Chassis frame

The frame of the commercial vehicle

forms the basis of the chassis. It accommodates all the axles,the entire drive train
with engine, gearbox and transfer case
and supports the driver's cab as well as
the superstructure.

Ladder frame
The chassis frames of commercial vehicles are usually constructed as ladder frames with two side rails (U sections) and
crossrails ( Fig.). The connecting elements of side rails and crossrails are gusset plates which are riveted, bolted or welded. The rivet connections that are mainly
used exert less of a load on the frame than
welded connections, as they are more deformable and get by without the introduction of heat (tensions). So-called "huckspin" connections combine the solidity
and strength of rivet connections with the
detachability of bolted connections.

As the vehicles have to be suitable for the

flexible deployment of a wide variety of superstructures, the frame is the major supporting element.
The frame geometries and frame crosssections are geared to the intended use in
each case.
Torsional rigidity
While the frame should have a high level of
torsional rigidity for better driving characteristics on well-developed roads in distribution and long-distance transport, a
weaker frame with high torsional elasticity
to absorb the suspension movements is
required for off-road and construction site
deployment.

Side rails
Frame side rails nowadays have different
cross-sections along their length according to the local load of the frame. The
"fish-belly shape", for example, is created
in this way; it has a higher section for greater flexure resistance between the axles.
At critical positions with load peaks (e.g.
semitrailer supports), positive-engaged inserts in the form of U or L sections are fitted in the side rails as reinforcement. On
frames subjected to extreme loads, some
of the frame side rails are closed to form a
box section.

that the frame side rails, which are subjected to high stress, are not weakened. Various section shapes of the crossrails influence the torsional rigidity of the entire
chassis. This rigidity rises from the simple
U section, through the top-hat section up
to the tube section.
Front end
The front end closes the chassis frame towards the front. The front driver's cab
mounting, the steering gear, the front
springs, the cooling system, the front underride protection and the bumpers are
attached to the front end. A well-conceived and versatile structure of the front end
is decisive for the design of the driver's
cab and the installation options (e.g. radiator with large area).

CHASSIS

10

Ladder frame of a semitrailer tractor

3.1

1CHASSIS

Crossrails
As a rule, with the exceptions of the end
and front crossrails, the frame crossrails
are only mounted on the side rail bridge so
LEGEND
1
Front end
2
Side rail (U section) with grid of holes
3
Side rail insert (L section)
4
Crossrail (top-hat section)
5
Main crossrail
6
Crossrail (tube section)
7
End crossrail (tractor)
8
Trailing arm support (with air suspension)
9
Shock absorber bracket
10 Frontal underride protection

FUNCTION

3.1Frame
3.1.1Frame design

BASIC PRINCIPLES

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Frame shapes
Alongside the ladder frame which is used
almost exclusively for commercial vehicles
and trailers ( Fig.), space frames and
supporting braces are also used in the
area of commercial vehicles.

Body preparation
For a ladder frame, it is decisive that no
components of the chassis protrude beyond the upper edge of the frame. The
desired superstructures can then be
mounted without any spatial conflict.

Other forms of frame are used above all

for other vehicle types. They usually have
specific intended uses (tubular space frames for sports cars and racing cars, passenger car ladder frames for off-road vehicles, SUVs).

It has also proven effective to arrange

pairs of drilled holes in a tight grid on the
side rails as securing options for later addon parts and conversions. The uniform
grid of holes means that add-on parts can
be moved easily (module system). Furthermore, time-consuming drilling becomes superfluous and the corrosion protection applied at the plant is preserved.

Special frames such as X frames, transaxle frames, frame-floor systems and selfsupporting bodies are found almost exclusively in the area of passenger cars and
will not be described here in more detail.

Supporting brace
On some smaller commercial van types,
an integral design is used to create a joint
supporting brace. This consists of the
subassembly made of bevelled metal-plate sections and pressed metal-plate parts
and the combined body with body and
passenger cell.

Subframe
To accommodate auxiliary units or superstructures, subframes or assembly frames
are secured. On the one hand, these form
a separate supporting framework and on
the other hand, geared to the load, they
reinforce the main frame. In the case of
so-called twin frame, a subframe is connected to the main frame.

CHASSIS
Ladder frame with rear underride protection

3.2

3.1.2Designs

Space frame
The supporting frames for buses are set
up as space frames. By constructing a
supporting framework made of hollow
sections, a frame structure that is both
torsionally and flexurally resistant is achieved.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Axle designs
Axles are an important part of the wheel
suspension and form the supporting elements for the wheels. This means they are
among the unsprung masses of the vehicle ( page 3.9). Reducing the weight of
the axles and thus increasing the ratio of
sprung to unsprung masses is one of the
main objectives of modern axle designs.

Front axles
Two designs of rigid, steerable front axles
are fitted in commercial vehicles. The axle
bodies of rigid axles are die-forged and
usually have a double-T section or a
square section. The most widespread
front axle, the stub axle ( Fig.), has only
one eye at the fixing points for the steering
knuckle.

Distinctions are made between:

The fork axle is more difficult to manufacture and thus more expensive; its axle
ends are fork-shaped.

X Driven and non-driven axles

X Steerable and non-steerable axles
Depending on the drive concept, rear axles, front axles or both are driven or several together (e.g. in the case of all-wheel or
multi-axle drive systems). The non-driven
axles include standard front axle as well as
trailing and leading axles.
In the area of commercial vehicles, rigid
axles are usual. For economic reasons,
the use of independent wheel suspension,
as is normally used in passenger cars, has
not become standard practice.

dern commercial vehicles, rear axles

based on the banjo concept are used.
In the case of cone or flared axles, the axle
head is divided transversely into two halves in the area of the differential.
One-piece (undivided) axles cannot be
dismantled. This makes later assembly
and adjustment work very complex. Onepiece axles are mainly used in passenger
cars as well as in commercial vans; their
only cost benefits lie in manufacturing.

Rigid front axles are of dropped design to

retain a larger design envelope for the engine or to lower the chassis (frame).
Driven front axles have a differential gear
in the axle body. The wheels are driven indirectly via universal joints or an additional
planetary gear set in the wheel hub.
Rear axles
Commercial vehicles usually have rigid
driven rear axles with differential gear.
Distinctions are made between:
X Banjo axles
X Cone or flared axles

LEGEND
1
Steering knuckle
2
Steering knuckle eye
3
Axle body

CHASSIS

Front axle as dropped stub axle

3.3

3.2Axle designs

The differential gear on banjo axles has

the advantage that the entire axle head
(bevel gear with differential cage) can be
mounted and adjusted as an assembly
outside the axle housing. On most mo-

3.2.1Designs

X One-piece (undivided) rear axles

FUNCTION

Drive axles
The axles that drive commercial vehicles
are termed drive axles. A commercial vehicle can have one or more drive axles.

Hypoid axle
The hypoid axle is a banjo axle ( page
3.3) on which the bevel gear differential (
page 6.33) is arranged in the middle drive
( Fig.).

If all axles are driven, this is referred to as

all-wheel drive. The number of driven
wheels of a commercial vehicle is specified in the wheel formula ( page 2.2).

On the hypoid axle drive, the pinion of the

drive bevel gear is not arranged centrally,
rather is offset slightly from the centre of
the ring gear ( Fig. page 6.32). This design enables a greater pinion diameter
and a special toothing shape (hypoid toothing). This distributes the load onto a
considerably greater gear area, enabling
the transfer of greater drive power.

Depending on the design, distinctions are

made between:
X Hypoid axle
X Shifting axle
X Planetary drive axle

Low-cost manufacture and greater mechanical efficiency (few gear ratio stages)
are features of this design. Hypoid axles
are regarded as very economical, as they
have high load-bearing capacities with
low dead weight.

These can be designed as drive-through

or final axles (tandem-axle assembly).

Shifting axle
If an engaging and disengaging planetary
gear set is integrated in the ring gear of the
differential ( page 6.33) on the hypoid
axle, this is referred to as a shifting axle.
This can be shifted e.g. between a slow
gear ratio and gear ratio 1:1 (blocked planetary gear set). This design is only used
very rarely.

tary gear set ( Fig.). The illustration on

the next page shows (in the bottom right)
an example of a planetary drive gear set.
The gear ratio directly in the wheel hub
means the drive shafts are subjected to
lower loads, enabling a smaller differential
and greater ground clearance of the axle.
Drive-through axle
With two drive axles located one behind
the other, a drive-through axle is necessary (for example with wheel formulae 6x4 or
8x4). A second axle is driven by a drive-through mounted on the first axle. This tandem-axle assembly is also referred to as a
tandem axle.
On the drive-through axle, torque and rotational speed are picked up via a spur
gear ratio to drive the 1st axle ( Fig.). The
drive-through also contains an inter-axle
differential for speed balancing between
the 1st and 2nd axles of the tandem-axle
assembly, which as a rule is equipped
with an engaging and disengaging differential lock (inter-axle differential lock).

CHASSIS

A
1

3
4

Drive axle designs

3.4

3.2.2Drive axles

Planetary drive axle

A planetary drive axle has a gear ratio stage in the wheel hub in the form of a planeLEGEND
A
Hypoid axle
B
Planetary drive axle
C
Planetary drive axle as drive-through
axle
1
Axle drive
2
Differential gear
3
Planetary gear set
4
Inter-axle differential
5
Drive-through axle

BASIC PRINCIPLES

EXAMPLE

CHASSIS

xx

5
4

A
B

Hypoid axle
Tandem-axle assembly with
planetary drive axle

Hypoid and planetary drive axle

3.5

C
1
2

Part of a planetary drive axle

Axle drive
Differential gear

3
4
5

Drive-through
Planetary gear set
Wheel hub

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Supplementary axles
Supplementary axles are fitted to enable
high level of maximum payloads without
exceeding the legally prescribed maximum permitted axle loads ( page 2.6). If
supplementary axles have no drive function, they are designed as leading or trailing axles.

Leading axle
A leading axle is only used as an additional
rear axle and it is arranged in the direction
of travel in front of the drive axle. It usually
has single tyres and air suspension.

Leading and trailing axles are frequently

designed as lifting axles.

Trailing axle
A trailing axle as an additional rear axle is
arranged after the drive axle in the direction of travel. It usually has single tyres and
air suspension.
Steer axle
A steer axle is a leading or trailing axle designed as steerable ( Fig.).

Lifting axle
If a trailing or leading axle is equipped to
be lifted using air bellows, this is referred
to as a lifting axle ( Fig.).
According to the load of the drive axle, the
lifting axle can be lowered automatically or
manually. Activation is electropneumatic.
A lifting axle can be used as low-speed
traction control if more load is required on
the drive axle at low initial speed. Raising
the lifting axle provides the drive axle with
an additional load and thus better traction.

A second, trailing front axle is usually steered by means of a linkage system and its
own steering gear.

CHASSIS

Rear-axle assembly with trailing axle

3.6

3.2.3Leading and trailing axles

The electronically controlled RASec provides the optimised steer angle in every driving situation. An electronic control system calculates and controls the steering
operation.

LEGEND
1
Drive axle
2
Steered and lifting trailing axle
3
Lift system
4
Hydraulic cylinder RAS
5
Steering tie rod

Trailing or leading axles for the rear axle

are steered hydraulically. Rear-axle steering RAS is used at MAN. The RAS does
not need heavy linkage: the steering movements are transferred hydraulically by
the steering cylinder on the steering gear
to the hydraulic working cylinder on the
trailing axle.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Wheel bearings on drive axles

Three different types of wheel bearings on
drive axles are distinguished:

Semi-floating axle
On the semi-floating axle, the wheel hub is
attached directly to the drive shaft. This is
mounted in the axle body with a single bearing. Loads are applied to the shaft by
the torsion), wheel loads and cornering
forces (flection).

X Semi-floating axle
X 3/4-floating axle
X Full-floating axle
The full-floating axle type is used mainly in
commercial vehicles.
Due to the high loads, semi-floating axles
are only used on commercial vans and
passenger cars (low permitted total
weight).

The wheel bearing unit HUB UNIT can be

used not only for drive wheels, but also for
front wheels with disk brakes.

3/4-floating axle
The relatively uncommon 3/4-floating axle
represents an intermediate solution between the semi-floating and full-floating
axle.
Full-floating axle
On the full-floating axle, the wheel hubs
are usually mounted with two engaged
conical bearings. The one-piece drive
shaft is easy to remove and install without
the wheel having to be removed ( Figs.).

LEGEND
1
Rear axle bridge
2
HUB UNIT wheel bearing unit
3
Drive shaft (axle drive shaft)

CHASSIS

2
1

Drive axle with HUB UNIT

3.7

3.2.4Axle mounting

HUB UNIT wheel bearing unit

The HUB UNIT wheel bearing unit a fullfloating wheel bearing for axles with disk
brakes enhanced by MAN. Removal of the
complete wheel bearing as a unit (HUB
UNIT) enables e.g. rapid and thus lowcost replacement of the brake disk, as the
wheel bearing does not have to be dismantled on removal and does not have to
be reset on fitting ( Fig.).

HUB UNIT wheel bearing unit

The drive shaft of this type is only subjected to a torsion load on transfer of the driving torque.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Vibration system
The entire vehicle forms a vibration system that begins to vibrate (is excited) due
to irregularities in the road surface.

Spring rate
The spring rate is the ratio of the force F
on pressing in the spring to the distance
covered x:

A vibration is defined as the change in a

physical variable according to quantity
and direction that is repeated more or less
regularly.
The vertical movements of the vibration
system vehicle-wheel-road are part of vertical dynamics ( page 18.1).
Spring elements
The course of a vibration depends on the
features of the transferring elements. In
general, there are referred to as springs of
spring elements.
Essentially, spring elements are characterised by two variables:
X Spring rate c
X Natural frequency fe of the vibration

F
x

c =

The greater the spring rate c, the greater

the force that has to be applied to press in
the spring, and the "harder" the suspension.
In the case of normal so-called linear
springs, the spring rate is constant.
In the case of the progressively acting
springs frequently used nowadays, or socalled "stage springs", the spring rate depends on the travel, i.e., the value of c rises as the impression of the spring increases. The resistance force of the spring increases ( Fig.).

resonance. A reduction in the amplitude is

referred to as damping ( page 3.15).
In order to prevent a resonance-generated build-up, the natural frequency of vibration in vehicles should remain as constant as possible. In order to ensure this,
the spring rate must rise proportionally
with the load (payload, spring compression). A progressive spring rate aims to
achieve this and also ensures there are
adequate reserves of spring travel for high
loads.
Depending on the constructive layout of
the suspension, different spring rates result, and thus also different natural frequencies.

Natural frequency
The natural frequency fe refers to the frequency of a vibration that occurs on selfenergisation. It is calculated as follows:

F [N]

2500
2000

CHASSIS

1500

1000
500

x [m]

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

F [N]
2500
2000

1500
1000
500

x [m]

Spring rate

3.8

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

3.3Suspension

Self-energisation means an increase in

the amplitude and it is also referred to as

LEGEND
a
Linear characteristic curve:
hard suspension
with c = 25 000 N/m
b
Linear characteristic curve:
soft suspension
with c = 7 500 N/m
c
Progressive characteristic curve

c
m

3.3.1Physical context

fe =

FUNCTION

Vibration characteristics of a commercial vehicle

The layout of the suspension and damping of the chassis fundamentally influences its vibration characteristics, including the subsystems driver's cab with driver and drive train as well as body and
load.

Sprung masses
The suspension configuration depends on
the total mass of the vehicle, composed of
sprung and unsprung proportions of
mass.

In order to ensure stable, safe and comfortable driving characteristics, the wheel
suspension must perform the following
tasks:
X Transferring weights and dynamic
inertia forces from the chassis and
body movement to the wheels
X Converting hard impacts from the
road surface into soft vibrations of the
chassis and of the body
X Ensuring continuous contact between tyres and road surface
X Limiting rolling and pitching motion of
the vehicle ( page 18.1)
X Regulating vehicle level and ground
clearance

wheel suspension and thus belong to the

unsprung masses of the vehicle.

Sprung masses are all vehicle parts that

are spring-mounted, i.e. chassis, body,
load, engine and gearbox.
Unsprung masses
Unsprung masses are the components of
a vehicle that directly absorb impacts to
the vehicle. These include the axles,
wheels, wheel hubs and parts of the steering. However, even though they are referred to as unsprung masses, they do have
"springs" due to the tyres. These are referred to as "tyre springs" ( Fig.).
Suspension and damping
The unsprung masses are connected to
the sprung masses by the components of
the suspension and damping. Their vibration is transferred via the springs and
shock absorbers to the sprung masses,
which means that both masses vibrate at
various frequencies.

3.3.2Suspension configuration

The high level of frequency of the vibration

of the unsprung masses is converted by
suspension elements and shock absorbers into a vibration with lower frequency
( Fig.).
The components of the suspension and
damping are main components of the

CHASSIS

s1

m1

s2
t

m2
3

Vibrations of sprung and unsprung masses

3.9

LEGEND
1
Suspension
2
Damping
3
"Tyre spring"
m1 Sprung masses
m2 Unsprung masses
s1 Deflection of sprung masses
s2 Deflection of unsprung masses
t
Course of vibration over time

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Types of spring
In vehicle construction, the following types
of spring are distinguished in general:

Torsion-bar spring
A torsion (bar) spring uses the resistance
of the material against torsion to build up
spring force. The spring force is proportional to the twisting angle and dependent
on the diameter and length of the torsion
bar. The torsion-bar spring has no intrinsic
damping, but a linear spring rate.

X Torsion-bar springs
X Coil springs
X Leaf springs
X Gas springs (air springs)
X Hydropneumatic springs
In commercial vehicles, it is mainly leaf
springs and air springs that are used.
As a rule, coil springs can be found in passenger cars as well as in light trucks and
commercial vans. However, they are also
fitted on high-altitude off-road commercial
vehicles from MAN. Coil springs require
little design space and permit extensive
spring travel, but they cannot assume
wheel control ( page 3.17).
Torsion-bar springs and hydropneumatic
springs, on the other hand, only rarely
found in passenger cars. In commercial
vehicles, they are of subordinate significance and are mainly fitted in caterpillar
vehicles. Heavy mobile crane chassis nowadays almost exclusively use hydropneumatic suspension.

A lever arm for the wheel hub interlocks

with a torsion bar or a torsion spring pack
( Fig.). Between the bearing position of
the lever arm and the fixed clamping at the
vehicle frame (body), the torsion element
is often fitted in a guide tube. Torsion bar
suspensions can be fitted in the vehicle
longitudinally or transversely.
Coil spring
The coil spring is a special form of torsionbar spring. Here, the torsion bar does not
have a linear arrangement, rather is
wound in a spiral.

Hydropneumatic spring
The hydropneumatic spring is a combination of a gas spring and liquid-filled shock
absorber. Gas (usually nitrogen) and pressurised liquid (oil) are separated by a
membrane. Only the gas is involved in the
spring effect, similar to an air spring. The
oil serves only as a transfer element. As it
is incompressible in the same way as all liquids, it cannot function as a spring element. On suspension movement, the oil
flows through valves. This results in a
damping force. The height of the spring
can be changed by pumping in or letting
out oil. Frequently, there is the possibility
in the case of hydropneumatic suspension to use valves to decouple the spring
gas volume. This enables the spring to be
switched to rigid (e.g. for the operation of
additional equipment when the vehicle is
stationary).

In the suspension movement, all segments of the spiral are applied a torsion
load. Coil springs provide a large number
of possibilities to influence the spring rate
in the desired manner. In a chassis, progressive coil springs have the greatest significance. Coil springs can be adapted to
each use case by changing the parameters spring diameter, spring wire diameter,
upward incline, shape and number of
coils.

3.3.3Suspension types
3.3.3.1General
x

BASIC PRINCIPLES

CHASSIS

LEGEND
1
Coil spring
2
Torsion-bar spring
r
Lever arm

Types of spring

3.10

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Leaf spring suspension

Leaf-spring suspension is used frequently
in the area of commercial vehicles. This is
because of the simultaneous assumption
of wheel control tasks by the suspension,
especially in conjunction with the commonly used rigid axles. The components
for wheel suspension can be fully eliminated or are limited to a simple version (
page 3.17).

Leaf spring pack

The individual leaves of the spring pack
are centred on the axle by the heartshaped bolt and secured with spring clips
(spring clamps). Spring clips or grooves in
the spring leaves prevent the leaves from
moving around.

In the case of leaf springs, the material of

the leaves is subjected to flection. The resistance against the flexural load creates
the spring force. The spring force is proportional to the flexural yield and depends
on the cross-section and length of the
leaf, as well as on the number of spring
leaves in the case of multi-leaf springs.

length of the spring pack on spring compression. The second spring leaf is frequently wound partially around the front
spring eye as a so-called safety winding
( Fig.).

Leaf springs can thus, alongside their

function as spring elements, also assume
gear or axle control; furthermore, they require very little space in the transverse vehicle direction, which is an advantage in
commercial vehicle construction due to
the maximum permitted vehicle width.
Leaf spring rate
Leaf spring packs generate intrinsic damping through friction at the contact points
between the spring leaves. This applies in
particular to trapezoidal springs.

CHASSIS

LEGEND
1
Safety winding
2
Front spring eye
3
Spring clips (spring clamps)
4
Parabolic spring (spring pack)
5
Spring shackle

5
4

3
2
1
Leaf-spring suspension on a front axle

3.11

3.3.3.2Leaf-spring suspension

Safety winding
To secure it, the top spring leaf is rolled
into a spring eye, at least at the front end.
The rear end is mounted in moving bearings by means of a rear eye and a spring
shackle for low wear to balance out the

Depending on their design, leaf springs

have a linear or progressive spring rate.
Normal leaf springs have a linear identifier
( page 3.8). However, if designed as
support leaf, rolling or stage springs, twostage or also progressive characteristic
curves can be set up.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Types of leaf spring

With regard to the arrangement and type
of leaf springs, distinctions are made between:

Symmetrical leaf spring

As a rule, the spring packs are located
symmetrically across the axle (symmetrical leaf spring).

X Symmetrical and asymmetrical leaf

springs

If the axle is located outside of the spring

centre, this is referred to as an asymmetrical leaf spring. It is used for technical reasons (e.g. axle base or available overhang) where required.

X Parabolic and trapezoidal springs

Trapezoidal spring
The name of this spring is derived from the
fact that the leaves configured side by
side result in a trapezoid shape. Trapezoidal springs are designed as layered leaf
spring packs made of steel leaves of different lengths and usually of the same thickness.

veloped. This consists of relatively few leaves, where the material strength is better
exploited in that they are rolled out as parabolic. Compared to conventional leaf
springs, approximately 50 % of the weight
can be saved.
As the individual parabolic layers only contact one another at a few points, parabolic
springs have low intrinsic damping. Plastic
or rubber-bonded metal leaf spacers guarantee the uniform suspension properties
over the entire service life.

Friction arises between the leaves which

are subjected to flection, and this leads to
intrinsic damping. The corrosion of the
leaves means that the suspension and
damping characteristics change over time.
Different cambers (preformed flection) of
the individual leaves or additional springs
enable progressive spring rates of the entire spring pack (trapezoidal stage
springs, rolling springs).

CHASSIS

Types of leaf spring

3.12

4-1

4-2

Leaf-spring suspension
x

Parabolic spring
In order to reduce the high weights of trapezoidal springs and their losses due to
friction, the parabolic spring has been deLEGEND
1
Safety winding
2
Front spring eye
3
Spring clips (spring clamps)
4-1 Trapezoidal stage spring:
Main spring (bottom spring pack)
Additional spring (top spring pack)
4-2 Parabolic spring (spring pack)
5
Spring shackle

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Air suspension
Air suspension uses the compression capability of gases as its spring element. The
spring force is proportional to the effective
spring area and pressure of the air in the
bellows.

Air spring system

Components of the air spring system are:

Pumping in additional air (control) raises

the spring rigidity to the same extent as
the load. The course of the characteristic
curve for air springs is also dependent on
the design (hose reel bellows, bellows).
Nowadays, only the hose reel bellows (Ubellows for short) is used in most cases.

X Air bellows

Air springs have no intrinsic damping, but

they do have the desired progressive
spring rate.

X Air compressor
X Reservoir
X Level control valves
Air flows into the individual reservoirs via
the multi-circuit / four-circuit protection
valve ( page 7.4). Depending on the load
(spring compression) of the axle, the pull
rod mounted on the axle adjusts the corresponding level control valve on the frame.

springs can be lowered further. The controlled addition and subtraction of this volume means that air damping can also be
achieved.
Bellows
Bellows change their effective area on
spring compression with expansion of the
folds. It is only possible to influence the
characteristic curve to a limited extent.

The flow of compressed air to the spring

bellows is regulated and adapted. This
ensures a uniform level of the frame that is
independent of the payload. Some axles
with air suspension are given separate
control valves on each side.

CHASSIS

1
2
3
4
5

Principle of air suspension

3.13

3.3.3.3Air suspension

The constructive design of the contour of

the roll-off piston enables the spring characteristic curve to be influenced by
means of various effective areas over the
course of the spring travel. By adding
more volume, the natural frequency of air
LEGEND
1
Bracket on frame
2
Air bellows (hose reel bellows)
3
Roll-off piston
4
Spring bellows support
5
Bracket on axle

U-bellows
In the meantime, the design of air bellows
as U-bellows (hose reel bellows) has proven most effective. During the suspension
movement, the bellows unwind on the
roll-off piston ( Fig.).

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Air suspension control

Air springs permit lower natural frequencies and thus a configuration of the chassis for a high level of driving comfort.

Air-spring-shock-absorber system
LDS
The MAN front axle with air suspension
features a simple structure: air springs
and shock absorbers are compiled into
one unit, the air-spring-shock-absorber
system LDS ( Fig.). The purely centric
load that occurs means that the air bellows have a significantly longer service life.
The controllable shock absorbers enables
the vehicle to be equipped with electronic
chassis control. Other advantages of the
LDS are low space requirement, the possibility to have a wider air-spring track with
greater roll stability and greater lifting
paths to accommodate interchangeable
bridges and semitrailers.

In contrast to the linear steel springs,

which have a high, uncomfortable level of
natural frequency with a low load and a
falling natural frequency with a high load,
the natural frequency remains constant
over the entire spring travel.
An additional air suspension control can
be used to change the air pressure in the
spring bellows and thus the vehicle level.
Depending on the layout, this can also result in driving safety advantages.

Electronically Controlled Air Suspension ECAS

On MAN commercial vehicles, the electronically controlled air suspension (ECAS)
enables precise and rapid level control
with two adjustable frame heights in the
driving position. Memory systems with
two storable height settings are used to
adapt the level at loading ramps ( page
11.10).

X Possible to raise and lower the body

X Headlight setting always correct
Electronic Chassis Control EFR
MAN also offers electronic chassis control.
This is a combination of the electronic systems ECAS and ESAC (Electronic Shock
Absorber Control) in conjunction with
controlled shock absorbers. The rolling
and pitching motion of the body (e.g. on
changing lanes) can be compensated for
the most part by ESAC.
Electronic chassis control provides the
highest degree of driving comfort and driving safety by means of suspension and
shock absorber control adapted to the
load state and driving situation.
The electronic chassis control not only
gentle on the driver and load: the 10 % to
20 % lower dynamic wheel loads also reduce stress on the tyres, wheel suspension components and electronic components. Electronic chassis control has reduced damage to roads by more than 50 %.

Additional advantages are:

CHASSIS

6
3

5
Front-axle air suspension with adjustable shock absorbers

3.14

Air suspension
x

X Same body and loading height with

every load state (controlled-height
system; only the tyre deflection changes depending on the load)

LEGEND
1
Bracket on frame
2
Air bellows
3
Shock absorber
4
Control unit
5
Bracket on axle
6
Air-spring-shock-absorber system
LDS

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Vibration damping
Vibration dampers (shock absorbers) are
used to damp the vibrations occurring at
the suspension. Damping of the commercial vehicle vibration system is necessary
for the following reasons:

Shock absorber
A shock absorber uses friction to transform the vibration energy into heat. The
damping force generated limits the vibration path (amplitude). Here, the scale of
the damping force is proportional to the
speed of the suspension movement.

X The vibration damping of unsprung

masses to minimum amplitudes
enhances driving safety, as it ensures
road grip of the tyres.
X Damping the vibrations of the sprung
body limits its vibration amplitude, i.e.
its vertical vibration path, to a comfortable degree that is also gentle to the
loaded cargo (shock absorbing).
X Resonance-generated build-up and
long post-vibration periods of the
commercial vehicle are prevented.

As a general principle, the following applies to the damping force FD depending

on the speed v of the suspension movement:
FD = k vn
The damping constant k and the damping
exponent n depend on the engineering
design of the shock absorber and of the
medium used (liquid).

tendency, but lead to greater safety (road

grip) at higher driving speeds.
Shock-absorber configuration
The compression (compression movement) and rebound (rebound movement)
of hydraulic vibration dampers are configured independently of one another because kreb is greater than kcompr ( Fig.) by
the factor 2.5 9.
The rebound movement is dampened
more strongly than the compression movement to counteract excessive load reduction on the tyres (loss of road grip). At
the same time, the compression movement should not be too hard.

The exponential relationship between the

shock absorber force and the spring
speed enables effective gearing of the
damping components to the vibration
system commercial vehicle.

FD

LEGEND
FD Damping force
v
Speed (suspension movement)

Rebound stage

CHASSIS

Frebmax

Pressure rate
Rebound rate
Fcomprmax
Compression stage

Frebmax 9 . Fcomprmax

Shock-absorber configuration with degressive damping characteristics

3.15

Progressive damping characteristics

Progressive damping characteristics
(n > 1) increase the rolling and pitching

3.4.1Physical context

3.4Vibration damping

Degressive damping characteristics

Degressive damping characteristics
(n < 1) lead to high damping forces at
low spring speeds. This leads to a lower
rolling and pitching tendency but poorer
absorption capability of the suspension
and poorer road grip at higher driving
speeds.

EXAMPLE

Telescopic shock absorbers

In the entire field of vehicle construction,
the aim is to achieve the best possible
compromise between comfort (low damping force) and driving safety (high level of
damping force) in the configuration of
damping. Here, hydraulic telescopic
shock absorbers are used as vibration
dampers in the commercial vehicles sector. In MAN commercial vehicles, the electronic chassis control ensures optimised
harmonisation of the damping and suspension ( page 3.14).

Single-tube telescopic shock absorber

In the case of the single-tube telescopic
shock absorber, the gas-pressurised
damping fluid (oil of a certain viscosity) is
displaced by a piston with valves for compression and rebound movement (compression and rebound). The piston movement is inhibited by flow resistances at the
valves. The damping force counteracts
the suspension movement.

X Single-tube telescopic shock absorbers

X Twin-tube telescopic shock absorbers
In the meantime, telescopic shock absorbers with gas pressure are being used to
an increasing extent, as in comparison
with shock absorbers without gas volume
these achieve better response and more
exact damping, and they develop less noise.

Exact shock absorber function, low-cost

manufacturing and long service life are the
advantages of the twin-tube telescopic
shock absorber. However, it can only be
fitted in a vertical or slightly angled position.
In the meantime, the twin-tube telescopic
shock absorber is usually gas-pressurised
(68 bar). As the gas volume does not
have to be accommodated in the work
chamber, it is shorter than the single-tube
telescopic shock absorber with gas pressure. For this reason, MAN uses above all
twin-tube telescopic shock absorbers in
its commercial vehicles.

The single-tube telescopic shock absorbers with dividing pistons can be fitted in
any position. However, their manufacture
is more expensive than that of twin-tube
telescopic shock absorbers and the critical piston-rod seal restricts their service
life.

CHASSIS

Twin-tube telescopic shock absorber

With this telescopic shock absorber,
when suspension movements occur the
oil volume is balanced out via a bottom

1
7
5

5
4

4
3

1
2
6

Single-tube telescopic shock absorber

3.16

Twin-tube telescopic shock absorber

LEGEND
1
Oil
2
Gas
3
Dividing piston
4
Piston valve
5
Working piston
6
Bottom valve
7
Compensating chamber

In general, two types of telescopic shock

absorber are distinguished:

The gas volume with a pressure between

25 and 40 bar prevents the fast-flowing liquid from foaming and, depending on the
design, it is separated from this by an impact plate (open) or a dividing piston (
Fig.). The gas also enables balancing of
the volume change in the damping fluid
caused by the piston rod moving in and
out. The high pressure safety supports the
damping forces and ensures rapid response of the shock absorber.

valve between the working cylinder (work

chamber) and container pipe (reservoir)
( Fig.). This balancing of the volume
change in the upper work chamber (piston rod path) takes place via the piston
valves.

3.4.2Types of shock absorber

FUNCTION

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Wheel hub
In order to assess wheel control, the movement of the wheel hub to which the moving gear is attached must be examined.

Leaf spring wheel control

The spring packs for leaf-spring suspension handle the longitudinal and transverse
wheel control forces. Additional struts
(arms) are not required. The leaf springs
transfer the wheel control forces as well as
the starting and braking torques. Stabilisers reduce the roll angle of the vehicle on
cornering.

A twist beam rear axle, for example, is the

MAN front axle with air suspension, designed as a torsion crank axle ( Fig.). The
axle body is firmly attached to the two trailing arms and this has the same effect as
a torsion bar spring or torsion spring.

The wheel suspension must control the

gear completely, which means that all the
degrees of freedom of the wheel except
for two movement options are restricted
by the wheel suspension if it is assumed
that the wheels are blocked.

Twist beam rear axle

On a twist beam rear axle, the axle body
handles the longitudinal and transverse
wheel control forces. As the axle body and
the two trailing arms are linked, the axle
body acts as a torsion bar or torsion
spring ( page 3.10). On spring compression of a wheel, the axle body is twisted
and stabilises the tendency of the vehicle
to roll.

CHASSIS

3.5Wheel suspensions

The remaining directions are the vertical

movement (suspension) as well as in the
case of steered axles the steering movement (rotational movement around the
vertical axis).

Wheel control with air suspension

On commercial vehicles with air suspension, additional components are required
for safe wheel control. These include socalled "struts" (or arms) for axle control (
page 3.18) and stabilisers for roll limitation
( page 3.19).

5
Front axle as torsion crank axle

3.17

LEGEND
1
Steering tie rod
2
Steering knuckle
3
Steering knuckle eye
4
Axle body (as torsion spring firmly
connected to trailing arm)
5
Trailing arm (firmly connected to axle
body)

3.5.1Axle control and stabilisation

Each wheel hub has 6 degrees of freedom

with regard to its free movement in space.
These degrees of freedom refer to the
movement according to the three main
co-ordinate axes in space and the rotational movements around these axes.

3.5.1.1Wheel control
x

BASIC PRINCIPLES

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Struts
Due to the high axle loads and economy,
rigid axles have become standard for
commercial vehicles. Depending on the
type of suspension, different components
and systems are used in conjunction with
rigid axles.

Wishbones and double wishbones

In the case of independent wheel suspensions, these absorb the wheel control
forces and in the area of commercial vehicles are only used in buses.

The most important components of the

wheel suspension for axles with air suspension include so-called struts (or arms).
They connect the gear or axle control with
the frame, thus absorbing the gear or axle
control forces.

Trailing arm
Trailing arms are used in combination with
air suspension. The trailing arm usually
only handles longitudinal forces. In the
case of one-sided, rigid connection, it also
absorbs the drive and braking torques. It
is frequently combined with a Panhard (lateral tie) rod, Watt linkage (not usual in
commercial vehicles) or an A-arm.

A-arm
These are used to absorb longitudinal and
transverse forces; in conjunction with two
trailing arms, they assume all the tasks involved in axle control. A-arms are fitted
above all in the case of rear axles that are
subjected to heavy loads, e.g. semitrailer
tractors or commercial vehicles with tandem axles ( Fig.).

Panhard rod
The Panhard rod is a simple wishbone
that - in combination with trailing arms and
air suspension - handles transverse control of the axle.
Watt linkage
The Watt linkage, in the same way as the
Panhard rod, is used for transverse control of the axle. It is used in conjunction
with trailing arms and air suspension.

LEGEND
1
A-arm
2
Shock absorber
3
Air bellows
4
Trailing arm support
5
Stabiliser

CHASSIS

2
3
4

5
Rear axle with A-arm and stabiliser

3.18

3.5.1.2Struts

In contrast to the Panhard rod, the Watt

linkage does not lead to a lateral offset of
the axle. Due to the great space requirement, the Watt linkage is rarely used in
commercial vehicles.

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Roll limitation
Within the framework of driving safety, roll
limitation by means of stabilisers plays a
significant role, as it counteracts lift of the
wheel inside the curve (lower road grip)
and the tendency to tilt of the sprung masses.

Stabiliser
A stabiliser is usually a torsion bar or torsion spring element ( page 3.10). When a
wheel lifts or if the body tilts to the side
from its normal position, the middle section of the stabiliser (torsion bar) is twisted
and thus subjected to torsion. The reaction torque that occurs in the torsion bar
as a result counteracts the body's tendency to roll. A parallel vertical suspension
is not influenced by the stabiliser, as it also
turns on both sides ( Fig. page 3.18).

X strut (four-point strut)

An example of the combination of struts
and stabilisers is the X strut ( Fig.) developed by MAN. In contrast to the A-arm, it
controls the axle not only at one point but
at two points. Taking account of the two
fixing points on the chassis frame, it is a
four-point strut that meets the requirements for roll stabilisation.

The unwanted body inclination that occurs due to transversal acceleration on

cornering ( page 18.10) can be avoided
in this way.

Axle control remains ensured even in extreme driving situations. In comparison

with existing systems with stabilisers,
ground clearance is increased. This design also reduces the number of components and the system weight of the rear
axle by an average of 20 kg.

3.5.1.3Stabiliser

The moving mounts on the vehicle frame

and on the axle body mean that in general
stabilisers alone cannot take over wheel
control. Some modern commercial vehicles already have combines components
mode of struts and stabilisers. This saves
components and weight.

On spring compression of a wheel, the X

strut twists, creating a counteracting torsion force and thus working simultaneously
as a stabiliser. A parallel vertical spring
compression of the wheels is not influenced by the X strut, as it is raised or lowered evenly with the axle.

CHASSIS

4
Rear axle with X strut (four-point strut)

3.19

LEGEND
1
Shock absorber
2
Air bellows
3
Trailing arm
4
X-strut (four-point strut) from MAN
with stabiliser function

BASIC PRINCIPLES

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Axle geometry
In order to record the axle geometry of a
chassis, physical variables are defined.
The most important are:

Wheelbase
The distance between the wheel centre
points of two axles is referred to as the
wheelbase.

The wheel camber of wheels on commercial vehicle axles is slightly positive or zero.
Front axles are usually configured with positive wheel camber angles ( 1).

Track width
A separate track width can be determined
for each axle. It is measured between the
centre planes of the two wheels of an axle,
in the case of twin tyres between the centre planes.

When a load is placed on the front axle,

the wheel camber becomes more neutral
( = 0). Tyre wear remains low.

Wheel camber
The inclination between the wheel centre
plane and the vertical to the road surface
is referred to as wheel camber ( Fig.).

Non-driven rear axles are fitted without

wheel camber ( = 0).

X Wheelbase
X Track width
X Wheel camber
Other variables that only apply to the area
of the front axle are explained on the pages that follow.

Driven rigid axles have a positive wheel

camber angle inherent in their design
( > 0).

Positive wheel camber

A positive wheel camber ( > 0) on the
front axle leads to improved straightahead tracking and reduces the steering
offset ( page 3.22). However, the disadvantages are a reduction in the cornering
forces and increased tyre wear of the outer running surface.

CHASSIS

> 0

Wheel camber angle

3.20

< 0

LEGEND
1
Positive wheel camber ( > 0)
2
Negative wheel camber ( < 0)

3.6Axle geometry

A negative wheel camber ( < 0) enlarges

the steering offset and improves cornering
stability. However, the disadvantage is increased tyre wear of the inner running surface.

3.6.1Wheelbase, track width and wheel camber

Negative wheel camber

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Front axle geometry

A combination of various values of the
axle geometry can influence the properties of the chassis and thus the driving
characteristics of the vehicle. Slight tensioning of the steering linkage balances
out the play and the steering reacts more
directly.

Track
Track refers to the difference in length between the inner sides of the rear and front
wheels (l2 l1) in the direction of travel (
Fig.).

In the case of non-driven front wheels, a

toe-in combines with a positive steering
offset ( page 3.22) ensures good
straight-ahead tracking without the
wheels wobbling.

If this difference, measured at the inner sides of the rim flanges, is positive, this is
referred to as the toe-in (the wheel centre
planes cross in front of the vehicle and
they are swung inwards against the direction of travel by the toe angle /2: /2 > 0).

The spread with a positive steering offset

ensures aligning torque when turning the
wheels, as the front section of the vehicle
has to be raised against the weight. This
aligning torque ensures the straightahead tracking of the vehicle and also prevents the wheels from wobbling. The
spread angle is usually between 5 and
10.

If the difference is negative, this is referred

to as toe-out. The wheel centre planes
cross behind the vehicle.

Driven front wheels with a negative steering offset also require a toe-in, as the drive forces wheels towards the outside. For
good straight-ahead tracking, this has to
be balanced out by a positive toe-in angle.

3.6.2Track and spread

Spread
The inclination between the steer axle and
the vertical to the road surface is referred
to as spread. The spread angle is specified in degrees ( Fig.).

CHASSIS

l1

1
l2
l1

2
l2

Track

3.21

Spread

LEGEND
1
Toe-in (l2 l1 > 0)
2
Toe-out (l2 l1 < 0)

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Positive steering offset

With a positive steering offset (R0 > 0), the
point of intersection of the steering axis on
the road surface lies within the track width
( page 3.20). On road surfaces with different levels of adhesion, the wheel with
better adhesion swings outwards on braking; the vehicle tends to pull off course.
Small positive values for the steering offset limit the steering forces and the tendency of the wheel to wobble. The aligning torque increases on the rolling (nondriven) gear with positive values; on the
driven gear, it reduces the alignment effect.
In commercial vehicles, positive steering
offsets are usual, in many cases due to
the widened drum brakes. The lower hinge point of the steer axle is located very far
towards the inside.
Negative steering offset

R0 > 0

R0 < 0

Examples of various steering offsets

3.22

A positive caster stabilises the wheel. A

large caster leads to good straight-ahead
tracking and good steering returnability.

Zero steering offset

If the steering offset is zero (R0 = 0), the
point of intersection of the steering axis is
located exactly on the wheel contact point
around which the steered gear swings.
The considerable degree of friction means
that the steering forces are very high. The
braked wheel is swung outwards as in the
case of the positive steering offset, but
with lower torque.
Caster
The caster or caster angle is specified positively in degrees if the swivelling axis of
the steering tends towards the rear in the
direction of travel. The point of intersection of the steering axis then lies in front of
the wheel contact point and this is referred to as positive caster. If it lies behind,
this is a negative caster.
The caster offset is the distance between
the point of intersection of the steering
axis on the road surface and the wheel

CHASSIS

contact point. The caster offset is specified in the same way as positive or negative.

R0 = 0

LEGEND
1
Positive steering offset
2
Negative steering offset
3
Zero steering offset

The steering offset influences the aligning

torque when longitudinal forces occur in
the steering.

There is a negative steering offset (R0 < 0)

when the point of intersection of the steering axis on the road surface lies outside of
the track width. The wheel with better adhesion on road surfaces with different levels of adhesion swings inwards on braking; the vehicle is stabilised against the
direction of rotation of the possible swerving. Also in the event of a tyre burst at the
front, the vehicle is kept safely in lane.

3.6.3Steering offset and caster

Steering offset
The steering offset R0 is defined as the lateral distance between the wheel contact
point and the point of intersection of the
steering axis on the road surface ( Fig.).
It forms a lever arm to the steer axle, on
which the peripheral forces of the wheel
(friction brake forces) are exerted.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

Toe difference angle

On cornering, the inner wheel runs on a
smaller radius than the wheel nearest to
the curve. The slewing angles have to be
of different sizes so that the tyres do not
roll obliquely over the road surface and
wear out more than necessary.

Static steering configuration

With a so-called static steering configuration, the toe difference angle is selected in
such a way that all the wheels roll without
lateral slip. The following applies:

The toe difference angle determined at a

slewing angle (steering angle of the inner
wheel) of 20.

The toe difference angle is the angle by

which the wheel inside the curve is turned
more compared to the wheel nearest to
the curve ( Fig.).

=
The consequence of this is that the verticals to the wheel centre planes meet at
one point (Ackermann condition).
Dynamic steering configuration
As a consequence of the centrifugal
forces on cornering, however, the wheels
do not run straight: as a general principle,
they run under tyre slip angles (angle between wheel centre plane and direction of
movement of the wheel) with lateral slip.

In accordance with the dynamic steering

configuration, the wheel with the higher
load, the one nearest to the curve, is turned slightly more, as the greater tyre slip
angle means it builds up higher cornering
forces. With greater steer angles, the
Ackermann condition is followed to an increasing degree.

CHASSIS

Toe difference angle under Ackermann condition

3.23

LEGEND

Steering angle (slewing angle) of the

outer wheel

Steering angle (slewing angle) of the

inner wheel

Toe difference angle

3.6.4Toe difference angle

The lateral slip due to the tyre slip angle is

to be taken into account when configuring
the steering kinematics; this is done with a
dynamic steering configuration.

Materials for fuel tanks

Steel, aluminium and plastic are the materials used to make fuel tanks. Variants of
aluminium and plastic containers are used
to lower the weight. Their corrosion protection, inherent in the material, is also
better that that of steel tanks.

The high weights when filled (with 1200 l,

up to 850 kg), the tank places a very high
load on its mounts. With regard to the
continuous exposure to vibrations, The
securing brackets of the fuel tank are particularly large and strong. Furthermore,
the fuel tanks of commercial vehicles are
equipped with special components for
ventilation and venting.

Both the insides and outsides of steel tank

have to be given a corrosion protection
layer. In the meantime, cathode immersion painting on the outside and aluminiumcoated inner walls are widespread.
Tank content
Tank with contents up to 600 litres are
used particularly in long-distance transport in order to achieve long ranges and
reduce the loss of time due to refuelling
stops. For vehicles with powerful hydraulic
assemblies, combined tanks are available
for separate fuel and oil reserves.

CHASSIS

Tank structure
The outer walls of metal tanks consist of
rolled sheet metal and usually have deepdrawn or pressed tank bases. In order to
increase the rigidity of the fuel tank, the
walls are usually curved (convex). In the interior of the container, the tank is fitted
with baffle partitions. These reinforce the
tank walls against excessive deformation
and counteract shifts in the position of the
fuel.

Tank with integrated stages on an tractor

3.24

Tank ventilation
Fuel tanks are equipped with ventilation
and venting connection points: on the one
hand, these reduce the overpressure
caused by thermal expansion and ensure
pressure compensation on refuelling and
emptying (consuming) on the other. As
diesel fuel expands at increased temperatures (up to 2.2 %), tanks should not be
filled "to the brim" on very hot days.
Also in the event of extreme inclinations
(e.g. accidents), no fuel may escape from
the tank. The ventilation and venting connections are therefore equipped with gravity valves to prevent fuel escaping.

Fuel tank
Fuel tanks are mounted on the side of the
frame. Long-distance vehicles fully exploit
the free space between the axles and frame components to accommodate the largest possible fuel volumes of up to 1200
litres.

3.7.1Fuel tank

FUNCTION

3.7Chassis equipment

BASIC PRINCIPLES

BASIC PRINCIPLES

FUNCTION

Equipment carrier
The equipment carrier is used primarily to
accommodate the batteries. Over and
above this, the equipment carrier is a platform for elements of the compressed air
system such as the compressed air drier,
tank or external compressed air connections. Combinations with the spare-wheel
carrier are also widespread.

Battery carrier
The battery carrier is located on the equipment carrier in an easily accessible and at
the same time protected position. Preferably, it is positioned to the side of the frame between the wheels.

Other equipment carriers, e.g. for compressed air components, are required if
the battery carrier does not provide
enough space.

The fold-up left-hand side panelling on the

semitrailer tractor ( Fig.) permits free access to the equipment carrier with battery,
spare wheel and compressed air system.

Depending on their capacity, batteries

weigh up to 100 kg. As it is often the case
that two or more batteries are required,
the battery carrier and the other components have to bear heavy loads and the
battery carrier is of correspondingly sturdy
design.

CHASSIS

Aerodynamic side panelling can already

be seen nowadays on many commercial
vehicles, in particular on semitrailer tractors. Their closed surfaces perform the
protective function even better than open
profiles.

Equipment carrier behind the folded-up side panelling

3.25

Side protection devices

Side protection devices ( page 12.2) are
intended to prevent that riders of twowheel vehicles or pedestrians enter the
free spaces between the vehicle axles in
the event of an accident and are then run
over. In the event of collisions with other
vehicles, they also protect the add-on
parts on the truck chassis against damage.

3.7.2Equipment carrier and side protection devices

On some vehicles (e.g. with low frame

heights), battery sleds are used to provide
better accessibility.

Lubrication system
On modern commercial vehicles, a central
lubrication system handles most of the
usual, regular lubrication work on the vehicle. Here, in contrast to manual lubrication, the lubrication points connected to
the lubrication system are automatically
supplied with lubricant ( page17.4 ff.) at
regular intervals. Maintenance and wear
costs are minimised.

Central lubrication system

At regular intervals, a lubricant pump (gear-wheel or piston pump) feeds the grease from the reservoir of the central lubrication system through the main line to the
distributors at the lubrication points. From
the distributor, the individual lubrication
points are then supplied with a precisely
metered amount of grease.

the metering chamber with a volume adapted to the lubrication point. Once all the
metering chambers (distributors) have
been filled and the pump switched off, the
metered amounts (0.10.4 cm3) are
pressed by the plunger spring force through a valve to each lubrication point.
The single-line lubrication system works
with a pressure of up to approx. 60 bar.

The intervals of the lubrication are controlled on the basis of distance (distance
driven), on the basis of time (operating
hours) or on the basis of operations (number of braking operations). Manual operation of the pump is no longer usual.

Progressive lubrication system

Progressive lubrication distributors each
supply a number of lubrication points with
grease. Here, the grease is not stored in
metering chambers. The grease fed by
the pump is distributed by a number of
plungers according to requirements. The
feed movements of the plungers direct the
flow of grease in such a way that the next
plunger is energised and then also feeds
lubricant to the corresponding lubrication
point. In this way, the connected lubrication points are supplied with grease
(0.10.6 cm3) in succession. In a progressive lubrication system, pressures of up to
approx. 350 bar are used.

Another advantage is that no lubrication

points can be omitted and that only fresh
lubricant without contamination gets to
the lubrication points. This drastically reduces wear-related costs. Vehicles with
central lubrication systems can get by
more or less without wear repairs to the
bearings.
However, the development of maintenance-free bearings (rubber-bonded metal bearings or also plastic bearings) will
mean that central lubrication systems will
lose significance in future.

Two principal types of system are distinguished with regard to the function of their
distributors:
X Single-line system
X Progressive system
Malfunctions in central lubrication systems (both types of system) are indicated
by warning lamps in the dashboard. However, as the reserves of grease are
enough for distances of up to 1000 km, a
displayed malfunction does not force the
driver to stop.

CHASSIS

Single-line lubrication system

With the single-line lubrication system,
each lubrication point has a plunger distributor. Against the pressure of a springloaded plunger, the lubrication pump fills

Reservoir of a central lubrication system

3.26

FUNCTION

3.7.3Central lubrication system

BASIC PRINCIPLES