Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Isam
Akil
Samara
Qatar University
College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
Supervised By:
Prof. MohieddineBenammar
Dr.FaridTouati
May 2013
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-Student Statement-
We, the undersigned students, confirm that the work submitted in this project report is entirely
our own and has not been copied from any other source. Any material that has been used from
other sources has been properly cited and acknowledged in the report.
We are fully aware that any copying or improper citation of references/sources used in this report
will be considered plagiarism, which is a clear violation of the Code of Ethics of Qatar
University.
In addition, we have read and understood the legal consequences of committing any violation of
the Qatar Universitys Code of Ethics.
Student Name
1 MusabFawzi Samara
2 Ahmed Isam
3 Mahmoud Nabil Akil
Student ID
200600742
200501566
200801939
Signature
Date
30-5-2013
30-5-2013
30-5-2013
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to take the opportunity to thank out supervisors Prof.Mohieddine Benammar
and Dr.Farid Touati for their continuous supervision and commitment. Our acknowledgments
and appreciation go to Dr. Ahmed Massoud and Prof. Lazhar Ben-Brahim for their support.
We dont forget our appreciation and special thanks for our families and friends who
supported us throughout the semester .
We would like also to thank Eng.Mazen Faiterand Eng. Ayman Ammar for their technical
support and commitment.
A special thanks goes tothe mechanical team mates, goes to my team mates , Nour Allam
, Ajad Hussain and Abdulkader Sakil for their valuable help in assembling, designing and
implementing all the mechanical components of the car .
We would like also to expand our thanks and appreciation to Shell Oil Company and Qatar
National Research Fund (QNRF) for funding our project via the Undergraduate Research
Experience Program(UREP 12-065-2-028 ).
Ahmed Issam
Mahmoud Akil
Musab Samara
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this project is to build an efficient third generation zero-CO2 footprint
solar vehicle and participate in the 2013 Shell Eco-marathon Competition. Hence, this project is
dedicated to improve power efficiency of the Gernas I and Gernas II cars and to obtain a higher
rank in the Battery Electric Prototype category in the competition. By following up the rules
and regulations of the Shell Eco-marathon competition .The need for renewable energy was the
main motivation for this project. This project discusses how important is the renewable energy in
modern cars and that it can make a huge impact in the cars technology. In this report the solar
system will be the source of energy which will be discussed in details with the Matlab/Simulink
simulation. In order to extract the maximum power from the PV modules the boost, DC-DC
converters will be used along with the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) Algorithm to
achieve that aim and it will also be simulated and tested by PROTEUs simulation and Multisim
software.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...........................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................4
TABLE OF CONTENT ..........................................................................................................5
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................8
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER I:INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 12
1.1Motivation: ....................................................................................................................... 12
1.2 General Problem Statement: ............................................................................................ 13
1.3 Project Objective: ............................................................................................................ 14
1.4
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Testing : ...................................................................................................................... 52
Validations: ................................................................................................................. 57
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Appendix E ............................................................................................................................... 77
Appendix F ............................................................................................................................... 79
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure1. 1Energy demands between 1970 and 2040 [1] ............................................................. 12
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Figure 5. 30 The out put voltage is within the margin given by the rules of the competition, the
system output is tested to be about 24v ...................................................................................... 65
Figure 5. 31 The Battery used in the system of the car energizing is Lithium-polymer based with
a BMS system provided in case of emergency . ......................................................................... 65
Figure 5. 32 The solar panels used in the car to recharge the batteries are within the size of 0.17
m2 ............................................................................................................................................. 65
Figure 5. 33 One motor of 22V rated voltage has been used in the car ....................................... 66
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1 Gernas I VS Gernas III specifications ....................................................................... 21
Table 5.1Comparison between The designed boost converter and a commercial boot converter
product ...................................................................................................................................... 56
Table 5.2Comparing the Shell Eco-Marathon rules to the designed car ( Gernas 2 ) [15] ........... 57
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CHAPTER I:INTRODUCTION
1.1Motivation:
There are different significant aims that make the use of renewable energy for different
applications a very important of our life and future. Everyone should invest in the renewable
energy field since it is cleaner, healthier, environmentally friendly and it is renewable
.Renewable energy is playing a major role these days and it is trending among all of other fossil
fuel sources as can be seen in figure 1 which shows that in the next coming years up to 2040
renewable energy will gain shares and will be one of the most energy sources used compared to
other energy sources.
Hence, we have been motivated to work on an application that mainly uses one of the renewable
energy sources which is solar energy. This graduation project aims to contribute to the strategic
goal of participations of the department of Electrical Engineering in the shell Eco-Marathon
competition.
Ultimately, the reason that motivate us to work hard on this project is the theme of the
competition itself. The goal of the Shell Eco-marathon competition is to build the most energy
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efficient environmentally friendly prototype vehicle possible. Our ability to participate in such a
competition, and contribute in developing, designing, building and optimizing the future
environmentally friendly vehicle was the biggest motivation to achieve this project.The project
will be mainly a continuation development of previous Gernas I solar car. At the end of this
project, we wouldve our energy energy-efficient green car.
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cells to charge the batteries that will power the motor and run the car. The car should be ready
for shipping to Malaysia by 3rd of June, 2013 in order to participate in the Shell Eco Marathon
competition in July, 2013.
by the designing and implementing the power generation system for the car .Where
other three students of electrical engineering will take the mechanical design in
consideration .
1.4
Design Constraints:
The following constrains are based on the shell Eco-Marathon rules and limitations and to
another internal constrains.
The maximum voltage on the car shall not go beyond 48 Volts nominal and 60 Volts
maximum, this includes batteries, super capacitors and solar cells .
The electrical system of the car should be isolated so that there must be a key in order to
be immediately turn system off in case of danger .
This car will pass several safety and technical performance tests, Hence, It should be
ready to pass all this tests successfully.
Vehicles must be equipped with two independently activated brakes or braking systems.
There are two 12 V batteries allowed .One should be equipped for the horn and the other
one to power all other electrical components such as motor .
Only one battery should power the electric motor without any combinations with other
components .This will add a constraint on the weight of the car and other components .
The current relay in the Battery Management System will trip once the value of the
current detected exceeds the 80 % of the battery discharge rate.
The race should be completed within specified time, maximum :25 minutes which will
affect the power output .
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All Batteries must be placed outside the drivers compartment behind the bulkhead and
securely mounted.
The time limitation was considered as one of the most important factors which was taken
into consideration to have the project done in the specified time and to have the car
shipped in the specified time in order to follow the rules which states that the car have to
be shipped before the competition by the beginning of June.
One of the internal constrains that we faced on this project is to create the PCBs of the
power electronics part of the project where the designed boost converter was done
manually and homemade which is much more difficult than using the automatic machine
to have a double PCB sides which also considered as one of the most important
constrains in the project.
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CHAPTER 2: SYSTEMOVERVIEW
2.1 Introduction:
The purpose of this chapter to get an overview of the system that we had designed throughout
our academic year with help of the mechanical team . This includes all the improvements that
have been made compared to Gernas I and Gernas II cars. This will be explained briefly taking in
consideration the mechanical design, energy system and the overall of body shell of the car.
Major part of this project contains designing mechanical components such as the steering system,
braking system and last the frame of the vehicle which will be the chassis. However, our main
focus was on the energy system which will be explained briefly in the following sections. In fact,
our project is chosen based on the a prototype group which means the vehicle has to be designed
and implemented using the best available components to insure an efficient charging of cars
battery through the MPPT and methods that shall meet the Shell Eco marathon rules and
regulations. In the following sections, we are going to present an overview of the mechanical and
electrical systems of Gernas III
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with two foot braking; one for the rear wheel and one for the front wheels. Moreover, It is good
to mention that Gernas I vehicle was designed to have a gear with two stages .For the solar panels
,they had decided to choose a mono-crystalline silicon cells named as 100 & 80Watts semi-flexible
Solar Panel for 12V, from Sunflex company[3].
Speaking about the battery specification, the high capacity Lithium-Polymer Battery rated as
36V/16AH was used as power storage component in the car. Its weight was more than 4 kg
.Furthermore; they used a brushless DC motor connected to drive the rear wheel.
2.2.2 Gernas III Car Design (Improvements) :
Although the Gernas I teams design was fairly a good design. A lot of improvements can be
done to have a competitive car that can challenger all other competitors in the Shell Eco
Marathon competition. These improvements are based on weight, shell weight, and type of frame
used in the chassis, and the efficiency of the energy system. In this section, all the major
improvements that were done on Gernas I will be mentioned in terms of body shell, chassis,
steering and braking system.
2.2.2.1 Body Shell:
Figure 2.2 shows the body shell of the prototype vehicle in which we designed for Gernas III
vehicle. In building the body shell, polycarbonate plastic was used to shape the vehicle shell.
Polycarbonate plastic has great features such as it is very lightweight compared to other material
choices, It does not conduct electricity and makes a great insulation ,It is easy to work with via
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cutting , drilling and It is transparent which gives a great vision for the driver [4]. The strength
of the material is not very important because the vehicle will not be used with any big loads.
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Comparing Gernas I and Gernas II, the following table 2.1 will show the main differences
between the two cars :
Weight
Chassis
Braking system
Steering system
Motor
Battery
Gernas I
50 kg
Metal
Foot braking system
Steering wheel
2000 6000 rpm
Lithium-polymer (36V/16AH)
Gear box
Not Applicable
Gernas III
36 kg
Alamunium
Hand braking system
Bicycle steering
189 rpm
Lithium-polymer
(22.2V/5000mAH)
Applicable
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2.3.1 Battery:
Li-Po batteries are one of the most well-known types of rechargeable batteries that are capable to
work with planes, radio-controller and helicopters. Here are some of the advantages of the Li-Po
batteries:
Li-Po batteries are light weight and can be made in almost any shape and size.
They have large capacities, meaning they hold lots of power in a small package.
They have high discharge rates to power the most demanding electric motors.
They provide high energy storage to weight ratios in an endless variety of shapes and
sizes.[5]
The battery is an important component of our car power generation system. Generally, batteries
are classified based on their weight, dimensions, and weight and amp hours. According to Shell
Eco-Marathon rules, the battery that was selected to our power generation system will have a
voltage value of 22.2 V. In our design , we assured that our battery will kept fully charged until
the car covers around 11.2 km of the competition circuit by going in four laps of 2.8 km each of
the Sepang International circuit as shown in figure 2.8.
In this project, we have selected TURNIGYnano-tech lithium polymer battery which is built with
anLiConano-technology substrate complex greatly improving power transfer making the
oxidation/reduction reaction more efficient, this helps electrons pass more freely from anode to
cathode with less internal impedance.
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Diode
SolarArray
C
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3.2 Motor
In the design process its always advisable to start from the load till the source, in order to
create harmony between the energy system component, to avoid the failure of the system in the
future and to avoid to overloading your component above the withstand point of the component
that its have been designed for. In this case the determination of the torque load of the car is
required in order to determine the motor that should be used, to make sure that this motor can
handle such a weight , the motor can accelerate smoothly without any problem and the motor
shaft wont broke due to overloading. On the other hand the circular motion of the motor is
usually governed by the following equation
=
(3.1)
Where,
: Is the motor torque (newton Meter).
: Is the load torque.
Is the equivalent inertia of the motor plus the load.
: is the angular speed (radian per second).
As the equation states that in the transient there will be acceleration, this acceleration
amount will depend upon the inertia of both the motor and the load until the motor torque equals
the load torque then the motor will stop accelerating and the system will enter the steady state
interval, in the Shell Eco-Marathon acceleration is not a big issue, but the power consumption is
the biggest issue, which is measuring the power from getting from my PV panels and the power
that the motor is using, however the rules stated that there is a fixed time if the car should cross
the finish line within this time, but this can be achieved using gears in order to get higher top
speeds, and this configuration will give the advantage of getting high torque from the motor
since its running in low speeds if we used higher gear ratio according to the following equation
= (WATT)
(3.2)
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Where,
P: is the output power from the motor
Computing the torque load for the car will lead to the prober selection for the motor, in
order to calculate the load torque of the car requires calculating some factors that will influence
the performance of the car during the race like the rolling resistance, grade resistance and the
acceleration force.
In the computation of the rolling resistance force of the car, first the rolling resistance
which is the constant that depends on the surface friction in 0.017 for poor asphalt surface, also
the weight of the car plus the driver must be determined.
= ()[6]
(3.3)
Where
RR rolling resistance of the vehicle (lb)
vw the vehicle plus the driver weigh (lb)
R rolling resistance coefficient (dimensionless)
= 198.416 0.017 = 3.373
The grade resistance (GR) is the amount of force that the vehicle needs in order to be
able to move on a road with a slope[6].for the incline angle or the slope of the road the maximum
angle found after studying the race track in 3D is 3 degree.
= sin
()[6]
(3.4)
Where
GR is the grade resistance
Alpha is the incline angle (degree)
= 198.416 sin 3 = 10.2930
The acceleration force is the amount of force that the vehicle needs to accelerate from
stop to maximum speed in a certain time.
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()[6] (3.5)
Where
Vmax is the maximum speed (ft/second)
Ta is the required time to accelerate to the maximum speed
41.010
(3.6)
Rated voltage
24 volts
Rated current
17 AMPS
Rated power
210 watt
Rated speed
189 rpm
The manufacturer provided the user with some important data in a form of table in order
for the user to see the performance of the motor under different conditions, and here are the plots
of these data.
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3.3 Battery:
The battery element is a very important element in this energy system, since PV panels
cannot always supply the power to the system due the shading effect or the weather is cloudy,
according to that the battery should be fully charged in case the PV panels wont charge it during
the race, and it should contain an enough energy inside it to make the car cross the finish line.in
the other hand the motor inside the system might require a burst of energy, which means that the
energy inside the battery might be extracted in hurry, according to that a high discharge rate
battery is required, because drawing a high current from some batteries might cause an
overheating for some batteries, also how much energy is contained in one unit mass is important
since this will cause an overweight in the car, which will lead to more power consumption, since
the aim of the rice is measure how much energy the PV panel delivered and how much energy
the motor consumed.
The crown goes to the lithium polymer batteries abbreviated li-pol technology among the
other technologies, for a lot of reasons like the watt-hour per kilogram, which means there is a
lot energy stored in a small weight, the high discharge rate, its safe unlike lithium ion batteries
when it contains a lot of energy it might explode, however li-pol might explode if it overcharged,
and it has a greater life cycle degradation rate compared to lithium ion batteries. The voltage of a
single li-pol cell in the range 2.7 volt to 4.23 volts, 4.23 volts will indicate that the battery is fully
charged, and it should be disconnected from the load if the voltage drops to 2.7 volts, because it
cannot be recharged again. However our selected battery has the following specifications.
Table 3.2Battery Specifications
Capacity
5000mAH
Voltage
22.2 V
Discharge rate
Weight
786 g
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154x50x49mm
Dimensions
As the motor manufacturer implied that the motor will consume a maximum current of
16A, and the battery can deliver a current of 175 A for an hour ten it will be fully drained, and by
consuming a current of 16 the battery can last for 10 hours. As the C rate is a measure of the rate
at which the battery is discharged relative to its maximum capacity.
=
AMPmaxis the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery within hour then it will be
fully drained.
3.3.1Battery Management System:
In order to protect the driver of the car and to prevent the battery from exploding a
battery management system BMS is highly required in this system, and also a critical
requirement for Shell Eco Marathon completion. The BMS mainly consist of over under voltage
protection, overcurrent protection and discharge temperature. Overcharge protection is not
needed because the maximum current the PV panel can supply is 0.6 A which is less than the
number that most manufacturers specify 0.5C [6].
The overcurrent protection will make sure that the discharge rate of the battery is less
than 80% of its rated discharge rate as recommended by the manufacturer to increase the life
time of the module. In order to achieve that the presence of current sensor is necessary in order
to monitor the current of the battery along with comparator, so the comparator changes its state
from low to high as the current exceeds 80%. The current transducer CKSR 50NP is a good fit
for this system because it has a measuring range of -150 to 150A and it should be operated from
a 5 volts source, and has the following parameters.
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150 A
Supply voltage
5V
Sensitivity
12.5 mV/A
0.7mv
The under voltage protection will make sure that if the terminal voltage of the battery
drops below the cut-off voltage then the circuit should trip, because if the battery is drained
further it wont accept recharging again, for this purpose a voltage divider is used in order to
sense the voltage of the battery, which is connected to a comparator.
The discharge temperature protection will make sure that the battery will work under the
rated temperature; if the temperature is higher the circuit should trip. For this task also a
temperature sensor with a comparator will be used. The temperature sensor LM35 has the
following specification.
Table 3.4LM35 specifications
0.1for 1 mA load
Low self-heating
0.08 C
in still air
55 to +150 C
range
The output of all of the above circuits will be connect to an AND gate which controls the
gate of a MOSFET transistor, which will energize the coil of the relay if one of these circuits
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detect a violations in the rated values. As figure 3.1 shows the circuit diagram of the BMS the
output of each protection circuit is connected to an AND gate which controls the gate of the
MOSFET. If the output of the AND gate is high then the MOSFET will conduct and the relay
will trip the motor. Furthermore the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the normally
connected terminal of the relay (NC) and a small light emitting diode (LED) with a small current
limiter resistor are connected in series with the normally open terminal of the relay (NO) in order
to indicate that the relay trips. The relay in order to operate its needs a 12 voltage source, and by
measuring the coil resistance will be able how much current the relay needs in order to energize
the coil and trip. The freewheeling diode is needed to protect the MOSFET and its impeded with
the MOSFETs internal architecture.
The BMS board is supplied by a 12 voltage battery according to the Shell Eco-Marathon
completion rules, which is connected to a 5 volt regulator in order to operate the analogue and
the digital IC,s in the board, and they are three potentiometer in order to adjust the threshold
values of the current ,temperature and voltage of the battery. And the used OP-Amps care single
supply OP-AMPS, which requires only 5 Volts as a supply voltage.
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voltage to be able to charge the battery with a good amount of current even if the panels are
partially shaded. Table 3.5 shows the panels specification.
Table 3.5PV panel specification
21.24 V
0.61 A
0.56A
18 V
Maximum power
10 W
Connecting two of these PV panels in series will give the system a power of 18 watts and
a voltage of 36 volts. Furthermore connecting them in parallel will assure that the maximum
power voltage of the panels will be slightly higher than the battery voltage, which will allow the
current transfer from the panels to the battery, but if the connection was made in series then the
voltage of the maximum power will be for sure less than or equal to 18 volt, which is less than
the battery voltage and in this case no power transfer will occur from the panels to the battery.
Since the power obtained from the PV system depends on the irradiance, temperature and
the current drawn from the cells. Maximum power point tracker MPPT is needed in order to
extract the maximum power from the PV panel. There are many techniques for maximum power
point tracker, Perturb and observe technique is mainly used for dynamic system, but this
technique require microcontroller in order to implement it. Figure 3.2 shows the maximum
power point tracking algorithm.
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The microcontroller will be used along with the DC-DC converter in order to implement
the maximum power point tracker; by changing the duty cycle of the boost converter the voltage
and the current of the PV array will be varied, sensing the variation in the current and the voltage
PV panel with the microcontroller will enable the system to detect the point where the maximum
power lies.
The code for the MPPT algorithm was written using C language, and the communication
between the computer and the microcontroller was done using AVR programmer, and the clock
frequency of the microcontroller was raised from 8 MHZ to 20 MHZ using external RC crystal
oscillator in order for the system response faster while the car is moving, so if the old point
where the maximum power occur the system will find the new point so fast. For the analogue to
digital converter ADC the internal 1.1 volts reference was used along with LC filter in order to
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regulate the reference voltage, and two small capacitor fitters was used in the input of each
channel to reduce the noise in each channel.
The microcontroller offers several techniques for pulse width modulation, however the
best techniques that sweets these application is called the past PWM mode, in this mode the
timer counter counts from the bottom value to the top value each time, and by changing the
values of the top register will be able to change the frequency of the PWM , when the 16 bit
timer reaches the value that is stored in the compare match register it will either set or clear the
output, so by changing the value of the compare match register we will be able to change the
duty cycle.in addition to that this PWM mode allow us to have high frequency unlike other
modes that are limited to a very low range of frequency.
For the 8 bit ADC two channels has been used in order to sense the voltage and the
current of the PV panel, in order to compute the power we have to first sense the current and then
wait till the conversion process end then we sense the voltage and wait till the process finish. The
simulation for the MPPT was done using PROTEUS because it allow us to test the code of the
MPPT, because this code will allow the user to install the hex file which is generated by the
AVR studio in the microcontroller and test the code, in this case the PV system was represented
using a fixed DC source, however the code does not allow you to specify the power of the DC
source, but the system was able to extract more than 1K A in order to charge the battery as the
simulation result will show, and in this case since the source voltage source is constant the
MPPT system will just seeks more current because more current means more power, in addition
to that the same schematic will be used in the PCB design, since the library of this code is reach
with most of the footprint packages of most of the popular electric devices. And here is the
schematic of the MPPT system.
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As the above graph shows that the PWM signal from the microcontroller is varying in
order to search the point of the maximum power from the DC source.
In the above graph the maximum charging current is 1.0606 KA, which is clearly indicate
that the system is maximizing the charging current since the DC voltage is constant unlike the
PV panel voltage which may change due to irradiance, temperature and shading effect [8].
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The Model of the PV panels has been parameterized by using the short circuit current and
the open circuit voltage of each cell, this has been done by taking a sample cell form the module
and then test it using the multi-meter to obtain the short circuit current and the open circuit
voltage, then a variable resistor with a ramp function in the control input of the block will control
the resistance in ohm of the block, in order to obtain the I-V and the P-V characteristic of the PV
panels.
By using the X-Y scopes , the output I-V and P-V curves were obtained after the simulation has
been run four times, each time the irradiation has been changed in order to obtain I-V and P-V
curves under different irradiations depending on Malaysia irradiation nature during the eco
marathon shell competition which will be held in May [10].
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0.7
1 KW/m2
0.8KW/m2
0.6 KW/m2
0.6
0.5 KW/m2
0.5
Current (A)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10
15
20
Voltage ( V)
25
30
35
40
20
1KW/m2
18
0.8KW/m2
0.6KW/m2
0.5KW/m2
16
14
12
Power (W)
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
Voltage (V)
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(1)2
2
(4.1)
To find Cmin :
=
(4.2)
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(4.3)
= Is
(4.4)
Q=
(4.5) , since ( = Is )
Vs Is = Vo Io
= T =
Vs = Vo Io
IL=
IL =
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.8)
(4.9)
=
=
(4.6)
(4.7)
(1)2
(4.12)
(4.10)
(1)2
Then,
- 2 T
(4.11)
Cmin =
D
Rf
Then ,
(1 )2
2
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XMM1
XMM2
D1
L1
20.6H
V1
11 V
XSC1
1N4001G
Q1
IRF1010N
R1
2
C1
302.6F
Ext Trig
+
_
V2
25 V
A
+
V3
5V -0V
10kHz
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4.1.3.3Design components:
The design of the DC-DC boost converter was done to maximize the output voltage in order to
have larger voltage output than the battery voltage , were the cases of full shading or partially
shading on the PV panels was taken into considerations to have that larger voltage than the
battery voltage even in these case.
-
Capacitor : 302.6 uf
Inductor : 20.6 uH
Transistor : IRF1010N
Diode : 1N4001G
Resistors : 2 ohm
4.1.3.4Switchtype :
Switches are very important in this project, because they are used in DC-DC converters
in order to change the level of the output voltage and current, which is very important in reaching
the point where the maximum power can be extracted from the PV panels, and this point has a
corresponding voltage and current. In power electronics systems we are mostly concerned about
the efficiency, so the job of passing a current and voltage dropping is mostly achieved by
switches, manly ideal switches introduce zero voltage drop when the switch is on, which means
zero resistance, and doesnt pass any current when the switch is off, in other words zero
conductance, and when we operate the switch on both modes ON and OFF, it will act like a
resistance thats manly depends on the duty cycle[14].
MOSFET is the popular for most of the power electronics application for low power
application and for high frequency application. Its basically a three terminal device drain, source
and gate, the gate and the source terminals are the control terminals, also the drain and source
terminals are the power terminals. The gate terminal is insulated from the rest of the device;
hence it does not draw no steady state current. So when the gate terminal of the MOSFET is
charged to a specific voltage with respect to the source it will start conduction by creating a
channel between the source and drain. The type of MOSFET used in most power electronics
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application is the enhancement type, which means that the device will start conduction when the
voltage across the gate and the source is more than the thread hold voltage of the MOSFET that
specified in the data sheet (Vth), and the device will operate in the cut of region when the gate to
source voltage is zero. [14].
4.1.3.4Results :
Using Multisim software in order to simulate the designed boost converter design and get results
and as the boost converter is considered as a switched mode converter, figure 4.2 shows how
PWM generation done by using the Multisim software it was easy to generate PWM for the
transistor switch, by using Bipolar voltage source which can generate PWM for the switch gate.
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In this stage of implementation , the system was ready to test manually , where the duty cycle of
the MPPT were varied manually as the current and voltage sensing still not applicable in the
system notifying from the above picture the Multi-meter to the right reads the charging current
which is 0.547 A, and also the multi-meter to the left outputs the output voltage of the boost
converter, which is the voltage that will be imposed across the battery in order to charge the
battery. And the board to right is the control circuit that contains the MC and the board to the left
contains the power circuit that contains the boost converter. In this implantation the duty cycle
was varied using a potentiometer as mentioned previously , in other words the MPPT was
tracked manually. And the following picture contains the PWM signal from the microcontroller.
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Figure 5.3 1) The Upper level of the designed prototype boost converter is the boost converter circuit. 2) The lower level
of the prototype is the microcontroller circuit.
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The control board contains the 5 volts supply that will power the MCU and even the
analogue ICs in the power circuit board, furthermore the traces was done on the bottom copper
side of the board, and the bottom copper surface with used also as a ground for the hole board, to
make the PCB possible to be done in one side board, because of too many connections. The
original pads of the components has been modified because they are very small, so instead of
using the circular pads a DIL type pads was used, because it will also give a lot of area around
the pad itself which will allow nesting.
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In the power circuit of the MPPT also the bottom copper used also as ground, and anew
package has been made for the inductor, current sensor and the capacitors. Since this power
circuit will handle a current of 0.65 A which is the short circuit of the PV system the traces width
should be very high.
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5.2
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Testing :
Testing the system has passed through different stages, for instant in order to fully make
sure that the MPPT code a special circuit has been designed in order to make sure that the code is
fully functioning, and the final stages was the comparison between the commercial device for the
MPPT. Most of the test for the MPPT system has been done when the panels are static, while
using multi-meters for measurement.
The first stage was to test the system without making the MPPT system fully automatic,
in other words the change in the duty cycle in the MPPT algorithm was done manually by using
a potentiometer with the microcontroller, the microcontroller will read the voltage across the
potentiometer and it will send the duty cycle of the PWM signal proportional to the voltage, in
other words the tracking of the maximum power form the PV was done manually.
The second stage was to make sure that the MPPT algorithm is fully functioning, this
testing has been done by connecting two potentiometers to the ADC channels of the MCU, these
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two potentiometers will act like the current sensor and the voltage sensor from the PV panel side,
so by changing the values of the current and the voltage the change in the duty cycle was
observed.
The oscilloscope was divided into three areas, the first area reads the voltage of the first
potentiometer which represents the current, the second area reads the output of the second
potentiometer which represent the voltage of the PV and the third channel was for the PWM
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signal, any change in the potentiometer voltage will lead to a change in the duty cycle, if the
change is positive then the duty cycle will increase and vice versa, except when one of the output
of the potentiometers is zero then varying the other one wont change the duty cycle because in
this case the power is zero. However this test was very important because what has been noticed
is that sometimes the duty cycle might increase more that the frequency of the PWM signal
itself, so accordingly an if statement was added to the code in order to prevent that from
happening.
The final stage of testing was done on the PV panels, and to observe how much the
MPPT was able to extract form the panel, and the commercial MPPT also was tested in the same
conditions in order compare between both systems. The results were taken in different timings to
have a different outputs and under different irradiation situations, were the testing was between 3
pm and 5 pm.
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The Results of testing the system was taken in different timings and under different sun
irradiations in order to have different outputs and to get an idea about the system effeciency
through out testing the system and get outputs from different situations that may vary from best
condition of sun irradiation were the sun is clear and providing the PV pannels perfectely, to
another situation where the sun maybe shaded by a certain surrounding objects or even by
clouds. The next figure (5.11) will show these diferent readings on different timings as
mentioned prevousely, and by that test the readings was showing that the output power taken
from the designed system was 19W by the time of 3 pm having an output current of 0.528 and an
output voltage of 36V.
Figure 5.11 (1) The first reading shows the output current from the charging system where it has been taken nearly at 3
pm. (2) The 2nd reading shows different output and input currents were the time was nearly 4 pm. (3) The 3rd and the last
reading shows an output and input currents taken at nearly 5 pm.
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Table 5.1Comparison between The designed boost converter and a commercial boot converter product
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Power (W)
As the results in the table 5.1 shows a preference for the commercial boost converter at
the expense of the designed boost converter, where the commercial one gives an output power of
21.636W and the designed boost converter gives 19.008W, and this variation refers to some
factors that can affect the output of each product, one of the reasons that can make this slight
deviation is the factor of irradiation, where not exactly the same sun irradiation is applied in both
cases and not the exact timing of testing was done which is surely affected the output of the
product. Also the selection of the design components can make a difference in the output power
of each product.
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Validations:
During designing , Implementing and testing , the rules of the Shell Eco-Marathon were
taken into considerations to produce a valid output that can meet these rules and limitations , and
the following table (5.1) will review some of these limitations and how the design and the
implementation met these rules of the competition , where these rules and limitations varies
between some critical points and from different perspectives , the main rules are for the
competition centred around three main subjects. The first subject and the most important thing in
the competition is the safety, and under the slogan of Safety First as this subject is the main
import thing ever and always, not only during the race but all the time as this subject saves both
individuals and surrounding areas, the organisers and the sponsors of the Shell Eco-Marathon put
a very strict rules for the safety. The design also was limited by some rules which will be shown
in the following table (5.1) where some of these rules goes under the rules of safety. Finally, one
of the most important rules that were taken into calculations during car designing , are the
energizing rules , which limits the type of energy source and the electric propulsion. All of these
rule and limitations will be compared to Qatars University 2nd generation solar car ( Gernas 2 )
design in the next table (5.2) :
Table 5.2Comparing the Shell Eco-Marathon rules to the designed car ( Gernas 2 ) [15]
No.
Subject
Application
a. Safety Rules :
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Figure 5. 17 Helmets are available for both the driver and the
reserve driver.
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Figure 5. 19 The suite and the cloves for the driver for the
safety of the driver
8.
9.
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the driver while racing
b. Vehicle Design:
3 or 4 Wheels vehicle:According to design
limitations of the competition, the vehicle
1.
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4.
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7.
8.
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c. Energy Sources:
Vehicle Electrical system: The rules put a
safety margin to the output voltage of the
1.
inches. )
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batteries are within the size of 0.17 m2
4.
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REFFRENCES
[1] ExxonMobil. (2013) The Outlook for Energy 2013: The View to 2040. [Online].
http://www.exxonmobil.com/corporate/files/news_pub_eo2013.pdf
[2] Shell Oil Company. (27th May 2013) History of Shell Eco Marathon. [Online].
http://www.shell.com/global/environment-society/ecomarathon/about/history.html
[3] Samer Sai,Sami Al-Shurman,Ahmad Ibrahimi, A. AbdulaAziz,M.Hellabi,Farid Touwti
Alnunu, ""Design of Qatar University's First Solar Car for Shell Eco-Marathon Competition
," in First International Conference on Renewable Enegeies and Vehicular Tech., Doha,
2012.
[4] Steel City Robotics. ( 2013, May) Mechanical Considerations. [Online].
http://www.steelcityrobotics.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/05/mechanical_considerations.pdf
[5] RCHELICOPTERFUN. (2008) RCHELICOPTERFUN. [Online].
http://www.rchelicopterfun.com/rc-lipo-batteries.html
[6] (2009, may) rovingnetworks. [Online]. www.rovingnetworks.com
[7] MIT students. (2008, December ) mit.edu. [Online].
mit.edu/evt/summary_battery_specifications.pdf
[8] Dave Freeman. (2010, november) texasinsturment. [Online].
http://www.ti.com/lit/an/slva446/slva446.pdf
[9] (2008) climatemps. [Online]. http://www.malaysia.climatemps.com/
[10] Solar Radiation Map. [Online]. http://161.142.139.60/solar/menu.html
[11] M., Tore , U., & William , R. Ned, "switch-mode DC-DC Converters," in Power
electronics. United States of America: John Wiley and sons, Inc., 2009.
[12] A., & Salimi, M. Zakipour, "On backstepping controller design in buck/boost dc-dc
converter," in International conference on electrical, electronics and civil engineering,
2011.
[13] Linear Technology Magazine Circuit Collection, Volume IV. [Online].
http://cds.linear.com/docs/Application%20Note/an84f.pdf
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[14] V Ramanarayanan. (2005, Nov.) Course Material On Switched Mode Power Conversion.
[15] Norman Koch, "Official Rules 2013," Shell Eco-marathon, p. 37, 2013.
[16] (2011, Dec) Photovoltaics. [Online]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics
[17] (2011, Nov.) Detailed design review report of Solar car for American Solar challenge.
[Online]. http://eng.fsu.edu/me/senior_design/prev.html
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Appendix
Appendix A
Shell Eco-marathon
Official Rules 2013
CHAPTER I
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Appendix A
Shell Eco-marathon
Official Rules 2013
CHAPTER I
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Appendix A
Shell Eco-marathon
Official Rules 2013
CHAPTER I
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Appendix A
Shell Eco-marathon
Official Rules 2013
CHAPTER I
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Appendix B
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Appendix C
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Appendix D
The code using C :
#include<avr/io.h>
#include<avr/delay.h>
voidPWM_in()
{
TCCR1A|=(1<<COM1A1)|(1<<COM1B1)|(1<<WGM11);
TCCR1B|=(1<<WGM13)|(1<<WGM12)|(1<<CS10);
ICR1=1599;// frequency of oscillation
OCR1A=800;// initall duty cycle
DDRB=(1<<PB1);// output of the PWM
DDRD=0xff;
PORTD=0xff;// led on
}
voidADC_int(void)
{
ADCSRA|=(1<<ADPS2)|(1<<ADPS1)|(1<<ADPS0);// Set ADC prescalar to 128 - 125KHz sample rate @ 16MHz
ADCSRA|=(1<<ADEN);// Enable ADC
}
uint8_tADC_Start(uint8_tchannel)
{
DIDR0=0x00;
ADMUX=(ADMUX)&0x10;
if(channel<=0x07)
{
ADMUX=(ADMUX)|channel;}//choose channel number
ADMUX|=(1<<REFS0);// Set ADC reference to AVCC
ADMUX|=(1<<ADLAR);// Left adjust ADC result to allow easy 8 bit readin
if(ADSC!=1)
{
ADCSRA|=(1<<ADSC);// Start A2D Conversions
}
while((ADCSRA&0x10)!=0x10){}
DIDR0=0xff;
returnADCH;
}
intmain(void)
{
uint8_tvoltage;
int8_tcurrent;
uint16_tpower;
uint16_toldpower;
PWM_in();
ADC_int();
oldpower=0;
while(1)
{
current=(-1*ADC_Start(4));// current sensor is connected to channel zero
voltage=ADC_Start(5);//voltage sensor is connected to channel 1
power=current*voltage;
if(power>oldpower){
if(OCR1A<=1599)
OCR1A=OCR1A+100;
}
elseif(power<oldpower){
if(OCR1A!=0)
OCR1A=OCR1A-100;
}
oldpower=power;
}
}
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Appendix E
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Appendix E
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Appendix F
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