Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 3:
DESIGNING INSTRUCTION
CONTENTS
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
7:
8:
Introduction
Instructional Theories
Designing Instruction
E-Learning
Web Tools
Designing Self-Instructional Materials
Distance Education
Technology Integration
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Preamble
What is instructional design?
Instructional design models
The ADDIE model
o Analysis
o Design
o Development
o Implementation
o Evaluation
Dick and Carey model
o Goals
o Analysis
o Objectives
o Tests
o Strategy
o Materials
o Evaluation
What do instructional
designers do?
Key Terms
Summary
References
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
PREAMBLE
In this Chapter, we will discuss several definitions of instructional design examine the
key words in these definitions. Emphasis will be on some of the instructional design
models. Focus will be on two well-known models: the ADDIE model and the Dick
and Carey model. While there is similarity in the two models, there also recognisable
differences which will be highlighted in the chapter.
OO
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
If you were to examine the above definitions of instructional design you will notice
the following terminologies that are common to the statements listed:
systematic
design
development
instruction
improve learning
achieve objectives
evaluation
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
of the large variety of models available. Also, several of the models are based on a
weak theoretical foundation and some do not have a theoretical base.
In this Chapter we will discuss the following TWO popular Instructional Design
models:
ANALAYSIS
EVALUATION
DESIGN
DEVELOPMENT
IMPLEMENTATION
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
When used as an instructional systems model, theses processes are considered
to be sequential and also iterative. The five phases are ongoing activities that continue
throughout the life of an instructional programme. After designing an instructional
programme, the other phases do not end once the instructional programme is
implemented. The five phases work like a loop. They are continually repeated on a
regular basis to see if further improvements can be made.
Your have been given the task to design an 8 week course on
School Leadership and Management for a group of newly
appointed primary school headmasters. As an instructional designer,
you have selected to use the ADDIE model for this purpose. The
following are the phases you would go through to undertake the
task:
1) The ANALYSIS Phase
Let's take a look at the first phase in the ADDIE instructional design modelthe
analysis phase. Good educational or training programmes require planning and
analysis. Your first task would be to find answers to the following questions:
To answer the above questions, the Instructional Designer may have to:
Interview
Check Documents
There is a tendency to skip this phase of the instructional design process and
jump straight into the design and development phase. This is not advisable and could
have grave consequences. For example carpenters use the old adage, Measure twice;
cut once which can be translated to mean, Analyse Thoroughly, Design Once.
Skipping the Analyse phase can result in:
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Your task to produce an Instructional Design Document for the course. This
document is similar to an architect's blueprint. The document describes the course
structure and its instructional strategies but it does not contain content or subjectmatter to be taught, just like a blueprint is not a house. The actual course content and
learning materials will be created during the development phase.
The Instructional Design Document
The Instructional Design Document is an overview of the
entire instructional solution. It provides the following:
and
learning
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
You want learners to solve problems when presented with case studies or
scenarios.
Step-by-step
Part-to-whole
Whole-to-part
Known-to-unknown
General-to-specific
As you can see, there are many different ways to organise and present course material.
You have to choose the structure that makes the most sense for the learners and the
course content.
d) Selection of Media
Here you will decide what media would be appropriate when presenting the content to
learners. The following the some examples:
Powerpoint slides
Audio clips
Video clips
Computer simulation
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
e) Designing Assessments
At the end of the needs analysis phase, you have design assessment tools that
will measure the learners progress.
You should ensure that the course's assessments should measure a learner's
If you have a driver's license, you probably completed two types of tests
before you received your license. You completed a written test that measured
your understanding of street signs, laws, and procedures. You probably also
performed an on-the-road test where someone observed your driving skills. The
two tests measure different capabilities.
You could be very knowledgeable about traffic laws and procedures but a
poor driver behind the wheel. Similarly, you might be good at driving the car but
poor at recognizing street signs and safety procedures. You have to pass both
tests before you can obtain a driver's license.
progress towards each of the learning objectives. The types of assessment must fit the
learning objective.
The Instructional Design Document that has been discussed above serves as a
quality assurance checkpoint. It is much easier to adjust the design than
redevelopment later in the project. Based on the Document, you should make an
effort to:
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
Plan activities that allow for student group work to help construct a supportive
social environment.
The
course
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
for the entire course development process, while other people may be called in to
accomplish just a few specific tasks.
4) The IMPLEMENTATION Phase
There are plenty of issues to address during the ADDIE implementation phase.
It is important to make sure that the course gets delivered smoothly and effectively to
the learners. Of course, these delivery issues will substantially depend on the course's
delivery format. Generally, the implementation phase contains a lot of project
management and logistics issues.
Let us take a brief look at the training delivery issues for a company that wants
to offer instructor-led courses to 2,000 employees who work at sites across a country.
During the one-day course, learners will gather in classes (ranging between 10-15
learners). Each learner will need to receive a course workbook and have access to an
internet-ready computer. Some of the client's sites have classrooms with computers,
but many sites will need to go to offsite locations for training. The following are some
implementation issues that the delivery team will need to decide.
Schedule the courses, enrol learners, and reserve on-site and off-site
classrooms
Arrange for the printer to deliver course workbooks to the class site
Ensure all sites will have internet-ready computers and arrange for laptops to
be shipped when necessary
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
provides a final review checkpoint for the instructional programme developed. During
the evaluation phase, the designer measures how well the project achieved its goals.
Here are just some of the questions that might be explored during the evaluation
phase.
Several data collection techniques can be used to obtain information about the
programme or course designed: surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observations,
tests and so forth.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
What is the ADDIE model?
What do you do at the analysis phase?
What is the purpose of the instructional design document?
Describe what you do at the design phase.
List the types of expertise at needed at the development phase of the instructional design process.
Discuss some of the issues that may arise during the implementation phase.
Why is the evaluation phase necessary?
The ADDIE model is only meant to suggest the activities at each phase. It is a guide,
not a blue-print. Any given project will include some activities and not others, and
additional activities may be needed, depending on your project needs. The team
members at any given phase may also vary, depending on the scope of the project and
the skills and capabilities of your team members.
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
Walter Dick obtained his PhD from Penn State University in educational
psychology and presently professor at Penn State University. Lou Carey obtained her
PhD from Florida State University and studied with Robert Gagne' and Walter Dick,
and is presently with Arizona State University. Both Dick and Carey wrote the book
The Systematic Design of Instruction in 1978 in which they introduced the Dick and
Carey Instructional Design Model.
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
You begin by writing what you expect your learners will be able to do at the
end of your instruction. If you say, "The learner will know about weathering", this
only tells us what he or she knows, not what they are capable of doing. The goal
needs to state behaviours that you can observe and determine to have occurred.
Hence, you have to refine what you want learners to be able to do. If a learner
demonstrates a particular behaviour, can you be certain that is what you want and can
say definitely that learning has taken place the goal achieved.
Step 2 CONDUCT INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND IDENTIFY ENTRY
BEHAVIOURS
(a) Conduct Instructional Analysis
When you do an instructional analysis you identify all knowledge and
skills that you want learners to acquire and therefore should be
included in the instruction. You visually display the specific steps the
learner would go through in performing the instructional goal as well
as identify subordinate skills and entry behaviours.
(b) Identify Entry Behaviours
Find out as much as possible about your target audience or your
learners. The more you know about them the better! Among the things
you should attend to are:
Entry Behaviours
Academic Motivation
Group Characteristics
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
Step 3 WRITE PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
In this phase, you will go through each sub-skill box of your instructional
analysis diagram and write a clear and precise statement about what behaviour the
learner will exhibit, under what conditions, and on what criteria it will be judged
successful.
Here is an example. Given a shelf of clearly labelled standard chemicals
and apparatus in the laboratory, the learner will select the right chemicals and
appropriate apparatus and produc oxygen. Let's now ask the defining question,
"Would someone be able to determine if the learner has indeed performed this skill?"
The answer is clearly yes. These performance objectives are important statements
about what demonstrable behaviour the learner should be able to do to indicate that he
or she 'knows' it.
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
1. Pre-instructional activities
a. Motivation
b. Objectives
c. Entry Behaviours
2. Information Presentation
a. Instructional Sequence
b. Information
6
c. Examples
Step
3. Learner Participation
a. Practice
b. Feedback
4. Testing
a. Pretest
b. Posttest
5. Follow Through Activities
a. Remediation
b. Enrichment
c. Memorization and transfer
DEVELOP AND SELECT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Here, you finally get to develop the materials. Because your instructional material will
certainly be revised before final production, you should construct them on paper using
text, sketches, and storyboards. The development should include a student manual, the
instruction, tests, and an instructor's manual. Choices of multimedia should be made
upon the congruence between the skill and the media type. Practice and feedback
should be as close to the real world situation as possible.
For each lesson, consider the best technology or medium
To present the materials
To monitor practice and feedback
To evaluate
To guide students to the next activity whether it is
remediation, enrichment, or the next lesson
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
Conclusion
The Dick and Carey model has proven to be an effective in designing
instruction and is research based and empirically tested. Whether or not the instruction
is truly effective, interesting, and engaging, depends on the instructional designers
ability to put on the scientist's lab coat when analyzing the instructional goals, and
putting on the artist's smock when creating engaging and enjoyable ways to present
the information to the learner.
It does require a level of rigor and time that many people are not willing to
expend. Although it takes into account all the necessary items needed to create
effective instruction, it should not be followed so strictly that it impedes your creative
expression, which in the end, draws the learner into the material.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
What is meant by instructional analysis in the Dick and Carey model?
Why do you need to determine entry behaviours?
What do you do when you are developing the instructional
strategy?
Explain the purpose of formative and summative
evaluation.
e) Describe how you would use the Dick and Carey Model in designing instruction for the subject you teach.
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
An instructional designers is somewhat like an engineer. Both plan their work
based upon principles; the engineer on the laws of physics and the designer in basic
principles of instruction and learning. Both to design solution that are not only
functional but also attractive or appealing to the end user. Both the engineer and the
instructional designer have established problem-solving procedures that use to guide
them in making decision about their designs
The widespread use of computers as teaching tools has created a need for
instructional software. College courses, job training programs, how-to projects, and
other types of instruction are now offered through software programs. Instructional
designers carefully plan each program so it meets users' needs.
When working on a project for a client, instructional designers assume the role
of a teacher. They plan the overall instructional flow of the program and see that
content is both appropriate and clearly communicated. Instructional designers must be
familiar not only with the content to be learned and the level of the learner, but also
with a computer's means of presenting information and interacting with users.
Instructional programmes may be very specific and geared toward a fairly
small audience, as in the case of a training program in basic office procedures for new
employees of a company. Another program may be designed to instruct a larger
audience on a topic of general interest such as car repairs or money management. The
design may be simple, mainly requiring the user to read the information as it appears
on the computer screen. Other designs are more intricate, requiring different branches,
or courses of instruction, to appear after the user has responded to key questions,
taken a test, or interacted in some other way with the computer.
Instructional designers work for software publishers, software development
and design firms, and courseware developers. Most often they are part of a software
development team, responsible primarily for planning and outlining the programs.
Other team members might include a writer and an artist who create what will be seen
on each screen, a programmer who translates the design and content into computer
code, and a manager who coordinates production of the entire program. Therefore, the
ability to work well with others and to communicate ideas clearly is very important.
KEY TERMS
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
Instructional design
ADDIE model
Analysis
Design
Development
Implementation
Evaluation
SUMMARY
The design phase in which you want to plan what the course should look like
when it is complete.
Instructional goals: You begin by writing what you expect your learners will
be able to do at the end of your instruction.
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
When you do an instructional analysis you identify all knowledge and skills
that you want learners to acquire and therefore should be included in the
instruction.
REFERENCES
Briggs, L. J., Gustafson, K. L. & Tellman, M. H., Eds. (1991), Instructional Design:
Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Educational Technology Publications,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Broderick, C. (2001). Instructional Systems Design: What it's all about. Boston:
Wiley.
Coldevin, G. and Mead, A., Study Guide in Instructional Design, University of
Namibia, 2001.
Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1978), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Third Edition,
Harper Collins.
Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1996), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Fifth Edition,
Harper Collins.
Commonwealth of Learning, Use and Integration of Media in Open and Distance
Learning, 1999.
Edmonds, G. S., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, P. (1994), A Conceptual Framework for
Comparing Instructional Design Models, Educational Research and Technology,
42(2), pp. 55-72.
Gagn, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional
Design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. and Smaldino, S. (2001). Instructional Media
and Technologies for Learning. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
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Chapter 3: The Design of Instruction
Kibler, R.J., & Bassett, R.E. (1977). Writing performance objectives. In Briggs, L.J.
(ed.), Instructional design (pp. 49 - 95). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
Technology Publications.
Merrill, D. Drake, L., Lacy, M. & Pratt, P. Educational Technology 1966, 36 (5), 5-7
Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1990), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Third Edition,
Harper Collins
Reigeluth, C. (1983). Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their
Current Status. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.