1

UNIVERSIDAD DE LAS FUERZAS

ARMADAS ESPE
LINGUISTICS CAREER

THE KEY TO WRITING A

RESEARCH PROJECT OUTLINE FOR
INTEGRATIVE PROJECTS
LIC. MARCOS MORALES.ESP
2010

INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT

Research is one of the very important duties that the University has in this actual world that
is why the Applied Linguistics Career of the Army Polytechnic has implemented in its
curricula INTEGRATIVE RESEARCH PROJECTS to complement the educational process
that our students must have.
Since the society is changing and the new necessities of the country demand professionals
with a high degree of commitment and knowledge to promote changes The Army
Polytechnic School is changing towards a RESEARCH COMMUNITY which will engage
knowledge, technology and professionalism to follow a route of development that is really
necessary in the actual world.
Research is hard work, but like any challenging job well done, both the process and the
results bring immense personal satisfaction. Research and its reporting are also social acts
that require students think steadily about how their work relates to their readers and the
responsibility they have not just toward the subject and themselves but toward them as
well.
This document intends to help the students of the Applied Linguistics Career to become
familiar with the way to carry out an investigation project, but this is a preliminary work
because it leads you towards the basic steps a researcher has to do before developing the
complete investigation.
We hope to introduce beginning researchers to the nature, uses and objectives of research
and its reporting.
THE RESEARCH PROJECT OUTLINE
In the Linguistics Career there is model which our students have to follow, this is a brief
document consisting in four parts, it has the basic structure you have to develop.
The information in this booklet is a practical summary of what you have to do in order to
complete the final requirement which is to present an outline at the end of the term.
Remember that the outline you have to present is not a FORMAL RESEARCH WORK, it
is only the previous step before doing a formal research, and it is only the plan before it.
I know that it is going to be difficult for you to choose a research topic which will lead you
through this process, if your concern is that, do not worry , I am going to help you any time
you need an advice or something.
As I stated before, the outline has four parts well organized, the first part has to do everything
about the PROBLEM, the second one has to do with the THEORY behind, the third has to
do with the DESIGN itself, and finally everything related to resources.
STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT OUTLINE
The proposed outline has four parts which are shown in the picture below.

OUTLINE RESEARCH
COVER PAGE
INDEX
SUMMARY
TOPIC OF INVESTIGATION
FIRST PART
Research problem
1.1. Problem identification (Problems tree)
1.2. Problem formulation (The information question usually wh?)
1.3. Variable matrix
1.3.1. Independent variable
1.3.2. Dependent variable
1.3.3. Variable working out matrix
1.4. Objectives
1.4.1 General Objective
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
1.5. Justification
SECOND PART
Theoretical frame
2.1. Theoretical and Conceptual Focus
2.2. Structure
2.2. Hypotheses system
2.3.1 Working hypothesis
2.3.2 Null Hypothesis
THIRD PART
Methodological Design
3.1 Research type and design
3.2 Population and sample
3.3 Fielding
3.4 Instruments for data collection
FOURTH PART
Administrative Framework
4.1 Material resources
4.2 Human competence
4.3 Budget
4.4 Timetable
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNEX
Figure 1.- Outline Structure

To have a better understanding of all the activities you have to carry out, this booklet has
been divided in four parts, each one related to a part of the outline.

Part one. - Research problem

Part two. - Theoretical framework
Part three. - Methodological design
Part four. - Administrative frame

Figure 2.- The research cycle process

PART ONE
RESEARCH PROBLEM
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused
and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area within a certain context involving the
WHO or WHAT, the WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem situation.
There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually
contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a
source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read
about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a
research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be
researched.
Research can thus be aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying
contradictory findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or
unsuitable use of statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving
existing practical problems.
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
A problem inner to educational background and related to the subjects of Linguistics should
be established, specifically in learning English. The problem must have: indicators or
symptoms, causes and effects. Every element must contain indexes expressed in percentages.
It is also necessary to establish variables: independent x (cause) and dependent y (problem).

Figure 3.- Research problem identification.

Figure 3 shows the way we have to identify our research problem, but read the following steps
and see figure 4:
STEPS FOR RESEARCH PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
First. - We must identify a problem that affects your environment, etc;
Second.- We must set the indicators, which are evidences of something, for example, we say
that there is poverty at LAS LOMAS neighborhood, but how do we know that? , well, we
say so, because we see evidences which are called indicators:
Indicator 1.- Shoeless people
Indicator 2.- Wooden houses without doors
Indicator 3.- People wearing cheap clothes
Indicator 4.- etc, etc

Third.- we establish the causes by which we say there is the problem, there are many causes,
but keep in mind the most important. In the previous example at LAS LOMAS there are
many causes, as for example:
Cause 1.- Level of education of the people
Cause 2.- Economic level class
Cause 3.- Peoples income
Cause 4.- etc, etc..
Fourth.- what are the effects?, they are what we get as a result of a problem, lets see;
Effect 1.- Delinquency
Effect 2.- School desertion
Effect 3.- People without priorities
Effect4.- etc, etc
Fifth .- In this stage you give a definition of the problem, in the example below you have to
give the definition of poverty.
Finally.- You write a page essay using all the elements given before, beginning with the
definition, then continue with the indicators, the causes but without mentioning the most
important OR HEAVIEST CAUSE because you are going to use it later , then finish with
the effects. Keep in mind you have to use correct English.

Figure 4.- Practical example of research problem identification

The following are two examples of PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION, which is written in a

really good way and using good English. Notice how it begins with a definition and continues
using the other elements.

Example 1:
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION OF THE DESTRUCTION OF THE OZONE LAYER
Ozone, scientifically speaking, is an unstable compound made up of three oxygen atoms. Its
function is to filter the passage of a small part of the damaging ultraviolet radiation (UV-B),
from the sun. On the surface of the earth in the stratosphere, there is located a layer formed
by this compound. It is said that Earth is unique. It protects living beings from extensive
damage from skin inflammation, conjunctivitis, to the defense system impairment and cancer
also may affect normal plant growth, including imbalance in nature. Without their presence,
UV light would destroy all life on earth.
It has been shown that the hole in the ozone layer is closely related to the use of a chemical
made by man, present in various commercial products for sale such as aerosols, paint, etc...
This component is the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Also known hydro chlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) replacements for previous reports, which are mainly used as refrigerants and
blowing agents and which are less hazardous. Halons, which contain bromine, are also
enemies of ozone.
There is an international treaty: the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which commits the countries of
the world to eliminate production and use of substances harmful to the ozone layer. It might
be needed 20 years before ozone levels will improve considerably you can have a full recovery
by the year 2050.
The damage can result in deterioration of the ozone layer and therefore UV-B, are manifold,
including: Promotes and initiates malignant skin cancer and nonmalignant, damages the
immune system, so that people become vulnerable to the action of bacteria and viruses, cause
eye damage, including cataracts, more severe sunburn and causes aging of the skin, increases
the risk of allergic dermatitis and toxic activates certain bacterial and viral diseases , reduces
crop yields, reduces the performance of the fishing industry, producing damage to materials
and equipment to be outdoors.

Example 2:
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION OF JUVENILE CRIME
Illegal activities that develop young people, whose conduct goes through accepted social
causes or follows the same pattern of integration that most do not arise repeatedly, but
they are part of a gradual process of socialization which get worse. This process is
manifested most sharply in adolescence, when the child is better able to perform actions on
their own.
Among adolescents, we cannot consider the existence of only one type of offender, since
they are observed between different modes of behavior and acts of varying severity. In some
young people, crime is something transient, used to draw attention to lack of self-control,
while for others it becomes a way of life. The younger the offender, the more likely, they will
relapse, and repeat offenders, who in turn are more likely to become Adult criminals.
It is important the increasing experienced by juvenile delinquency in recent years. One of
the reasons why crime is at its highest frequency among middle adolescence and the bottom
line is that, at this time, many young people are able to learn to adapt themselves without the
help of parents or guardians. Although crime remains linked to poverty, its practice has
spread recently to the middle and upper socioeconomic groups. Among the new juvenile
crime currently studied in several areas of the country, those cases are the result of the
emergence of new opportunities for crime and they are no different in substance from
traditional forms.
It is considered that crime starts at 8, 13, 14 or 15 years old, respectively. Data is not available
about the number of children appearing before the juvenile courts or other organization
responsible for difficult children. The crime reaches ordinarily a peak between 13 and 17
years of age, then, it is a period in which the child tends especially to relate to other kids their
age. The single mother serves both as youth social bond agent developed and channeling
their aggression toward adults. Like the animal world, the boy band takes the security of a
territory. The obsession with security is guaranteed by the territory and integrity in relation to
group loyalty, which often becomes recklessness.
Boys constitutes a greater number of delinquent than girls , although this difference begins to
decrease at the end of adolescence because of the increase in female criminality in this stage,
there is also a gender difference in the type and severity of crimes committed. In the girls are
more frequent petty theft and prostitution, while abounds among boys assault, theft,
disorderly conduct, etc. All children under 13 to 17 years directed most of their criminal acts

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against property, in the end of adolescence on the contrary, they most often affect people. In
rural area crimes are committed by a single person not in a group as it happens in the cities.
One factor that binds many times to process juvenile delinquency is social pressure resulting
from a very aggressive medium and the living conditions, the rarefied atmosphere of the
suburb, no alternative or progressive cultural frustration over the development, is generating
high levels of violent response impossible to contain the reach adolescence. Social models,
sometimes presented in the same family, likewise constitute another important source of
juvenile delinquency. Do not forget that the boy is susceptible to imitation and the influence
it could have as a method of personal statement, capable of overcoming the model itself.
On the other hand organic causes are written on the anatomy of the offender from birth.
Inheritance is not always decisive, but could have sort of influence, as confirmed by the many
examples offered by the same family. Guilt is also attributed to physical disorders or
emotional disturbance or personality. However, it seems more appropriate to take into
account all the various factors affecting the offender's conduct and to emphasize the interrelationship of all the forces and conditions, internal and external, involved in its
development. The influence of the environment in the development of juvenile delinquency
is also very important, children placed in a very poor or living in difficult conditions are
strongly tempted to read his existence by theft or by the search for dubious consolations.
These are one of the reasons for the huge number of convictions for juvenile delinquency
during the war, deprivation, changes in the social environment, and environmental concerns
have influenced solvent and have given a blow to the moral life, which has not yet been
reinstated in environments where there is poor housing, where there is promiscuity and
poverty, is where the greatest proportion of juvenile offenders. Today the most fortunate are
a proportion of offenders. This is due to some family dramas and children have much more
money and amenities of all kinds because society enters in daily lives.
First, excessive severity showed by parents are creating in children rebelliousness or just
spoiling the child by force of wanting him being perfect. And so we see these victims of the
cold and brutal discipline and seize the first favorable opportunity to get rid of any protection
and do what they want.
There are parents too weak. Personal discipline, especially the power to be retained, to act or
to be deprived of something desired, must be inculcated in the child during the first two
years of its existence. 70 to 80 percent of the offenders come from families decoupled (by
divorce, death or abandonment) or families whose parents are not understood. The child
who sees his father and mother play each other, judge society as a whole on the same model
and comes to believe that he can violently defend their point of view.

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It may happen that even in relatively united family, occupations of parents leave much free
time to children and that freedom make them lose the shame, and then that shame becomes
licentiousness. Juvenile crime turns to a much more serious problem when young people
create gangs. And becoming leaders because of their acts is important for them, so they are
the ones that deserve respect and space in those gangs. The bad cinema can divert young
people from the road. The film has a real fascination, especially for those who attend to it
several times a week, this is enough to distort their sense of reality. Those films show a very
easy life full with luxury things and a lot of money, which catch the attention of young
people.
In most films the essential proportions of the characters are related to eroticism and crime. It
seems that most of the films are designed to teach the audience the art of seduction or the murders.
SOURCE: http://bandasjuveniles.iespana.es

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A mini essay has to be redacted, and the first step is to include THE HEAVIEST CAUSE,
(the one we did not use before) and its incidence on the problem is considered as the
research theme.
The statement of the problem involves the demarcation and formulation of the problem, ie
the WHO/WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, WHY. It usually includes the statement of the
hypothesis.
On figure 3, the main or heaviest cause is LEVEL OF EDUCATION, and the problem is
POVERTY, so we have to relate these two things to set the theme of our research.
INCIDENCE OF THE PEOPLES LEVEL OF EDUCATION IN THE DEGREE OF
POVERTY AMONG THE PEOPLE OF LAS LOMAS NEIGHBORHOOD
In the problem formulation statement you can notice that we included the neighborhood,
in this case because we are talking about poverty in that neighborhood, but it could be the
name of a school, an organization, etc, we have to include also the time to delimit properly
our theme.
CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
The following is a table you could use to check the feasibility of the research problem, notice
that if the amount of yes is significant, then it is possible for you to carry out the research.

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yes no
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have social,
educational or scientific value?
Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?
Does the research contribute to the science of education?
Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?
Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result?
Is there enough scope left within the area of research (field of research)?
Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will you be able
to handle the research problem?
Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?
Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research?
Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?
Will it have any value?
Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are you
qualified to undertake the research?
Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the
research?
Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and energy
to complete the project?
Do you have the necessary funds for the research?
Will you be able to complete the project within the time available?
Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities the
research necessitates?
Total

VARIABLES MATRIX
To make the research more manageable, we need to obtain the variables from a previous
given matrix pattern with their corresponding definitions, dimensions, sub dimensions and
indicators.
Remember that the HEAVIEST CAUSE is the independent variable /x/, and the
PROBLEM is the dependent variable /y/. In the problem formulation we can identify the
two variables;

THE LEVEL OF EDUCATION = independent variable

POVERTY = dependent variable
Then we have to join the two variables in a single one, look;

THE LEVEL OF EDUCATION IN THE DEGREE OF POVERTY = rxy.

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Once you have identified these three elements you can do the working out matrix, notice
that every variable has a definition and dimensions, you can also divide every dimension in
sub-dimensions when possible, in the example below you can notice that your professor have
divided the variable LEVEL OF EDUCATION in a conceptual definition, in its dimensions
and sub-dimensions, in some cases it is not possible to divide sub- dimensions, just do it
when possible.
The second variable POVERTY is partially developed, and the third one is not developed,
can you complete them for me?? Thanks in advance!!, but before doing this task let me
explain how to develop the third variable: as you could see, it is the joining of dependent and
independent variable, right!, so then you have to take something that sounds logical from the
dimension of the independent variable and relate it with something logical from de
dimension of the dependent variable to form the dimensions and sub- dimensions of the
third variable.
Completing this exercise could help you develop and understand how a matrix works, notice
that it is extremely important to develop a matrix in a good way. it is the HEART of your
research.

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VARIABLE
X
Level of education

VARIABLES MATRIX
CONCEPTUAL
DIMENSIONS
DEFINITION
Education.it is the
largest sense is any act or
experience that has a PRIMARY
formative effect on the
mind,
character
or
physical ability of an
individual. In its technical
sense, education is the
process by which society HIGH SCHOOL
deliberately transmits its
accumulated knowledge,
skills and values from one
UNIVERSITY
generation to another.

SUBDIMENTIONS
PARTIALLY
FINISHED
FULLY FINISHED
FACE TO FACE
AT THE
DISTANCE
PUBLIC
PRIVATE

POSGRADUATE

MASTER
DOCTORATE

Y
Poverty

Poverty.- it refers to the

condition of not having
the means to afford basic
human needs such as
clean water, nutrition,
health care, education,
clothing and shelter

XY

Level of education.- it
refers to the amount of
Level of education knowledge gotten by an
in the degree of individual during lifetime.
poverty
Degree of poverty.- it
refers to the different
levels of poverty in a
society
Figure 5. - Variables working out matrix (incomplete)

ABSOLUTE
POVERTY

RELATIVE
POVERTY

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OBJECTIVES
Once the MATRIX is developed you can work on the objectives, you get them in the
following way:
General Objectives.- There are three variables, so there must be three general objectives, it
means one for every variable.
General objective 1.- It is gotten from the independent variable (x).
General objective 2.- It is gotten from the dependent variable (y).
General objective 3.- It is gotten from the relation xy.
(We will work only with this general objective)
Specific Objectives.- you give at least 2 specific objectives for every general objective, and you
get them from the dimensions and sub- dimensions.
It means you must get at least 6 specific objectives.

RESEARCH JUSTIFICATION
Justifying an investigation is to explain the reasons for which you want to do that research.
All research must be done with a definite purpose. It must explain why it is appropriate to
the research and what are the benefits expected with the knowledge gained. The researcher
has to know "selling the idea" of research to do, so you must accentuate their arguments on
the benefits to be gained and practices that will be given to knowledge.
To this end, the research advisor establishes a set of criteria to evaluate the usefulness of a
proposed study, such criteria are: social relevance, significance, usefulness and benefits, the
sense of urgency, for what and to whom they will serve, convenience, in terms of academic
purpose or social utility. Is it going to cover a gap in knowledge?
Practical implications theoretical value, methodological tools, you are going to use, you can
also use a new model for obtaining and collecting information of the study subjects.
It should be stated in an essay form which you will explain the reasons for the research work,
the benefits and beneficiaries; the use that the knowledge is going to have. Moreover, the
following evaluation criteria about this work should be included: social relevance, academic
or social convenience and practical implications.

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PART TWO
THEORETICAL FRAME
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not
necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research, determining
what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for.
Theoretical frameworks are obviously critical in deductive, theory-testing sorts of studies. In
those kinds of studies, the theoretical framework must be very specific and well-thought out.
There are two reasons why theoretical frameworks are important here. First, no matter how
little you think you know about a topic, and how unbiased you think you are, it is impossible
for a human being not to have preconceived notions, even if they are of a very general
nature. For example, some people fundamentally believe that people are basically lazy and
untrustworthy, and you have kept your wits about you to avoid being conned. These
fundamental beliefs about human nature affect how you look things when doing personnel
research. In this sense, you are always being guided by a theoretical framework, but you don't
know it. Not knowing what your real framework is can be a problem. The framework tends
to guide what you notice in an organization, and what you don't notice. In other words, you
don't even notice things that don't fit your framework! We can never completely get around
this problem, but we can reduce the problem considerably by simply making our implicit
framework explicit. Once it is explicit, we can deliberately consider other frameworks, and try
to see the organizational situation through different lenses.
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FOCUS
The theoretical framework has as objectives:
To explain why, when, where that particular phenomenon or fact occurs.
To describe which the origin of the phenomenon is, how it evolves and affects this fact.
To systematize and clarify the knowledge involved in the investigation
To predict the future of the problem.
To explain the relationship among the variables of the study performed.
All the information you provide in this section has to be done as an essay, using clear
language.
STRUCTURE
It has to do with the description of the chapters you have divided your research. In the
Linguistics Career we work with three chapters, look the following description:
Chapter N 1.- Variable /x/ independent

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Chapter N 2.- Variable /y/ dependent

Chapter N 3.- Relation Variables /x&y/
Before setting the structure you must be very clear about the MATRIX as I told you before it
is the HEART of the TEORETHICAL FRAME.
We are going to use the MATRIX on figure 4 to explain in a better way how to set the
chapters.
VARIABLES WORKING OUT MATRIX
VARIABLE
Level
education

of

CHAPTER I

Poverty
CHAPTER II

Level
of
education
in
the degree of
poverty
CHAPTER III

CONCEPTUAL
DEFINITION
Education.- it is the largest
sense is any act or experience
that has a formative effect on
the mind, character or
physical ability of an
individual. In its technical
sense, education is the
process by which society
deliberately transmits its
accumulated
knowledge,
skills and values from one
generation to another.
Poverty.- it refers to the
condition of not having the
means to afford basic human
needs such as clean water,
nutrition,
health
care,
education, clothing and
shelter
Level of education.- it refers
to the amount of knowledge
gotten by an individual
during lifetime.
Degree of poverty.- it refers
to the different levels of
poverty in a society

DIMENSIONS
1.1 Primary

SUBDIMENTIONS
1.1.1 Partially finished
1.1.2 Fully finished
1.2.1 Face to face

1.2 High school

1.2.3 At the distance
1.3 University
1.4 Posgraduate
2.1 Absolute
poverty
2.2 Relative
poverty
3.1 xxxxxxx

1.3.1 Public
1.3.2 Private
1.4.1 Master
1.4.2 Doctorate
2.1.1 xxxxxxx
2.1.2 xxxxxxx
2.2.1 xxxxxxx
2.2.2 xxxxxxx
3.1.1 xxxxxxx
3.1.2 xxxxxxx
3.2.1 xxxxxxx

3.2 xxxxxxx

3.2.2 xxxxxxx

Figure 6.- Variable matrix

There is an example below about the way the structure should be, notice the importance of a
well designed structure which is taken from the matrix variable.

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STRUCTURE
Chapter I. - Level of education
1.1 Primary education
1.1.1
partially finished
1.1.2
fully finished
1.2 High school education
1.2.1
face to face education
1.2.2
at the distance education
1.3 University
1.3.1
Public Universities
1.3.2
Private Universities
1.4 Postgraduate education
1.4.1 Master
1.4.2 Doctorate
Chapter II.- Poverty
2.1 Absolute poverty
2.1.1 XXXXXXXX
2.1.2 XXXXXXXX
2.2 Relative Poverty
2.2.1 XXXXXXX
2.2.2 XXXXXXX
Chapter III.- level of education in the degree of poverty
3.1 XXXXXXXX
3.1.1 XXXXXXXX
3.1.2 XXXXXXXX
3.2 XXXXXXXX
3.2.1 XXXXXXX
3.2.2 XXXXXXX

HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION
The hypotheses are propositions about the relationship between two or more variables which
support themselves with organized and systematic knowledge. The hypothesis contains
variables which are properties that could be measured with empirical processes.
The scientific hypothesis emerges mainly from the identification and formulation of the
problem and from the revision of the literature associated with the investigation.
The containing variables must be precise, concrete and observable in the reality, the relation
between variables must be clear, truthful and measurable. The hypothesis must be associated
with available techniques to probe them. The hypotheses are classified in:

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Working Hypothesis
It is the research topic itself but you have to give it a value, it means that you have to say that
something is positive or negative, lets see an example:

THE LOW LEVEL OF EDUCATION of NEIGHBORDS RESULTS IN POVERTY

AMONG THE PEOPLE OF LAS LOMAS NEIGHBORHOOD
That is the assumption we have about this topic, when we say low level we are qualifying
negatively.
Null Hypothesis
It expresses the opposite from the working hypothesis, it means if we say that something is
positive in the working hypothesis, we say that in the null hypothesis it is positive or vice
versa.
Alternative Hypothesis
This hypothesis derives from another cause related to the problem and given a value; it could
be the second HEAVIEST cause.

PART THREE
METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN
TYPE OF RESEARCH
There are different kinds of investigations, and they are classified according to the following
aspects:

FOR THE PURPOSE

Basic.- Basic research or fundamental research (sometimes pure research) is research carried
out to increase understanding of fundamental principles. Many times the end results have no
direct or immediate commercial benefits: basic research can be thought of as arising out of
curiosity. However, in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and applied
research. Basic research is mainly carried out by universities.
Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses on
refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world operates, what makes things
happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Basic research is the
source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common.
Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately

20

utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields.
Today's computers could not exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over
a century ago, for which there was no known practical application at that time. Basic research
rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates
new ways of thinking about deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and
dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem. A new idea or fundamental
knowledge is not generated only by basic research can build new knowledge. Nonetheless,
basic research is essential for nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the
center of the scientific community conduct most of the basic research.
Applied.- IT is research that is applied, accessing and using some part of the research
communities' (the academy's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques,
for a specific, often state, commercial, or client driven purpose. Applied research is often
opposed to pure research in debates about research ideals, programs, and projects.
Although it is impossible to generalize completely, Applied Research deals with practical
problems and is generally empirical. Because applied research resides in the messy real world,
strict research protocols must often be relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a
random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology is critical. Implications for
interpretation of results brought about by relaxing a more or less strict cannon of
methodology should also be developed.
The OECD's Frascati Manual outlines three forms of research. These are basic research,
applied research and experimental development:

FOR THE LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE.

Exploratory.- Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or
situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory
research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and
selection of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that
a perceived problem does not actually exist.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature
and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers,
employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

21

Descriptive.- Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and
characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research
answers the questions who, what, where, when and how...
Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot
describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal
relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be
said to have a low requirement for internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the
best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation.
Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with
examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there
are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the people
around you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a
town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more
people will live a healthy life.
Explanatory.- To come up with the issue that is already known to us or we also have the
description of it, we may begin from the why question i.e. why the things the way they are.
The explanation of the desire to know why is the major purpose of basic research. It is to
identify the reason of something happen and builds on exploratory and descriptive research.
When a researcher needs to find the causes and the reasons behind something, explanatory
research is needed to be conducted.

FOR THE USED MEANS

Documentary.- Documentary research involves the use of texts and documents as source
materials: government publications, newspapers, certificates, census publications, novels, film
and video, paintings, personal photographs, diaries and innumerable other written, visual
and pictorial sources in paper, electronic, or other `hard copy' form. Along with surveys and
ethnography, documentary research is one of the three major types of social research and
arguably has been the most widely used of the three throughout the history of sociology and
other social sciences. It has been the principal method - indeed, sometimes the only one - for
leading sociologists.

22

The key issues surrounding types of documents and our ability to use them as reliable sources
of evidence on the social world must be considered by all who use documents in their
research. The paucity of sources available until now means that this compendium will be
invaluable to social researchers. " [Scott 2006]
Documentary research is the use of outside sources to support the viewpoint or argument of
an academic work. The process of documentary research often involves some or all of
conceptualizing, using and assessing documents. The analysis of the documents in
documentary research would be either quantitative or qualitative analysis (or both). [Balihar,
Sanghera] The process is utilized in most academic work (in fact, most high school and
certainly college level courses would insist on references in academic work) in supporting the
academic prose of the writer.
Field.- Field research/primary market research has traditionally been thought different from
methods of research conducted in a laboratory or academic setting. It was developed
originally from anthropology and is sometimes known as participant research, or as
ethnography in anthropology. It has been adapted to the business world as well as some of
this article points out.
It is less technically known as field work, a term originating in farm and plantation labor, and
a term sometimes used to refer to the temporary fortifications constructed prior to battle.
The term "field research", is also used by many industries as a generic reference to collecting
or creating new information outside of a laboratory or typical workplace.
Participant observation, data collection, and survey research are examples of field research, in
contrast to what is often called experimental or lab research.
Experimental.- Experimental research designs are used for the controlled testing of causal
processes.
The general procedure is one or more independent variables are manipulated to determine
their effect on a dependent variable. These designs can be used where:
1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),
2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same
effect), and
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.

23

The most common applications of these designs in marketing research and experimental
economics are test markets and purchase labs. The techniques are commonly used in other
social sciences including sociology, psychology, and social work.
POPULATION SIZE AND SAMPLE
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict
rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is
defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.
Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include
the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data
is gathered on every member of the population.
Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members.
A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample
reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or no probability. In probability samples,
each member of the population has a known probability of being selected. Probability
methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In no
probability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom
manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and
snowball sampling. The other common form of no probability sampling occurs by accident
when the researcher inadvertently introduces no randomness into the sample selection
process. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.
Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When
inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In non
probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains
unknown. (McDaniel and Gates, 1991)

Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is
often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of
available subjects becomes biased. Random sampling is frequently used to select a specified
number of records from a computer file.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name
selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is
selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden
order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage
over the random sampling technique is simplicity.

24

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random

sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share
at least one common characteristic. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and
their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select
subjects for each stratum until the number of subjects in that stratum is proportional to its
frequency in the population.

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in

getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is
selected because they are convenient. This no probability method is often used during
preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost
or time required to select a random sample.

Judgment sampling is a common no probability method. The researcher selects the sample
based on judgment. This is usually an extension of convenience sampling. For example, a
researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though
the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident
that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.

Quota sampling is the no probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified

sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are
represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the
required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where
the stratums are filled by random sampling.

Snowball sampling is a special no probability method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in
these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate
additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the
expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the
sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

25

SAMPLE CALCULATION
Calculating the optimal sample size depends on several factors, namely: the maximum
permissible error and the level of variability.

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE ERROR

Any sample implies a sampling error, i.e. the impossibility to generalize with certainty the
results, the total universe. The investigator is who - ultimately - determines the percentage of
error that is willing to accept for such and such a generalization.
Sampling error is inversely proportional to the size of the sample, ie a larger sample size, the
sampling error will be smaller. Of the above we can deduce that if a study is conducted
involving the entire universe, then the sampling error will be zero percent, however, as
mentioned above, is not always possible to make the collection of data with regard to all units
of analysis, whether the universe at large, lack of resources for research or some other factor
Thus, it is usual that the researcher allows up to five percent of error is this case, we speak of
the possibility that five of every hundred subjects or objects in the universe do not share the
conclusions resulting from analysis of data issued by the sample, in other words, the
generalization of the results will be possible to ninety-five hundred members subjects or
objects in the universe.
The maximum permissible error is symbolized by E, and its notation for the decimal
calculation.

LEVEL OF VARIABILITY
The existence of previous studies that have applied the same data collection instrument that
projects implementing (survey, interview, statement of scientific observation, attitude scale,
etc.), Leads to knowledge of rates of acceptance and rejection of the hypothesis, obtained by
this instrument, as for example, that the results obtained by applying a questionnaire were
given a hypothesis to be true in an eighty percent, while twenty percent of the results rejected
the course. Assigned the results confirmed the letter q (respectively positive and negative
variability), we would have p = 80% q = 20%, values needed to calculate the sample size.
However, it is common that has not been applied before the mechanism for collection and it
responds more to a design especially designed for the current research study, then, there are
two possibilities: the first lies in taking a small group of subjects or objects the universe (thirty

26

for example) and bring them to the main question in order to obtain the values of positive
and negative variation (the percentage of individuals who support the hypothesis and the
percentage of rejects, respectively), or, if for some factor cannot be performed this pilot is
acceptable maximum variation, which is to assign the following values:
p = 50% (or 50)
q = 50% (0.50)
Variability can be defined as the probability percent positive that the working hypothesis is
found, while negative variability, and is the probability percentage of the working hypothesis
is rejected.
The positive variation is symbolized by p, while the variability negative q, the notation for the
decimal calculation.
There are several formulas for sample size; the following is taken from the University of
Chile.
N (pq)
n = --------------------(N-1) (E/K)2 + pq
Where:
n = sample size
N = universe
P = positive variability
q = negative variation
E = maximum allowable error
K = constant error correction
In what has to do with the error correction constant (K), is taken to be two (2), where the
maximum variability is accepted, ie: p = 50% and q = 50% (pq = 0 , 25). If the values of
variability are different, you should deduct the constant error correction by a simple rule of
thumb. For example, if p = 80% and q = 20% (pq = 0.16), then:
pq
K
0,25 ------------ 2
0,16 ------------ X
Thus, when the product of the positive and negative variability is 0.16, K = 1.28.

27

Take a simple example: You are required to extract the sample size for a universe of 3,000
high school students involved specialization course in research aimed at determining the level
of incidence of heuristic teaching method in improving their academic performance. It
accepts a maximum permissible error of 5%, and determining the maximum variability.
Data:
N = 3000
p=
0.5
q=
0.5
E=
0.5
K=
2
Formula:
N (pq)
n = --------------------(N-1) (E/K)2 + pq

3000(0.25)
n= ----------------------------(2999) (0.05/2)2 + 0.25

750
n= ---------------------------(2999) 0.000625 + 0.25

750
n= --------------------------1.874375 + 0.25
750
n = ________________
2.124375
Then:
N= 353.04= 354

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Sample size calculated for a universe of 3,000 individuals is equal to 354 units of analysis, the
5% error.
FIELDING
Here you have to mention where or the place your research is going to be done, when we say
the place you have to be very specific, so describe what type of institution is, the province and
the city the institution belongs, you can also mention whet level of education the students
are.

TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of
study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.
In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be
difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.
Example:
During a nutrition survey three different weighing scales were used in three villages. The
researchers did not record which scales were used in which village. After completion of the
survey it was discovered that the scales were not standardized and indicated different weights
when weighing the same child. It was therefore impossible to conclude in which village
malnutrition was most prevalent.
Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

Using available information

Observing
Interviewing (face-to-face)
Administering written questionnaires
Focus group discussions
Projective techniques, mapping, scaling

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USING AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it
may not necessarily have been analysed or published. Locating these sources and retrieving
the information is a good starting point in any data collection effort.
For example, analysis of the information routinely collected by health facilities can be very
useful for identifying problems in certain interventions or in flows of drug supply, or for
identifying increases in the incidence of certain diseases.
Analysis of health information system data, census data, unpublished reports and
publications in archives and libraries or in offices at the various levels of health and healthrelated services, may be a study in itself. Usually, however, it forms part of a study in which
other data collection techniques are also used.
The use of key informants is another important technique to gain access to available
information. Key informants could be knowledgeable community leaders or health staff at
various levels and one or two informative members of the target group (e.g., adolescents on
their sexual behaviour). They can be involved in various stages of the research, from the
statement of the problem to analysis of the data and development of recommendations.
Other sources of available data are newspapers and published case histories, e.g., patients
suffering from serious diseases, or their relatives, telling their experiences and how they
cope.*

* For example, Noerine Kaleeba (1991) We miss you all: AIDS in the family. Harare: Women
and AIDS Support Network.
Note:
In order to retrieve the data from available sources, the researcher will have to design an
instrument such as a checklist or compilation sheet. In designing such instruments, it is
important to inspect the layout of the source documents from which the data is to be
extracted. For health information system (HIS) data, for example, the data compilation sheet
should be designed in such a way that the items of data can be transferred in the order in
which the items appear in the source document. This will save time and reduce error.

30

The advantage of using existing data is that collection is inexpensive. However, it is

sometimes difficult to gain access to the records or reports required, and the data may not
always be complete and precise enough, or too disorganized.
OBSERVING

OBSERVATION is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and recording

behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.
Observation of human behavior is a much-used data collection technique. It can be
undertaken in different ways:

Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he or she observes.

(For example, a doctor hospitalized with a broken hip, who now observes hospital
procedures from within.)

Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation, openly or concealed, but
does not participate.

Observations can be open (e.g., shadowing a health worker with his/her permission during
routine activities) or concealed (e.g., mystery clients trying to obtain antibiotics without
medical prescription). They may serve different purposes. Observations can give additional,
more accurate information on behavior of people than interviews or questionnaires. They
can also check on the information collected through interviews especially on sensitive topics
such as alcohol or drug use, or stigmatizing diseases. For example, whether community
members share drinks or food with patients suffering from feared diseases (leprosy, TB,
AIDS) are essential observations in a study on stigma.
Observations of human behavior can form part of any type of study, but as they are time
consuming they are most often used in small-scale studies.
Observations can also be made on objects. For example, the presence or absence of a latrine
and its state of cleanliness may be observed. Here observation would be the major research
technique.
If observations are made using a defined scale they may be called measurements.
Measurements usually require additional tools. For example, in nutritional surveillance we
measure weight and height by using weighing scales and a measuring board. We use
thermometers for measuring body temperature.

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INTERVIEWING

An INTERVIEW is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of

respondents, either individually or as a group.
Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down
(either during the interview itself or immediately after the interview) or by tape-recording the
responses, or by a combination of both.
ADMINISTERING WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRES

A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a

data collection tool in which written questions are presented that are to be answered by the
respondents in written form.
A written questionnaire can be administered in different ways, such as by:

Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to answer the questions and
asking for mailed responses;
Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time, giving oral or written
instructions, and letting the respondents fill out the questionnaires; or
Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them later.

The questions can be either open-ended or closed (with pre-categorized answers).

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS (FGD)

A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a certain

subject with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

When a researcher uses projective techniques, (s)he asks an informant to react to some kind
of visual or verbal stimulus.
For example: An informant may be provided with a rough outline of the body and be asked
to draw her or his perception of the conception or onset of an illness.
Another example of a projective technique is the presentation of a hypothetical question or
an incomplete sentence or case/study to an informant (story with a gap). A researcher may
ask the informant to complete in writing sentences such as:

32

If I were to discover that my neighbor had TB, I would. . .;

If my wife were to propose that I use condoms, I would. . .
Or (s)he may ask the informant: Suppose your child suffered from diarrhea, what would you
do?
Such techniques can easily be combined with semi-structured interviews or written
questionnaires. They are also very useful in FGDs to get peoples opinion on sensitive issues.
MAPPING AND SCALING

Mapping is a valuable technique for visually displaying relationships and resources.

In a water supply project, for example, mapping is invaluable. It can be used to present the
placement of wells, distance of the homes from the wells, other water systems, etc. It gives
researchers a good overview of the physical situation and may help to highlight relationships
hitherto unrecognized.
Mapping a community is also very useful and often indispensable as a pre-stage to sampling.
Scaling is a technique that allows researchers through their respondents to categorise certain
variables that they would not be able to rank themselves.
For example, they may ask their informant(s) to bring certain types of herbal medicine and
ask them to arrange these into piles according to their usefulness. The informants would
then be asked to explain the logic of their ranking.
Mapping and scaling may be used as participatory techniques in rapid appraisals or situation
analyses.
Differentiation between data collection techniques and data collection tools
To avoid confusion in the use of terms, the following table points out the distinction
between techniques and tools applied in data collection.

33

Table 1: Data collection techniques and tool

Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of various data collection techniques

34

PART FOUR
ADMINISTRATIVE FRAME
MATERIAL RESOURCES
After this headline, describe all the material you will use along the research, such as desk
material, equipment, bibliography, copies, transportation, services, others.
HUMAN COMPETENCE
Write this title and tell about the people to be needed for the research work such as the
research team, advisors, specialists, support personnel, and others
BUDGET
Here, state the whole amount of money the project will cost, and inform which the financial
sources will be. Draw a chart
CHRONOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
This corresponds to the project basic activity programming and the time distribution as
estimated for its achievement. It constitutes an arranging tool for the make up of the project
activities as well as the time control
A suggestion for GANNT Diagrams use which is usually taken as a pattern may help.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
List all books quoted for the development of the project. This reference includes Internet. If
internet has been unloaded, mention the authors, publication year, title of book, and add the
corresponding e-address
List the references alphabetically, following this suggestion:
Authors last name, capitalized, separated from name by a comma;
Publication year, included in parenthesis
Book title: Underlined or in italics
Edition number
Additional data: translation, volume, etc.
Editorial name
Publishing location: country, city, etc.
Quoted page number in parenthesis

35

GLOSSARY
List glosses or specialized terms in alphabetical order; A definition may follow and if
necessary illustration through examples
ANNEX
They are the added material or documents the researchers believe have to be included as
references for the projects themes that have been developed along the project.
The following may be included as Annex. Rules, graphs, maps, statistic frames, data
collection instruments, glossary, etc.
Every annex has to be identified by a code, a number or a letter. Annexes are placed at the
end of the project.
APPENDIX
It is a section of additional material supplementing the research document. It has to be
placed a t the end of the research work, in whole or partially as required.

36

HOW TO PRESENT THE FINAL REPORT

There is an example below on the way you have to present your final report at the end of the
term.

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38

39

40

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REFERENCES
Booth ,W; Colomb, G; Williams, J (1995) The craft of Research. The University of Chicago
Press
International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, (2006) Multiple modification in English and Spanish
NPs
Publisher: John Benjamins Publishing Company
Staff of Professors of Applied Linguistics Career. (
) Project.
Embleton, L. (2002) Teachers as Researchers (seminar). (2002).
Max-Neef, M. (1998) Necesidades Humanas. Buenos Aires. Argentina.
Pazmio, I. (2007) Diseo y Evaluacin de Proyectos Educativos y Sociales. Sangolqu Ecuador.
Howitt, N. (2007) El proyecto integrador: una estrategia pedaggica para lograr la integracin y la
socializacin del conocimiento. Universidad de San Buenaventura. Bogot. Colombia.
Web Pages
www.proyecto integrador/integrated_project_plan_w_controls_template.doc