Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010

Rutherford scattering: measuring the

scattering rate as a function of the scattering
angle & the atomic number
Harsh Purwar (07MS-76)
3 rd Year, Integrated M.S.
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata

Experiment No. 1
Nuclear and Particle Physics Laboratory (PH – 315)

Objectives of the experiment:

 To record the direct counting rate 𝑁𝑑 of 𝛼 particles scattered by a gold foil as function of the
angle 𝜃.
 To validate the “Rutherford’s scattering formula”.

Theory/Principles:
Rutherford’s experiment consisted of bombarding a very thin foil with energetic alpha (α) particles
(doubly ionized helium nuclei) as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Scattering of alpha (𝜶) particles on a monolayer of atoms.

Consider the trajectory 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑃′ of an 𝛼 – particle ( 42 𝐻𝑒 ) of mass 𝑚𝛼 and charge +𝑍 ′ 𝑒 = 2𝑒 under the
action of the electrostatic repulsion due to a nucleus at 𝐹 (one of the foci of the hyperbola 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑃′ ) of
charge +𝑍𝑒 as shown in Figure 2. Assume this nucleus to be infinitely heavy and at rest during the
motion of the 𝛼 – particle. As the 𝛼 - particle approaches the nucleus 𝐹 from a great distance
(compared to atomic scale), the electrostatic repulsion on it is negligibly small when it is very far away.
In this case potential energy is negligible and the entire energy is kinetic,
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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2
𝐸𝛼 =
2
where 𝑣 is the initial velocity of the 𝛼 – particle. The path of the 𝛼 - particle at a great distance from 𝐹 is
thus a straight line coinciding with the asymptote 𝑄𝑂𝑅 of the hyperbola 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑃′ . If we drop a
perpendicular from the nucleus to this asymptotic line, then its length 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑏 is known as impact
parameter.

{b} Impact Parameter

{𝜃} Scattering Angle

Figure 2: Path of the 𝜶 – particle during scattering by a nucleus.

As the 𝛼 – particle approaches the nucleus, its trajectory bends more and more away from 𝐹 due to the
increasing electrostatic repulsion. Finally when it reaches the point 𝐴′ at a minimum distance from 𝐹, it
begins to move away from the nucleus along 𝐴′ 𝑃′ . The angle 𝑅𝑂𝑄 ′ between the two asymptotes 𝑅𝑂𝑄
and 𝑄 ′ 𝑂𝑅 ′ is the angle of scattering 𝜃. The two asymptotes are equally inclined at an angle 𝜙 to the
axis 𝐹𝐹 ′ of the hyperbola. Writing the least distance of approach 𝐹𝐴′ = 𝑟, the potential energy of the 𝛼
- particle at 𝐴′ is,
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
where 𝜖0 = 10−9 /36𝜋 𝐹/𝑚 is the dielectric constant of empty space. The velocity 𝑣𝑚 of the 𝛼 -
particle at 𝐴′ is the minimum. Its kinetic energy at this point is,
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑚2
𝐸𝑘 =
2
So the total energy is,
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑘 + 𝑉
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑚2 𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2
𝐸= +
2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
Equating this to the initial energy of the alpha particle, we get,
𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑚2 𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2
𝐸𝛼 = = +
2 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
𝑣𝑚2 𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2
⟹ 2 = 1− ………… 1
𝑣 2𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2 𝑟
The angular momentum of the 𝛼 – particle at a great distance from the nucleus 𝐹 is,
𝑚𝛼 𝑣. 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑏
Similarly its angular momentum at 𝐴′ where its velocity becomes perpendicular to the axis 𝐹𝐹 ′ is given
by,
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑚 . 𝐹𝐴′ = 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑚 𝑟

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
Now since the force acting on the 𝛼 – particle is central, its angular momentum must be conserved. So
we have,
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑏 = 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝑚 𝑟
𝑣𝑚 𝑏
⟹ = ………… 2
𝑣 𝑟
Now as 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑃′ is a hyperbola, we have,
𝑂𝐹 = 𝑂𝐹 ′ = 𝜖. 𝑂𝐴′
where 𝜖 is the eccentricity of the hyperbola. So,
1
𝑟 = 𝐹𝐴′ = 𝑂𝐹 + 𝑂𝐴′ = 𝑂𝐹 1 +
𝜖
𝑟 = 𝑂𝐹 1 + cos 𝜙
From the above figure we have,
𝐹𝐺
sin 𝜙 =
𝑂𝐹
So we have,
𝐹𝐺 1 + cos 𝜙 𝑏 1 + cos 𝜙
𝑟= = ………… 3
sin 𝜙 sin 𝜙
From equations 2 and 3 we have,
𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜙
= ………… 4
𝑣 1 + cos 𝜙
Now from equations 1 and 4 , we have,
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2 sin 𝜙 2 1 − cos 𝜙
1− = =
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2 𝑟 1 + cos 𝜙 1 + cos 𝜙
Substituting 𝑟 from equation 3 we get,
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2 sin 𝜙 1 − cos 𝜙
1− 2
× =
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 𝑏 1 + cos 𝜙 1 + cos 𝜙
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2
⟹ sin 𝜙 = 2 cos 𝜙
2𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2 𝑏
So finally we have,
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2
𝑏= tan 𝜙
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2
Again since,
𝜋 𝜃
𝜙= −
2 2
Therefore we have,
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2 𝜃
𝑏= cot ………… 5
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2 2

Above equation shows that as the impact parameter 𝑏 becomes smaller, the scattering angle 𝜃
increases. Confining to a single scattering nucleus the alpha particles approaching it will have different
impact parameter 𝑏. Now consider two infinite coaxial cylinders of radius 𝑏 and 𝑏 + 𝑑𝑏, having their
axis parallel to the incident direction with nucleus on the axis. All particles with their asymptotic paths
between these two cylinders will be scattered between the two angles 𝜃 and 𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃 determined by the
above equation. Now the number of alpha particles incident on this annulus (if 𝑁 are incident per unit
area) in a given interval of time is given by,
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑁 × 2𝜋𝑏 𝑑𝑏
So the number of particles scattered between 𝜃 and 𝜃 − 𝑑𝜃 using above relation is,
2
𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2 cos 𝜃 2
𝑑𝑁 = −𝜋𝑁 2
𝑑𝜃 … … … … 6
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 sin3 𝜃 2

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
Here it is assumed that out of 𝑁 particles incident per unit area, 𝑑𝑁 are scattered by the action of a
single scattering nuclei. All these alpha particles are scattered into the solid angle,
𝜃 𝜃
𝑑Ω = 2𝜋 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 4𝜋 sin cos 𝑑𝜃
2 2
Thus the number of particles scattered per unit solid angle is,
2
𝑑𝑁 𝑁 𝑍𝑍 ′ 𝑒 2 𝜃
= 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 … … … … 7
𝑑Ω 4 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2
Note that the negative sign in equation 6 has been dropped as it only indicates that as impact
parameter increases scattering angle decreases. Now the probability that an incident alpha particle will
get scattered due to the action of a single scattering nuclei is given by, (Using 𝑍 ′ = 2)
2
𝑑𝑁 𝑍𝑒 2 𝜃
= 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 … … … … 8
𝑑Ω 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑚𝛼 𝑣 2
This is commonly known as Rutherford scattering formula.

Experimental Setup:
 The scattering chamber was vent before starting the experiment for the first time and the lid
was taken off. (Special precautions were taken while doing so. A few of them are listed below.)
 The radioactive source Americium – 241 241 95 Am was carefully inserted into the source socket
attached to the bottom portion of the scattering chamber’s lid.
 The thin slit aperture of approximately 5 𝑚𝑚 , was inserted and tightened into the slit holder in
front of the source socket.
 After checking the alignment of the detector slit, the lid was placed back over the chamber with
proper seal like o–ring etc to prevent a leak.
 Finally necessary connections to connect the other apparatuses like pulse–counter,
discriminator pre-amplifier, vacuum pump etc were made appropriately.

Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
Procedure:
Alpha particles 42 𝐻𝑒 +2 due to their high ionizing power are unable to travel more than a few
centimeters in air. Therefore before starting the experiment a low pressure (vacuum) of the order of
10−3 bar was created inside the scattering chamber by using a simple rotary pump.

Recording Scattering rate/Pulse rate as function of the angle 𝜽 :

 The electronic counter was set for pulse counting by pressing the push button MODE to activate
𝑁𝐴,𝐸 .
 Gate time 𝑡 𝜃 = 60 𝑠 was selected by pressing the toggle button GATE thrice.
Note: Gate time 𝑡 𝜃 = 60 𝑠 is useful only for small angles, i.e. angles up to ±10𝑜 . This time
should be increased as for larger angles by pressing GATE button. Even larger times can be set
by pressing GATE + MODE button, i.e. up to 9999 𝑠 (MODE upwards, GATE downwards).
 Discriminator level was adjusted to get a reasonable and recordable number of counts
especially at small angles. Setting discriminator level properly removes electrical noise so that
the counter counts only the pulses corresponding to the mono-energetic alpha particles
detected by the detector.
 We tried to record at least 50 particles 𝑁 > 50 at all angles: 𝜃 = ±5°, ±10°, ±15° and ±20°
for both the foils (Gold & Aluminum).
Due to only a few scatterings by aluminum foil at large angles, collecting data for angles greater
than 10° was not possible during the laboratory hours.
 Measuring the counts symmetrically to 𝜃 = 0 help in detecting any unwanted misalignments in
the experimental setup.
 Collected data is presented in Table 1 and Table 2 below. Counting was repeated for all angles
several times to obtain a statistically significant data.

Observations:
For Aluminum foil with discriminator voltage set to 0.3 V.

Table 1: For recording scattering angle (𝜽) & # of alpha (𝜶) particles detected as pulse counts (N) in time (t).

Gate Mean Pulse Rate

Scattering Angle Pulse Counts Mean Pulse Counts
Obs. #. Time 𝑵𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝜽 𝑵 𝑵𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝒕 𝒕
1 0 60 1025
2 0 60 1057
1050 17.496
3 0 60 1024
4 0 60 1093
5 2.5 60 697
6 2.5 60 703
698 11.633
7 2.5 60 691
8 2.5 60 701
9 -2.5 60 605
10 -2.5 60 610
625 10.408
11 -2.5 60 663
12 -2.5 60 620
13 5 60 253
14 5 60 290
273 4.546
15 5 60 282
16 5 60 266
17 -5 60 200
18 -5 60 196 203 3.383
19 -5 60 232

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
20 -5 60 184
21 7.5 100 55
22 7.5 100 74
64 0.635
23 7.5 100 55
24 7.5 100 70
25 -7.5 100 76
26 -7.5 100 62
68 0.680
27 -7.5 100 62
28 -7.5 100 72
29 10 100 10
30 10 100 18
16 0.163
31 10 100 16
32 10 100 21
33 -10 100 15
34 -10 100 19
17 0.165
35 -10 100 17
36 -10 100 15

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
For Gold foil with discriminator voltage set to 0.3 V.

Table 2: For recording scattering angle (θ) & # of alpha (α) particles detected as pulse counts (N) in time (t).

Gate Mean Pulse Rate

Scattering Angle Pulse Counts Mean Pulse Counts
Obs. #. Time 𝑵𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝜽 𝑵 𝑵𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝒕 𝒕
1 0 60 813
2 0 60 832
819 13.654
3 0 60 850
4 0 60 782
5 2.5 60 829
6 2.5 60 830
842 14.033
7 2.5 60 844
8 2.5 60 865
9 -2.5 60 653
10 -2.5 60 688
664 11.067
11 -2.5 60 667
12 -2.5 60 648
13 5 60 716
14 5 60 692
689 11.475
15 5 60 669
16 5 60 677
17 -5 60 359
18 -5 60 347
360 5.992
19 -5 60 383
20 -5 60 349
21 7.5 100 474
22 7.5 100 511
494 4.943
23 7.5 100 477
24 7.5 100 515
25 -7.5 100 286
26 -7.5 100 278
270 2.698
27 -7.5 100 260
28 -7.5 100 255
29 10 60 161
30 10 60 173
157 2.613
31 10 60 145
32 10 60 148
33 -10 100 127
34 -10 100 137
138 1.383
35 -10 100 141
36 -10 100 148
37 15 100 53
38 15 100 52
45 0.450
39 15 100 38
40 15 100 37
41 -15 100 19
42 -15 100 39
27 0.265
43 -15 100 28
44 -15 100 20
45 20 100 12
46 20 100 11 11 0.108
47 20 100 9
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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
48 20 100 11
49 -20 100 9
50 -20 100 15
11 0.105
51 -20 100 6
52 -20 100 12

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
The above observations/data listed in Table 1 and Table 2 was plotted with mean pulse count rate or
no. of counts per second on the y-axis and 180o – Scattering angle on the x-axis and was fitted with,
𝑎
𝑦=
𝑥+𝑏
sin4 2

2.539 × 10−6
𝑦=
𝑥 − 0.03448
sin4 2

2.943 × 10−6
𝑦=
𝑥 − 0.07238
sin4 2

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
Computing Angular Asymmetry:
As derived earlier in the theory section the rate of scattering of the mono-energetic alpha 𝛼 particles
is inversely proportional to the sin4 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the scattering angle. And as sin4 𝜃 is symmetric about
y-axis therefore we expect the above plots of number of counts per second versus scattering angle 𝜃
also to be symmetric about the y-axis. But due to certain improper experimental alignments this as
observed, is not symmetric.
Following approach was followed to measure the angular asymmetry for both the foils aluminum and
gold.
 The following two graphs were plotted, between pulse count rate i.e. number of counts per
second versus the absolute value of scattering angle 𝜃 .
 Note, if there would have been no angular asymmetry, we would expect the two curves to
cover/overlap each other, which is not the case. So we fit these two curves independently with,
𝑎
𝑦= , 𝑎, 𝑏 are parameters.
4 𝑥+𝑏
sin 2
 The average separation between the two fitted curves is then calculated by taking the mean of
the difference between different 𝑥𝑖 ′𝑠 corresponding at different values of 𝑦 for the two
curves/branches. Following table lists the same.

Table 3: For calculation of angular asymmetry for the aluminum and gold foils.

No. of 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 in 𝐒𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 in Angular

S. Mean angular
counts/sec deg. deg Asymmetry
No. asymmetry
𝑦 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
For aluminum (Al) foil
1 10.0 2.57 2.80 0.23
2 7.0 3.21 3.53 0.32 0.32
3 5.0 3.87 4.29 0.42
For gold (Au) foil
1 10.0 2.26 4.4 2.14
2 7.0 5.27 7.99 2.72 2.32
3 5.0 4.05 6.14 2.09

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010

2.155 × 10−3
𝑦=
𝑥 + 5.006
sin4 2

1.259 × 10−4
𝑦=
𝑥 + 4.255
sin4 2

7.463 × 10−3
𝑦=
𝑥 − 14.68
sin4
2

1.479 × 10−3
𝑦=
𝑥 − 9.799
sin4 2

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Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata 12th Jan – 2nd Feb 2010
Conclusions:
 A strong negative correlation was found between number of α-particles scattered per second
through the aluminum/gold foil and the angle of scattering 𝜃 .
 Angular asymmetries associated with the experimental setup for both gold and aluminum were
observed though different in both cases and is mentioned below.
o For Aluminum (Al) foil observed angular asymmetry is: 0.32°
o For Gold foil observed angular asymmetry is: 2.32°
 On the contrary we were not able to justify why the ratio between the scattering rates which is
proportional to the square of the ratio between the atomic number of the two elements
aluminum and gold is varying with the scattering angle 𝜃 , listed in Table 4 below. This as
expected from the theory should remain a constant.

Table 4: For listing the ratio between the scattering rates for the two elements Gold and Aluminum.

Ratio of the
Scattering # of 𝜶-particles detected per sec # of 𝜶-particles detected per scattering rates of
S. the two elements
angle for Aluminum foil sec for Gold foil
No.
𝜽° 𝑵𝑨𝒍 𝑵𝑨𝒖 𝑵𝑨𝒖 𝒁𝑨𝒖 𝟐
= 𝒄.
𝑵𝑨𝒍 𝒁𝑨𝒍
1 2.5 11.63 14.03 1.21
2 -2.5 10.41 11.07 1.06
3 5.0 4.55 11.48 2.52
4 -5.0 3.38 5.99 1.77
5 7.5 0.64 4.94 7.78
6 -7.5 0.68 2.70 3.97

Precautions:
 Vent values and ordinary vacuum values (including one close to the scattering chamber) should
be doubly checked before switching the vacuum pump on or off. Rotary should be vent before or
immediately after switching it off.
 Gold or Aluminum foil should never be touched with bare hands. This may deform the uniformity
of the foils.
 Do not, in any case touch or smell the radioactive source. This may lead to severe health
hazards including cancer, tumor etc. and other health hazards.

Bibliography
1. Ghoshal, S. N. Rutherford Scattering of Alpha Particles and Nuclear Model of the Atom. Nuclear
Physics. New Delhi : S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2010, 1, pp. 1-10.
2. Anonymous. Rutherford scattering.pdf. [Online] http://www.phys.nthu.edu.tw/~hf/en/6_Rutherford
scattering.pdf.

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