Hydrology Academic Paper January 2015

EXPLOITATION OF AQUIFERS
Itzel Almache Joseph Hernndez Carol Pacheco Alexandra Tern
Escuela Superior Politcnica Del Litoral (ESPOL)
Facultad Ciencias De La Tierra (Science Of The Earth Faculty)
Ingeniera Civil (Civil Engineering)
Guayaquil, Ecuador

ABSTRACT
The exploitation of natural sources
such as fresh water for human
beings
consumption
and
for
production
processes,
is
an
important matter. Having that
purpose in mind, this research
examines the exploitation of an
aquifer at its main calculations. And
it is done by examining the basic
parameters that have to be
determined and analyzed prior an
aquifer
exploitation.
Those
parameters are flow (Q), Hydraulic
conductivity (K) and Transmissivity
(T). Knowing that is essential to
have the right knowledge of this
factors. This research will provide
valuable
information
regarding
aquifer exploitation analysis.
Key Words: Aquifer, Exploitation,
Hydraulic conductivity,
Transmissivity

INTRODUCTION
The Earth is composed by seventy
percent of salt water and just a thirty
percent of freshwater. In similar way
it is the human body; that is why
water is vital for development of life.

Real problems about current society

are human activities. Those cause
the planet experience environmental
damages as a consequence of
pollution,
deforestation,
co2
emissions, imbalance of ecosystems
and other factors that include the
controversial
issue
of
global
warming. Because of population
growth, the access to water sources
become on increasing pressure.
Nowadays, it is not surprising to find
dry riverbeds on polluted streams.
One of the basics needs of mankind
is to satisfy the growing demand for
water used for human consumption
and for production processes.
Therefore the efficient usage of
hydric resources both surface
storage and groundwater, is crucial.
The feasibility of exploiting a specific
water resource is based on its
hydrological cycle expressed in
terms of inputs, outputs and
throughputs, the quality and the
quantity of the water that could be
obtained and its availability. These
conditions, have to fulfill not only
population demands protection, but
also the need to preserve the water
quality and ensure environment.

The exploitation of groundwater is a

viable choice. It has several
advantages such as the process of
filtration and consequently cleaning
of the unsaturated zone and the fair
returning of investment on the
groundwater supply engineering.
However, it has to be considered the
depth of the aquifer and the
biological and infiltration of chemical
components, such as arsenic,
fluoride nitrate and others.
In Ecuador, according to the
International
Groundwater
Resources Assessment
Centre
(IGRAC)
the
groundwater
abstraction is only the 0.09% of the
total
water
consumption.
Nevertheless, the extent of highly
productive intergranular aquifers and
fissure aquifers are over 20% of the
total area. These numbers confirm
that there are sufficient supply of
fresh groundwater across most of the
country, which could be exploited.
(IGRAC,2000)
This is the main objective of this
study.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Groundwater constitutes one part of
the hydrologic cycle. Saturated
formations below the surface act as
mediums for the transmission of
groundwater, and as reservoirs for
the storage of water. Water infiltrates
to these formations from the ground
surface or from bodies of surface
water and is transmitted slowly for
varying distances until it returns to
the surface by action of natural flow,
vegetation, or man (Todd 1964).

Groundwater
occurs
in
the
subsurface in two zones: the
unsaturated zone and the saturated
zone. The unsaturated zone (vadose
zone), consists of soil pores which
are filled to a varying degree with air
and water. The zone of saturation
consists of water-filled pores that are
assumed to be at hydrostatic
pressure. For an aquifer, the zone of
saturation is overlain by an
unsaturated zone that goes from the
water table to the ground surface.
(Fetter, 2001).
The occurrence and movement of
groundwater are related to physical
forces that include gravity, pressure
from the atmosphere and overlying
water, and molecular attraction
between solids and water, acting in
the subsurface and the geologic
environment in which they occur.
(Freeze, 1979)

In the subsurface, water can occur in

the following: as water vapor which
moves from regions of higher
pressure to lower pressure, as
condensed water which is absorbed
by dry soil particles, as water which
is retained on particles under the
molecular force of adhesion, and as
water which is not subject to
attractive forces towards the surface
of solid particles and is under the
influence of gravitational forces. In
the saturated zone, groundwater
flows through interconnected voids in
response to the difference in fluid
pressure and elevation. (USACE
1999)

An aquifer is a water bearing

geological formation that can store
and yield usable amounts of water
and are identified by characteristics
such as type, areal extent, depth
form the land surface, thickness,
yield, and direction of groundwater
movement.

TYPES OF AQUIFERS

FORMATION OF AQUIFERS

A confined aquifer or pressure

aquifer is the one delimited form
above and below by impermeable
formations. (Bear, 2007)

According
to
the
lithological
characteristics of the rocks aquifers
are classified as consolidated or
unconsolidated rock
Consolidated
rock
includes
sandstone; limestone, granite or
other rock, since the material is
almost impervious groundwater
cannot move easily therefore they
are low water yielding formation.
Unconsolidated rock consists of
granular material such as sand and
gravel, more permeable materials,
hence generally yields larger amount
of water
A perched aquifer is found in
formations of glacial outwash where
clay layers form impermeable layers
above a primary aquifer.
A fractured aquifer is found in
rocks, such as granite and basalt,
which contain usable amounts of
groundwater in cracks, fissures, or
joints.
An aquiclude is a formation that
contains groundwater but cannot
transmit it at significant rate to supply
a well. (Cech, 2009 )

Depending upon the absence or

presence of a water table affecting
the hydrostatic pressure summited in
the water contained in the interstices
or rock fractures there are the
following types of aquifers

Water pressure caused by gravity will

cause confined groundwater to find
exit points anywhere in the geologic
system, occasionally, the path of
least resistance is upward to the land
surface, therefore if enough pressure
exists in the aquifer, a spring may
form. (Cech, 2009 )
A subtype of the unconfined aquifer
is the artesian aquifer, where the
water occupies the total amount of
the pores or voids of the geological
formations maintaining it saturated.
The upper confining impermeable
layer gives it a higher atmospheric
pressure resulting that a well in this
type of aquifer will flow freely without
pumping. (INAMHI, 2011)
When water table function as its
upper boundary, the aquifer is an
unconfined aquifer or phreatic
aquifer. Although there is a capillary
fringe above the phreatic surface,
which is often, neglected in
groundwater studies. (Bear, 2007)
The water table rises and falls in
undulating form depending on the
permeability of the soil and the areas
of
recharge
and
discharge

corresponding to the changes in the

volume of the storage of water within
an aquifer. (Todd D, 2005 )
Alluvial aquifers are excellent
examples of unconfined aquifers.
Recharge can occur from the
downward seepage of surface water
trough the unsaturated zone or from
lateral movement or upward seepage
of groundwater from underlying
geologic strata. (Cech, 2009 )

Aquifers that can lose or gain water

through the upper or below bounding
formations are called leaky aquifers.
These are common feature in alluvial
valleys, plans or former lake basins
(Todd D, 2005 )
All of the types of aquifers mentioned
before are shown in Figure 1. For a
better comprehension.

Figure 1. Types of aquifers

A: Unconfined aquifer
B: Confined aquifer
C: Confined aquifer
Portions of aquifers A,B, and C, are leaky, with the direction and rate of leakage determined
by the elevations of the piezometric surface of each of these aquifers
(Bear, 2007)

PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE
The saturated thickness of an aquifer
is the total water-bearing thickness of
a geological formation, which affects
significantly it potential water yield.
The piezometric surface is the areal
variation of the hydraulic head of an
aquifer represented by the level

which water will rise if a well pierced

completely a confined aquifer (Figure
2). The shape of this imaginary plane
defines the directions of the
groundwater
movements.
In
unconfined aquifers the hydraulic
heads coincide with the actual
groundwater surface and therefore it
is called groundwater table (Sen,
1995)

For permeable soil, the effective

porosity is the rate between the
volume of the drainable by gravity of
the soil and the total volume of it.
Where the total amount of water in a
permeable soil is the volume of it
multiply by its porosity. (INAMHI,
2011)
Homogeneous aquifer

HeteErogeneous aquifer
Figure 2. Hydraulic gradient:
Piezometric Level (Sen, 1995 )

GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
The direction and rate of movement
are determined by the lithology
stratigraphy
and
structure
of
geological deposits, within there are
the following hydraulic properties to
determine them
Porosity (p) is defined as the
volume of the pores of a rock or soil
sample (Vv) divided by the total
volume of both pores and solid
material (Vt). (Delleur, 2006)
Obtaining the following equation:
p=Vv/Vt

Permeability is the ability of porous

materials to allow fluids to move
through it and it depends on various
aspects such as grain size, shape
and arrangement of the formations.
For example, groundwater may only
move a few centimeters per year in
clay, but several meters per day in
gravel.
Hydraulic conductivity also known
as permeability coefficient is the
measurement of the rate of flow of a
fluid through porous material. Is
expressed as a rate of discharge en
meters per day.
Hydraulic head (h) is the driving
force that moves groundwater. It
combines
fluid
pressure
and
gradient, and is represented by the
height that groundwater will rise
inside a well (Cech, 2009 )
Is expressed as:
h= Z+P/ g
Where Z is the elevation head or the
distance of the reference point above
a datum plan (mean sea level) and P
is the fluid pressure at the point
exerted by the column of water
above the point. (Delleur, 2006)

Flow
and
Transmissivity.Transmissivity is a measure of the
volume of water they can travel
horizontally through the net width of
an aquifer saturated thickness under
a hydraulic gradient equal to 1.
(USACE 1999)
Transmissivity (T) is the rate that
water is transmitted trough a unit
width of an aquifer uneder a unit
hydraulic gradient. It represents the
ability of an aquifer to transmit
groundwater. It is expressed in
square meters per day:

equation that defines the flow rate is

known through a porous medium as
Darcy's law. (USACE 1999)
Q=-KA (dh/dl)
Where:
Q: Volumetric Flow rate
K: Hydraulic conductivity
A: Cross-sectional area of flow
The hydraulic conductivity is
defined as an average conductivity,
which is a function of the properties
of the contour and the fluid
properties. (Thomas Harter, 2008)

T=Kb
Where K is the hydraulic conductivity
(m/day), and b is saturated thickness
of an aquifer (m). (Cech, 2009 )
Specific yield (Sy) represents the
amount of water that can be available
for supply or consumption, is the
volume of water that will drain from
soil or rock under the influence of an
unconfined aquifer, expressed by the
following ratio.

Where, Vg is the volume if water

drained by gravity, and Vt the total
volume. (Kasenow, 2001).
The values for unconfined aquifers
usually are between 0.05 and 0.3.
(Kresic, 2007)
Darcy's Law.- Rate is laminar flow of
a constant temperature and fluid
density between two points in a
porous
medium,
which
is
proportional the hydraulic gradient
(dh / dl) between the two points. The

Homogeneity and Isotropy, a

homogeneous unity is one that has
similar global properties. Therefore
the porosity, hydraulic conductivity
and other parameters are similar in
formation geological and defined
isotropic when empty geometry is
similar in any direction.(USACE
1999)

AQUIFER STORAGE
Storage coefficient or storativity
(s) is the volume of water released
from storage with respect to water
level and surface area of the aquifer,
as shown in Figure 3.
Also is expressed for most
unconsolidated and many loosely
consolidated aquifers as the sum of
the specific yield and the specific
storage multiplied by the thickness of
the aquifer. (Kasenow, 2001)
The value of the storage coefficient is
dependent upon whether the aquifer
is unconfined or confined.

()

= + =

=
=

()

= ( +)

= ( +) (

()

= 2 ( +)

Storage of confined aquifers

Water released from storage in a
confined aquifer is from compression
of the aquifer and expansion of the
water when pumped.
During pumping, the pressure is
reduced in a confined aquifer, but the
aquifer is not dewatered.
The storage coefficient in confined
aquifers ranges from 1 x 10-5 to 1 x
10-3 (Fletcher G.,1995)

METHODOLOGY
One of the most important analyses
is water balance, which includes
recovering the total inputs and
outputs during a period of time.
Figure 3. Water released from storage
(Heath, Ralph C.,1983)

Storage of unconfined aquifers

The principal source of water is from
gravity drainage as the aquifer
materials are dewatered during
pumping.
The storage coefficient tends to be
equal to the percentage of pore
space in the aquifer
The storage coefficient for an
unconfined aquifer ranges from 0.01
to 0.30.
Unconfined aquifers can get more
water for a smaller change in head
than to confined aquifers (Fletcher
G.,1995)

The inputs depend on: lateral

subsurface inflow (QLS), rainfall
recharge (QRR), recharge from
nearby rivers (QRN), recharge due to
irrigation (QIR), and sewage return
(QSR).
The outputs are quantified on natural
discharges such as springs (QSQ),
lateral subsurface outflow (QLA) and
evaporation from groundwater table
(QEGT) But also on the usage
groundwater has or will be given
through wells; such as domestic and
industrial (QDI) water uses, and
irrigation water uses (QIW). (Sen,
1995)
For example, it has been determined
that the inputs and outputs of an
unconfined aquifer during one month
were (Table 1):

Inputs
QLS
QRR
QRN
QIR
QSR
SUM
Inputs
(IT)

Quantity
3
(x10^6 m )
0,06
0,7
0,1
0,2
0,07
1,13

Outputs
QSQ
QLA
QEGT
QDI
QIW
SUM
Outputs
(OT)

Quantity
3
(x10^6 m )
0,003
0,15
0,012
0,13
1,1
1,395

Table 1. Inputs and Outputs

(Harter, 2008)

Since the total of outputs is grader

than the inputs, the aquifer is not
sustainable during the month of
analysis, because if this additional
support must be brought from other
sources for instance,
nearby
aquifers, surface reservoirs, etc. The
deficit is about 0,265 x10^6 m3

CONFINED AQUIFERS
The
condition
of
''DupuitForchheimer'' provides that for some
systems the flow, can be considered
as horizontal, and distributed
uniformly with depth. The flow in
these systems is vertical and
horizontal, but may be simplified
when the water mostly moves in one
direction.
The flow of a well in a confined
aquifer, may be analyzed with
Dupuit-Forchheimer
hypothesis,
assuming an infinite aquifer and
horizontal flow. The water is pumped
through a cylinder of radius (r) at a
rate Q. The cylinder area is 2rD
then the flow rate Q can be
expressed by Darcy as: (Bouwer,
1978)

= . . (/)
Where:
Q: Flow of the well
K: Hydraulic conductivity
r: Radial distance from the center of
the well
D: Height of the aquifer
dh/dr: Hydraulic gradient
Separating and integrating between
h2 and h1
(/) = .
obtaining:
= (( ))/((/))

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS
For unconfined aquifers, D is
replaced with the height h, of the
water table in edge conditions.
then:
= . . (/)

Separating
obtained:

and

integrating

is

= (( ))/((/))

Also:
= . ((/))/(( ))
This equation allows calculating the
value of hydraulic conductivity as a
function of height (h), distances (r)
and the rate of extraction (Q).

UNSTEADY RADIAL FLOW IN A

CONFINED AQUIFER.
The drawdown for an infinitesimal
diameter well in a confined aquifer
obtained by Theis is represented with
the following equation:

( )

()

(() () )

= (.

( , )

(
=
)

Where:
S: Drawdown
Q: constant well discharge
=

Obtaninig:

= [. +

+ .! . .]
.!
=

()

EXAMPLE 1
A well with a radius of 0.5 meters
completely penetrates an unconfined
aquifer gravel with a hydraulic
conductivity K = 30 m/day and a
height H = 50 meters. The well is
pumped until the water level inside
the object is 40 meters from the
background. Assume that the pump
does not affect the pressure head
greater and equal to 500 meters
radius, and the loss in the well are
negligible.
Determine which the pumping flow
rate is.

EXAMPLE 2
A 1m diameter well penetrates
vertically through a confined aquifer
30 m thick. When the well is pumped
at 113 m3 /h, the drawdown in a well
15 m away is 1.8 m. In another well
50 m away is 0.5 m. What is the
approximate head in the pumped
well for steady-state conditions and
what is the approximate drawdown in
the well? Also compute the
transmissivity of the aquifer and the
radius of influence of the pumping
well. Take the initial piezometric level
as 40 m above the datum.
First determine the hydraulic
conductivity using equation.
3

Q=113 = 2712
=

( )
( )

3
2712

2(30)(1.8 0.5)

= .

The transmissivity (T) is

T=Kb

ln(

50
)
15

T=13.3m/day * 30

=
To compute approximate head
( ) in the pumped well
2 = 0 2 = 40 0.5 = 39.5
= 2

2
ln( )
2

27123
50

= 39.5
ln (
)

0.5
2 (13.3 ) (30)

= .
Drawdown is then:
= 0 = 40 34.5
= .

unconsolidated deposit would you

expect this to be?

3
= 0,05
= 4320

1 = 50 , 2 = 150
1 =0 1 and 2 =0 2 , so 1
2 =2 1 =3-1.2=1.8 m
=

( )
( )

4320 3
150

=
ln (
)

50
(
)
2 (25
) 1.8

= . , showing it is a
medium clean sand (Figure 4).
The transmissivity (T) is

The radius of influence (R) of

pumping well can be found by
rearranging (solving for)

T=Kb
T=16.8m/day * 25 m

r which is R
( )
]
= ( ). [

= (15) exp (

13.3
2 (
) (30)(40 38.2)

)
2712 3

=
EXAMPLE 3
A well fully penetrates a 25 m thick
confined aquifer. After a long period
of pumping at a constant rate of 0.05
3 / the drawdowns at distances of
50 and 150 m the well were observed
to be 3 and 1.2 m, respectively.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity
and transmissivity. What hope of

Figure 4. Hydraulic Conductivity

(Heath, 1983)

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Aquifers have been and are one of

the most important hydric resources
to supply the society.

Bear, J. (2007). Hydraulics of

Groundwater. New York , NY, USA:
Courier Corporation .

Men exploit aquifers because it is a

good source to take advantage of it.
Even
though
advances, aquifers
drought and polluted.

technological
have been

There are many alternatives to avoid

any kind of aquifer damages, the only
thing is to implement them.
Permeability is analyzed for many
different reasons such as: letting us
know about the water flow inside the
aquifer, and to get information about
the exploitation flow.
Transmissibility depends on the
permeability coefficient and the
aquifer thickness, which let us know
about the water flow.
The calculated flow rate indicates
you how much water was taken out
from the aquifer, and when
comparing this flow with other flows,
will help to analyze this amounts
avoiding aquifer droughts.
Aquifers take thousands years to
mold, it depends on physical and
hydrological conditions.
The exploitation of aquifers has
turned one of the most important
topics in the world with a lot research
work.

Cech, T. V. (2009 ). Principles of

Water
Resources:
History,
Development, Management, and
Policy. Hoboken , New Jersey, US:
John Wiley & Sons.

Delleur, J. W. (2006). The Handbook

of
Groundwater
Engineering,
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Press.

USACE, Genetti, Albert J., U.S. Army

Corps
of
Engineers
(1999)
Engineering
and
Design:
Groundwater Hydrology. EM 1110-21421

INAMHI. (2011). Introduccin a la

hidrogeologa del Ecuador. QuitoEcuador.

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Ground-water Hydrology and Well
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Z.
(1995).
Applied
Hydrogeology for Scientists and

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CRC Press, 1995 .

Todd
D.,
Mays
L.
(2005)
Groundwater Hydrology Wiley
International Edition, Hoboken., New
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Fetter, C.W. (2001). Applied

hydrogeology. 4th Edition. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: PrenticeHall

Fletcher D. Driscoll . (1986).

Groundwater and Wells . US:
Second Edition , ISBN: 0-9616456-01
Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J. A.
(1979.) Groundwater, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall
Heath,
Ralph
C.(1983)Basic
ground-water hydrology U.S .
Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 2220, 86 p ISBN 0-607-689730
Kresic, N. (2007). Hydrogeology and
Groundwater Modeling. CRC Press.
Thomas Harter, L. R. (2008).
Watersheds,
Groundwater
and
Drinking
Water.
UCANR
Publications.
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Groundwater Hodrology. McGra Hill
Book Company.