Constructed language

This article is about the creation of planned or articial

human languages. For information about the linguistic
eld of language planning and policy, see language planning.
A planned or constructed language (sometimes called

As a quantitative example of the use of conlangs within

a country, the Hungarian census of 2001 found 4570
speakers of Esperanto, 10 for Romanid, 4 for Esperantido, 2 each for Interlingua and Ido and 1 each for Idiom
Neutral and Mundolingue.[4]

1 Planned, constructed, articial

The terms planned, constructed, and articial are
used dierently in some traditions. For example, few
speakers of Interlingua consider their language articial,
since they assert that it has no invented content: Interlinguas vocabulary is taken from a small set of natural languages, and its grammar is based closely on these source
languages, even including some degree of irregularity; its
proponents prefer to describe its vocabulary and grammar as standardized rather than articial or constructed.
Similarly, Latino sine exione (LsF) is a simplication
of Latin from which the inections have been removed.
As with Interlingua, some prefer to describe its development as planning rather than constructing. Some
speakers of Esperanto and Esperantidos also avoid the
term articial language because they deny that there is
anything unnatural about the use of their language in
human communication.

The Conlang Flag, a symbol of language construction created

by subscribers to the CONLANG mailing list which represents the
Tower of Babel against a rising sun.[1]

a conlang) is a language whose phonology, grammar, and

vocabulary have been consciously devised for human or
human-like communication, instead of having developed
naturally. It is also referred to as an articial or invented language.[2] There are many possible reasons to
create a constructed language, such as: to ease human
communication (see international auxiliary language and
code), to give ction or an associated constructed world
an added layer of realism during worldbuilding, for experimentation in the elds of linguistics, cognitive science, and machine learning, for artistic creation, and for
language games.

By contrast, some philosophers have argued that all human languages are conventional or articial. Franois Rabelais, for instance, stated: C'est abus de dire que nous
avons une langue naturelle; les langues sont par institution arbitraires et conventions des peuples. (Its misuse
to say that we have a natural language; languages are by
institution arbitrary and conventions of peoples.)[5]

The expression planned language is sometimes used to

mean international auxiliary languages and other languages designed for actual use in human communication.
Some prefer it to the term articial, as that term may
have pejorative connotations in some languages. Outside
Esperanto culture, the term language planning means the
prescriptions given to a natural language to standardize
it; in this regard, even natural languages may be articial in some respects. Prescriptive grammars, which
date to ancient times for classical languages such as Latin
and Sanskrit, are rule-based codications of natural languages, such codications being a middle ground between
naive natural selection and development of language and
its explicit construction. The term glossopoeia is also used
to mean language construction, particularly construction
of artistic languages.[3]

An articial language can also refer to languages which

emerge naturally out of experimental studies within the
framework of articial language evolution.
Further, ctional and experimental languages can be naturalistic in that they are meant to sound natural, have realistic amounts of irregularity, and, if derived a posteriori
from a real-world natural language or real-world reconstructed proto-language (such as Vulgar Latin or ProtoIndo-European) or from a ctional proto-language, they
try to imitate natural processes of phonological, lexical
and grammatical change. In contrast with Interlingua,
these languages are not usually intended for easy learning
or communication, and most artlangers would not consider Interlingua to be naturalistic in the sense in which
this term is used in artlang criticism.[6] Thus, a naturalis1

3 A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES

tic ctional language tends to be more dicult and complex. While Interlingua has simpler grammar, syntax, and
orthography than its source languages (though more complex and irregular than Esperanto or its descendants), naturalistic ctional languages typically mimic behaviors of
natural languages like irregular verbs and nouns and complicated phonological processes.

Overview

In terms of purpose, most constructed languages can

broadly be divided into:
Engineered languages (engelangs /ndlz/), further subdivided into logical languages (loglangs),
philosophical languages and experimental languages; devised for the purpose of experimentation
in logic, philosophy, or linguistics;
Auxiliary languages (auxlangs) devised for international communication (also IALs, for International
Auxiliary Language);
Artistic languages (artlangs) devised to create aesthetic pleasure or humorous eect, just for fun;
usually secret languages and mystical languages are
classied as artlangs

revivalists.[10] Zuckermann therefore endorses the translation of the Hebrew Bible into what he calls Israeli.[11]
Esperanto as a living spoken language has evolved significantly from the prescriptive blueprint published in 1887,
so that modern editions of the Fundamenta Krestomatio,
a 1903 collection of early texts in the language, require
many footnotes on the syntactic and lexical dierences
between early and modern Esperanto.[12]
Proponents of constructed languages often have many
reasons for using them. The famous but disputed Sapir
Whorf hypothesis is sometimes cited; this claims that the
language one speaks inuences the way one thinks. Thus,
a better language should allow the speaker to think more
clearly or intelligently or to encompass more points of
view; this was the intention of Suzette Haden Elgin in
creating Ladan, a feminist language[13] embodied in her
feminist science ction series Native Tongue.[14] A constructed language could also be used to restrict thought, as
in George Orwell's Newspeak, or to simplify thought, as in
Toki Pona. In contrast, linguists such as Steven Pinker argue that ideas exist independently of language. For example, in the book The Language Instinct, Pinker states that
children spontaneously re-invent slang and even grammar
with each generation. These linguists argue that attempts
to control the range of human thought through the reform
of language would fail, as concepts like freedom will
reappear in new words if the old words vanish.

Proponents claim a particular language makes it easier to

express and understand concepts in one area, and more
The boundaries between these categories are by no means dicult in others. An example can be taken from the way
clear.[7] A constructed language could easily fall into various programming languages make it easier to write
more than one of the above categories. A logical language certain kinds of programs and harder to write others.
created for aesthetic reasons would also be classiable as
Another reason cited for using a constructed language is
an artistic language, which might be created by someone
the telescope rule; this claims that it takes less time to
with philosophical motives intending for said conlang to
rst learn a simple constructed language and then a natube used as an auxiliary language. There are no rules, eiral language, than to learn only a natural language. Thus,
ther inherent in the process of language construction or
if someone wants to learn English, some suggest learnexternally imposed, that would limit a constructed laning Basic English rst. Constructed languages like Esguage to tting only one of the above categories.
peranto and Intelingua are in fact often simpler due to
A constructed language can have native speakers if young the typical lack of irregular verbs and other grammatical
children learn it from parents who speak it uently. Ac- quirks. Some studies have found that learning Esperanto
cording to Ethnologue, there are 2002000 who speak helps in learning a non-constructed language later (see
Esperanto as a rst language" (most famously George propaedeutic value of Esperanto).
Soros).[8] A member of the Klingon Language Institute,
Codes for constructed languages include the ISO 639-2
d'Armond Speers, attempted to raise his son as a native
"art" for conlangs; however, some constructed languages
(bilingual with English) Klingon speaker.[9]
have their own ISO 639 language codes (e.g. eo and
As soon as a constructed language has a community epo for Esperanto, jbo for Lojban, ia and ina for
of uent speakers, especially if it has numerous na- Interlingua, tlh for Klingon and io and ido for Ido).
tive speakers, it begins to evolve and hence loses its
constructed status. For example, Modern Hebrew was
modeled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineered
from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes 3 A priori and a posteriori lansince the state of Israel was founded in 1948 (Hetzron
guages
1990:693). However, linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that Modern Hebrew, which he terms Israeli,
is a Semito-European hybrid based not only on He- Main articles: A priori (languages) and A posteriori
brew but also on Yiddish and other languages spoken by (languages)

4.3

Perfecting language

An a priori language is a language whose vocabulary is

not based on an existing language. An a posteriori language is the opposite. An example of an a priori language
could be lojban. An example of an a posteriori language
could be Esperanto or Interlingua.

4
4.1

History
Ancient linguistic experiments

Grammatical speculation dates from Classical Antiquity,

appearing for instance in Plato's Cratylus in Hermogeness contention that words are not inherently linked
to what they refer to; that people apply a piece of their
own voice...to the thing. Athenaeus of Naucratis, in
Book III of Deipnosophistae, tells the story of two gures: Dionysius of Sicily and Alexarchus. Dionysius of
Sicily created neologisms like menandros virgin (from
menei waiting and andra husband), menekrats pillar (from menei it remains in one place and kratei it
is strong), and ballantion javelin (from balletai enantion thrown against someone). Incidentally, the more
common Greek words for those three are parthenos, stulos, and akon. Alexarchus of Macedon, the brother of
King Cassander of Macedon, was the founder of the city
of Ouranopolis. Athenaeus recounts a story told by Heracleides of Lembos that Alexarchus introduced a peculiar vocabulary, referring to a rooster as a dawn-crier,
a barber as a mortal-shaver, a drachma as worked
silver...and a herald as an aputs [from puta loudvoiced]. He once wrote something...to the public authorities in Casandreia...As for what this letter says, in
my opinion not even the Pythian god could make sense
of it. While the mechanisms of grammar suggested by
classical philosophers were designed to explain existing
languages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit), they were not used
to construct new grammars. Roughly contemporary to
Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, Pini constructed a set of rules for explaining language, so that the
text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language.

4.2

Page 68r of the Voynich manuscript. This three-page foldout

from the manuscript includes a chart that appears astronomical.

Early constructed languages

Eve in Paradise, lost in the confusion of tongues. The

rst Christian project for an ideal language is outlined
in Dante Alighieri's De vulgari eloquentia, where he
searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature. Ramon Llull's Ars Magna was a project of a
perfect language with which the indels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith. It was basically an application of combinatorics on a given set of
concepts. During the Renaissance, Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were drawn upon in a magical context, resulting
in cryptographic applications. The Voynich manuscript
may be an example of this.

4.3 Perfecting language

Renaissance interest in Ancient Egypt, notably the discovery of the Hieroglyphica of Horapollo, and rst encounters with the Chinese script directed eorts towards a perfect written language. Johannes Trithemius,
in Steganographia and Polygraphia, attempted to show
how all languages can be reduced to one. In the 17th
century, interest in magical languages was continued by
the Rosicrucians and Alchemists (like John Dee and his
Enochian). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of a natural
language (Natursprache) of the senses.
Musical languages from the Renaissance were tied up
with mysticism, magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the language of the birds. The Solresol project
of 1817 re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context.

4.4 17th and 18th century:

philosophical languages

advent of

The earliest non-natural languages were considered less The 17th century saw the rise of projects for philosophconstructed than super-natural, mystical, or divinely ical or a priori languages, such as:
inspired. The Lingua Ignota, recorded in the 12th century by St. Hildegard of Bingen is an example, and
Francis Lodwick's A Common Writing (1647) and
apparently the rst entirely articial language.[13] It is
The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended)
a form of private mystical cant (see also language of
for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a
angels). An important example from Middle-Eastern
Universal Common Writing (1652)
culture is Balaibalan, invented in the 16th century.[3]
Kabbalistic grammatical speculation was directed at re Sir Thomas Urquhart's Ekskybalauron (1651) and
covering the original language spoken by Adam and
Logopandecteision[15] (1652)

4
George Dalgarno's Ars signorum, 1661
John Wilkins' Essay towards a Real Character, and
a Philosophical Language, 1668

These early taxonomic conlangs produced systems of hierarchical classication that were intended to result in
both spoken and written expression. Leibniz had a similar purpose for his lingua generalis of 1678, aiming at a
lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform
calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-eect developing binary calculus. These
projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into characters or hierarchies, an idea
that with the Enlightenment would ultimately lead to the
Encyclopdie. Many of these 17th18th centuries conlangs were pasigraphies, or purely written languages with
no spoken form or a spoken form that would vary greatly
according to the native language of the reader.[16]

HISTORY

to schism, and by the mid-1890s it fell into obscurity,

making way for Esperanto, proposed in 1887 by Ludwik
Lejzer Zamenhof, and its descendants. Interlingua, the
most recent auxlang to gain a signicant number of
speakers, emerged in 1951, when the International Auxiliary Language Association published its InterlinguaEnglish Dictionary and an accompanying grammar. The
success of Esperanto did not stop others from trying to
construct new auxiliary languages, such as Leslie Jones
Eurolengo, which mixes elements of English and Spanish,
or He Yafus Mondlango, which introduces more English
roots instead of Latin ones.
Loglan (1955) and its descendants constitute a pragmatic
return to the aims of the a priori languages, tempered
by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language.
Thus far, these modern a priori languages have garnered
only small groups of speakers.

Robot Interaction Language (2010) is a spoken language

that is optimized for communication between machines
and humans. The major goals of ROILA are that it should
Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossi- be easily learnable by the human user, and optimized for
ble to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree ecient recognition by computer speech recognition aldiagram, and consequently to construct an a priori lan- gorithms.
guage based on such a classication of concepts. Under
the entry Charactre, D'Alembert critically reviewed the
projects of philosophical languages of the preceding cen- 4.6 Artlangs
tury. After the Encyclopdie, projects for a priori languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe. In- Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment or
dividual authors, typically unaware of the history of the aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, begin
idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical lan- to appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel, and
guages until the early 20th century (e.g. Ro), but most re- in Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notabilcent engineered languages have had more modest goals; ity as serious projects beginning in the 20th century.[3] A
some are limited to a specic eld, like mathematical for- Princess of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possibly
malism or calculus (e.g. Lincos and programming lan- the rst ction of that century to feature a constructed languages), others are designed for eliminating syntactical guage. J. R. R. Tolkien was the rst to develop a family
ambiguity (e.g., Loglan and Lojban) or maximizing con- of related ctional languages and was the rst academic
ciseness (e.g., Ithkuil[13] ).
to discuss artistic languages publicly, giving a lecture en-

4.5

19th and 20th century: auxiliary languages

Main article: International auxiliary language

Already in the Encyclopdie attention began to focus on
a posteriori auxiliary languages. Joachim Faiguet de Villeneuve in the article on Langue wrote a short proposition
of a laconic or regularized grammar of French. During
the 19th century, a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that
Louis Couturat and Leopold Leau in Histoire de la langue
universelle (1903) reviewed 38 projects.

titled "A Secret Vice" in 1931 at a congress. (Orwells

Newspeak is considered a satire of an IAL rather than an
artistic language proper.)
By the beginning of the rst decade of the 21st century, it had become common for science-ction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, or more commonly, an extremely limited but dened vocabulary which suggests the existence of a complete language, and constructed languages are a regular part of the genre, appearing in Star Wars, Star Trek,
Lord of the Rings (Elvish), Stargate SG-1, Atlantis: The
Lost Empire, Game of Thrones (Dothraki language and
Valyrian languages), Avatar, Dune and the Myst series of
computer adventure games.

The rst of these that made any international impact was

Volapk, proposed in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer; 4.7 Modern conlang organizations
within a decade, 283 Volapkist clubs were counted
all over the globe. However, disagreements between Various paper zines on constructed languages were pubSchleyer and some prominent users of the language led lished from the 1970s through the 1990s, such as Glos-

5
sopoeic Quarterly, Taboo Jadoo, and The Journal of
Planned Languages.[17] The Conlang Mailing List was
founded in 1991, and later split o an AUXLANG mailing list dedicated to international auxiliary languages. In
the early to mid-1990s a few conlang-related zines were
published as email or websites, such as Vortpunoj [18] and
Model Languages. The Conlang mailing list has developed a community of conlangers with its own customs,
such as translation challenges and translation relays,[19]
and its own terminology. Sarah Higley reports from results of her surveys that the demographics of the Conlang
list are primarily men from North America and western
Europe, with a smaller number from Oceania, Asia, the
Middle East, and South America, with an age range from
thirteen to over sixty; the number of women participating
has increased over time. More recently founded online
communities include the Zompist Bulletin Board (ZBB;
since 2001) and the Conlanger Bulletin Board. Discussion on these forums includes presentation of members
conlangs and feedback from other members, discussion
of natural languages, whether particular conlang features
have natural language precedents, and how interesting
features of natural languages can be repurposed for conlangs, posting of interesting short texts as translation challenges, and meta-discussion about the philosophy of conlanging, conlangers purposes, and whether conlanging is
an art or a hobby.[3] Another 2001 survey by Patrick Jarrett showed an average age of 30.65, with the average
time since starting to invent languages 11.83 years.[20] A
more recent thread on the ZBB showed that many conlangers spend a relatively small amount of time on any
one conlang, moving from one project to another; about
a third spend years on developing the same language.[21]

mon in recent years, as constructed language designers

have started using Internet tools to coordinate design efforts. NGL/Tokcir[22] was an early Internet collaborative
engineered language whose designers used a mailing list
to discuss and vote on grammatical and lexical design issues. More recently, The Demos IAL Project[23] was developing an international auxiliary language with similar
collaborative methods. The Voksigid and Novial 98 languages were both worked on by mailing lists, though neither was issued in nal form.
Several artistic languages have been developed on dierent constructed language wikis, usually involving discussion and voting on phonology, grammatical rules and so
forth. An interesting variation is the corpus approach,
exemplied by Madjal[24] (late 2004) and Kalusa (mid2006),[25] where contributors simply read the corpus of
existing sentences and add their own sentences, perhaps
reinforcing existing trends or adding new words and structures. The Kalusa engine adds the ability for visitors to
rate sentences as acceptable or unacceptable. There is no
explicit statement of grammatical rules or explicit denition of words in this corpus approach; the meaning of
words is inferred from their use in various sentences of
the corpus, perhaps in dierent ways by dierent readers
and contributors, and the grammatical rules can be inferred from the structures of the sentences that have been
rated highest by the contributors and other visitors.

6 See also
List of constructed languages
Aboriginal constructed languages: Damin, Eskayan

Collaborative constructed languages

The Talossan language, a cultural base for the

micronation known as Talossa, was created by a
single person in 1979. However, as interest in Talossan
grew, guidance of the language became (in 1983) the
province of a recommending body, the Comit per
l'tzil del Glhe, and other independent organizations
of enthusiasts. Villnian draws on Latin, Greek and the
Scandinavian languages. In its syntax and grammar it is
reminiscent of Chinese. The core elements were created
by a single person and its vocabulary is now enlarged by
suggestions from the internet community.
While most constructed languages begin as did Talossan,
having been created by a single person, a few are created
by group collaborations; examples of these are Interlingua, which was developed by the International Auxiliary
Language Association, and Lojban, which was developed
by a breakaway group of Loglanists.
Group collaboration has apparently become more com-

Idioglossia
ISO, SIL, and BCP language codes for constructed
languages
Language Creation Conference
Language construction
Articial script
Langmaker
Language Construction Kit
Language game
Language regulator
List of language inventors
Language modelling and translation
Knowledge representation
Language translation
Metalanguage
Universal grammar

7 NOTES
Mystical languages
Glossolalia
Language of the birds
Spontaneous emergence of grammar
Articial language
June and Jennifer Gibbons
Nicaraguan Sign Language
Origin of language
Pidgin
Poto and Cabengo
Linguistic determinism
Linguistic relativity
Pasigraphy
Universal language
Basic English

Notes

[1] Adrian Morgan. Conlanging and phonetics. The Outer

Hoard. The colours represent creative energy, and the
layers of the tower imply that a conlang is built piece by
piece, never completed. The tower itself also alludes to the
Tower of Babel, as it has long been a tradition to demonstrate a constructed language by translating the Babel legend. The Conlang ag was decided on by a vote between
many competing designs, and one of my own contributions to the conlanging world is that I was the person who
facilitated this election. The winning design was drawn by
Christian Thalmann, who introduced the layers. The idea
of including the Tower of Babel on the ag had been introduced by Jan van Steenbergen, and the idea of placing
the sun on the horizon behind it by Leland Paul. The idea
of having the rising sun on the ag had been introduced
by David Peterson, who saw it as representing the rise of
conlanging from obscurity to popularity and notoriety.

[7] The Conlang Triangle by Raymond Brown. Accessed 8

August 2008
[8] Esperanto. Ethnologue.
[9] Gavin Edwards: Babble On Revisited, Wired Magazine,
Issue 7.08, August 1999
[10] Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms
and Patterns, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Journal of Language
Contact, Varia 2, pp. 40-67 (2009).
[11] Let my people know!, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Jerusalem
Post, May 18, 2009.
[12] Fundamenta Krestomatio, ed. L. L. Zamenhof, 1903;
18th edition with footnotes by Gaston Waringhien, UEA
1992.
[13] Joshua Foer, John Quijada and Ithkuil, the Language He
Invented, The New Yorker, Dec. 24, 2012.
[14] My hypothesis was that if I constructed a language designed specically to provide a more adequate mechanism for expressing womens perceptions, women would
(a) embrace it and begin using it, or (b) embrace the idea
but not the language, say Elgin, you've got it all wrong!"
and construct some other womens language to replace
it. Glatzer, Jenna (2007). Interview With Suzette Haden
Elgin. Archived from the original on 2007-06-12. Retrieved 2007-03-20.
[15] Logopandecteision. uchicago.edu.
[16] Leopold Einstein, Al la historio de la Provoj de
Lingvoj Tutmondaj de Leibnitz is la Nuna Tempo,
1884. Reprinted in Fundamenta Krestomatio, UEA 1992
[1903].
[17] How did you nd out that there were other conlangers?"
Conlang list posting by And Rosta, 14 October 2007
[18] Archives of Vortpunoj at Steve Brewers website
[19] Audience, Uglossia, and Conlang: Inventing Languages
on the Internet by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000). (Google cache version of article, media-culture.org.au site sometimes has problems.)

[2] Ishtar for Belgium to Belgrade. European Broadcasting

Union. Retrieved 19 May 2013.

[20] Update mailing list statisticsFINAL, Conlang list

posting by Patrick Jarrett, 13 September 2001

[3] Sarah L. Higley: Hildegard of Bingens Unknown Language. Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

[21] Average life of a conlang thread on Zompist Bulletin

Board, 15 August 2008; accessed 26 August 2008.
Average life of a conlang thread on Conlang mailing
list, 27 August 2008 (should be archived more persistently
than the ZBB thread)

[4] Ethnic aliation, attachment of cultures, languages and

language systems Hungarian statistical oce. The Russian
census (2010) found 992 speakers of Esperanto, 9 of Ido,
1 of Edo and no speakers of Slovio and Intelingua.
[5] Franois Rabelais, vres compltes, III, 19 (Paris: Seuil,
1973), cited in Claude Piron, Le De des Langues
(L'Harmattan, 1994) ISBN 2-7384-2432-5.

[22] NGL Central Repository. geocities.com. Archived from

the original on 27 October 2009.
[23] Yahoo! Groups. yahoo.com.
[24] Fiziwig.com

[6] Re: Naturalistic for auxlangers vs artlangers?"

AUXLANG mailing list post by Jrg Rhiemeier, 30 August 2009

[25] The 2006 Smiley Award Winner: Kalusa by David J. Peterson

References
Eco, Umberto (1995). The search
for the perfect language. Oxford:
Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17465-6.
Comrie, Bernard (1990).
The
Worlds Major Languages. Oxford
[Oxfordshire]: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-506511-5.
Libert, Alan (2000). A priori articial languages (Languages of the
world). Lincom Europa. ISBN 389586-667-9.
Okrent, Arika (2009). In the Land
of Invented Languages: Esperanto
Rock Stars, Klingon Poets, Loglan
Lovers, and the Mad Dreamers Who
Tried to Build A Perfect Language.
Spiegel & Grau. p. 352. ISBN 0385-52788-8.
Babels modern architects, by
Amber Dance. The Los Angeles
Times, 24 August 2007 (Originally
published as In their own words -literally)

External links
Constructed language at DMOZ
Conlang Atlas of Language Structures, a typological
database of conlangs, based on the World Atlas of
Language Structures.
Blueprints For Babel, focusing on international auxiliary languages.
Garretts Links to Logical Languages
Department of Planned Languages Esperanto Museum of the Austrian National Library.
The Conlangers Library
Henrik Theilings (Con)Language Resources
Jrg Rhiemeiers Conlang Page
Constructed Languages Facebook group
Constructed Languages group of Reddit

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Constructed language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language?oldid=677632739 Contributors: Damian Yerrick,

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Branko, Olivier, Edward, Tillwe, Michael Hardy, Modster, Cprompt, Alexr, Chuck SMITH, Sam Francis, Lquilter, Zanimum, Jupo42,
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Timwi, Dcoetzee, Wikiborg, Dysprosia, Wolfgang Kufner, Mw66, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Wampa Jabba, VeryVerily, EthanL, Ryoho,
Ed g2s, Traroth, Cabalamat, Wiwaxia, Optim, AnonMoos, Jerzy, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoer, Branddobbe, Robbot,
MrJones, Chealer, Noldoaran, Tomchiukc, Jotomicron, Chocolateboy, M1tk4, Calmypal, P0lyglut, Tualha, Rursus, Hippietrail, Jondel,
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10.2

Images

File:68r.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/68r.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke Rare

Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University ([1]). Original artist: Unknown
File:Conlangflag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Conlangflag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: CONLANG mailing list. According to Conlanging and phonetics by Adrian Morgan, The colours represent creative energy, and the
layers of the tower imply that a conlang is built piece by piece, never completed. The tower itself also alludes to the Tower of Babel, as it
has long been a tradition to demonstrate a constructed language by translating the Babel legend. The Conlang ag was decided on by a vote
between many competing designs, and one of my own contributions to the conlanging world is that I was the person who facilitated this
election. The winning design was drawn by Christian Thalmann, who introduced the layers. The idea of including the Tower of Babel on
the ag had been introduced by Jan van Steenbergen, and the idea of placing the sun on the horizon behind it by Leland Paul. The idea of
having the rising sun on the ag had been introduced by David Peterson, who saw it as representing the rise of conlanging from obscurity
to popularity and notoriety. Original artist: According to the website of Language Creation Society: The Conlang Flag was designed by
Christian Thalmann, Jan van Steenbergen, Leland Paul, David J. Peterson and Adrian Morgan. Vectorized by Froztbyte
File:Design_conlang.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Design_conlang.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.

10.3

10.3

Content license

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0