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These notes do not cover absolutely everything, but they do cover those major
topics and the wording you seem to have the greatest difficulty with.
Check the Specification and the Check Your Notes summary.
TOPIC 5
Topic 5 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate order they appear
within the topic. All the points are covered in the textbook but where there is supporting information within
the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam/coursework support.
You should be able to:
o
Explain that the numbers and distribution of organisms in a habitat are controlled by biotic and abiotic
factors. (Activity 5.1 and 5.2) (Checkpoint question 5.4)
Explain how the concept of niche accounts for distribution and abundance of organisms in a habitat.
(Activity 5.1 and 5.2) (Checkpoint question 5.1)
Describe how to carry out a study on the ecology of a habitat to produce valid and reliable data
(including the use of quadrats and transects to assess abundance and distribution of organisms and the
measurement of abiotic factors, e.g. solar energy input, climate, topography, oxygen availability and
edaphic factors). (Activity 5.2)
Describe the concept of succession to a climax community. (Activity 5.3) (Checkpoint question 5.2)
Describe the overall reaction of photosynthesis as requiring energy from light to split apart the strong
bonds in water molecules, storing the hydrogen in a fuel (glucose) by combining it with carbon dioxide
and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. (Activity 5.4 and 5.5) (Checkpoint question 5.3)
Describe how phosphorylation of ADP requires energy and how hydrolysis of ATP provides an
immediate supply of energy for biological processes. (Activity 5.4 and 5.5)
Describe the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis including how light energy is trapped by
exciting electrons in chlorophyll and the role of these electrons in generating ATP and reducing NADP in
photophosphorylation and producing oxygen through photolysis of water. (Activity 5.4 and 5.5)
Describe the light-independent reactions as reduction of carbon dioxide using the products of the lightdependent reactions (carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle, the role of GP, GALP, RuBP and RUBISCO)
and describe the products as simple sugars that are used by plants, animals and other organisms in
respiration and the synthesis of new biological molecules (including polysaccharides, amino acids, lipids
and nucleic acids). (Activity 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6)
Describe the structure of chloroplasts in relation to their role in photosynthesis. (Activity 5.4)
Carry out calculations of net primary productivity and explain the relationship between gross primary
productivity, net primary productivity and plant respiration. (Activity 5.8)
Calculate the efficiency of energy transfers between trophic levels. (Activity 5.8)
Analyse and interpret different types of evidence for global warming and its causes (including records of
carbon dioxide levels, temperature records, pollen in peat bogs and dendrochronology) recognising
correlations and causal relationships. (Activity 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11)
Outline the causes of global warming including the role of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and
methane, CH4) in the greenhouse effect. (Activity 5.12 and 5.13)
Discuss the way in which scientific conclusions about controversial issues, such as what actions should
be taken to reduce global warming or the degree to which humans are affecting global warming, can
sometimes depend on who is reaching the conclusions. (Activity 5.14 and 5.15)
Describe how data can be extrapolated to make predictions, that these are used in models of future global
warming, and that these models have limitations. (Activity 5.16)
Describe the effects of global warming (rising temperature, changing rainfall patterns and changes in
seasonal cycles) on plants and animals (distribution of species, development and life cycles). (Activity
5.17 and 5.21) (Checkpoint question 5.5)
Explain the effect of increasing temperature on the rate of enzyme activity in plants, animals and microorganisms. (Activity 5.18)
Describe how to investigate the effects of temperature on the development of organisms (e.g. seedling
growth rate, brine shrimp hatch rates). (Activity 5.19 and 5.20)
Describe how evolution (a change in the allele frequency) can come about through gene mutation and
natural selection. (Checkpoint question 5.6)
Describe the role of the scientific community in validating new evidence (including molecular biology,
e.g. DNA, proteomics) supporting the accepted scientific theory of evolution (scientific journals, the peer
review process, scientific conferences). (Activity 5.22 and 5.23)
Discuss how understanding the carbon cycle can lead to methods to reduce atmospheric levels of carbon
dioxide (including the use of biofuels and reforestation). (Activity 5.25) (Checkpoint question 5.7)
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the How Science Works areas listed in the table on page 13 of
the specification
Topic 5
Biotic and abiotic factors affect the distribution and abundance of
species in a habitat
Learn the definitions:
Environment: the conditions in which an organism lives.
Biotic factors: environmental factors due to other living organisms e.g.
predation
Abiotic factors: environmental factors due to the physical conditions e.g.
soil pH
Habitat: the particular place where a community of organisms lives
Population: a group of individuals of the same species living and breeding
together in the same place at the same time
Community: all the organisms of the different species living and interacting
together in the same habitat.
Ecosystem: a stable unit consisting of a community of organisms in the same
place, which interact with each other and with the environment (biotic and
abiotic factors) in which they live.
Niche: the particular combination of abiotic and biotic factors within a habitat
that an organism is adapted to, e.g. where it lives, how it feeds, what else it
does etc
The distribution and abundance of any species can be explained by
the niche concept, and the way the organism is adapted to survive
and exploit its niche. The distribution and abundance of any organism
varies because of
When these factors are favourable organisms survive, grow and reproduce
successfully. When these conditions are unfavourable, organisms dont
survive, grow or reproduce as successfully.
Be prepared to answer questions on organisms and habitats you have not seen
before; the question and any data should give you sufficient information to be
able to interpret the factors, both biotic and abiotic, affecting the distribution
(i.e. where the species lives in the habitat) or abundance (how many there are
per unit area) of the organisms in question. Do not be afraid to think and
come up with biologically sensible ideas!
The distribution and abundance of any species varies because of the
abiotic factors e.g. amount of light or temperature, and the biotic factors
e.g. preadators, parasites, competition for food. When these factors are
favourable organisms survive, grow and reproduce successfully. When these
conditions are unfavourable, organisms dont survive, grow or reproduce as
successfully.
Succession
Succession is the progressive change in the composition and diversity of the
species in a community in one place over a period of time
Primary succession:
Starts in new habitats with no soil and no previous
community; extreme environmental conditions: Secondary succession: Starts
on bare soil where there had previously been a community; extreme
environmental conditions
The initial environment is hostile and extreme. First colonisers are called
pioneer species
Pioneer plants are highly adapted to withstand hostile conditions
The abiotic factors in this environment mainly determine what species are
present since few species can tolerate such conditions so in the initial
stages the biodiversity will be low
The initial colonisers modify the environment to make it less extreme
pioneer plants die organic matter incorporated into developing soil/nitrate
content of soil increases
existing plants provide increasing dead organic matter and nitrates so soil
develops, they provide shade and shelter, reduce wind speed to reduce
transpiration etc so improve the environment so more plants now able to
establish and grow so early colonisers are outcompeted by later colonisers
(e.g. grasses shade out mosses, trees shade out grasses) so community
changes so more plants can grow so biodiversity increases
As number of different species present increases so there will be more
microhabitats for organisms to exploit/greater variety of food plants for
associated organisms/greater variety of feeding niches so biodiversity of
associated animal community will change too
In the latter stages biotic factors largely determine which organisms can
survive, e.g. predation, grazing, competition etc
The stable end point community is characteristic and is called the climax
community usually dominated by trees. It is in equilibrium with the
environment so undergoes little it any further change
Photosynthesis
Light dependent stage
Photolysis of water
electrons from water are used to replace the electrons lost from the chlorophyll
these are then excited when the chlorophyll absorbs light to be used to
make more ATP as before
oxygen is the valuable waste product of photolysis
What is left is fixed in the organic molecules which are the products of p/s; this
the gross primary productivity
Gross primary productivity = the amount of energy fixed in the
sugars etc. produced by the chloroplasts by p/s
Much of the sugars produced are immediately broken down in respiration to
provide the energy for the metabolic reactions of the cells.
The remaining
sugars are converted into starch, cellulose, etc in the cells of the plant
becoming new biomass.
The energy incorporated into biomass = net primary productivity NPP
i.e. NPP = GPP respiration
The energy in the biomass is what is available to the primary consumers.
Energy transfer: producers 1o consumers
Natural selection.
Learn the wording it can be applied to any example.
Genomics (the study of DNA); look at the sequence of bases in genes; the
more distantly related two species are the more differences there will be due to
the accumulation of mutations over time.
How
Modern records more reliable: accurate equipment; datalogging/computers allows vast numbers of readings to be collected and
processed
Records taken from many parts of the world
So now lots of reliable data
2:
Provides information back possibly as far as the last Ice Age (circa 12 000 years
ago).
Peat formed when plant material dies but does not decompose
The peat accumulates in successive layers; lowest layers are the oldest: pollen
trapped in peat layers
Use of carbon dating techniques can establish the age of the layers
3:
Greenhouse effect
light energy from the Sun reaches the Earths surface and is absorbed so the
Earth warms up
some of this energy is radiated back into space as longer wavelength
infrared radiation.
the atmosphere contains gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and
methane, which absorb some of this infrared radiation so stopping it leaving.
These are called greenhouse gases.
this causes the atmosphere to warm up which in turn warms up the Earths
surface.
Greenhouse gases absorb infra red radiation: the main greenhouse gases are:
water vapour
carbon dioxide
methane
Enhanced greenhouse effect; increased levels of greenhouse gases,
especially CO2 and methane, result in more heat trapped in the atmosphere
leading to global warming
The consensus view.
The evidence shows a positive correlation between CO2 levels and
temperature.
But is does not prove the cause i.e. it does not prove that the high CO2
levels cause the observed rise in global temperature
But there is now a great deal of other evidence supporting the theory
that global warming is caused by rising CO2 levels
Theory and fact; cause and effect.
The enhanced greenhouse effect, due to raised CO2 levels, is a theory to
possibly explain the fact that global warming is occurring
i.e. the enhanced greenhouse effect is a possible cause and global warming is
the effect
Sources of carbon dioxide.
Review the carbon cycle.
Sources of carbon dioxide; processes which add CO2 to the air
Respiration
Decomposition
Volcanic activity
Combustion
Processes which remove CO2 from the air
Photosynthesis
o carbon atoms become incorporated into organic substances
o some used as respiratory substrates and so lost again
o others used in growth and incorporated into biomass e.g. wood
Combustion
o burning fossil fuels e.g. coal. oil, petrol, natural gas
o burning of trees and tree debris (from felling operations) releases CO2:
trees contain a lot of biomass and are important carbon sinks (i.e.
CO2 used by p/s as the tree grows and the carbon atoms are removed
from the carbon cycle and locked away in the cellulose and lignin of
the wood biomass so a lot of extra carbon will be released by burning)
Deforestation:
o Loss of trees will result in loss of CO2 uptake by photosynthesis in the
short term so CO2 level will rise
o Increase in decomposition of dead organic matter in soil
loss of forest cover exposes soil to the sun so it warms up so the
rate of activity of the decomposers will increase so releasing
more CO2.
Extrapolation is involved extending the line of best fit through existing data
into the future.
Assumes: there is enough data to establish the trend accurately/present
trends continue, e.g. in fossil fuel use, no changes in control of emissions
2. Use of computer models to predict possible future changes looks forward
and makes predictions based on current knowledge
Models are tested by using previous data and seeing if they match the
current reality allows for tweaking but never will be perfect, but they
make the best predictions of trends based on all the data available.
Predictions may be incorrect because of: (dont learn all of these be
selective!)
Limited data accurate records do not go back far enough to produce a
reliable trend line - but bigger datasets are becoming increasingly available
e.g. accurate CO2 data only from 1950s, early temperature measurements
inaccurate using mercury or alcohol thermometers
Models assume existing trends will continue (by extrapolation of a trend line
which has lots of fluctuations in it these are limitations in themselves!)
Limited knowledge of how the global climatic system works so models are
only approximations but knowledge is increasing all the time; e.g. impact
of changing ocean currents on weather systems
Not all factors included; e.g. effects of increasing cloud cover, decreasing
snow cover; unforeseen factors (e.g. major volcanic events,
changes in solar radiation levels) could upset models too.
Future changes in future changes is usage of fossil fuels or emission controls
Limitations of computing resources but computer technology is improving
all the time
Climate change; what to do about it.
If we accept the CO2 levels are rising and are probably linked to rising global
temperatures, what can be done about it? How could we restore the CO2
balance?
Reafforestation:
o Replaces trees
o Young forests grow rapidly take up CO2 by p/s rapidly (especially if
climate is warmer!) and turn it into biomass (growing new wood)
faster than respiration occurs, so net CO2 absorption occurs
o As trees get bigger carbon taken up and locked away in biomass
of wood of tree so forests act as a carbon sink to keep carbon out of
the atmosphere (so there is less CO2 contributing to global
warming)
o May slow down further increase in atmospheric CO 2 so long as
reafforestation is a continuous process on a large scale worldwide
> deforestation
Limitations to reforestation
o Mature forest has trees which are not growing so becomes carbon
neutral [CO2 uptake by p/s = CO2 release by respiration] so benefit
only lasts whilst forest grows
o Only a limited amount of land which can be used to grow forests
(land needed to live on, grow food on etc, plus trees dont grow
above the tree line)
Effects of global warming
Changing rainfall patterns
some areas will get increased rainfall, including torrential rainstorms
flooding
other areas will get less rain
Changes is seasonal cycles
warmer winters/warmer earlier spring
dry seasons may last longer
warmer autumns/shorter winters
Rising sea levels
TOPIC 6
Topic 6 summary
Make sure your notes cover the following points. The points are listed in the approximate order they appear
within the topic. All the points are covered in the textbook but where there is supporting information within
the activities this is indicated.
There are suggestions on making notes and on revision in the Exam/coursework support.
You should be able to:
1) Describe how DNA can be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). (Activity 6.4)
2) Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA fragments of different length. (Activities
6.1 and 6.2)
3) Describe how DNA profiling is used for identification and determining genetic relationships between
organisms (plants and animals). (Activities 6.3 and 6.5) (Checkpoint question 6.1)
4) Describe how to determine the time of death of a mammal by examining the extent of decomposition,
stage of succession, forensic entomology, body temperature and degree of muscle contraction. (Activity
6.5) (Checkpoint question 6.2)
5) Describe the role of microorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter and the recycling of carbon.
(Checkpoint question 6.2)
6) Distinguish between the structure of bacteria and viruses. (Activity 6.6) (Checkpoint question 6.3)
7) Describe the non-specific responses of the body to infection, including inflammation, lysozyme action,
interferon, and phagocytosis. (Activity 6.7) (Checkpoint question 6.4)
8) Explain the roles of antigens and antibodies in the bodys immune response including the involvement
of plasma cells, macrophages and antigen-presenting cells. (Activity 6.8) (Checkpoint question 6.5)
9) Distinguish between the roles of B cells (including B memory and B effector cells) and T cells (T helper,
T killer and T memory cells) in the bodys immune response. (Activity 6.8) (Checkpoint question 6.5)
10) Explain how bacterial and viral infectious diseases have a sequence of symptoms that may result in
death, including the diseases caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) and Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). (Activities 6.9, 6.11 and 6.17) (Checkpoint question 6.6)
11) Explain the process of protein synthesis (transcription, translation, messenger RNA, transfer RNA,
ribosomes and the role of start and stop codons) and explain the roles of the template (antisense) DNA
strand in transcription, codons on messenger RNA, anticodons on transfer RNA. (Activities 6.12
and 6.13)
12) Explain the nature of the genetic code (triplet code, non-overlapping and degenerate). (Activity 6.12)
13) Explain how one gene can give rise to more than one protein through post-transcriptional changes to
messenger RNA. (Activity 6.13)
14) Describe the major routes pathogens may take when entering the body and explain the role of barriers in
protecting the body from infection, including the roles of skin, stomach acid, gut and skin flora.
(Activity 6.14)
15) Explain how individuals may develop immunity (natural, artificial, active, passive). (Checkpoint
question 6.7)
16) Describe how to investigate the effect of different antibiotics on bacteria. (Activity 6.15)
17) Distinguish between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics. (Activity 6.16)
18) Discuss how the theory of an evolutionary race between pathogens and their hosts is supported by the
evasion mechanisms as shown by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (TB). (Activity 6.17)
19) Describe how an understanding of the contributory causes of hospital acquired infections have led to
codes of practice relating to antibiotic prescription and hospital practice relating to infection prevention
and control. (Activity 6.17)
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the How Science Works areas listed in the table on page 13 of
the specification.
Table of Contents
Polymerase chain reaction........................................................18
Producing a DNA profile............................................................18
Determination of the time of death...........................................19
Causes of decomposition..........................................................20
Forensic entomology.................................................................20
Non-specific responses to infection................................22
TB............................................................................................. 24
Antibiotics.......................................................................25
HIV...............................................................................27
Nature of genetic code..............................................................27
HIV Infection and AIDS.................................................................................29
Topic 6
How to identify a dead body
Identification by Physical resemblance
Physical appearance checked against photographic i.d. e.g. driving
licence,
Identification by colleagues, friends, relatives, house-to-house inquiries
etc.,
Use of specific identifying features e.g. birth marks, scars
Identification by Dental Records
Teeth, fillings, crowns etc only decay slowly and are more resistant to fire.
Each persons dental records are fairly unique so they can be as reliable
as fingerprints
Identification by DNA profiling
Works on the premise that everyones DNA is unique
Polymerase chain reaction
Use of the polymerase chain reaction [PCR] can increase the amount of DNA
accurately and quickly to produced sufficient amounts to subsequently use
to produce an accurate DNA profile.
DNA mixture heated to 95oC; H bonds break so DNA strands separate
Mixture cooled to 55oC; primers bind to the complimentary bases on the
DNA strands
Mixture warmed to 75oC; DNA polymerase attaches to primers,
nucleotides attach to DNA bases (base complimentarity rules apply )and
are joined by the enzyme so two new sample DNA strands are made.
The amount of DNA doubles for each cycle
Producing a DNA profile
DNA sample from cells (collect cheek cells, extract DNA); amount can be
increased by polymerase chain reaction
DNA cut into fragments by restriction enzymes
Fragments separated by gel electrophoresis; small fragments travel
furthest
Fragments removed from gel by Southern blotting
Gene probe (complimentary base sequence) for short tandem repeats
used (STRs are particular bits of the non-coding DNA with regular repeats
of particular nucleotide sequences unique to an individual but inherited
from both parents)
Binds to DNA of STRs by base complimentarity
Gene probe located by e.g. by UV light.
Produces a DNA profile; a pattern of bands similar in appearance to a bar
code.
o Use of at least 10 different STRs increases the chances of making a
positive identification.
o The chance of two unrelated peoples DNA profiles being identical,
is about one in ten trillion.
DNA profile from body could be matched to:
e.g.
Extent of decomposition
Causes of decomposition
Autodigestion or autolysis due to action of hydrolytic enzymes (= selfdigestion!) begins about 4 mins after death!
In gut
from lysosomes in cells
Causes breakdown of body tissues
Action of bacteria
From gut especially, later those from outside which invade through
natural openings or wounds,
Initially aerobic bacteria but these use up oxygen so replaced by
anaerobic bacteria which cause putrefaction
Extent of decomposition depends on time and temperature
Forensic entomolog
This is especially useful when the body has been dead for more than a few
days, because the features that are normally used to determine the time of
death, like temperature or rigor mortis, are no longer helpful
Many types of fly will lay their eggs in a dead body because it is a source of
food for the larvae (maggots). Eggs can be laid on the skin, in body openings,
e.g. nose, ears, mouth or in wounds
How maggots are useful
Identification of the stage of development at the ambient temperature
can give an estimate of age and hence time since the eggs were laid and
hence the time of death
The time taken for eggs to hatch can also give an indication of when the
eggs were laid and hence the time of death.
The age of the maggot, and hence when the eggs were laid can be
determined by measuring the fully extended length of the maggot and
the ambient temperature
Assumptions made to make this method useful:
Temp has been fairly constant
Flies found the body to lay eggs soon after death
Insect succession used to date a body:
Cause of death:
Structure of a bacterium
Bacteria
Prokaryotic cells
Cell
wall,
cell
membrane,
cytoplasm, no organelles, DNA
not in a membrane-bound
nucleus.
May have mucilage
capsule
Typically 10 mm in size
(x 25 times bigger)
Genetic material is DNA
Reproduce by binary fission
(asexual)
Viruses
No cellular structure
Protein coat surrounding nucleic
acid molecule. May have outer
envelope derived form host cell
Typically up to 400 nm in size, so
very much smaller
Genetic material is DNA or RNA
Reproduce by inserting nucleic
acid into host cell which reads
the genes to synthesise new
virus
particles
which
are
released
The significant thing is that they are large molecules with a specific
molecular shape.
The B and T cells have membrane receptor proteins with antigen-binding
sites with a specific shape complimentary to the shape of its specific
antigen.
Passive immunity
Ready-made antibodies pass from mother across placenta and in milk
Artificially acquired by injection of serum containing antibodies e.g. antivenom.Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Respiratory or pulmona
Herd immunity
Achieved when enough people in a community are immunized against
certain diseases so it
is more
difficult
fortuberculosis
that disease
get passed
Infection
may occur
when M.
bacteria to
are inhaled
and lodgebetween
in the lungs. Here they star
those who aren't immunized.
TB
The first phase (primary infection) can last for several months; it may have no symptoms
Course
An inflammatory response by the hosts immune system occurs. Macrophages engulf the bac
Anaerobic tissue masses known as a granuloma or tubercules form in response to infection. They contain dead bacteria
After 38 weeks, the infection is controlled and the infected region of the lung heals.
Some M. tuberculosis bacteria may survive inside macrophages. The bacteria have very thick waxy cell walls, making destruction inside the macro
The second phase (active tuberculosis) occurs if there are too many bacteria for the immune response to deal with, or if an old infection breaks
The bacteria multiply rapidly and destroy the lung tissue, creating holes or cavities.
The lung damage will eventually kill the sufferer if they are not treated with an appropriate an
Active TB
Skin test (Heaf test and Mantoux test); uses protein tuberculin derived from
dead bacteria; detects whether body has anti-TB antibodies inflammation
reponse
Culture of TB bacteria from sputum
Prevention of TB
Improvement of living conditions
overcrowding, better nutrition etc.
better
ventilation,
reduction
in
Antibiotics
Active TB bacteria are killed by using a combination of antibiotics
An antibiotic is a drug that kills or prevents the growth of bacteria.
Antibiotics can be;
Bacteriocidal
o Kill bacteria e.g. penicillins
Bacteriostatic
o Prevent the multiplication of bacteria
Antibiotics are used to kill or slow the reproduction of a pathogen to give the
immune system the chance to respond and catch up so it can deal with the
infection e.g. by phagocytes or antibody production
Antibiotics target processes in bacterial cells but do not affect mammalian cells
because:
they are eukaryotic
do not have cells walls
have larger ribosomes and subtle differences in the mechanism of protein
synthesis
have different enzymes
Antibiotics do not affect viruses because antibiotics affect the metabolism of
bacterial cells but viruses have no metabolism so they cannot be affected.
Antibiotic resistance
Antibiotics are often over-prescribed or used when not really needed e.g. for
colds, flu, other viral infections
Patients stop taking them before the course in ended when they feel better
but not all the bacteria are killed)
Antibiotics used in low doses in diet of farm animals to make them grow
faster so get passed to humans in the food chain
The consequence is that the antibiotic is now ineffective so there is a need to:
HIV
HIV is found in blood and other body fluids; semen/vaginal secretions/breast
milk
HIV infection occurs when blood or the body fluids containing the virus of an
infected person gets transferred directly into the body, and subsequently the
blood, of an uninfected person by:
Unprotected sex
Direct blood to blood contact e.g.cuts, grazes, oral sex via gum
damage/intravenous drug abusers sharing needles
Mother to child across placenta, during birth or via breast feeding
Viruses reproduce by inserting their nucleic acid into the host cell
which is then translated into proteins to build new viruses.
Nature of genetic code.
Each DNA molecule (which makes up a chromosome) contains the genetic code
for a large number of proteins.
A gene is a region of a DNA molecule which codes for the synthesis of one
particular protein.
Hydrogen bonds between the DNA bases break so the DNA molecule
unzips
Bases of the gene to be copied are now exposed
RNA nucleotides (present inside the nucleus) match up with the
complementary bases on the DNA template strand (NB: A in DNA pairs with
U in RNA)
RNA polymerase joins up the RNA nucleotides to make a single strand of
messenger RNA.
HIV invades T helper cells and macrophages. The HIV gp120 molecules attach to their CD4 receptors allowing
Once inside, the virus uses reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from its RNA. The DNA is integrated into the hosts DNA by anothe
The new virus particles bud out of the T cell, taking some of the surface mem
As the number of viruses increases, the number of host T helper cells decreases. Macrophages, B cells
The infected person may experience symptoms such as fever, sweats, headach
There may be no symptoms during this chronic phase, but there can be an increasing tendency to suffer various infections which are slow to go awa
The weakened immune system makes the patient more prone to opportunistic infections such as pneumonia and TB. There may a
A number of new drugs are being designed to block fusion of HIV with its
host cell to prevent infection.
Inhibitors of reverse transcriptase, such as AZT, were the first anti-HIV
medications, and are still a critical part of treating infection.
Inhibitors of integrase are under study as a new way to block HIV replication
HIV protease inhibitors, one of the most potent types of anti-viral
medications, block the processing of other HIV proteins into their functional
forms essential for virus maturation before release
not easy to develop a drug which attacks the virus without damaging the
cells in which it is found.
once the viral DNA is integrated into the genetic material of the host, it is
possible that HIV may persist in a latent state for many years.
HIV surface antigens change as a result of random mutations so
lymphocytes and antibodies (memory cells from a previous infection) wont
recognize it.
Random mutations occur rapidly in RNA (because single stranded) due to
high multiplication rates of the virus and large numbers of viruses carrying
the mutations are produced
The virus can also become resistant to the drugs used (which is why the
drugs are often used in combination to reduce the probability of multi-drug
resistance)
For this reason, based on our current knowledge, patients must remain on antiviral therapy for life. The drugs are very expensive and need to be taken for
extensive periods of time so they are not available to the vast majority of
infected people
An evolutionary arms race exists between pathogens and drug developers