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USING COOPERATIVE
LEARNING TO IMPROVE
READING AND WRITING IN
MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM
SOLVING
K. Denise Muth

University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia, USA

Published online: 28 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: K. Denise Muth (1997) USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING

TO IMPROVE READING AND WRITING IN MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING,
Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 13:1, 71-82, DOI:
10.1080/1057356970130106
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1057356970130106

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USING COOPERATIVE LEARNING TO IMPROVE

READING AND WRITING IN MATHEMATICAL
PROBLEM SOLVING
K. Denise Muth
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
This article on using cooperative learning in mathematics is divided into four
sections. Section 1 deals with the importance of problem solving and how cooperative learning can play an important role in helping students solve problems. Section 2 emphasizes the importance of communicating mathematical
concepts through reading, writing, and discussing. Section 3 gives specific suggestions for implementing cooperative learning in the classroom. Finally, Section 4 presents a classroom example of students working together using reading
and writing to solve mathematical word problems.

A primary goal of mathematics instruction is for students to be able to

apply their knowledge of facts, concepts, formulas, and procedures effectively in problem-solving situations. This goal is usually operationalized in the classroom by having students solve a variety of problems
in a variety of learning situations. Because of the current national and
international emphasis on problem solving, this article focuses primarily on using cooperative learning to improve students' problem-solving
abilities. As Good, Mulryan, and McCaslin (1992) have pointed out
about using cooperative learning in mathematics classrooms, "Of the
various potential uses of small group instruction, we believe that perhaps its major strength is to help students develop problem solving
skills and dispositions" (p. 173). Cooperative learning can also be used
effectively in other areas of mathematics, such as improving students'
computational abilities. For further information on using cooperative
learning in areas of mathematics other than problem solving, the interested reader is referred to Johnson and Johnson (1989), and Good,
Reys, Grouws, and Mulryan (1989-1990).
The remainder of this article is divided into four sections. In the first
section, the importance of problem solving and the role that cooperative learning can play in problem solving are discussed. In the second
section, the significance of communication in mathematics is presented, with a focus on the role of reading, writing, and discussing. In
the third section, specific suggestions are provided for implementing
cooperative learning into problem-solving sessions in the classroom. In
the final section, a classroom example of students using reading and
Address correspondence to K. Denise Muth, Department of Elementary Education,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 13:71-82,1997
Copyright 1997 Taylor & Francis
1057-3569/97 $12.00 + .00

71

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K. D. MUTH

writing in small cooperative groups to improve problem solving is presented and discussed.

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IMPORTANCE OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Results of the Second International Assessment of Educational

Progress (Kantrowski & Wingert, 1992) reveal not only that the problem-solving scores of American students have declined in the past 4
years, but also that their scores now rank them 13th among students
from 15 countries. Only students in Ireland and Jordan scored lower
than American students. This finding is especially disturbing in light
of former President Bush's goal to have American students leading the
world in mathematics by the year 2000.
As a result of similar findings throughout the 1980s (e.g., Kouba, et
al., 1988), the authors of the new curriculum standards for mathematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989) have called for
increased attention to problem solving and communication in mathematics classrooms. In particular, the new problem-solving standards
emphasize that students should be involved in "investigating and formulating questions from problem situations" (p. 70); the accompanying
standard for communication asserts that students should be "discussing, writing, reading, and listening to mathematical ideas" (p. 70).
Cooperative learning, with its focus on group communication, is an
ideal mechanism for incorporating these two standards into the classroom. Cooperative learning provides students with opportunities to
conceive, write, discuss, and explain problems, particularly problems
that they design based on their own interests and on the situations
they encounter in their everyday lives. This process necessitates a
strong focus on communication among teachers and students, but particularly among the students themselves (Slavin, 1994; Stevens &
Slavin, 1995).
COMMUNICATION IN MATHEMATICS

The communication processes of reading, writing, speaking, and listening are important for achievement in any content area. Students in
cooperative learning groups have ample opportunities to engage in
these behaviors during mathematical problem solving.
The Role of Reading

There is mounting evidence that students' difficulty with word problems stems more from their lack of comprehension skills than from

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MATH PROBLEM SOLVING

73

their lack of computational skills (Muth, 1991). Current research is

beginning to explore the exact role that reading comprehension ability
plays in problem solving and the ways in which comprehension ability
and problem solving interact (Glynn & Muth, 1995; Muth, 1992). Unfortunately, recent research has suggested that "instruction rarely
deals with how to comprehend the sentences in a problem" (Mayer,
1987, p. 112). Cooperative learning, with its stress on group communication and common goals, provides students with excellent opportunities to learn from each other and to witness how students other than
themselves go about reading and interpreting problems.
The Role of Writing

Zinsser (1988) has described writing in mathematics as "writing,

thinking, and learning . . . merged into one process" (p. 116). When
students engage in the writing of their own problems, particularly in
cooperative learning situations, they become active participants in
their own learning. They are forced to clarify their own thinking, to
reflect on the strategies they use, and to learn whether and when
various strategies are appropriate and useful. Additionally, general
writing skills are developed as students become responsible for selecting topics for their problems from their own personal experiences and
for considering the nature of their audience as they write their problems.
Having students write their own word problems, especially in a
collaborative manner with their peers, also allows them to move beyond some of the misconceptions they have about mathematics. For
example, when problem solving is taught in the traditional manner of
students solving textbook problems or problems generated by their
teacher, students quickly come to believe that "mathematics is just a
collection of right answers to questions posed by someone else" (Countryman, 1992, p. 11). Nothing could be farther from what practitioners
in the mathematics community want students to think about mathematics.
Observations of students writing their own problems indicate that
students move beyond the types of problems they would encounter in
textbooks by writing multistep problems, problems containing extraneous information, problems about new concepts, and problems that
they sometimes do not have the knowledge to solve (Winograd, 1992).
As Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1988) have pointed out, textbook problems are "generally encoded in a syntax and diction that is common
only to other math problems" (p. 10), and thus do not represent what
they refer to as "authentic activity." That is, success at solving these

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K. D. MUTH

types of problems may lead to success in school mathematics but not

necessarily to success in problem-solving situations outside of school.
Having students write problems in cooperative learning situations, on
the other hand, allows teachers to capitalize on the diverse backgrounds and cultures that students bring to the classroom and can
apply to the creation of original problems.

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The Role of Listening and Speaking

Historically, mathematics teachers have viewed discussions in a positive light only if they have led to correct answers (Muth & Alvermann,
1992). More current thinking, however, is that discussions are valuable in their own right, regardless of whether they lead to correct
answers, because they engage students in elaborated explanations of
word problems, particularly those written in cooperative learning situations. This belief is based on a social constructivist theory of learning (Bauersfeld, 1992; Gergen, 1992), which holds that one would expect students' success in thinking about and solving problems to be
influenced by discussions in which ideas are shared, challenged, and
justified. There is empirical evidence that small-group discussion is
one mechanism by which students are able to deal with the complexities involved in problem solving. For example, an extensive body of
research (Noddings, 1985; Peterson & Swing, 1985; Webb, 1984, 1985,
1991) supports the notion that verbal interaction among students, particularly if it involves elaborated explanations, is positively related to
mathematics achievement. Cooperative learning situations allow students to participate in exactly these types of discussions.
In summary, when used during problem-solving situations, cooperative learning encourages students to collaborate with others rather
than compete against them; students learn to work together toward
common goals. Cooperative learning also puts students in situations
where they learn that reading, writing, listening, and speaking in a
cooperative manner are all important components of successful problem solving. Additionally, students learn mathematical language from
each other and are also able to learn, firsthand, the various problemsolving strategies that their peers use. Equally important, students
learn that there are usually several different ways to solve a problem.
Finally, cooperative learning builds leadership, decision-making, and
conflict management skills, and ideally, positive attitudes toward
mathematics.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION

Johnson and Johnson (1989), Fitzgerald and Bouck (1993) and Good, et
al. (1989-1990) have provided excellent ideas for implementing coop-

MATH PROBLEM SOLVING

75

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erative learning in mathematics classrooms. The suggestions given

here are drawn from their ideas:
1. Prepare students by slowly teaching them the interpersonal skills
necessary to work cooperatively. For example, students need practice taking turns, listening to each other, and providing constructive
feedback. These skills can be developed and fostered in a variety of
ways, such as during whole-class discussions of word problems that
were solved individually or in small groups.
2. Start with students working cooperatively in pairs before moving to
small groups. Work up to small groups of about four heterogeneously grouped students.
3. Arrange the classroom in a way that promotes communication
among the members of the groups. An ideal arrangement is chairs
grouped around tables large enough for four students to work with
manipulatives or text-based problems. Students should be able to
share materials easily and have eye contact with each member of
their groups.
4. Assign roles (e.g., leader, recorder, materials manager) only if the
roles are meaningful and necessary. Allow the students in the
groups to determine when roles are necessary and when they are
not, and to assign their own roles within their groups.
5. Explain all tasks clearly and allow time for questions. Make sure
each group knows exactly what the task is and what, if any, product
(e.g., as many solutions to a problem as possible, a list of at least
four strategies used in the group to solve a problem) they should
have when the task is completed. Let students know exactly how
long they will have to complete a task (e.g., 40 min, 2 days).
6. Use mathematics problems that encourage cooperative efforts
among students. Problems that are so easy that all students can
routinely do them on their own and problems that are so difficult
that only one student can solve them promote individual rather
cooperative efforts.
7. Let students know that, in addition to working cooperatively with
other group members, they are also individually accountable for the
task (e.g., they may be called on to explain their group's problemsolving strategies to the class; they will be tested over the material
at the end of the unit). Holding all students individually accountable increases the likelihood that they will participate in the cooperative learning process.
8. Monitor all groups as they work. Encourage cooperation. Make sure
all students are involved and no one person is dominating a group.
Intervene when necessary.

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9. At the end of each task, provide specific feedback not only about how
each group completed the task but also about how well each group
worked together.

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In addition to the suggestions above, Davidson (1990) has provided the

following guidelines for students for fostering cooperation during
group problem solving. Some teachers display these guidelines prominently in their classrooms so that they, and the students, can refer to
them when necessary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Work together in groups of four.

Cooperate with other group members.
Achieve a group solution for each problem.
Make sure that everyone understands the solution before the group
goes on.
Listen carefully to others and try, whenever possible, to build on
their ideas.
Share the leadership of the group.
Make sure that everyone participates and no one dominates.
Take turns writing the problem solutions on the board.
Proceed at a pace that is comfortable for your own group, (p 56)

CLASSROOM ILLUSTRATION

As mentioned previously, in mathematics, many teachers frequently

use small, cooperative learning groups in which each student has a
specific role. Roles frequently used include session manager, materials
manager, encourager, and recorder. The session manager is responsible for making sure the work assigned at each cooperative learning
session gets done. For example, the student who is appointed session
manager keeps track of time so that the group finishes the task in the
time allotted. The materials manager collects, from around the classroom, any materials that may help the group complete their task. The
materials manager also makes sure all materials get put back in their
correct place. The encourager keeps the group on task by doing things
such as making sure everyone in the group participates and has an
opportunity to voice his or her opinion. The recorder has the job of
writing down, and later verifying with the other group members, exactly what the group has done. For example, the recorder must write
information such as decisions the group makes and how it makes them,
strategies it uses and why it uses them, and mistakes it makes and
how it corrects them. Most teachers allow the students in the groups to
decide on the roles for their group members, but teachers should have

MATH PROBLEM SOLVING

77

some mechanism to ensure that the same students don't always get the
same roles.
Let's take a look at how a cooperative learning group of four students, each with one of the roles described above, goes about solving
the following problem:

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Shawn hires Jake and his assistant Tim to paint his house for $675.
Because Jake is the boss, he gets 4 times as much as Tim. How much
does each one get?
Jim (session manager): OK. We've got 5 minutes to solve this problem,
so let's talk strategy. What should we do first?
Anita (recorder): I don't really understand it. I think we should all read
it a couple times and decide what to do. I mean, I haven't got a clue
what to do.
Jim: OK.
(students read, some silently, some mumbling softly)
Jim: O.K. Any ideas?
Doreen (encourager): Well, it's really pretty much like that problem we
tried yesterday in class all together, where we drew a box and then
filled in what we knew. I say we at least start off like that.
Pete (materials manager): I don't think we really need any material
except paper and pencil, so let's get going. I'll draw the box.
Jim: What do we know? That's what we should do first. We should
reread the whole problem very carefully and fill in everything we
know. We do know that together they make $675. Let's fill that in.
Pete: (fills in $675 in the box)
Doreen: All right, what else do we know that's important?
Anita: We know Jake makes 4 times as much as Tim.
Doreen: Right, and how do we write that?
Anita: Well, so we could say 4J = T.
Jim: I don't think that's right. If we take what Jake makes and times
it by 4, then Tim's gonna end up making a lot more than Jake, and
Jake's supposed to be making more than Tim.
Anita: I don't get it. Why would Tim make more?
Pete: Well, look. Let's say Jim makes $4.00 an hour, Anita. If we do
what you say, then 4J = T would be 4 x 4 = 16. So, Tim would be
making $16 an hour and Jake would only be making $4 an hour.
Look back at the problem. It says Jake's rate is 4 times Tim's rate.
So, Jake has to be making more than Tim, not less. If you put down
4J = T, then Tim is making 4 times Jake.
Anita: I get it when I read the problem, but I can't figure out how to
write an equation for it. I mean, I know Jake's supposed to be making more, but I can't write it down that way.

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K. D. MUTH

Doreen: Yes you can; just write it down exactly like you just said it.
Jake is making 4 times Tim. Jake equals 4 times Tim. J = 4T.
Anita: Sounds easy when you do it but I'm still not sure I get it. Give me
another one to try.
Jim: OK. Try this one. Fred has 2 fewer apples . . .
Pete: Wait, we're supposed to be solving this problem, not practicing
other ones.
Jim: But this is important. Anita doesn't get it, and we're trying to help
her. I'm the session manager and I think we have plenty of time to
help Anita and finish the problem.
Pete: OK. But just for a minute.
Jim: Try this one, Anita. Fred has 2 fewer apples than Mike.
Anita: OK. Give a couple seconds to think. Let's see. Fred has to have
less than Mike. So, we have to subtract from Mike. OK, I've got it. F
= M - 2. Is that right?
Doreen: What do you think? Do you think it's right?
Anita: Yeah, 'cause if we take 2 away from Mike, we get what Fred has,
and that's the problem Jim gave me.
Doreen: Right! See, I told you that you could do it. Want to try one
more?
Anita: Yes, give me a hard one!
Pete: I'll give her one. Here goes: Joe can run a mile 45 seconds faster
than Rich.
Anita: Let's see. Rich runs slower than Joe, so you have to add 45 to
Joe's time to get Rich's time. So, J + 45 = R. But, couldn't you also
take 45 seconds away from Rich's time to get Joe's time? Wouldn't J
= R - 45 also be right?
Doreen: Yes! Remember yesterday, when Mrs. Canton showed us that?
Now you're getting it.
Jim: OK. I think she's getting it, so let's get back to the problem.
Anita: OK. So, in the box we can put T for Tim and 4T for Jake. See, I
got it!
Jake

4T

Tim

Jake & Tim

5T

$675

Pete: Now, we have to read carefully to see what else we know.

Anita: Nothing, really.
Pete: All right, what are our unknowns?
Jim: We don't know what Tim makes or what Jake makes. OK. We've
got our knowns and unknowns, so let's solve it.

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MATH PROBLEM SOLVING

79

Anita: Let me try, so I can see if I've really got it. Jake makes 4T and
Tim makes T, so together they make 4T + T, and that totals $675.
So, 5T = $675. And, if we divide both sides by 5, we get T = $135.
Doreen: So far, so good, I think.
Jim: OK. Here's where we have to be real careful. We have to go back
and see exactly what we were asked to find in the problem.
Pete: We have to find out how much each one made.
Doreen: Well, we know that Tim made $175. So, $675 minus $135
equals $540. So, Tim made $135 and Jake made $540.
Jim: I think we should have a way to check it.
Pete: Well, we should make sure that Jake is getting 4 times what Tim
is getting. So, let's see what 4 times $135 is.
Doreen (does the calculations): It's $540. So, it works both ways. Four
times $135 is $540, and together they add up to $675. So, we're
finished!
Anita: Wait, I want to read my recorder notes to you to see if there's
anything I forgot.
Jim: OK.
Anita: Here's what I wrote: "We started by reading the problem carefully a couple times and recording the knowns and unknowns in the
box. We had some trouble writing the equation, but we found that
when we read the problem carefully and substituted exactly as we
had read it, it worked. We tried a few sample problems before we
moved on. Once we had the box filled in we wrote an equation and
solved for the unknown. We almost stopped when we solved for the
unknown, but we decided to reread the problem and make sure we
had answered the question exactly as it was stated. We found that
we really needed two answers, so we calculated both of them. Then,
we checked our answers by putting them back into the problem and
making sure everything worked."
Jim: OK. So, the strategies we used were: read the problem carefully,
identify the knowns, identify the unknowns, write an equation, do
calculations, and check our work by rereading.
Doreen: Don't forget we also drew a picture; that's a strategy, and we
did draw a picture when we drew the box, and it helped us out.
Pete: And we tried numbers when we helped Anita understand how to
write the equation. I try numbers a lot when I'm stuck, and it helps
me out.
Jim: OK. We're finished. We've solved the problem, and we know we've
got the correct answer because we checked it; we also have Anita's
recorder notes and a list of the strategies we used.
Mrs. Canton: OK. I think just about all the groups are finished.
Anita, why don't you tell us what your group did and why they did

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it. Remember, I'm not interested in the answer. I'm interested in

how you went about deciding what to do and how your plans worked
out. I'm most interested in the strategies you used.
In this example, all students in this group were engaged in the
process of solving the problem. They were learning from each other.
They were reading, writing, listening, and speaking. By the end of the
5-minute session, all of the students understood the importance of
reading the problem carefully several times before attempting to solve
it. They also understood that it is often necessary to go back and reread
during problem solving, and especially at the end to check the accuracy
of the answer and to make sure the correct question has been answered.
If the students in this group were working on this problem as classwork that would be graded in some way, they would probably all receive the same grade. What teachers typically do is ask each group to
turn in one paper for the whole group. Some teachers ask each group
member to sign the paper as an indication that they agree with the way
the problem was solved. If a student disagrees with what his or her
group turns in, then that student can turn in his or her own work for
a grade. In this example, Jim, Doreen, Pete, and Anita would all get
the same grade.
Using the same problem as above, Mrs. Canton could engage her
students in additional writing by following up this activity with one in
which students worked in their cooperative groups to compose their
own problems based on equations she gave them or they wrote on their
own. For example, students working in cooperative groups to write
problems for the equation 3D + D = 96 might create the following
problem:
Michele is 3 times as old as Debbie and together they are 96 years old.
How old are they both?
PERSPECTIVE

Cooperative learning is an excellent means of improving reading and

writing in mathematics, particularly problem solving. In addition to
developing their interpersonal skills, students learn a variety of problem-solving strategies from each other. They get to see, firsthand, how
their peers go about solving problems. They learn that sometimes they
have to try several approaches and that answers aren't always the
most important part of problem solving. The ultimate goal of teachers
who use cooperative learning in mathematics, however, is to help their
students develop positive attitudes toward mathematics.

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