parker, Harold T. Why Did Napoleon Invade Russia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations of
Personality and Social Structure, Journal of Military History (1990) 54#2 pp 13146 in JSTOR.
Pope, Stephen (1999). The Cassel Dictionary of the
Napoleonic Wars. Cassel. ISBN 0-304-35229-2.
Rapport, Mike. The Napoleonic Wars: A Very Short
Introduction (Oxford UP, 2013)
Riley, Jonathon P. Napoleon as a General (Hambledon Press, 2007)
Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life (2014) Major
new biography by a leading British Historian
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1988). The Origins,
Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French
Revolution and Napoleon. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 (4): 771793. JSTOR 204824
Rothenberg, E. Gunther. The Art of Warfare in the
Age of Napoleon (1977)
Schneid, Frederick C. (2011). The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Mainz: Institute of
European History.
Schneid, Frederick C. Napoleons Conquest of Europe: The War of the Third Coalition (2005) excerpt
and text search
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 17631848 (1994) 920pp; online; advanced analysis of diplomacy
Smith, Digby George. The Greenhill Napoleonic
Wars Data Book: Actions and Losses in Personnel,
Colours, Standards and Artillery (1998)

20

18.1

19

British, Austrian & Russian roles

Bryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 17931802

(1942); and Years of Victory, 18021812 (1944)
well-written surveys of the British story
Christie, Ian R. Wars and Revolutions Britain, 1760
1815 (1982)
Ehrman, John. The Younger Pitt: The Consuming
Struggle (Volume 3) (1996)
Esdaile, Charles. Napoleons Wars: An International
History, 18031815 (2008); 645pp excerpt and text
search a standard scholarly history
Glover, Richard. Peninsular Preparation: The Reform of the British Army 17951809 (1963) excerpt
and text search
Godechot, Jacques; Batrice Fry Hyslop; David
Lloyd Dowd et al. (1971). The Napoleonic era in
Europe. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

REFERENCES

Hyatt, Albert M.J. The Origins of Napoleonic Warfare: A Survey of Interpretations. Military Aairs
(1966) 30#4 pp 177185.
Messenger, Charles, ed. (2013). Readers Guide to
Military History. Routledge. pp. 391427.; evaluation of the major books
Lieven, D. C. Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon
(181214). Kritika: Explorations in Russian and
Eurasian History (2006) 7#2 pp 283308.
Messenger, Charles, ed. (2001). Readers Guide to
Military History. Routledge. pp. 391427. evaluation of the major books on Napoleon and his wars
published by 2001.
Mikaberidze, Alexander. Recent Trends in the
Russian Historiography of the Napoleonic Wars,
Journal of Military History (2010) 74#1 pp 189
194.

Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Wellingtons Military Machine, 17921815 (1989)

Ross, Steven T. The A to Z of the Wars of the French

Revolution (Rowman & Littleeld, 2010); 1st edition was Historical dictionary of the wars of the
French Revolution (Scarecrow Press, 1998)

Haythornthwaite, Philip J. The Russian Army of the

Napoleonic Wars (1987) vol 1: Infantry 17991814;
vol 2: Cavalry, 17991814

Schneid, Frederick C. Napoleonic Wars: The Essential Bibliography (2012) excerpt and text search 121
pp. online review in H-FRANCE

Lavery, Brian. Nelsons Navy, Revised and Updated: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793
1815 (2nd ed. 2012)
Lieven, D. C. Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon
(181214), Kritika: Explorations in Russian and
Eurasian History (2006) 7#2 pp 283308.
Muir, Rory. Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon:
18071815 (1996)
Muir, Rory. Wellington: The Path to Victory 1769
1814 (2013) vol 1 of two-volume scholarly biography excerpt and text search
Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History,
17891815: France Against Europe (1969)
Rothenberg, Gunther E. Napoleons Great Adversaries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army
17921814 (1982)

18.2

Historiography and memory

Esdaile, Charles. The Napoleonic Period: Some

Thoughts on Recent Historiography, European History Quarterly, (1993) 23: 41532 online
Forrest, Alan et al. eds. War Memories: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern European
Culture (2013)

18.3 Primary sources

Dwyer, Philip G. Public remembering, private
reminiscing: French military memoirs and the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, French Historical
Studies (2010) 33#2 pp. 231258 online
Kennedy, Catriona. Narratives of the Revolutionary
and Napoleonic Wars: Military and Civilian Experience in Britain and Ireland (Palgrave Macmillan,
2013)
Leighton, James. Witnessing the Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Wars in German Central Europe (2013),
diaries, letters and accounts by civilians Online review

19 References
[1] The term Austrian Empire came into use after Napoleon
crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, whereby
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor took the title Emperor
of Austria (Kaiser von sterreich) in response. The Holy
Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, and consequently
Emperor of Austria became Francis primary title. For
this reason, Austrian Empire is often used instead of
Holy Roman Empire for brevitys sake when speaking
of the Napoleonic Wars, even though the two entities are
not synonymous.

21

[2] Both Austria and Prussia briey became allies of France

and contributed forces to the French invasion of Russia in
1812.
[3] Russia became an ally of France following the Treaty
of Tilsit in 1807. The alliance broke down in 1810,
which led to the French invasion in 1812. During that
time Russia waged war against Sweden (18081809) and
the Ottoman Empire (18061812), and nominally against
Britain (18071812).
[4] Spain was an ally of France until a stealthy French invasion
in 1808, then fought France in the Peninsular War.
[5] Nominally, Sweden declared war against the United Kingdom after its defeat by Russia in the Finnish War (1808
1809).
[6] Sicily remained in personal union with Naples until Naples
became a French client-republic following the Battle of
Campo Tenese in 1806.
[7] The Ottoman Empire fought against Napoleon in the
French Campaign in Egypt and Syria as part of the French
Revolutionary Wars. During the Napoleonic era of 1803
to 1815, the Empire participated in two wars against
the Allies: against Britain in the Anglo-Turkish War
(18071809) and against Russia in the Russo-Turkish
War (18061812). However, Russia was allied with
Napoleon 18071810.
[8] Qajar dynasty fought against Russia from 1804 to 1813;
the Russians were allied with Napoleon 18071812.
[9] Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by the
Kingdom of Saxony in 1807. Polish Legions had already
been serving in the French armies beforehand.
[10] Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by the
Kingdom of Saxony in 1807. Polish Legions had already
been serving in the French armies beforehand.
[11] The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Holland in
1810. Dutch troops fought against Napoleon during the
Hundred Days in 1815.
[12] The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Etruria in
1807.
[13] The Kingdom of Naples, briey allied with Austria in
1814, allied with France again and fought against Austria
during the Neapolitan War in 1815.
[14] Sixteen of Frances allies among the German states
(including Bavaria and Wrttemberg) established the
Confederation of the Rhine in July 1806 following the
Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805). Following the
Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (October 1806), various other
German states that had previously fought alongside the
anti-French allies, including Saxony and Westphalia, also
allied with France and joined the Confederation. Saxony
changed sides again in 1813 during the Battle of Leipzig,
causing most other member-states to quickly follow suit
and declare war on France.
[15] These four states were the leading nations of the Confederation,but the Confederation was made up of a total of
43 principalities, kingdoms, and duchies.

[16] Denmark-Norway remained neutral until the Battle of

Copenhagen (1807). Denmark was compelled to cede
Norway to Sweden by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. Following a brief Swedish campaign against Norway, Norway
entered a personal union with Sweden.
[17] Was a commander for the French Empire, as Marshal
Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, 18041810.
[18] Joseph Bonaparte ruled as Joseph I of Naples and Sicily
from 30 March 1806 to 6 June 1808, and of Spain from
8 June 1808 to 11 December 1813. He also served as a
French commander before and after these two reigns.
[19] His losses came at Siege of Acre (1799), Battle of AspernEssling (1809), Battle of Leipzig (1813), Battle of La
Rothire (1814), Battle of Laon (1814), Battle of Arcissur-Aube (1814), and Battle of Waterloo (1815). Andrew
Roberts, Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,'" BBC
History Magazine (1 November 2014)
[20] Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire, The rise and demise of
the British world order and the lessons for global power.
Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02328-2.
[21] Frank McLynn, Napoleon (1998). p 215.
[22] Spencer C. Tucker (2012). The Encyclopedia of the War
Of 1812. ABC-CLIO. p. 499.
[23] Arthur H. Bunton, The Second Hundred Years War,
16891815 (1929). See also: Francois Crouzet, The
Second Hundred Years War: Some Reections. French
History 10 (1996), pp. 432450. and H. M. Scott, Review: The Second 'Hundred Years War' 16891815. The
Historical Journal 35 (1992), pp. 443469.
[24] France - Les guerres de la Rvolution et de l'Empire.
Herodote.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
[25] Chandler, David (1966). The Campaigns of Napoleon.
The Mind and Method of Historys Greatest Soldier. New
York: Macmillan.
[26] Sutherland, Donald M. G. (2008). The French Revolution
and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order. Wiley. p. 356.
[27] McConachy, Bruce (2001). The Roots of Artillery
Doctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered.
Journal of Military History 65 (3): 617640. JSTOR
2677528. McConachy rejects the alternative theory that
growing reliance on artillery by the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality of
the French infantry and, later, Frances inferiority in cavalry numbers.
[28] Annual Register... for the Year 1803 (1805)
[29] Mahan, A.T. The inuence of sea power on the French
Revolution and Empire Vol. II (1892) pp. 106-107
[30] Andrew Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014) p 316
[31] Frederick Kagan, The End of the Old Order: Napoleon
and Europe, 1801-1805 (2007) pp 42-43
[32] Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014) p 309

22

19

REFERENCES

[33] John D. Grainger, Amiens Truce: Britain & Bonaparte,

1801-1803 (2004) has a well-balanced analysis of both
sides

[54] Frederick Kagan (2007). The End of the Old Order:

Napoleon and Europe, 18011805. Da Capo Press. pp.
141.

[34] Arthur Bryant, Years of victory: 1802-1812 (1944), pp 152, although older, is a well-regarded interpretation from
the British perspective

[55] Invasion of Britain National Maritime Museum.

Nmm.ac.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2011.

[35] Kagan, The End of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe,
1801-1805 (2007) pp 1-50 stresses Napoleons initiatives.
[36] Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European politics
1763-1848 (1994) pp 231-45 is highly analytical and hostile to Napoleon
[37] Jean Tulard, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (1984) p
351.
[38] Colin S. Gray (2007). War, Peace and International Relations: An Introduction to Strategic History. Routledge. p.
47.
[39] Robin Neillands (2003). Wellington & Napoleon: Clash
of Arms. Pen and Sword. p. 22.
[40] Alistair Horne in Robert Cowley, ed. (2000). What
If?: The Worlds Foremost Historians Imagine What Might
Have Been. Penguin. p. 161.
[41] Steve Chan (2013). Looking for Balance: China, the
United States, and Power Balancing in East Asia. Stanford
UP. p. 55.
[42] Martin Malia (2008). Historys Locomotives: Revolutions
and the Making of the Modern World. Yale UP. p. 205.
[43] Annual Register... for the Year 1806) (1808) pp. 172-186
[44] Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics
17631848 (1994) pp 30710
[45] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers
economic change and military conict from 1500 to 2000
(1989), pp. 1289

[56] O'Mearas account of Napoleon on the invasion of the

England. Napoleon.org. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
[57] Esdaille, Napoleons Wars, pp 252-53
[58] A. N. Ryan, The Causes of the British Attack upon
Copenhagen in 1807. English Historical Review (1953):
37-55. in JSTOR
[59] Thomas Munch-Petersen, Defying Napoleon: How Britain
Bombarded Copenhagen and Seized the Danish Fleet in
1807 (2007)
[60] Otto Pivka (2012). Napoleons Polish Troops. Osprey
Publishing. pp. 810.
[61] J. P. Riley, Napoleon and the World War of 1813: Lessons
in Coalition Warghting (2000) pp 278.
[62] Alexander Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (2003) pp 17687
[63] J. M. Thompson, Napoleon Bonaparte: His rise and fall
(1951) pp 235-40
[64] Gregory Fremont-Barnes, The Napoleonic Wars (3): The
Peninsular War 1807-1814 (2014)
[65] David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (1986)
[66] John Lawrence Tone, Partisan Warfare in Spain and
Total War, in Roger Chickering and Stig Frster, eds.
(2010). War in an Age of Revolution, 17751815. Cambridge UP. p. 243.
[67] Jeremy Black, The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon
(2009)

[46] John M. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder British Foreign

Aid in the War with France, 17931815 (1969)

[68] Alan Palmer, Alexander I: Tsar of War and Peace (1974)

[47] Alan Palmer, Alexander I (1974) p 86

[69] Charles Esdaile, Napoleons Wars: An International History, 18031815 (2007) p 438

[48] Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 17831867:

The Age of Improvement (1959) p 143

[70] Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics:

1763 1848 (1994) p 419

[49] lie Halvy, A History of the English People in 1815

(1924) vol 2 p 20528

[71] Richard K. Riehn, 1812: Napoleons Russian campaign

(1990)

[50] Roger Knight, Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisation of Victory, 17931815 (2013)

[72] Riehn, 1812, pp. 138140

[51] J. Steven Watson, The Reign of George III 17601815

(1960), 374-77, 406-7, 463-71,
[52] Auguste Mayers picture as described by the ocial website of the Muse national de la Marine (in French)".
Musee-marine.fr. Retrieved 21 May 2011.
[53] Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 17631848 (1994) pp 23186

[73] Reihn, 1812, p.185

[74] Philip Haythornthwaite, Borodino 1812; Napoleons great
gamble (2012).
[75] Reihn, 1812, pp. 253254
[76] With Napoleon in Russia, The Memoirs of General
Coulaincourt, Chapter VI 'The Fire' pp. 109107 Pub.
William Morrow and Co 1945

23

[77] The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia, page 17, Hertfordshire 1993

[98] Georey Wawro (2002). Warfare and Society in Europe,

17921914. Routledge. p. 9.

[78] Philip Dwyer, Citizen Emperor:

(2013), pp 431-74

[99] R. R. Palmer (1941). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the

Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton UP. pp. 81
83.

Napoleon in Power

[79] Michael Glover, Wellingtons Peninsular Victories:

[100] Donald Stoker et al. (2008). Conscription in the
Busaco, Salamanca, Vitoria, Nivelle (1963).
Napoleonic Era: A Revolution in Military Aairs?. Rout[80] Peter Hofschroer, Leipzig 1813: The Battle of the Nations
ledge. pp. 24, 3132, 38.
(1993)Him him him
[101] Bell, The First Total War (2008) pp 713
[81] Philip Dwyer, Citizen Emperor: Napoleon In Power
[102] Many historians say it was not the rst total war;
(2013) pp 464-98
for a critique of Bell see Frederick C. Schneid (2012).
Napoleonic Wars. Potomac Books. p. 1802.
[82] Peter Hofschroer, The Waterloo Campaign: Wellington,
His German Allies and the Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras
[103] Robert Harvey (2013). The War of Wars. Constable &
(2006)
Robinson. p. 328.
[83] Jacques Godechot, et al. The Napoleonic era in Europe
[104] Derniers vtrans de l'Arme napolonienne, Premier
(1971)
Empire. Derniersveterans.free.fr. Retrieved 15 January
2009.
[84] Benjamin Keen and Keith Haynes, A History of Latin
America (2012) ch 8
[105] Photos of Napoleonic War Veterans in Wars in History
Channel. Boards.historychannel.com. 31 May 2008.
[85] Drew Keeling, The Transportation Revolution and
Retrieved 15 January 2009.
Transatlantic Migration, Research in Economic History
19 (1999), p. 39.
[106] James R. Arnold: Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809
Campaign for Vienna, ABC-Clio, 2003
[86] Franklin D. Scott, The Peopling of America: Perspectives
of Immigration (1984), p. 24. Marcus Hansen, The At[107] The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army (Kaiserlichelantic Migration (1940), pp. 79-106, termed this a new
Knigliche Heer) 1805 1809: The Hungarian Royal
beginning for American immigration. For further backArmy
ground context, see North Atlantic, 1815-19. Migration
as a travel business. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
[108] Todd Fisher: The Napoleonic Wars: The Empires Fight
Back 18081812, Oshray Publishing, 2001
[87] Drew Keeling, Transport Capacity Management and
Transatlantic Migration, 1900-1914. Research in Economic History 25 (2008), pp. 267-68.
[88] Maldwyn Jones, American Immigration (1992, 2nd ed.)
p. 79. Jones referred to this unprecedented migration as
one of the wonders of the age (p. 78).

20 External links

The Legend of Bonaparte

[89] Napoleons Total War. HistoryNet.com. Retrieved 18

November 2008.

The Napoleonic Wars Exhibition held by The European Library

[90] David A.Bell, The First Total War: Napoleons Europe and
the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (2007) p 7

15th Kings Light Dragoons (Hussars) Re-enactment

Regiment

[91] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic Change and Military Conict from 1500 to 2000
(1987) pp 99100
[92] Colin McEvedy and Richard M. Jones, Atlas of World
Population History (1978) pp 41222
[93] John France (2011). Perilous Glory: The Rise of Western
Military Power. Yale UP. p. 351.
[94] Chappell, p. 8
[95] Chandler & Beckett, p. 132
[96] Blcher, scourge of Napoleon, Leggiere
[97] Christopher David Hall (1992). British Strategy in the
Napoleonic War, 180315. Manchester U.P. p. 28.

2nd Bt. 95th Ries Reenactment and Living History

Society
The Napoleonic Wars Collection Website
Napoleon, His Army and Enemies
Napoleonic Guide
War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy
Napoleonic Wars

24

21

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