Choppers A general introduction

Choppers
A chopper is basically a dc to dc converter whose main function/usage is to create adjustable dc
voltage from fixed dc voltage sources through the use of semiconductors.

Types of choppers
The main classification of the types of choppers is given in another post. Take a look TYPES OF
CHOPPER CIRCUITS
There are two types of choppers AC and DC.

AC Link Chopper
In the case of an ac link chopper, first dc is converted to ac with the help of an inverter. After that, AC
is stepped-up or stepped-down by a transformer, which is then converted back to dc by a diode
rectifier. Ac link chopper is costly, bulky and less efficient as the conversion is done in two stages.

DC Chopper
A DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage
directly. A chopper can be said as dc equivalent of an ac transformer as they behave in an identical
manner. This kind of choppers are more efficient as they involve one stage conversion. Just like a
transformer, a chopper can be used to step up or step down the fixed dc output voltage. Choppers
are used in many applications all over the world inside various electronic equipments. A chopper
system has a high efficiency, fast response and a smooth control.

Principle of Chopper Operation

A chopper can be said as a high speed on/off semiconductor switch. Source to load connection and
disconnection from load to source happens in a rapid speed. Consider the figure, here a chopped
load voltage can be obtained from a constant dc supply of voltage, which has a magnitude
Vs. Chopper is the one represented by SW inside a dotted square which can be turned on or off as
desired.

Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

Let us now take a look of the output current and voltage wave forms of a chopper. During the time
period Ton the chopper is turned on and the load voltage is equal to source voltage V s. During the
interval Toff the chopper is off and the load current will be flowing though the freewheeling diode FD .
The load terminals are short circuited by FD and the load voltage is therefore zero during T off. Thus,
a chopped dc voltage is produced at the load terminals. We can see from the graph that the load
current is continuous. During the time period T on, load current rises but during Toff load current
decays .
Average load Voltage is given by
V0 = Ton/ (Ton +Toff) * Vs = (Ton/T) V = A Vs(1.0)
Ton : on -time
Toff : off- time
T = Ton +Toff= chopping period
A = Ton /T = duty cycle
So we know that the load voltage can be controlled by varying the duty cycle A. equation 1.0 shows
that the load voltage is independent of load current it can be also written as
V0 = f. Ton .Vs
f= 1/T = chopping frequency

Step up Choppers

In the case of the chopper circuit (Refer figure named chopper circuit) shown in beginning of this
article, V0 or the average output voltage is less than the input voltage Vs so this type of chopper is
called a step down chopper. For a step-up chopper we can obtain an average output voltage greater

than input voltage. Figure (a) shows the elementary form of a step-up chopper.

Working Principle of a Step-up Chopper

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In step-up chopper a large inductor, L is in series with the source voltage V s. This forms a closed
path as shown in the figure (b). During the time period T on the chopper is on the inductor stores
energy. When the chopper is turned off the current is forced to flow through the diode and load for a
time Toff and as the inductor current cannot die suddenly. When the current decreases the polarity of
the emf induced in L is reversed. Fig (c). As a result the total voltage available across the load is
given by the equation V0 = Vs + L (di/dt) . The voltage V0 exceeds the source voltage and hence the
circuit acts as a step-up chopper and the energy which is stored in L is released to the load.

Voltage and current waveforms

When the chopper is turned ON the current through the inductance L will increase from I 1 to I2. As the
chopper is on the source voltage is applied to L that is vL = VS .
When the chopper is OFF, the KVL for the figure (c) can be written as
vL V0+Vs =0 or vL =V0 -Vs where vL is the voltage across L. Variation of source voltage v S , source
current IS , load voltage v0 and load current iO is sketched in the fig (d) . Let us assume that the
variation of output current is linear, the energy input to inductor from the source, during the time
period Ton , is
Win= Vs (I1+I2/2) Ton
During the time Tof the chopper is off, so the energy released by the inductor to the load is
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Wof = (V0-Vs)(I1+I2/2).Tof
Let us assume that the system is lossless, then the two energies say Win and Wof are equal.
So equating these two we will get
Vs (I1+I2/2) Ton = (V0-Vs)(I1+I2/2).Tof
Vs Ton = (V0-Vs) Tof
V0Tof = Vs (Tof + Ton) = Vs .T
V0 = VS (T/Toff) = VS (T/T-Ton) =VS (1/(1-A)
.(2.0)
From the equation 2.0 we can see that the average voltage across the load can be stepped up by
varying the duty cycle. If the chopper in the figure (a) is always off, A=0 and V 0= Vs. If the chopper is
always on, A =1 and V 0 = infinity as we can see from the graph. In practical applications the chopper
is turned on and off so that the required step-up average output voltage, more source voltage is
obtained.

Figure shows variation of load voltage V0 with duty cycle .

Application of Step-up Chopper

Figure shows regenerative braking of dc motor.

The principle of step-up chopper can be used for the regenerative braking of DC motors. The
armature voltage Ea is analogy to the VS and voltage V0 is the dc source voltage. When the chopper
is on the inductor L stores the energy and when it is off the inductor release the energy. If Ea / (1-A)
exceeds V0 , the dc machine will work as a dc generator and the armature current will flow in a
direction opposite to the motoring mode. As the power now is flowing from dc machine to the source
V0it will cause regenerative breaking of the dc motor. Even at decreasing motor speeds, regenerative
breaking can be provided as the motor armature E a is directly proportional to the field flux and motor
speed.

Types of Chopper Circuits

In chopper circuits, unidirectional power semiconductors are used. If these semiconductor devices
are arranged appropriately, a chopper can work in any of the four quadrants. we can classify chopper
circuits according to their working in any of these four quadrants as type A, type B, type C, type D
and type E. Let us now take a look of these classifications and the characteristics of various
classifications.
Type A Chopper or FirstQuadrant Chopper
This type of chopper is shown in the figure. It is known as first-quadrant chopper or type A chopper.
When the chopper is on, v 0 = VS as a result and the current flows in the direction of the load. But when
the chopper is off v0 is zero but I0 continues to flow in the same direction through the freewheeling
diode FD, thus average value of voltage and current say V0 and I0 will be always positive as shown in
the graph.

Chopper First Quadrant

In type A chopper the power flow will be always from source to the load. As the average voltage V 0 is
less than the dc input voltage Vs
Type B Chopper or Second-Quadrant Chopper
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Chopper Second Quadrant

In type B or second quadrant chopper the load must always contain a dc source E . When the
chopper is on, v0 is zero but the load voltage E drives the current through the inductor L and the
chopper, L stores the energy during the time T on of the chopper . When the chopper is off , v 0 =( E+
L . di/dt ) will be more than the source voltage Vs . Because of this the diode D2 will be forward
biased and begins conducting and hence the power starts flowing to the source. No matter the
chopper is on or off the current I0 will be flowing out of the load and is treated negative . Since V O is
positive and the current I0 is negative , the direction of power flow will be from load to source. The
load voltage V0 = (E+L .di/dt ) will be more than the voltage Vs so the type B chopper is also
known as a step up chopper .
Type -C chopper or Two-quadrant type-A Chopper
Type C chopper is obtained by connecting type A and type B choppers in parallel. We will always
get a positive output voltage V 0 as the freewheeling diode FD is present across the load. When the
chopper is on the freewheeling diode starts conducting and the output voltage v 0 will be equal to V s .
The direction of the load current i0 will be reversed. The current i0 will be flowing towards the source
and it will be positive regardless the chopper is on or the FD conducts. The load current will be
negative if the chopper is or the diode D2 conducts. We can say the chopper and FD operate
together as type-A chopper in first quadrant. In the second quadrant, the chopper and D2 will
operate together as type B chopper.

Chopper Two Quadrant

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The average voltage will be always positive but the average load current might be positive or
negative. The power flow may be life the first quadrant operation ie from source to load or from load
to source like the second quadrant operation. The two choppers should not be turned on
simultaneously as the combined action my cause a short circuit in supply lines. For regenerative
braking and motoring these type of chopper configuration is used.

Type D Chopper or Two-Quadrant Type B Chopper

Two Quadrant Type B chopper or D Chopper Circuit

The circuit diagram of the type D chopper is shown in the above figure. When the two choppers are
on the output voltage v0 will be equal to Vs . When v0 = Vs the two choppers will be off but both the
diodes D1 and D2 will start conducting. V 0 the average output voltage will be positive when the
choppers turn-on the time Ton will be more than the turn off time Toff its shown in the wave form below.
As the diodes and choppers conduct current only in one direction the direction of load current will be
always positive.
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Positive First Quadrant Operation and Negative Fourth Quadrant Operation

The power flows from source to load as the average values of both v0 and i0 is positive. From the
wave form it is seen that the average value of V0 is positive thus the forth quadrant operation of type
D chopper is obtained.
From the wave forms the Average value of output voltage is given by
V0= (Vs Ton-VsToff)/T = Vs.(Ton-Toff)/T
Type E chopper or the Fourth-Quadrant Chopper
Type E or the fourth quadrant chopper consists of four semiconductor switches and four diodes
arranged in antiparallel. The 4 choppers are numbered according to which quadrant they belong.
Their operation will be in each quadrant and the corresponding chopper only be active in its
quadrant.

E-type Chopper Circuit diagram with load emf E and E Reversed

First Quadrant
During the first quadrant operation the chopper CH4 will be on . Chopper CH3 will be off and CH1
will be operated. AS the CH1 and CH4 is on the load voltage v 0 will be equal to the source voltage
Vs and the load current i0 will begin to flow . v0 and i0 will be positive as the first quadrant operation is

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taking place. As soon as the chopper CH1 is turned off, the positive current freewheels through CH4
and the diode D2 . The type E chopper acts as a step- down chopper in the first quadrant.

Second Quadrant
In this case the chopper CH2 will be operational and the other three are kept off. As CH2 is on
negative current will starts flowing through the inductor L . CH2 ,E and D4. Energy is stored in the
inductor L as the chopper CH2 is on. When CH2 is off the current will be fed back to the source
through the diodes D1 and D4. Here (E+L.di/dt) will be more than the source voltage V s . In second
quadrant the chopper will act as a step-up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source

Third Quadrant
In third quadrant operation CH1 will be kept off , CH2 will be on and CH3 is operated. For this
quadrant working the polarity of the load should be reversed. As the chopper CH3 is on, the load
gets connected to the source Vs and v0 and i0 will be negative and the third quadrant operation will
takes place. This chopper acts as a step-down chopper

Fourth Quadrant
CH4 will be operated and CH1, CH2 and CH3 will be off. When the chopper CH4 is turned on
positive current starts to flow through CH4, D2 ,E and the inductor L will store energy. As the CH4 is
turned off the current is feedback to the source through the diodes D2 and D3 , the operation will be
in fourth quadrant as the load voltage is negative but the load current is positive. The chopper acts
as a step up chopper as the power is fed back from load to source.

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