Infrastructure

1
RAILWAY TRACK
MARCH 2015
Research, Planning & Coordination Department
CROSS SECTION OF TRACK
CROSS SECTION OF TRACK
MARCH 2015
IDEAL SOIL AND POOR SOIL
IDEAL SOIL
POOR SOIL
MARCH 2015

IDEAL SOIL
The characteristics of the ideal soil;
Strong against static loading and crashes must be less,
Differences in grains, high structural strength and well
compacted; strong aganist dinamic loading,
Elastic,
Resistant to erosion,
Permeable for water,
Solid, and serve like filter to track bed and ground,

Delivery and construction should not be expensive.
Ideal soil can be seen very rare in nature.
MARCH 2015

POOR SOIL
The characteristics of the poor soil;
Flowing and loose,

Mixed ground with cohesive, soft or semi-soft
sand, mud, clay,
Has too much boulders.
MARCH 2015
SOIL TYPES
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
FINE-GRAINED SOILS
PROPORTIONS
ORGANIC SOILS
MARCH 2015
SOIL TYPES
COARSE-GRAINED SOILS
The
particles
can
be
distinguished by the naked
eye :
Boulders (have diameter
greater than 300 mm)
Cobbles (have diameter
between 75 mm and 300
mm)
Gravel
(has
diameter
between 4.75 mm and 75
mm)
Sand
(has
diameter
between 0.075 mm and 4.75
mm)
MARCH 2015
SOIL TYPES
FINE-GRAINED SOILS
Corrupt mud, silt or clay are examples for fine-grained

soils. Fine-grained soils are identified with elasticy,
structure and color. Elasticy is determined by the clay

content in them.
MARCH 2015
SOIL TYPES
PROPORTIONS
Fine material
has diameter below 0.075 mm
Proportion of fine material
Below %5
Coarse-grained soil
Between %5 and %40
Mixed-grained soil
Over %40
Fine-grained soil
MARCH 2015
10
SOIL TYPES
ORGANIC SOILS
These are the swamps and peat soil. Organic layers in the
ground can be animal or vegetable origin.
MARCH 2015
11
SOIL TESTS
MARCH 2015
12
SOIL TESTS
SHAPE INEQUALITY DEGREE (U)
PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST
PLATE LOAD TEST
BEARING CAPACTY TEST
PLASTIC PROPERTIES
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)
WATER CONTENT AND DRY DENSITY
MARCH 2015
13
SOIL TESTS
SHAPE INEQUALITY DEGREE (U)
U is ratio between weights of grains have size 0-60 mm
and 0-10 mm. It shows slope of grain distiribution. If this
ratio is low (U is lower than 6 ) slope is vertical. This means
ground has almost same grain size. If this ratio is high (U is
higher than 6) ground has different grain sizes.
MARCH 2015
14
SOIL TESTS
This test establish relation between
water ratio and dry unit weight of
ground. Using this relation we have a
proctor density that is a value using to
estimate compress density of adhesive
grounds. When water ratio below
optimal water ratio, proctor density can
be
100%
with
an
additional
compressing. If water ratio above
optimal water ratio, proctor density can
not be calculated with an additional
compressing.
MARCH 2015
15
SOIL TESTS
The proctor test is a compression test. In this experiment, the material

is put into a container and is compressed by using a mallet release.
This test is done in cases where the materials contain various amounts
of water.
Dry volume weight ratios record on water ratio which they belong. A
curve is formed from results and top of this curve shows dry volume
density.
Dry volume density is called simple proctor density and water ratio that
is belong this density called optimal amount of water.
Proctor curve gives information about acceptable water content to
reach the required compression values.
MARCH 2015
16
SOIL TESTS
PLATE LOAD TEST
Beside dry density, this test gives us a value that specifes
quality of loadbearing or protective material and bearing
capasity. At plate load test a circle plate has 30 cm
diameter makes loading and discharge with different
weights. Circle makes a mark is measured to calculate
depth.
MARCH 2015
17
SOIL TESTS
BEARING CAPACTY TEST
Short time pulsed loadings are made to track bed. This
way track bed has softened vibration. If sinking and
vibration is bigger, track bed has low bearing capacity. This
test has shorter needed time. Results are nearer to real
load effects than plate load test and also results is ready to
use directly.
MARCH 2015
18
SOIL TESTS
PLASTIC PROPERTIES
If fine-grained soil is added water, ground loses

stiffness slowly. First ground passes to half solid,
then plastic form and final liquid form.
Increasing water ratio causes to grains adhesion

force to decrease. Adhesion disappears step by
step, and ground gets a liquid form.
MARCH 2015
19
SOIL TESTS
CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)
CBR s resistant that ground shows to 20 cm2 cylinder
compress ground with a steady speed that 1.25 mm in a
minute. Resistant curve is compared to a standart curve.
Result is percentage of force that do equal going into best
loadbearing material.
MARCH 2015
20
SOIL TESTS
WATER CONTENT AND DRY DENSITY
Water content is determined with drying process in oven.
Water content ratio is current water content over dry
weight. Dry density is t/m3 or kg/m3 . Optimal dry density is
maximum dry density that ground can be concentrated.
MARCH 2015
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GROUND INSPECTION
MARCH 2015
22
GROUND INSPECTION
SEISMIC METHOD
BORING
CONE PENETRATION TEST
MARCH 2015
23
TRACK BED
SEISMIC METHOD
MARCH 2015
24
TRACK BED
SEISMIC METHOD
Seismic method is used in the examination of major
grounds. When appliying this examination speed of waves,
size of amplitude and decrease of amplitude is measured.
MARCH 2015
25
TRACK BED
BORING
Boring machine will bring to the
surface, soils that will be tested.
With
these
tests we
get
soil
proporties.
MARCH 2015
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TRACK BED
MARCH 2015
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TRACK BED
With this method rigidity, strength and thickness can be

detected directly. There is a force required to pass different
layers. This force is a measure to bearing capacity.
MARCH 2015
28
GROUND STABILIZATION
AND
GROUND IMPROVEMENT
MARCH 2015
29
GROUND STABILIZATION AND GROUND IMPROVEMENT
GROUND IMPROVEMENT
MARCH 2015
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At the ground stabilization process, increasing the bearing
capacity of the ground must be provided by the addition of
binding materials.
Lime and cement can be used as a binding material.
If lime is used as binder, at least 40 cm thick layer of lime

should be used.
Above the lime layer, at least 20 cm protective layer must be
placed.
If cement is used as binder, cement layer must have thickness
at least 20 cm.
MARCH 2015
31

GROUND IMPROVEMENT
At
ground
improvement
process,
suitability
for
construction of ground and compressibility are improved.

Mechanical ground improvement is possible, when track
bed grain mix can be fixed with grains that have
appropriate size are added. This way ground should be
compressed better and should have better bearing
capacity.
Also ground improvement can be done with lime.
MARCH 2015
32
CHEMICAL GROUND
IMPROVEMENT
MARCH 2015
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CHEMICAL GROUND IMPROVEMENT
GROUND IMPROVEMENT WTH LME

GROUND STABILIZATION WITH CEMENT
MARCH 2015
34

GROUND IMPROVEMENT WTH LME
Bearing capacity of clay is highly dependent on the water
content. When lime mixed to clay, clay will be drained.
Drained clay is hard and have high bearing capacity.
Ground improvement with lime is short term improvement.
Improvement of ground should be economic to be
meaningful. Lime must apply only with sandy gravel
protection layer and must have at least 20 cm thickness.

Adding lime to coarse-grained ground do not provide
improvement.
MARCH 2015
35

GROUND STABILIZATION WITH CEMENT
Coarse-grained
ground
stabilization
and
increasing bearing capacity of coarse-grained

ground can be done with adding cement. Cement
must be added to sandy or muddy ground for at
least 15 cm.
Before stabilization with cement at clay, lime must
be mixed to ground.
MARCH 2015
36
TRACK BED
MARCH 2015
37
TRACK BED
TRACK BED
TRACK BED LAYERS
TRACK BED DRAINAGE
LAYER REQUIREMENTS
USAGE OF GEOTEXTLE PRODUCTS

TRACK BED FAILURES
CAUSES AND CONSEQUENSES OF TRACK BED FAILURES
MARCH 2015
38
TRACK BED
TRACK BED
Composed of ballast and ballast blanket and subbase.

Its purpose is to support the sleepers and dissipate the
forces applied by vehicles passing over the sleepers, and
to provide an elastic and uniform base.
Track bed and drainage infrastructure are required to

keep the ballast clean.
No build-up of water or mud in the ballast.
Layers have multiple layers with different materials and
properties.
MARCH 2015
39
TRACK BED
TRACK BED
Under the sleepers are known collectively as Track

bed.
This consists of the ballast, the ballast blanket and the
sub-grade.
The interfaces between the ballast and ballast blanket,
and between the blanket and sub-grade must be
inclined at 1/20 to allow water to flow towards the
nearest drainage line.
MARCH 2015
40
TRACK BED
TRACK BED LAYERS
MARCH 2015
41
TRACK BED
TRACK BED DRAINAGE
In order to prevent accumulation of water on track bed;

Grass growth must be prevented,
Ballast should be cleaned and a cross slope should be
created,
Side slopes and drainage channels should be cleaned,

At sides, drainages should be done and drainages should
have control and ventilation funnels.
MARCH 2015
42
TRACK BED
LAYER REQUIREMENTS
Subballast, geosynthetic materials, subbase prevent fine
materials in infrastructure move up to inside ballast and
accumulation water in infrastructure.
Balast layer have slope with 1/20 rate to nearest drainage
channel.
In case of ballast layer or filler contains sand, average
pressure should not exceed 0.05 MN/m2 at layer contains
sand. Other granular materials can be rated for higher
pressures and geosynthetic layers (e.g. geotextile, geogrid,
geomembrane, geocomposite ) can be used.
MARCH 2015
43
TRACK BED
LAYER REQUIREMENTS
In case ground movement is possible (seasonal

changes or changes in ground from quakes), in a
way that allow ground movements ( e.g. using
terracing layer ) should be designed.
Appropriate drainage systems, during the design

phase should be integrated into the track bed.
MARCH 2015
44
USAGE OF GEOTEXTILE
PRODUCT
MARCH 2015
45
USAGE OF GEOTEXTILE PRODUCT

Drainage lines should be sufficient and
clean.
Ballast should not be contaminated;
contaminated regions should be cleaned.
If subgrade stiffness is too low, a 3 m
wide geogrid should be placed below the
ballast.
If the existing ballast blanket is functional < 50 mm thick in places
The blanket should be re-applied with a thickness 100 mm
and a Separating Geotextile laid over; this should extend 0.70
m beyond the sleeper ends, and a crossfall of 1:20.
If the existing ballast blanket is functional, < 100 mm thick in places
A Separating Geotextile laid over; this should extend 0.70 m
beyond the sleeper ends, and a crossfall of 1:20
MARCH 2015
46
USAGE OF GEOTEXTILE PRODUCT

The function of geotextile material,
help to reduce tension and deformation,
increase bearing capacity
extend life of added layers.
Geosynthetic materials used between track bed and
ground.
Geotextile materials are placed on compressed and
improved track bed, and covered with a protective
material.
MARCH 2015
47
TRACK BED
TRACK BED FAILURES
Soils formed of same material, as sand, sand move to

surface of travers from inside ballast result of vibration.
At nonadhesive or less adhesive grounds result of
dinamic loading track bed and ground become loose
and this causes cracks and crack regions.
Muddy grounds, when weather rainy
track bed
fluctuates and during muddy ground be subjected to
load changes, move to surface of ballast, it causes
water accumulation and under sleepers ballast subside.
Line immediately decomposes at rainy weather and at
dry weather line stabilizes again quickly.
MARCH 2015
48
TRACK BED
TRACK BED FAILURES
At very adhessive grounds and grounds become tight due
to load changes, pitting occurs under sleepers, ground
swells under and between sleepers in direction of side
road. On this grounds when weather is rainy mud is
pumped to surface of ballast from sides of sleepers. This
shape changes in ground occur both in rainy and dry
weather, and it occurs very slowly.
At grounds with equal size of sand, losses can occur with
wind erosion. At very adhesive grounds at drought times
cracks occur due to become dry and shrinking, specially
warm climates at rainy times, swells can occur due to
wetting.
MARCH 2015
49
TRACK BED
Causes of track bed failures;

A bad ground, in other words a ground composed with
unsuitable ground types,
In case ground is remained under static and dynamic over
load,
Compressing track bed is not sufficient or track bed losses
volume,
When it rains or line remaines under flow drainage is not
sufficient,
High water level,
Cracks are formed dry fill with rain,
Using rail that has not sufficient carrying capacity
Using sleepers with over weight, and using sleepers with
over distance between.
MARCH 2015
50
TRACK BED
Consequenses of track bed failures;

Extra line works, regions should be passed slow
or repair works can be necessary
Nonrigid grounds are over loaded under traffic
load, rail steel fatigues early and rails working life

shortens.
MARCH 2015
51
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
MARCH 2015
52
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
SURFACE DRANAGE SYSTEMS

SUBSURFACE DRANAGE SYSTEMS
MANTENANCE OF DRANAGE COMPONENTS
MARCH 2015
53
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Cess drainage systems
Cess drains are surface drainage systems located at formation level at

the side of tracks, to remove water that has percolated through the
ballast and is flowing along the capping layer towards the outside of
the track formation. They are most frequently found in line sections
where water running off the trackbed cannot freely drain away. Cess
drainage systems are constructed with a slope of at least 1/200. This is
to facilitate cleaning of sediment that may deposit in drains.
MARCH 2015
54
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Catch drainage systems
These drainage systems
are
also
named
top
drainage systems or surface
drainage
systems.
The
purpose of such drainage
systems is to intercept water
flow
by
means
of
embankments or obstacles
in order to stop it before it
reaches the track.
These drainage systems can be lined with geosynthetic materials or

instead of geosynthetic materials, pipes with semilunar holes or
trapeze-section ducts can be used, depending on the condition of local
soil. This type of drainage system may also be used on the uphill side of
embankments, and remove water and prevent ponding at the base of
embankments.
MARCH 2015
55
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Functions of subsurface drainage systems
Collection of infiltration water that seeps into the platform
Lowering underground water level
MARCH 2015
56
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Functions of subsurface drainage systems
Collection of water leakages at an impermeable boundary
MARCH 2015
57
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Types of subsurface drainage systems
Transverse drainage systems
MARCH 2015
Drainage blankets
58
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Channel Drains and Ditches: common problems and their remedies
Problem
Cause
Blockage
Stone fall
Remedy
Clean out, line and reprofile.

Vegetation
Overgrowth
Improve the channel:
Collapsing drainage channel

Collapse
preserve cross-section
reduce maintenance
Protect against bank erosion on

slopes by using 500 mm wide grass
strips.
Scour
On steep slopes, reduce the flow

velocity using baffles.
Burrowing animals
MARCH 2015
Control vermin and fill burrows.
59
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Catchpits and Manholes: common problems and remedies
Problem
Cause
Remedy
Clean out by
Silting
Normal operation
a. hand excavation
b. mechanical jetting or vacuuming
Increase frequency of cleaning or
Blockage
Balast
girmesi
Chambers
filled or buried
Collapse
MARCH 2015
remove ballast in sump and replace

Damaged or missing
damaged or missing covers to keep ballast
covers
out
Poor ballasting
raise Catchpits before ballast drops
practices
and/or clean chambers on completion of
track work
Damage by ground
Rebuild Catchpit/Manhole
movement or on-track
plant
60
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Maintenance and cleaning of drainage pipes
The cleaning of pipes should always start from the lower end or
outfall. This is because flooding can occur if pipes at a higher level
are cleaned first. Cleaning can be undertaken by pressure jetting,
rodding or by winching a drain cleaning device (commonly known

as a badger) through the pipe. The removal of silt through drains
can result in the pipe collars or holes of drainage pipes becoming
blocked. The roots of hedges and/or trees growing in close
proximity to a drain can penetrate pipes in search of moisture. It
might be necessary to use pressurized water or air equipment to

remove roots.
MARCH 2015
61
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Table 3: Piped Collector Drains: common problems and their remedies
Problem
Cause
Blockage of filter
media
Wet Beds
Remedy
Dig out and replace filter surround
Ballast attrition
Uneven pipe
gradient from
disturbance of formation
Upgrade/relay drainage before renewing

Track Support System
Inadequate capacity
for Catchment runoff
Replace filter surround to improve

drawdown from Track Support System and
prevent formation of Wet Beds
Hydraulic
MARCH 2015
62
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Problem
Carrier Drains: common problems and their remedies

Cause
Remedy (depending upon severity)
Rodding: by hand for clearing of small local
blockages and locating larger obstructions
Capacity reduced by ingress of ballast or silt,

crushed pipes, poor pipe alignment
Open excavation: dig up pip, clean out/ repair/

replace
Water jetting: on-track plant ranging from roadrailers to drain trains
Blockage
Winching: relies on ability to pass cable through
pipe
Vegetation management to restrict spread of trees
and:
Root intrusion
Cutting and cleaning roots
Pipe replacement
Major pipe cracking or deformation

Partial collapse
Local open cut repair and/or replacement

Holes and collapses of less than one pipe length
Complete collapse
Structural failure of more than one pipe length
Renew by open cut
Poor fall or pipe alignment
Replace filter surround to improve drawdown from

track and prevent formation of Wet Beds
Relay drains
Hydraulic insufficiency
Inadequate pipe capacity
MARCH 2015
Relay by open cut or increase diameter of pipe;

size is a compromise between flow capacity and selfcleansing velocity
63
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Culverts: common problems and remedies
Cause
Debris
Check/ clear Trash Screen
Clear non-man entry Culverts by
rodding, drag scraping, or water jetting
Clear non-man entry Culverts by water
jetting, hand excavation, drag scraping or,
Silt
if sufficient headroom, by mini digger
Problem
Blockage
Rubbish or trash
General deterioration
Fill voids/ repair lining

Reline conduct
Structural
Scour voids
Extend headwall or training walls,

flumes and connection channels
Reconstruct
Collapse
Insufficient
capacity
MARCH 2015
Remove obstructions from downstream

body of water
Fit Trash Screens
Local repairs; replace missing bricks/
repoint mortar joints
flow
Change in upstream Catchment

Outlet smaller than inlet
Remediation to increase capacity
64
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Siphons: particular problem and its remedy
Problem
Blockage
Cause
Dry weather flow

velocity insufficient for
self-cleansing
Seek advice from the appointed engineer

before commencing any work on siphons
Common problems and remedies

Problem
Cause
Remedy (depending upon

severity)
General deterioration
Local repairs: replace missing

bricks/ repoint mortar joints
Structural
Extend headwall or training

walls, flumes and connection
channel
Wear, tear
Blockage
MARCH 2015
Seized flap valve
Repair or replace valve
65
TUNNEL GAUGE
MARCH 2015
66
TUNNEL GAUGE
TUNNEL GAUGE
CONSTRUCTION GAUGE
LOADNG GAUGE
MARCH 2015
67
TUNNEL GAUGE
TUNNEL GAUGE
MARCH 2015
68
TUNNEL GAUGE
CONSTRUCTION GAUGE
MARCH 2015
69
TUNNEL GAUGE
LOADNG GAUGE
MARCH 2015
70
BRIDGES, CULVERTS,
VIADUCTS
MARCH 2015
71
BRIDGES, CULVERTS, VIADUCTS
BRIDGES
CULVERTS
VIADUCTS
MARCH 2015
72

BRIDGES
It is called bridge that built to cross rivers, roads, railway or
similar barriers, not under fill, and the total length of 8 m. or
larger structures.
Clear Span : The remaining horizontal distance between bridge
piers.
Total Length : The horizontal distance between starting point
and endpoint of bridge.
MARCH 2015
73

BRIDGES
MARCH 2015
74

CULVERTS
Bridges that have total length under 8 m and regardless of

total length structures under fill.
MARCH 2015
75

VIADUCTS
Bridges are made to pass deep valleys or lands have very
high filling cost, and avoid risks that are produces by high
filling.
MARCH 2015
76

VIADUCTS
MARCH 2015
77

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1

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

CROSS SECTION OF TRACK

CROSS SECTION OF TRACK

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

IDEAL SOIL AND POOR SOIL

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

IDEAL SOIL AND POOR SOIL

Solid, and serve like filter to track bed and ground,

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

IDEAL SOIL AND POOR SOIL

The characteristics of the poor soil;

Flowing and loose,

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Corrupt mud, silt or clay are examples for fine-grained

structure and color. Elasticy is determined by the clay

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

has diameter below 0.075 mm

Proportion of fine material

Proportion of fine material

Between %5 and %40

Proportion of fine material

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

The proctor test is a compression test. In this experiment, the material

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

If fine-grained soil is added water, ground loses

Increasing water ratio causes to grains adhesion

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

With this method rigidity, strength and thickness can be

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

GROUND STABILIZATION AND GROUND IMPROVEMENT

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

GROUND STABILIZATION AND GROUND IMPROVEMENT

If lime is used as binder, at least 40 cm thick layer of lime

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

GROUND STABILIZATION AND GROUND IMPROVEMENT

construction of ground and compressibility are improved.

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

CHEMICAL GROUND IMPROVEMENT

GROUND IMPROVEMENT WTH LME

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

CHEMICAL GROUND IMPROVEMENT

protection layer and must have at least 20 cm thickness.

Research, Planning & Coordination Department

CHEMICAL GROUND IMPROVEMENT