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In physics, power is the rate at which work is performed

or energy is converted[1][2]
If W is the amount of work performed during a period of time of
duration t, theaverage power Pavg over that period is given by the
formula
It is the average amount of work done or energy converted per unit
of time. The average power is often simply called "power" when the
context makes it clear.
The instantaneous power is then the limiting value of the average
power as the time interval t approaches zero.
In the case of constant power P, the amount of work performed
during a period of duration T is given by:
In the context of energy conversion it is more customary to use the
symbol E rather than W.

Power
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done upon an object. Like all
rate quantities, power is a time-based quantity. Power is related to how fast a
job is done. Two identical jobs or tasks can be done at different rates - one
slowly or and one rapidly. The work is the same in each case (since they are
identical jobs) but the power is different. The equation for power shows the
importance of time:
Power = Work / time
P=W/t
The unit for standard metric work is the Joule and the standard metric unit
for time is the second, so the standard metric unit for power is a Joule /
second, defined as a Watt and abbreviated W. Special attention should be
taken so as not to confuse the unit Watt, abbreviated W, with the quantity
work, also abbreviated by the letter W.
Combining the equations for power and work can lead to a second equation
for power. Power is W/t and work is Fdcos(theta). Substituting the

expression for work into the power equation yields P = Fdcos(theta)/t. If


this equation is re-written as
P = F cos(theta) (d/t)
one notices a simplification which could be made. The d/t ratio is the speed
value for a constant speed motion or the average speed for an accelerated
motion. Thus, the equation can be re-written as
P = F v cos(theta)
where v is the constant speed or the average speed value. A few of the
problems in this set of problems will utilize this derived equation for power.

What Is A Fluid?
Let's take a trip to the beach. It's quite relaxing here, isn't it? The white sand, the blue water, the fresh
air - just thinking about it makes me want to do some physics! Okay, that was a mean trick, but while
we're here, we might as well use this great location and learn a little bit about the different phases of
matter.

You are probably quite familiar with these already because they are solids (the sand), liquids (the water)
and gases (the fresh air). Solids are pretty different from liquids and gases because they hold their
shape. You can't put a square block into a round hole because the block is solid and won't conform to
the shape of the hole.
Liquids and gases are more similar to each other because unlike solids, they both conform to the shape
of their container. They also both flow when moved around, and any material that flows is called a fluid.
When you put air in your car tires, they stay inflated because the gas particles fill the entire space
inside. Likewise, when you fill your bathtub, you can't keep the water on just one side because it flows to
cover all the space of the tub.

Properties Of Fluids
There are certain properties that fluids share, though the specifics of these may be slightly different for
each type of fluid. The main difference between the two fluids mentioned here is that gas particles are
much farther apart than the particles of a liquid. Both will spread out to fill their container, but a liquid
only does so beneath its surface.
This important difference helps us understand that a gas is compressible, which means its volume can
easily be increased or decreased, while a liquid is incompressible, meaning its volume cannot easily
be changed. In other words, you can more easily press gas particles together than you can the particles
of a liquid. This is because there is more space between those gas particles, while the liquid particles
are already about as close together as they can get.
One property that all fluids do share is that they have density. This is simply the amount of matter in a
given space for that substance. Another way of saying this is that the density is the amount of matter per
unit volume, or in equation form: density = mass/volume.
Pressure is another important characteristic of fluids. This is the force exerted over a given area. There
are many different units that can be used to express pressure, like pounds per square inch (psi),
millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and Newton per meter squared (N/m^2). It all depends on the force and
the area you're measuring.
In a liquid, the pressure comes from the weight of the fluid and the weight of the air above it, which we
call the atmosphere. You feel this pressure when you swim under water. The deeper you go, the more
pressure you feel. This is because there is more weight pressing down on you from above as you
increase your depth.
The same principle is true for atmospheric gases. The lower in elevation you are, the more weight and
pressure you experience. But even though these gases are constantly putting pressure on you, you
don't feel it because your body is the same pressure as the surrounding air. Fish experience the same
thing underwater - their bodies are the same pressure as the surrounding fluid, so they don't notice the
constant pressure the water exerts on them.

Buoyancy is another common characteristic of fluids. This is the upward force from a fluid, which is
usually felt by some object in that fluid. You float in a pool because of buoyancy, and a hot air balloon
rises into the sky - also because of buoyancy.
Buoyancy in a fluid comes from the pressure of the fluid itself. An object submerged in a fluid
experiences pressure from all sides. But since the pressure from below is greater (because that part of
the object is deeper), it creates an unbalanced force on the object and it's pushed upward, lifting it in the
fluid and against the force of gravity.
Viscosity is yet another important property of fluids. Remember how I said that all fluids flow? Well,
viscosity describes the resistance of a fluid to flow. Thicker fluids are more viscous than thinner ones
because they don't flow as easily. For example, honey is a very viscous fluid because it flows very
slowly, whereas water is not as viscous because it flows more easily.

Archimedes principle

Contributors

Archimedes principle, physical law of buoyancy, discovered by the ancient Greek mathematician
and inventor Archimedes, stating that any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or
liquid) at rest is acted upon by an upward, or buoyant, force the magnitude of which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body. The volume of displaced fluid is equivalent to the volume of
an object fully immersed in a fluid or to that fraction of the volume below the surface for an object
partially submerged in a liquid. The weight of the displaced portion of the fluid is equivalent to the
magnitude of the buoyant force. The buoyant force on a body floating in a liquid or gas is also
equivalent in magnitude to the weight of the floating object and is opposite in direction; the object
neither rises nor sinks. For example, a ship that is launched sinks into the ocean until the weight of
the water it displaces is just equal to its own weight. As the ship is loaded, it sinks deeper, displacing
more water, and so the magnitude of the buoyant force continuously matches the weight of the ship
and its cargo.

If the weight of an object is less than that of the displaced fluid, the object rises, as in the case of a
block of wood that is released beneath the surface of water or a helium-filled balloon that is let loose
in air. An object heavier than the amount of the fluid it displaces, though it sinks when released, has
an apparent weight loss equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. In fact, in some accurate
weighings, a correction must be made in order to compensate for the buoyancy effect of the
surrounding air.
The buoyant force, which always opposes gravity, is nevertheless caused by gravity. Fluid pressure
increases with depth because of the (gravitational) weight of the fluid above. This increasing
pressure applies a force on a submerged object that increases with depth. The result is buoyancy.

pressure, in the physical sciences, the perpendicular force per unit area, or the stress at a point
within a confined fluid. The pressure exerted on a floor by a 42-pound box the bottom of which has
an area of 84 square inches is equal to the force divided by the area over which it is exerted; i.e., it is
one-half pound per square inch. The weight of the Earths atmosphere pushing down on each unit
area of the Earths surface constitutes atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is about 15 pounds
per square inch. In SI units, pressure is measured in pascals; one pascal equals one newton per
square metre. Atmospheric pressure is close to 100,000 pascals.
The pressure exerted by a confined gas results from the average effect of the forces produced on
the container walls by the rapid and continual bombardment of the huge number of gas molecules.
Absolute pressure of a gas or liquid is the total pressure it exerts, including the effect of atmospheric
pressure. An absolute pressure of zero corresponds to empty space or a complete vacuum.
Measurement of pressures by ordinary gauges on Earth, such as a tire-pressure gauge, expresses
pressure in excess of atmospheric. Thus, a tire gauge may indicate a pressure of 30 pounds (per
square inch), the gauge pressure. The absolute pressure exerted by the air within the tire, including
atmospheric pressure, is 45 pounds per square inch. Pressures less than atmospheric are negative
gauge pressures that correspond to partial vacuums.

Hydrostatic pressure is the stress, or pressure, exerted equally in all directions at points within a
confined fluid (liquid or gas). It is the only stress possible in a fluid at rest. See Pascals principle.
Lithostatic pressure, the stress exerted on a body of rock by surrounding rock, is a pressure in the
Earths crust somewhat analogous to hydrostatic pressure in fluids. Lithostatic pressure increases
with depth below the Earths surface.

Buoyancy Force
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If we consider a single column of liquid then it can be considered as the mixture of many overlying layers,
one over the other with varying pressure. The pressure at the bottom of the liquid would be greater than
at the top, this is because as we go down in the liquid the number of overlying layers of the liquid - the
layers one over other, increases.
Due to the difference in the pressure between the layers, there tends to be an imaginary force acting in
the upward direction. This force leads to the acceleration of the object, that has been immersed, in the
upward direction. The force isalwaysin vertical direction.
We can also say that the magnitude of the upward force is basically equal to the difference in the
pressure of the top and the last layer and also equal to the weight of the liquid that has been displaced.
Floating is the result of the above concept. The material should be less dense than water, otherwise, if its
density is greater, it will tend to sink.

For Example:

If we have a rock which is hanging on the thread in a pool and initially a force of 20 Newton is exerted by
it.
Now the force of buoyancy exerted back by water is 3 Newton,
Then the Net force exerted by the rock is 20 3 = 17 Newton.
It is quite easy to pull object through water then to actually lift them from the bottom of water pool.
Buoyancy is identical to the Water Displacement Method.

The buoyant force

When an object is placed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force we call the
buoyant force. The buoyant force comes from the pressure exerted on the object by
the fluid. Because the pressure increases as the depth increases, the pressure on the
bottom of an object is always larger than the force on the top - hence the net upward
force.
The buoyant force is present whether the object floats or sinks. Let's consider a
floating object, but the analysis is basically the same for a submerged object.
We'll also consider a rectangular block, although a similar (more complicated)
analysis leads to the same result for funny-shaped objects.

The object experiences forces on each of its six sides. On each side, the force is the
pressure multiplied by the area of the side, and is directed perpendicular to the side
and toward the inside of the object.
The force on the left side is tricky to calculate, because the pressure is different at
different levels. Fortunately we don't have to calculate it because this force is equaland-opposite to the force on the right side. Similarly, the forces on the front and back
cancel.

Fluid Dynamics
Let us consider a fluid, a drop of this fluid is falling and we can see that something is dragging it
backward making it not to fall, how far it can be stopped and to what extent it will flow? To know this we
should know the concept of Fluid Mechanics. Fluid mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the
study of nature and properties of flow of fluid.

Fluid Dynamics is a branch of Fluid mechanics which stresses more on the fluid flow.

What is Fluid Dynamics?


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It is a part of fluid mechanics which signifies fluid flow. It includes:

1. Aerodynamics - It is concerned with the study of air in motion.


2. Hydrodynamics - It is concerned with the study of liquids in motion.
Applications :

It can be used in traffic engineering (traffic treated as continuous liquid flow).

To determine the flow rates of material like petroleum from pipes.

To find and calculate the forces acting upon the air plane.

In fluid dynamics, fluid resistance refers to forces that oppose the relative motion of an object through a
fluid, a liquid or gas. These drag forces act in an opposite direction to the flow of velocity. Drag forces
depend upon velocity. For any solid object moving through a fluid, the drag is the component of the
aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces acting opposite to the direction of the movement. The component
perpendicular to this direction is considered lift. Therefore, drag opposes the motion of the object.

Fluid Dynamics Equations


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Let the flow of the liquid be incompressible hence we will consider = constant,

P + g z + v22 = K
Or

Pg + z + v22g = K

Or

Pg + v22g + z = K ..........................(a)
where,

Pg = pressure energy per unit weight fluid or pressure head


V22g = kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head

z = potential energy per unit weight or potential head


P = pressure

= Density
K= constant
This is called Bernoulli's Equation.
Here, the flow of fluid particle along a stream line in the S direction is considered. The resultant or net
force in the S direction is equated to the mass of fluid particle and its acceleration, now the flow of the
compressible fluid is constant:

dP + V dV + g dZ = 0
(dP + V dV + g dZ) = K
or

dP + V22 + g Z = K

The Bernoulli equation is different for adiabatic as well as isothermal processes.


Here,
Z = elevation point and

= Density of fluid
We can write the equation in other form:
q + P = Po ................................(b)
Here,
q = dynamic pressure
Po = total pressure
P = Static pressure

Fluid Flow
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The Science of fluids in motion is called Fluid Flow. The fluids can be liquids and gases but not solid.
Fluid flow basically signifies the flow of a fluid under various situations like through a pipe, hole etc. It talks
about properties of incompressible as well as compressible fluid when under flow. We will also study
about the continuity equation which is different for both types of fluid.
For incompressible it is: A1V1 = A2V2
For compressible fluid it is: p1A1V1 = p2A2V2
where, A1 and A2 are Areas
p1 and p2 are pressures
V1 and V2 are Volumes

Fluid Flow is categorized as,


(i) Streamline or laminar flow
(ii) Turbulent flow
Pascal's law : It states that a change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted
undiminished to all points in the fluid. i.e. the pressure applied in a confirmed incompressible fluid will be
transmitted equally in all directions in the fluid.

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Archimedes Principle
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The Archimedes Principle states that:


When an object floats into the fluid then it displaces its own weight of fluid. Now it should be noted that
gas is also a kind of fluid.
Hence, the law becomes:
When an object or body is immersed in a liquid fully or partially then it experiences an upward
force which is in correspondence with the amount of water or fluid displaced.
We can also say that,
Buoyancy = the weight of the fluid displaced...............(a)

For example: The hot air balloon rises in the air as the density of the warmer air inside the balloon is
lesser than the cool air outside the balloon. There is buoyant force acting on the system and so, the
balloon as well as the basket displaces a fluid that is heavier than both of them.
This is the reason balloons tend to fly better in the morning as the surrounding air is cool.

The apparent weight of the object = The original weight the buoyant force exerted..................(b)
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Density
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Density is described as the mass of a substance per unit volume. It was discovered by Archimedes.
Mathematically, Density is defined as:
Density = MassVolumeIt is represented by a symbol called .
The Units are kg / m3.
For example: Wood floats on water because it has a lower density than water.
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Buoyancy
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The Upward force experienced by the fluid on the body or the object when it is inserted or immersed in
the fluid is called Buoyancy.

The point where the force of Buoyancy is exerted or the point on the body where the force acts is called
the Center of Buoyancy.

Why do you think the crown in water feels lighter than it actually is? When we immerse the body in a fluid
then an upward force is experienced by the body. This force is exerted by the fluid on the body which
makes it to rise up and is called the Force of Buoyancy. The magnitude of this force is exactly equal to
the amount or weight of the liquid displaced.

It should be noted that the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and hence the center of buoyancy is the
point located on the center of the gravity of the liquid that is being actually displaced by the object
immersed.
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Bernoulli's Principle
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The Bernoulli's principle was formulated by Daniel Bernoulli. This principle basically gives us a relation
between velocity, pressure and height of the flowing non viscous fluid in a horizontal flow.

According to it the speed and pressure of the flowing fluid are inversely proportional to each other.

Hence according to the principle:


For a Horizontal flow if the velocity would increase then the pressure exerted by the fluid would
decrease.

We have many forms of Bernoulli equation according to the flow of the liquid. It is a

consequence of the law of conservation of energy. According to Bernoulli's Principle, the greater the
velocity of a fluid, the smaller its pressure. It reveals that the principle of conservation of energy as
applied to moving liquids, the sum total of potential, kinetic and pressure energies of a moving liquid must
be constant.
Thus, for a unit mass of the moving fluid the Bernoulli's equation is given by:

v2 + p = constant

gh + 12

Here, p, i.e., the ratio of pressure to density is the pressure energy per unit mass of the moving liquid.
According to Bernoulli's principle, if we add all the energy components of the flowing fluid along the
streamline then we would get a constant value for it throughout the flow of line. Even the sum of the
potential and kinetic energy follows a constant value.

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above
that surface in the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances
atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressurecaused by
the weight of air above the measurement point. On a given plane, low-pressure areas have less
atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high-pressure areas have more atmospheric mass
above their location. Likewise, as elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so
that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one
square centimeter in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has
a mass of about 1.03 kg and weight of about 10.1 N (2.28 lbf) (A column one square inch in crosssection would have a weight of about 14.7 lbs, or about 65.4 N).

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