8/5/2015

Environmental Science: Water

Pollution and Control
The Story of bottled water

EV20001 Autumn 2015

Brajesh K Dubey
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Oxygen Demand

Substances that diminish D.O. in water

Definitions

Biochemical Oxygen Demand [BOD]

C H O N
a

4 a + b 2c 3d
+
O
2
4

The amount of oxygen required by bacteria while

stabilizing decomposable organic matter under aerobic
conditions

Chemical Oxygen Demand [COD]

Aerobic Decomposition

The conversion of organic matter to CO2 and H2O by

strong oxidizing agents under acidic conditions

(a )CO

b 3d
+
H O + dNH
2
2

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Application to wastewater and receiving waters; not appropriate

for drinking water
Estimated by a laboratory method to simulate conditions in
wastes and receiving waters; controlled conditions
BOD test is a bioassay test

Conditions include
Temperature = 20oC in an incubator under dark conditions
Seed = insure bacteria populations are present
Oxygen = saturated at 20oC at start of test
Add nutrients [optimize growth] and salts [pH and osmotic
pressure] in dilution water
Dilute the sample to insure correct results of BOD test [Table 23.1]
Control, remove, or mask effect of toxics on seed organisms [serial
dilution]

Microbial process follows first order kinetics

- dC/dt = k C
k = first order rate constant

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BOD Kinetics

BOD5 = y = L (1 - e-kt)
k is lne base
BOD5 = y = L (1 10-kt)
k is log10 base
y = 5 day BOD or BOD5
L = ultimate or maximum BOD
k depends on microbial community and the type of waste
involved
BOD5 may or may not approximate L
Different values of k result in different values of L at time, t
L is needed for wasteload allocation modeling
L can be calculated or estimated in the lab
Effect of change in variables on BOD

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Biochemical Oxygen Demand

(BOD, pronounced bee-oh-dee)

Most commonly used parameter to define

the strength of a polluted water
Used to determine the relative oxygen
requirements for polluted waters
What threat dose BOD present to a
receiving water body?
Reduction in dissolved oxygen (DO)
< 30 mg/L is the standard

BOD Laboratory Definition

Quantity of oxygen utilized by a mixed

population of microorganisms in the aerobic
oxidation (of the organic matter (OM) in a sample
of wastewater) at a temperature of 20C 1 C
in an air incubator or water bath
Assumes all biodegradable OM will be oxidized
to H2O and CO2

Reaction Mechanism

Metabolism of OM & uptake of DO by

bacteria, releasing CO2 & producing a
substantial increase in bacterial pop.

OM CO2 + bact. cells CO2 + prot. Cells

DO + bacteria

DO + protozoans

If [OM] increases, oxygen consumption:

Increases, therefore BOD test indirectly measures
[OM]

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BOD Curves (1st order kinetics)

Calculation of BOD

BOD (mg/L) = (D1-D2)/P

D1 = initial DO (after 15min. prep time)
D2 = final DO (after 5 day incubation)

BOD(t)=Ultimate BOD(1-10-Kt)

K = 0.1/day (common value for domestic waste)

Nitrifying lags behind (5 days)
Replication should be 15%

D1 and D2 both have units of mg/L

P = decimal fraction of wastewater

= mL of wastewater/mL of BOD bottle

Standardized BOD test using glucose & glutamic acid

Why is BOD test a 1st order reaction?

Rate of O2 consumed is directly proportional to the
concentration of degradable OM (Figure)

Testing BOD of Municipal Wastewater

Example Problem

If the BOD3 of a waste is 75 mg/L and the

K is 0.150/day, what is the ultimate BOD?
Answer is 115 mg/L

BOD5 = y = L (1 - e-kt)

k is lne base

BOD5 = y = L (1 10-kt)
k is log10 base
y = 5 day BOD or BOD5
L = ultimate or maximum BOD

Determination of BOD-K

K = 2.61(B/A)
Formula derived from Thomas Graphical
Method
K = rate constant/day
A = y-intercept
B = slope

Determine solution volume from Table or

BOD dilution equation
For a valid test DO consumed > 2 mg/L,
but DOf > 1 mg/L
Example, if BOD = 350 mg/L; DO of 5
mg/L, what is volume of WW added?

What is the relationship b/w

COD and BOD?

What is COD?
Chemical oxygen demand

Oxidation or uptake of oxygen to decompose

nonbiodegradable OM
OM + O2 CO2 + H2O + others

So the relationship is?

None

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Conclusions, What is BOD5?

BOD measured after 5 days and used as the

standard procedure
Should you always use BOD5?

If comparing 2 wastes, only if K is the same

for both

Again, BOD is the quantity of O2 used by

bugs in the aerobic stabilization of polluted
H2O!

What prevents water from being potable?

Inorganic compounds such as Antimony, Arsenic, Asbestos,
Cyanide, Lead, Mercury, etc.
Organic Compounds
Volatile Organic Chemicals: Benzene, Carbon tetrachloride,
Chlorobenzene, Methylene Chloride, etc.
Synthetic Organic Chemicals: Acrylamide, Xylene, Ethyl
Benzene, Styrene, etc.

What is Potable Water?

Potable Water can be costumed in any desired
amount without concern for adverse health effects
but does not necessarily taste good
Palatable Water is pleasing to drink but not
necessarily safe
We need Potable Water that is also Palatable.

In what form/state are these impurities present in water ?

Suspended: Particles above the size of 0.1 m such as
algae, bacteria, fungi, organic material, sand.
Colloidal: Particles smaller than 0.1 m such as viruses,
complex molecules, ions.

Dissolved: volatile and synthetic organic chemicals.

Microbial contaminants such as bacteria, virus
No sharp divisions between the various categories
Radioactive contaminants

Measurement of the amount of Impurities in Water

Turbidity

Suspended : Total Particle Count (TPC)(Visible under a microscope)

Turbidity is a measure of the degree to which a colloidal

suspension reflects light at a 90o angle to the entrance beam.

Colloidal : Turbidity, Color, TPC

There are various standards against which a sample is compared

to obtain the turbidity. A turbidity higher than 5 TU (turbidity
unit) is physically unaesthetic.

Dissolved : Hardness, Alkalinity, pH, Color

The colloidal particles that cause turbidity also give color to the
water.

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Water Quality Goals

Hardness

Hardness is the sum of all polyvalent cations such as Ca2+,

Mg2+ (in units of mg/l as CaCO3)

Turbidity
< 0.1 TU
Color
< 3 color units
Taste
None objectionable
Odor
None
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) < 200 mg/l (1 mg/l ~ 1ppm)
Hardness
80 mg/l of CaCO3
Toxic Inorganic Substances

Hard water does not form lather with soap and is bad for
cleaning. Ca and Mg in hard water reacts with soap to form
insoluble calcium and magnesium carboxylates (the ring
in the bath tub)

Synthetic Organic Chemicals

Volatile Organic Chemicals
Microorganisms (Coliforms and E. coli.) 0 in at least 80% of tests

Sources of Water
More than 50% of world population relies on
groundwater as a source of drinking water
Ground
Constant composition
High mineralization
Little turbidity
Low or no color
Bacteriologically safe
No dissolved oxygen
High hardness
H2S, Fe, Mn

Surface (Reservoir, Lake,

River)
Varying composition
Low mineralization
High turbidity
Color
Microorganisms present
Dissolved oxygen
Low hardness
Tastes, odors

Removal of Suspended Matter

Sedimentation: Settling of the large suspended particles due to
gravity.

Filtration: Removal of large particles by passing water through a

porous membrane or a packed bed.

Centrifugation: Removal of the particles by centrifugal forces.

How to purify water from these sources?

Removal of Dissolved Matter

Removal of Colloidal Particles

Processes that cause a phase changes such as

Precipitation: Formation of a product that doesnt dissolve
in water leading to its separation into suspended form.

High Speed Centrifugation: Very high speed rotation leading

to accumulation of the particles towards the periphery of the
centrifuge.

Distillation: Removal of non-volatile liquids by evaporating

water followed by condensation.

Filtration through membranes with very small pores

Adsorption: Removal of organic liquids utilizing their

affinity for activated carbon.

Flocculation: Entrapping the coagulated colloidal particles in

settling flocs of alumina.

Extraction: Removal of liquids by exposing water to other

mediums in which the liquids have a higher solubility.

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Reaction Equilibrium

aA + bB

k1

cC

+ dD

k-1

In order to understand purification

processes such as precipitation,
flocculation, we need to understand
water chemistry

Gr=cGc + dGd - aGA - bGb

At equilibrium:

Example:

Acid/Base Reactions

H W

H2O

H+ + OH-

Cc Dd
Aa Bb

H OH

10

14

Normality and Molarity and pH

Acids are H+ donors and bases are H+ receptors

HW
H+ + WK

G r RT ln K RT ln

Molarity is equal to the number of moles/liter and

Normality is the number of equivalents/liter

HW

Example: If we dissolve 10 g of NaCl in 500 ml of water what

is the molarity and normality of the solution?

Examples:
HCl

CH3COOH
NaOH

Solution: 10g = 10/58 moles

10g/500 ml = 20/58 mol/l =0.344 M = 0.344 N

H+ + ClH+ + CH3COO-

pKa=4.75

Na+ + OH-

pH=-log[H+]

where [ ] denotes concentration in mol/l

Alkalinity is the sum of all titrable bases down to pH 4.5

Example: What is the pH of 0.01 M concentrated H2SO4 solution?

Solution: Assuming complete dissociation, [H+]= 0.02 m/l
pH=-log[.002]=2.7
If 100 mg of H2SO4 are added to a liter of water, what is the final pH?
Solution: 100 mg = 100/98 mM = 100/98 x 10-3 m/l
Assuming complete dissociation, [H+]= 2 x 100/98 x 10-3 m/l
pH=-log[2 x 100/98 x 10-3]=2.699

Example: Add 100 mg of 100% pure sulfuric acid and 100 mg

of Sodium hydroxide to a liter of water. What is the final pH?
Mol wt of sulfuric acid = 98
Mol wt of Sodium hydroxide = 40
Solution: mMoles of Sulfuric acid = 100/98 = 1.02
mMoles of Sodium hydroxide = 100/40 = 2.5
Net mili-moles of Sodium hydoxide = 2.5 2(1.02) =
0.46/liter
Assuming complete dissociation and neglecting hydroxyl ions
from water, [OH-]=0.46x10-3
[H+]=10-14/[OH-]=2.17x10-11
pH=10.6

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Example: If 15mg/l of HOCl is added to potable water for

disinfection and the final pH is 7.0, what % of HOCl is
dissociated?
Ka=2.9x10-8
Solution:

Ka

Precipitation
aA+ + bB-

AaBb(s)
K

A B
a

pKs=-log Ks

Example
Ca3(PO4)2 (s)

H OCl 10 OCl

HOCl

[ HOCl ] 10

HOCl

/ K a [ OCl

3Ca2+ + 2PO43-

] 3 . 45 [ OCl

[ OCl ]
1

[ OCl ] [ HOCl ]
4 . 45
% not dissociate d 100/4.45

If the product of the ionic concentrations exceed the

corresponding Ks, precipitation occurs.

22.5%

Coagulation and Flocculation

Substance

Equilibrium Equation

pKs

Aluminum Hydroxide

Al(OH)3

Al3+ + 3 OH-

32.9
8.32

Calcium Carbonate

CaCO3

Ca2+

Ferric Hydroxide

Fe(OH)3

Fe3+ + 3 OH-

Ferric Phosphate

FePO4

Magnesium Hydroxide

Mg(OH)2

+ CO3

2-

Fe3+ + PO43Mg2+ + 2 OH-

38.04

Coagulation is the process by which small colloidal particles

approach each other and adhere to form larger flocs so that
they could be subsequently separated in a settler.
Most colloids are negatively charged so coagulants such as Al 3+ or
Fe3+ need to be added to neutralize the charge resulting in
aggregation of colloids.

21.9
10.74

Adsorption
Use of activated carbon or silica to adsorb taste and odor causing
substances and to remove synthetic and volatile organic
chemicals.
Disinfection
Killing the microorganisms by UV Light,Chlorination, Ozone
(O3) or Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2).

Alum (Al2(SO4)3.14H2O) when added to water releases Al ion

that destabilizes colloids and also reacts with water to form a
large complex such as [Al(OH)20.28H2O]4+ that enmeshes
colloids as it settles.

Jar Tests
Determine the optimum alum dosage and pH for turbidity removal
In one set of Jars keep constant pH and vary alum
dosage from 10-60 mg/l.
In another set, keep alum dosage constant and vary pH
by adding dilute sulfuric acid from 5 to 7.5.
Measure the change in turbidity in both sets to
determine the optimal pH and alum dosage.

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Reaction Rates

Thermodynamics vs. Kinetics

Each physical process progresses at rates that
depend on a number of variables and eventually
achieves thermodynamic equilibrium.

Zeroth order: -rA = k

First order: -rA = kcA

Equilibrium vs. Steady State

Second order: -rA = kcA2

Steady state implies no change in state variables with time.
Steady state in a closed system implies equilibrium

What do we need to remove?

Potable Water Treatment
SDWA (1974) federal
mandate to protect public
health
~ 40% of the worlds
population does not have
adequate access to safe water

All impurities that could cause death,

disease, or adverse health effects?
Examples

Colloidal, dissolved, and suspended material

Pathogens, carcinogens, tastes, odors, color
(atrazine standard)!

How are we going to purify H2O?

Typical unit process train for purifying surface water (e.g.,
lakes, reservoirs, rivers).
Combination of chemical and physical treatment, although
including biology is becoming more popular.

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Purpose for Rapid Mix Basins

Mix the chemicals such as Alum
(Al2(SO4)3) or FeCl3 for coagulation; can
also add Cl2, PAC, KMnO4.
Blender thoroughly and
instantaneously mix the chemicals

Rapid Mix Basin

Alum Dose as a function of Water
Source
Source
Reservoir
Lake
River

Dose (mg/L)
16
22
29

Design Variables
Residence time
Volume (shape, dimensions)
Velocity gradient, G
Type of Impeller and Power
Baffle design

Design of a Rapid Mix Basin

Full-scale vs. Pilot Scale

The design equations we will discuss are

intended for full-scale
You must address their applicability for
pilot-scale!
Basic equation:

Choose Detention time, t0 , between 10 and 30 seconds

V < 8 m3; V=t0 Q where Q is the given flowrate
Liquid depth: 0.5 - 1.1 times basin diameter or width
G(t0), velocity gradient of 600 - 1000 s-1
Turbine or Axial Flow Impeller, P=VG2
Impeller diameter, Di 0.3 - 0.5 times the tank diameter
or width
Baffles extend 10% of tank diameter or width

T = V/Q

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Purpose for Coagulation and

Flocculation

G values for Rapid Mixing

to

0.5 (in-line blending)

10 20
20 30
30 40
> 40

3,500
1,000
900
800
700

How do Coagulation and

Flocculation work
Add a coagulant such as Al2(OH)3 alum or FeCl3
ferric chloride that provides positively charged
ions to neutralize the negative charge of colloidal
particles resulting in aggregation
Desired properties of a coagulant
Trivalent cation
Non-toxic
Insoluble in the neutral pH range (i.e.,
coagulant must precipitate out)

Flocculation
Design Variables
Residence time
Volume (shape, dimensions)
Velocity gradient, G (large enough for mixing
but avoid shearing
Tapered Flocculation 3 G zones
G decreases from beginning to end
Average G is the design value

Baffle design
Impeller design

Bring small precipitates and colloidal particles

into contact so that they collide, stick and
grow to a size that readily settles.
Create big settling flocs such as
[Al(OH)20.28H2O]4+ that enmesh colloids as it
settles.

How Does Alum Work?

When added to water, it dissociates releasing
an aluminum ion that develops water clusters
around it
This large particle precipitate (e.g., Al-OHH2O, floc) settles enmeshing colloids with it
Optimum pH range is b/w 5.5 6.5
Coagulant aids: pH adjusters, activated
silica, clay, and polymers
Goal is to create larger, denser floc

G and t0 Values for Flocculation

Type

G (s-1)

Gt0 (unitless)

Low turbidity, color

removal, coagulation
High turbidity, solids
removal, coagulation
Softening, 10% solids

20 70

60000-200000

130 200 200000-250000

Softening, 39% solids

150 300 390000-400000

50 150 90000-180000

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Design of Flocculator
Choose Velocity gradient, G (i.e., what kind of H2O?)
Get t0(G)
Get V=t0 Q where Q is the given flowrate
Liquid depth: 0.5 - 1.1 times basin diameter or width
Turbine or Axial Flow Impeller, P=VG2
Impeller diameter, Di 0.2 - 0.5 times the tank diameter
or width (Max impeller diameter = 3 m)
Rules of thumb:
minimum v = Length/ t 0 0.5 1.5 ft/min
t = 30 min

Purpose of Sedimentation

Upflow Clarifier

Removal of particulate matter, chemical

floc, and precipitates from suspension
through gravity settling

Types of Settlers/Clarifiers
Upflow Clarifier
Horizontal flow Clarifier

Horizontal Flow Clarifier

Sedimentation Basin Zones

Inlet evenly distribute the flow across
x-sectional area
~ 25% of tank in theory

Design Variables: Length (L), Height (h) and Width (W)

Perforated Baffle Design to distribute the incoming fluid
Effluent Weir Design to remove the effluent
Slope of the Sludge zone: 1 to 10% slope
1% for mechanically cleaned
5 to 10% for manually cleaned

Settling gravity settling

Outlet remove effluent

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Why do particles Settle?

Stokes Law for spherical particles
vs = g (s - ) d2
18

Buoyancy
Drag

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

s = density of particles, kg/m3
= density of fluid, kg/m3
d = diameter of sphere
= dynamic viscosity, Pas

Settling properties of particles are often

categorized into one of three classes:
Type I - particles settle discretely @ a constant
settling velocity (i.e., no flocculation)
Type II - particles flocculate during
sedimentation (since they flocculate their size is
constantly changing (i.e., vs is )
Type III - particles settle as a mass (i.e., lime
softening)

Weight

Typical Sedimentation Tank vo

Problems in using Stokes Equation

Particles are not spherical (Use equivalent diameter)
Particle diameter changes with settling (Use the
minimum diameter : Conservative Design)
Obtain vs experimentally

Design of Horizontal Flow Clarifier

vl

Treatment

vo (m3/dm2)

Alum or iron floc

Lime softening floc

14.5 - 22.3
22.3 - 82.1

vs

vl

l Ql

t0 V

l
Condition for Settling:

h
l
h V
Qh Q
vs

v0
vs vl
vs Q
V As

vs v0
vs
Percentage Removal, P = 100 v
0

Design of Horizontal Flow Clarifier

Purpose of Filtration

Q is the given flowrate

Calculate vs (d)
Choose v0 = 0.8 vs
Obtain As using v0 = Q/As

Removal of flocs that do not settle in the

Clarifier due to small size.
Reduce settled water turbidity of ~ 5 TU to
below 0.3 TU.

Choose L/W~5; As = l W; Use these to obtain l,W

Choose horizontal velocity, vl 0.5 ft/min
Obtain Detention time, t0 = l/vl
Obtain V using t0 = V/Q

Most common design Granular-media gravity

filter

Obtain h using V = l W h

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Filter Design

Filter Design

Loading Rate
The flow rate of water applied per unit area of filter
va = Q / As

Typical depth ~ 9 feet

Filter Bed Breakdown

va = loading rate, gpm/ft2

Q = flow rate onto filter, gal/day
As = filter surface area, ft2

Design rates are between 2 10

Filter Depth

gpm/ft2

5 gpm/ft2 is most common (slow, rapid, and high-rate

filters)

Choose va and calculate As for a given Q.

Granular media ~ 2 feet

Sand ~ 6 feet
Course gravel ~ 1 foot

Underdrain

Head loss

Filter Media
Head loss will increase overtime as filter
collects impurities
Filter is back-washed (reverse flow) to
remove impurities
~ 15 gpm/ft2 for ~ 10 15 min

Choose media to promote straining,

flocculation, and sedimentation
Grain size desired to retain large quantities
of floc, but prevent passing of small particles
Dual-media filter
Anthracite
Sand

Typically, filters backwash every 24

hours or when headloss is between 6
9 feet

Media specified by effective size and

uniformity coefficient

Effective Size (E)

Uniformity Coefficient (U)

Definition: the 10 percent diameter,

which means that 10% of the filter
grains by weight are smaller than the
diameter
Suggested range

Definition: ratio of the 60-percentile

diameter to the 10-percentile diameter
Typically < 1.7 for sand and anthracite

0.35 0.55 mm for sand

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How does one determine E and U?

Determine the size distribution of a
sample via a sieve analysis
Plot the sieve size versus the
percentage of material retained on each
sieve (log-probability paper)

Overview:

Hydrologic Cycle
Definitions
Groundwater Flow Processes

Modelling Contaminant Transport

Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle

Saline water in
oceans: 97.2%

Heads and Gradients, Darcys Law, Hydraulic Conductivity,

Aquifer Properties, More Definitions

Solving Groundwater Flow Equations

Ice caps and glaciers: 2.14%

Governing Equations, Flow Nets, Finite-Difference Solutions

Groundwater: 0.61%
Surfacewater: 0.009%
Soil moisture: 0.005%
Atmosphere: 0.001%

Model Specifications
Physical Dimensions, Grid Size, Hydraulic Properties, Initial
Conditions, Boundary Conditions

Distribution of Worlds
Water Supply

(Source: Heath, R.C., 1984. Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
2220)

Groundwater: Underground water in formations where void space is completely

filled with water

Underground Formations

Definitions

Unconsolidated
Rocks

Consolidated
Rocks

(Source: Heath, R.C., 1984. Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
2220)

(Source: Heath, R.C., 1984. Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
2220)

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Definitions

Definitions
Aquifer: A geologic formation that contains water
and permits significant amounts of water to
move through it under ordinary field conditions.
Aquitard: A saturated but poorly permeable
stratum that impedes groundwater movement.
Does not yield water freely to wells, but may
transmit appreciable water between adjacent
aquifers.

(Source: Todd,
1980)

Definitions

Definitions

i) Porosity (n)

Unconfined Aquifers

water table is at atmospheric pressure

water table takes on form depending on recharge,
discharge, pumpage from wells, and permeability

Volume of voids Vv
Total volume Vt

0.3 m 3
0.30
1.0 m 3

Confined Aquifers

groundwater confined under pressure greater than

atmospheric by overlying relatively impermeable strata

Leaky Aquifer

neither completely confined nor completely unconfined

permeable stratum is overlain by a semipervious aquitard

(Source: Heath, R.C., 1984. Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
2220)

Groundwater Flow Processes

Head & Gradient

Definitions
ii) Specific Yield &
Specific Retention
Sy

Vd
Vt

Sr

Vr
Vt

n Sy Sr

ht

elevation head

p
g

z hp

(Source: Heath, R.C., 1984. Basic Ground-Water

Hydrology, United States Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 2220)

pressure head
(Source: Heath, R.C., 1984. Basic Ground-Water
Hydrology, United States Geological Survey WaterSupply Paper 2220)

-Slide 101-

100 m 15 m 98 m 18 m 85 m 80 m 5 m
h
i L
L
780 m
780 m
780 m

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Darcys Law:

1) Q A

Aquifer

2) Q ha hb

Properties
Hydraulic
Conductivity

1
3) Q
L

Q KA

dh
qK
dl

vp

K dh
n dl

ha h b
h
KA
KAi
L
L

nA

h h
Q
K a b
A
L

3 1
Qdl md m m
2

Adh m m d

Where, q = Darcy velocity or Darcy flux (L/T), vp = average pore velocity (L/T), K = hydraulic
conductivity (L/T), n = soil porosity, dh/dl = hydraulic conductivity (L/L)

Not applicable for: High velocity flow (Reynolds number >

1) in some gravels and in secondary pores (eg, Karst).

Aquifer Properties - Transmissivity

Aquifer Properties -- Homogeneity

Aquifers

Soils

Homogeneous

Q KA

h
L

Hydraulic Conductivity, K (md-1)

K represents flow per unit area of
the sample under unit gradient.

Q KA

h
h
h
K bw
Kb w
L
L
L

Transmissivity, T = Kb

Heterogeneous

(m2d-1)

T represents flow per unit width

of the aquifer under unit gradient.

Heterogeneity K = f(Location)

-Slide
106-

Aquifer Properties Isotropy

Isotropic

Anisotropic

Aquifer Properties Storage Coefficient

Storage coefficient (or storativity), S [dimensionless], is the volume of water
produced from a confined aquifer per unit aquifer area per unit decline in the
potentiometric surface.

volume of water

unit area unit head change

m3
m3
3
m2 m m

Anisotropy K = f(Direction)

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Storativity/Specific Yield Unconfined Aquifer

Storativity/Storage Coefficient Confined Aquifer
Unconfined

Lowering of water table results in:

Draining of water from the pores
Lowering of the unsaturated water distribution in soils above the water table
Water drained equals the volume of water corresponding to the shaded area in
the above figure
Typical values of 0.1 0.3
Same as specific yield

Lowering of potentiometric surface results in:

Decrease in fluid pressure and expansion of fluid slightly
A part of the weight of the overlying material is transferred from the fluid to
the solid - compressing the aquifer material (similar to squeezing a sponge)
In a confined aquifer with a porosity of 0.2 , expansion of water alone releases 3x10-7 m3
of water per m3 of aquifer per meter of decline in head. Thus, if only the expansion of
water is considered, the storage coefficient of a 100 m thick aquifer is 3 x 10 -5. The
storage coefficient of most confined aquifers is 10-5 to 10-3. The difference in the values
is attributed to compression of the aquifer.

Governing Equations
h
h


y
h

x
K K S y
x
y
t

For Homogeneous and

Isotropic Conditions:

2 h 2 h Sy h

x 2 y 2 K t

Diffusion Equation
used for unsteady (or transient) flows

2 h 2 h Sy b h S h

x 2 y 2 Kb t T t

Valid for Unconfined

+ Confined Aquifers

(S = Storage Coefficient or Storativity)

2h 2h

0
x 2 y 2

Laplace Equation
used for steady (or constant) flows

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