Features of academic writing

Introduction
Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with
every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions.
Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written
form of the language. There are six main features of academic writing that are often
discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit,
hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.

1. Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has
longer words, it is lexically denser and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more
noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language
has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more
passives.
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).
Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have
proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and
have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases,
more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.
Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more
subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of
prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken
language.
The following features are common in academic written texts:
Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of
prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical complexity,
Nominalisation, Attributive adjectives
a. Noun-based phrases
Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs.
One example is:
Like all other forms of life, we human beings are the product of evolution.
Like all other forms of life, we human beings are the product of how we have evolved.

The noun "evolution" is preferred to the verb "evolve" and the "wh" clause.
Another example is:
Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach a chimpanzee named Sarah the meaning of a
set of symbols.
Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach a chimpanzee named Sarah what a set of
symbols mean.
"The meaning of the symbols" is preferred to "what the symbols mean"
Try this exercise:

Exercise:
Noun-based phrases
Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs.
Rewrite the underlined parts of the following sentences using a noun-based phrase
instead of the "wh" clause.
e.g. Many futile attempts have been made to teach animals to speak how humans speak.
Many futile attempts have been made to teach animals to speak in human fashion.
1. It is essential to discuss how much cultural and biological evolution can be
explained by similar principles.
2. Many factors must be considered in explaining how fast the population has grown
in the developing countries.
3. Classes differ greatly in how membership is established and how fast membership
changes.
4. There are advantages and declines in labour productivity and both are related to
how much the population density is increasing.
5. Anthony Eden, the Foreign Secretary, asked them how much the full
internationalisation of civil aviation was possible.
6. It follows that the key issue is how much there was a significant Soviet threat to
those supplies.
7. But even in this he is a failure as he can't remember a word, nor does he know
why he is going to be executed.
8. I cannot avoid the feeling why we were disenchanted was simply because of the
kinds of problems we were given.
9. On the surface, why women and domestic architecture were associated were
obvious.
10. Menzel (1973) has shown that non-speaking chimpanzees can convey where food
is to one another.

11. It is easiest to list foods and drinks according to where they are stored.
12. How much precaution is taken is regularly reviewed in the light of the patient's
progress.
13. The week following admission appears to be when the risk is greatest.
14. It is important to remember that whatever type of subsequent care is to occur, the
period after discharge may be when things are particularly difficult.
15. When the riots occurred, 36 per cent of the workforce in Handsworth was out of
work.
16. These star charts were provided to enable the deceased to tell what time it is and
what day it is.
17. After leaving the town, Tom Owen could at first find nowhere for his family to
rest at all.
18. When I was fifteen or sixteen none of my peers were interested in such matters.
19. How long the prisoner stays in prison is determined by someone who has not
heard any representations by or on behalf of the prisoner on grounds which the
prisoner does not know.
20. How big this group is varies in different centers.
Rewrite the following sentences using a noun-based phrase instead of the "wh" clause.
e.g. Many futile attempts have been made to teach animals to speak how humans speak.
Many futile attempts have been made to teach animals to speak in human fashion.
Answers
1. It is essential to discuss the extent to which cultural and biological evolution can
be explained by similar principles.
2. Many factors must be considered in explaining the rapid growth of population in
the developing countries.
3. Classes differ greatly in the manner of the establishment of membership and in the
rate of membership change.
4. There are advantages and declines in labour productivity and both are related to
increasing population density.
5. Anthony Eden, the Foreign Secretary, asked them to what extent the full
internationalisation of civil aviation was possible.
6. It follows that the key issue is the extent to which there was a significant Soviet
threat to those supplies.
7. But even in this he is a failure as he can't remember a word, nor does he know the
reason for his impending execution.
8. I cannot avoid the feeling that the reason for our disenchantment lay simply in the
kinds of problems we were given.
9. On the surface, the reasons for the association between women and domestic
architecture were obvious.
10. Menzel (1973) has shown that non-speaking chimpanzees can convey the location
of food to one another.

11. It is easiest to list foods and drinks according to the location in which they are
stored.
12. The level of precaution is regularly reviewed in the light of the patient's progress.
13. The week following admission appears to be the time of greatest risk.
14. It is important to remember that whatever type of subsequent care is to occur, the
period after discharge may be a time of particular difficulty.
15. At the time of the riots 36 per cent of the workforce in Handsworth was out of
work.
16. These star charts were provided to enable the deceased to tell the time of night or
the date in the calendar.
17. After leaving the town, Tom Owen could at first find no place of rest for his
family at all.
18. At the age of fifteen or sixteen none of my peers were interested in such matters.
19. The length of imprisonment is determined by someone who has not heard any
representations by or on behalf of the prisoner on grounds which the prisoner does
not know.
20. The size of this group varies in different centres.
Modification of noun-phrases
Written English is lexically dense - there is a higher proportion of content words per
clause. This can be done by modification of noun-phrases.
Pre-modifier + noun
adjective - the constitutional aspects
ed-participle - a balanced budget, from the confused events of 19-24 August, the emitted
light
ing-participle - growing problem, one striking feature of the years 1929-31, existing
structures
noun - market forces, cabinet appointments
noun + post modifier
relative clause - students who have no previous experience
to-clauses - the solution to the problem of inflation, the question to be debated
ing-clauses - a brake consisting of a drum divided into twelve compartments
ed-clauses - canoes preserved by a hard plaster, a brake consisting of a drum divided into
twelve compartments, the curve shown

prepositional phrase - we need to bring to the box a special tool with a ready-compressed
spring
adverb (phrase) - the road back, the people outside
adjective (phrase) - varieties common in India, the festival proper, something different
b. Subordinate clauses/embedding
There are several factors which help to prolong this period to perhaps three or four times
that in the male.
The other way in which the economic aspects of military expenditure were presented was
in the form of the public expenditure costs.
The family establishes a variety of bases for refuges which seem to be used at different
times of the year.
C. Complement clauses
that-clauses:
This conforms conveniently with Maslow's (1970) claim that human motivation is
related to a hieracrchy of human needs.
It follows that if the Labour Government is to secure acceptance of its economic
package, it has to secure the support of MPs from either the Liberal or the Conservative
party.
to-clauses:
Britain's apparent ability to rally Commonwealth support at Chicago seemed to the
Americans to be evidence of Britain's continued world power.
of+ing-clauses:
The possibility of increasing dollar receipts was coupled with a belief that Africa could
be a strategic centre for British power.
D. Sequences of prepositional phrases
Sequences of prepositional phrases are common in academic English.
This article analyses the constitutional aspects behind the formation of the first and
second National Governments, examining in particular the role of the king in the
formation of the two governments.

E. Participles
Formal written English uses verbs less than spoken English. -ed and -ing participles allow
verbs to be used nominally or adjectively.
Similar temptations overcame philosophers concerned with establishing a secure base for
individual responsibility
The Egyptians regarded time as a succession of recurring phases.
Doubts as to the proper division of property at death, as well as rights between partners
living together, were resolved by having legal rules prescribing a formula.
It was only to be tolerated in a controlled and formalised context.
A frequent change found in proper names is syllable loss.
F. Passive verbs
In spoken English we often use a subject such as "people", "somebody", "they", "we", or
"you" even when we do not know who the agent is. In formal English, particularly
writing, we often prefer to use a passive.
Compare:
They're installing the new computer system next month.
The new computer system is being installed next month. (more formal)

Exercise 1: Passives
Passives
Rewrite these sentences. Instead of using 'people', 'somebody', or 'they', write a passive
sentence with an appropriate verb form.
Example: We can solve the problem. The problem can be solved.
1. Someone had reported the theft to the police.
2. Someone has given 1,000 to the charity.
3. Someone will demonstrate the program to the students.
4. Someone explained the procedure to me.
5. People are destroying large areas of forest every day.
6. Somebody has bought the land next to the university.
7. I hope they will have completed all the marking by tomorrow.
8. They should have finished the library by the time you arrive.
9. People expect better results soon.
10. Students should send their complaints to the head of department.
11. They had to postpone the lecture because of illness.
12. An electrical fault could have caused the fire.
13. They are going to hold next year's conference in Birmingham.

14. Everyone knows this fact very well.

15. They opened the new lecture theatre only last month.
16. You must write the answers on the examination paper in black ink.
17. They are now manufacturing this type of computer in Korea.
18. Someone should investigate the problem.
answers:
Rewrite these sentences. Instead of using 'people', 'somebody', or 'they', write a passive
sentence with an appropriate verb form.
Example: We can solve the problem. The problem can be solved.
1. The theft had been reported to the police.
2. 1,000 has been given to the charity.
3. The program will be demonstrated to the students.
4. The procedure was explained to me.
5. Large areas of forest are being destroyed every day.
6. The land next to the university has been bought.
7. I hope the marking will all have been completed by tomorrow.
8. The library should be finished by the time you arrive.
9. Better results are expected soon.
10. Complaints should be sent to the head of department.
11. The lecture had to be postponed because of illness.
12. The fire could have been caused bt an electrical fault .
13. Next year's conference is going to be held in Birmingham.
14. This fact is very well known.
15. The new lecture theatre was opened only last month.
16. The answers on the examination paper must be written in black ink.
17. This type of computer is now being manufactured in Korea.
18. The problem should be investigated.

Exercise 2: Passives
Passives.
Rewrite the underlined parts of these sentences. Instead of using 'people', 'somebody', or
'they', write a passive sentence with an appropriate verb form.
Example: We can solve the problem. The problem can be solved.
1. Prices are stable and we maintain them in this way over generations.
2. We define tropical forests here as 'evergreen or partly evergreen forests'.
3. Scientists distinguish methane because it has a large number of significant
sources.
4. They reformed the old dilator procedure in 1852.

5. In 1916 the government passed the Disease Regulations.

6. It was only in the 1930s, in Oxford, that researchers isolated and crystallised
lysozyme.
7. The recent local crime surveys replicate these findings.
8. Everybody eventually generally accepted the date 753 BC.
9. We next consider a range of rival theories.
10. The rules require the subject to answer if the statement is true or false.
11. The examiners should conduct the examination in the greatest possible privacy.
12. We will confine the discussion to general principles of treatment.
13. The researchers transcribed many genes and synthesize many proteins.
14. A further class of solutions in which they separate the main equation in yet
another way has been given by Yurts.
Answers
Rewrite these sentences. Instead of using 'people', 'somebody', or 'they', write a passive
sentence with an appropriate verb form.
Example: We can solve the problem. The problem can be solved.
1. Prices are stable and are maintained in this way over generations.
2. Tropical forests are defined here as 'evergreen or partly evergreen forests'.
3. Methane is distinguished in having a large number of significant sources.
4. The old dilator procedure was reformed in 1852.
5. In 1916 Disease Regulations were passed.
6. It was only in the 1930s, in Oxford, that lysozyme was isolated and crystallized.
7. These findings are replicated by the recent local crime surveys.
8. The date that was eventually generally accepted was 753 BC.
9. A range of rival theories is considered next.
10. The subject is required to answer if the statement is true or false.
11. The examination should be conducted in the greatest possible privacy.
12. The discussion will be confined largely to general principles of treatment.
13. Many genes are transcribed and many proteins synthesized.
14. A further class of solutions in which the main equation is separated in yet another
way has been given by Yurtse.

Passives
One type of sentence that has two possible forms in the passive is that consisting of
Subject + Verb (say, think, feel, expect, etc.) + Noun Clause Object:
a. They say that he knows some very important people.
b. People felt that the police were doing valuable work.
c. Everyone thought that the Government had shown little regard for public opinion.

The ideas expressed in these sentences would, in academic writing, generally be

presented in the passive. One possible construction is that where the sentence is
introduced by the impersonal it:
a. It is said that he knows some very important people.
b. It was felt that the police were doing valuable work.
c. It was thought that the Government had shown little regard for public opinion.
But in many cases a third construction is possible.
a. He is said to know some very important people.
b. The police were felt to be doing valuable work.
c. The Government was thought to have shown little regard for public opinion.

Exercise 3
Rewrite parts of the following sentences in one alternative passive form, beginning your
sentences with "it".
1. We understood that Mr Smith was willing to meet the British Prime Minister.
2. People consider that this surgeon is a brilliant practitioner.
3. When Chain came in on Sunday morning and saw the result, people say that he
danced.
4. Somebody claims that the drug produced no undesirable side effects.
5. People expect that the electricity supply industry will be running into surplus
capacity by next year.
6. Most people now think that only a small fraction of the nitrous oxide emitted to
the atmosphere each year comes from fossil-fuel use, primarily coal.
7. At the present time, researchers believe that the only problem with daytime sleep
is that it is too short.
8. Although the government expects the patient to pay for his treatment, he will be
reimbursed via the state medical insurance scheme.
9. If one person chooses to cause serious injury to another, we should presume that
he or she realises that there is always a risk of death.
10. Someone also alleged that he amassed wealth by exploiting his high credit with
the Palmyra court.
Answers
Rewrite parts of the following sentences in one alternative passive form, beginning your
sentences with "it".
1. It was understood that Mr Smith was willing to meet the Prime Minister.
2. It is considered that the surgeon is a brilliant practitioner.
3. When Chain came in on Sunday morning and saw the result, it is said that he
danced.

4. It is claimed that the drug produces no undesirable side effects.

5. It is expected that the electricity supply industry will be running into surplus
capacity by next year.
6. It is now thought that only a small fraction of the nitrous oxide emitted to the
atmosphere each comes from fossil-fuel use, primarily coal.
7. At the present time, it is believed that the problem with daytime sleep is only that
it is too short.
8. Although it is expected that the patient will pay for his treatment, he will be
reimbursed via the State medical insurance scheme.
9. If one person chooses to cause serious injury to another, it should be presumed
that he or she realises that there is always a risk of death.
10. It was also alleged that he amassed wealth by exploiting his high credit with the
Palmyra court.
G. Lexical density
Written English generally has a much denser pattern of words, it is more lexically dense.
If we define lexical density as the number of content words in a clause, then written
English has a higher lexical density than spoken English (Halliday, 1996, p. 347).
For example, the written text:
Obviously the government is frightened of union reaction to its move to impose
proper behaviour on unions.
is more lexically dense than the spoken version:
Obviously the government is frightened how the unions will react if it tries to
make them behave properly.
H. Lexical complexity
Adding affixes to existing words (the base) to form new words is common in academic
English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (like dislike), whereas suffixes are
added to the end of the base (active activate). Prefixes usually do not change the class
of the base word, but suffixes usually do change the class of the word.
The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-,
over-, un-, mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. By far the
most common affix in academic English is -ise.
e.g. verbs + prefix
Prefix
re-

verb
Meaning

again or back

Examples
restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance

dis-

reverses the meaning of the

verb

disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect,

discontinue

over-

too much

overbook, oversleep, overwork

un-

reverses the meaning of the

verb

unbend, uncouple, unfasten

mis-

badly or wrongly

mislead, misinform, misidentify

out-

more or better than others

outperform, outbid

be-

make or cause

befriend, belittle

co-

together

co-exist, co-operate, co-own

de-

do the opposite of

devalue, deselect

fore-

earlier, before

foreclose, foresee

inter-

between

interact, intermix, interface

pre-

before

pre-expose, prejudge, pretest

sub-

under/below

subcontract, subdivide

trans-

across, over

transform, transcribe, transplant

under- not enough

underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop

^
e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".
Suffix

Example

-ise stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise

-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
^
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are: co- and
sub-. The most common suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age,
-ery. By far the most common noun affix in academic English is -tion.
e.g. noun+prefix

noun

Prefix

Meaning

Examples

anti-

against

anticlimax, antidote, antithesis

auto-

self

autobiography, automobile

bi-

two

bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism

co-

joint

co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant

counter- against

counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal

dis-

the converse of

discomfort, dislike

ex-

former

ex-chairman, ex-hunter

hyper-

extreme

hyperinflation, hypersurface

in-

the converse of

inattention, incoherence, incompatibility

in-

inside

inpatient,

inter-

between

interaction, inter-change, interference

kilo-

thousand

kilobyte

mal-

bad

malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition

mega-

million

megabyte

mis-

wrong

misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement

mini-

small

mini-publication, mini-theory

mono-

one

monosyllable, monograph, monogamy

neo-

new

neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism

out-

separate

outbuilding,

poly-

many

polysyllable

pseudo-

false

pseudo-expert

re-

again

re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination

semi-

half

semicircle, semi-darkness

sub-

below

subset, subdivision

super-

more than, above superset, superimposition, superpowers

sur-

over and above

surtax

tele-

distant

telecommunications,

tri-

three

tripartism

ultra-

beyond

ultrasound

under-

below, too little

underpayment, under-development, undergraduate

vice-

deputy

vice-president

^
e.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A)
Suffix

Meaning

-tion action/instance of V-ing

noun

Examples
alteration, demonstration

-ity state or quality of being A ability, similarity, responsibility

person who V-s
-er something used for V-ing
person concerned with N

advertiser, driver
computer, silencer
astronomer, geographer

-ness state or quality of being A darkness, preparedness, consciousness

-ism doctrine of N
-ment action/instance of V-ing
-ant/-ent person who V-s
-ship state of being N
-age
-ery/-ry

Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism

development, punishment, unemployment
assistant, consultant, student
friendship, citizenship, leadership

collection of N
action/result of V

baggage, plumage
breakage, wastage, package

action/instance of V-ing
place of V-ing

bribery, robbery, misery

refinery, bakery

^
Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g. -less, -ous).
Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives, especially by the negative prefixes
(un-, in- and non-).
The most common suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.
e.g. Suffix added to verbs or nouns

adjective

Suffix

Examples

-al central, political, national, optional, professional

-ent different, dependent, excellent
-ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able drinkable, countable, avoidable,
^
e.g. adjective + negative

adjective

Prefix
un-

Examples
unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust

im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal

non-

non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral

dis-

disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest

e.g. base with both prefix and suffix

-able
un-

-tion

uncomfortable
unavoidable
unforgettable

mis-

-tive

misjudgement
mismanagement

misinformation
recoverable
recyclable

reformulation

reproductive

in-

irreplaceable

incoordination
inattention

inactive
inoperative

semi-

-ar

unimaginative

re-

dis-

-ment

disconnection

realignment
repayment

disappointment
semiconductive

semi-circular

^
I. Nominalisation
Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs. For example, "judgement" rather
than "judge", "development" rather than "develop", "admiration" rather than "admire".
Instead of:
This information enables us to formulate precise questions.
we would write:
This information enables the formulation of precise questions.
More examples are:
There appeared to be evidence of differential treatment of children.
This is reflected in our admiration for people who have made something of their lives,
sometimes against great odds, and in our somewhat disappointed judgment of those who
merely drift through life.
All airfields in the country would be nationalised, and the government would continue
with the development of new aircraft as recommended by the Brabazon Committee.
Read the following text:
Reproduction with variation is a major characteristic of life. Without reproduction, life
would quickly come to an end. The earliest single-celled organisms reproduced by
duplicating their genetic material and then dividing in two. The two resulting daughter
cells were identical to each other and to the parent cell, except for mutations that occurred
during the process of gene duplication. Such errors, although rare, provided the raw
material for biological evolution. The combination of reproduction and errors in the
duplication of genetic material results in biological evolution, a change in the genetic
composition of a population of organisms over time.
W. K. Purves, D. Sadava, G. H. Orians & H. C. Heller, Life: The science of biology, W. H.
Freeman, 2004
and compare it to:
All organisms reproduce and sometimes when they reproduce, the children vary. This is an
important characteristic of life. If organisms did nor reproduce, life would quickly come to
an end. How did the earliest single-celled organisms reproduce? They duplicated their
genetic material and then they divided in two. Two daughter cells resulted from this
process; they were identical to each other and to the parent cell. But sometimes as the
genes duplicated, they changed or mutated. These errors are not very common but they

provide the basic material for life to evolve. So when the genetic material duplicates, they
reproduce and they make errors. As a result, there is a change in what the genes are
composed of. When these processes combine, life evolve.
The first text is more academic. The second text is longer. It has shorter sentences. It asks
question and answers them. All these features are typical of spoken language.
Compare these sentences:
1. Organisms reproduce. This is a major characteristic of life.
2. Reproduction is a major characteristic of life.
In general they mean the same, but sentence 2 is expressed more concisely. It uses the
word reproduction, whereas sentence 1 uses the word reproduce". Here the word
reproduce is a verb. It would change to reproduces if organisms changed to an
organism. Reproduction is a noun made from the verb reproduce; we call this
process nominalisation.
Exercise
Complete the table below by finding other nominalisations in the first text above, based
on the verbs in the second text.
Verb

Nominalisation

reproduce reproduction
vary
duplicate
divide
mutate
combine
Here are some more verbs that are commonly nominalised. Add more to the table from
your own reading.
Verb

Nominalisation

reproduce reproduction
adapt

adaptation

contract

contraction

expand

expansion

react

reaction

rotate

rotation

However, not all nominalised words end in tion . Examples are:

1. The discovery of this general pattern generated the intermediate disturbance
hypothesis.
2. It serves as a template for the synthesis of proteins.
3. The increase occurs because the number of individuals an area can support
increases with productivity, and with larger population sizes, species extinction
rates are lower. But why should species richness decrease when productivity is
still higher?
4. This rise in body temperature inhibits the growth of the invading pathogen.
Cytokines may also attract phagocytic cells to the site of injury and initiate a
specific response to the pathogen.
Others are: -ity ability, similarity, complexity; -ness blindness, darkness, preparedness;
-ment development, encouragement; -ship friendship; -age mileage; -ery robbery, bribery;
-al arrival; -ance assistance, resemblance.
Nominalisations used in phrases with of.
Associated with nominalisation is the occurrence of prepositional phrases, introduced by
of:
judgment of those
treatment of children
development of new aircraft
J. Attributive adjectives
Adjectives can be used either attributively (e.g. the big house) or predicatively (e.g. the
house is big). Attributive adjectives are common in academic English.
With economic specialisation and the development of external economic linkages,
division of labour intensifies, a merchant class is added to the political elite, and selective
migration streams add to the social and ethnic complexities of cities.^

Examples
Halliday (1989, p.79) compares a sentence from a spoken text:

You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure
that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would
otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets.
with a typical written variant:
The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster
train running in the most adverse weather conditions.
The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary.
Other equivalents are given below (p.81):
Spoken

Written

Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up feeling Every previous visit had left me with a sense
that it would be futile if I tried to do anything more.
of the futility of further action on my part.
The cities in Switzerland had once been peaceful, but
they changed when people became violent.

Violence changed the face of once peaceful

Swiss cities.

Because the technology has improved its less risky

than it used to be when you install them at the same
time, and it doesn't cost so much either.

Improvements in technology have reduced the

risks and high costs associated with
simultaneous installation.

The people in the colony rejoiced when it was promised Opinion in the colony greeted the promised
that things would change in this way.
change with enthusiasm.

Try these exercises: Exercise 1, Exercise 2.

Spoken to written
"Because the jobs are even more complex, programs to train people will
take longer."
Re-write the sentence above in a more typically written style. Type one word and click
"Check".
The increased complexity of tasks will lead to the extension of the duration of training programs.

"I handed my essay in late because my kids got sick."

Re-write the sentence above in a more typically written style. Type one word and click
"Check".
The reason for the late submission of my essay was the illness of my children.

2. Formality
Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should
avoid colloquial words and expressions.
In general this means in an essay that you should avoid:
a. colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",
b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"
c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them
in reports.

Well, ... yes ... but not in my

dissertation.

Julie, I'm your practice

teacher,
you're
my
student. And I have to
tell you to refrain from
using terms such as
"loony",
"fruitcake"
"nutcase" and "one
sandwich short of a
picnic" to describe Oh, come on, Clare! Don't be so
people with mental PC. Are you telling me you've
illness.
never used those expressions?
e. asking questions.

Try the following exercises: 1. Colloquial words and expressions, 2.

Abbreviations, 3. Two-word verbs, 4. Formal/Informal

Colloquial language
Exercise 1

Identify the informal expressions in the following sentences. Rewrite the following
sentences, replacing the informal expressions with a more formal equivalent.
1. With women especially, there is a lot of social pressure to conform to a
certain physical shape.

With women especially, there is a great deal of social pressure to

conform to a certain physical shape

2. Significantly, even at this late date, Lautrec was considered a bit conservative by
his peers.
Significantly, even at this late date, Lautrec was considered somewhat
conservative by his peers
3. It focused on a subject that a lot of the bourgeois and upper-class exhibition-going
public regarded as anti-social and anti-establishment.
It focused on a subject that much of the bourgeois and upper-class exhibition-going
public regarded as anti-social and anti-establishment.
4. Later Florey got together with Paul Fildes in an experimental study of the use of
curare to relieve the intractable muscular spasms which occur in fully developed
infection with tetanus or lockjaw.
Later Florey collaborated with Paul Fildes in an experimental study of the use of
curare to relieve the intractable muscular spasms which occur in fully developed
infection with tetanus or lockjaw.
5. When a patient is admitted to a psychiatric inpatient unit, the clinical team should
avoid the temptation to start specific treatments immediately.
When a patient is admitted to a psychiatric inpatient unit, the clinical team
should avoid the temptation to commence specific treatments immediately.
6. Therefore after six months the dieter is behaving according to all twenty-six goals and
she has achieved a big reduction in sugar intake.
Therefore after six months the dieter is behaving according to all twenty-six goals and
she has achieved a considerable reduction in sugar intake.
7. Modern houses have so many labor-saving things that it is difficult for the person
at home to have adequate exercise by doing chores, cooking, and looking after a
family.
Modern houses have so many labor-saving devices that it is difficult for the person at
home to have adequate exercise by doing chores, cooking, and looking after a family.

8. Simply making the effort to reclaim this wasted stuff for fertilizer would have a
positive effect on greenhouse releases.
Simply making the effort to reclaim this wasted material for fertilizer would have a
positive effect on greenhouse releases.
9. It is difficult to imagine exactly what is meant by saying that such a classification
is natural as any collection of things could be classified in this way.
It is difficult to imagine exactly what is meant by saying that such a classification is
natural as any collection of objects could be classified in this way.
10. Unfortunately, since there are so many possible explanations, the correct one is most
difficult to find out.
Unfortunately, since there are so many possible explanations, the correct one is most
difficult to ascertain.
11. These exercises can easily be incorporated into an exercise routine, with each exercise
done again a number of times.
These exercises can easily be incorporated into an exercise routine, with each exercise
repeated a number of times.
12. Fleming did well in isolating a streptococcus from the cerebrospinal fluid of the
patient.
Fleming succeeded in isolating a streptococcus from the cerebrospinal fluid of the
patient.
13. Effective vaccines prevent such hazards, but only if a social organization makes
sure that all potential mothers are vaccinated in good time

Effective vaccines prevent such hazards, but only if a social organization ensures
that all potential mothers are vaccinated in good time.

Exercise 2
Abbreviation
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the informal abbreviated form with a more
formal equivalent.
1. The radical restructuring of British politics after 1931 does't lie in the events of 13-28
August, but in the changing attitudes within the National Government.
The radical restructuring of British politics after 1931 lies not in the events of 13-28
August, but in the changing attitudes within the National Government.

2. This isn't easy to do since most historians persist in speaking of The National
Government as if the same sort of government ruled from 1931 to 1940.
This is not easy to do since most historians persist in speaking of The National
Government as if the same sort of government ruled from 1931 to 1940.
3. The first National Government wasn't intended to be a coalition government in
the normal sense of the term.
The first National Government was not intended to be a coalition government in the
normal sense of the term.
4. These aren't at all original or exotic but are based on the ordinary things that
most people tend to eat.
These are not at all original or exotic but are based on the ordinary things that most
people tend to eat.
Exercise 3
Avoiding two word verbs
There is often a choice in English between a two word verb and a single verb - bring
up/raise, set up/establish.
Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the informal two-word verb with a more
formal equivalent.
1. A primary education system was set up (established) throughout Ireland as
early as 1831
2. This will cut down (reduce) the amount of drug required and so the cost of
treatment.
3. The material amenities of life have gone up (increased) in Western society.
4. The press reflected the living culture of the people; it could influence
opinion and reinforce existing attitudes but it did not come up with (create)
new forms of entertainment.
5. Thus, he should have looked into (investigated) how the patient has coped
previously.
6. The aggregate of outstanding balances went up and down (fluctuate) quite
violently.
7. In 1947 the Treasury brought up (raise) the question of excluding South
Africa (and India) from the sterling area.

8. Dieters often feel that they should totally get rid of (eliminate) high-fat and
high-sugar foods.
9. Thus when a Gallic bishop in 576 converted the local Jewish community to
Christianity, those who turned down (refused) baptism were expelled from
the city.
10. Western scholars gradually turned out (produced) a corpus of translations
from the Arabic and studies of Islam.
11. Ms Tucker, Lord White's 29-year-old companion, has since taken her
statement back. (Retracted his statement)
12. Discussion of the outcome of experiments that have used this method will
be put off (postponed) until Chapter 7.
13. They did not easily accept or put up with (tolerate) differences in others.
14. My high-school friend signed up for three years with the army so he could
put away (save) enough money to go to university and study law.
15. The solitary feeding of insectivores in forests was therefore put down
(attributed) to a foraging strategy involving the pursuit of cryptic and easily
disturbed prey by singletons.
16. In style, the turn toward abstraction and simplification came about
(occurred) earliest with Anquetin and Bernard and next with van Gogh.
17. For Klein that cloudless day never arrived, but he never gave up
(relinquished) his hope for a just world.
18. Eventually the Irish party was forced to go back (return) to Westminster.
19. The court thinks it just and equitable to give back (return) the property.
20. The English liked coal fires even though they do not always give off
(produce) much heat.
21. The story told by German propaganda, however, gave away (betrayed)
nothing of the mounting hopelessness of the 6th Army's position.
22. These exercises can easily be incorporated into an exercise routine, with
each done again (repeated) a number of times.

23. Marx took as one of his main tasks the understanding of how this system
came into being and this was in order to find out (discover) why this system
had such power.
24. This was before he had read the guidelines on how to carry out
(CONDUCT) the research.
25. Still, the pressure to do well (SUCCEED) as an individual made most
women believe that the problems they encountered were probably of their
own making.
Exercise 4
It is often the case that formal words are longer than informal words, formal words are
single words not multi-words and formal words are of French/Latin origin rather than
their informal equivalents which are of Anglo-Saxon origin.
For example: "depart" is from French/Latin but "go" is Anglo-Saxon.
Academic writing style Formal
appear
ascend
assist
cease
commence
consume
decrease
demonstrate
depart
desire
enquire
finish
inform
obtain
preserve
reject
release
repair
require
reside
retain
Formal

Informal
seem
climb
help
stop
begin
use
shorten
show
go
want
ask
end
tell
get
keep
say no
free
mend
need
live
keep
Informal

finally
in the end
immediately at once
initially
at first
intermittently on and off
principally
mainly
repeatedly
again and again
subsequently next
therefore
so
Formal
Informal
comprehension understanding
deficiency
lack
opportunity
chance
perspiration
sweat
residence
house
vision
sight
Formal
Informal
amiable
friendly
complete
whole
energetic
lively
fortunate
lucky
immature childish
incorrect
wrong
inferior
worse
inexpensive cheap
indistinct
dim
insane
mad
relaxed
laid back
responsible in charge
sufficient
enough
superior
better
transparent clear
vacant
empty

3. Precision
In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.
In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures.
Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".
For example:

Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred years but all they
had achieved was to discover the extreme complexity of the problem.
The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulphide was first synthesized in 1854, and
in 1887 it was reported to produce blisters if it touched the skin. It was called mustard gas
and was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused many thousands of casualties.
It is approximately eight inches in length and runs from the urinary bladder, through the
prostate gland, under the front of the pelvis, and, passing through the corpus spongiosum,
it ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called the urethral meatus .

4. Objectivity
Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words
that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the
information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you.
For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs
(and adverbs).
This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular.
Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what
you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The
thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research
and it is important to make this clear.
1. Compare these two paragraphs:
The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its
cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in
the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing.
Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and
testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b)
on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of
language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete
language skills.
We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have
talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for
us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how
language works. I think that language is something we use for
communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we
teach and test it.
Which is the most objective?
2. In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".
A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore
unnecessary to make this explicit.

Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."

Write: "This is a very interesting study."
Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.
Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."
3. Examples
Clearly this was far less true of France than ...
This is where the disagreements and controversies begin ...
The data indicates that ...
This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that ...
. . .very few people would claim ...
It is worthwhile at this stage to consider ...
Of course, more concrete evidence is needed before ...
Several possibilities emerge ...
A common solution is ...
Try the following exercises:

1. Writing formally,
Drugs
Read the text on the left and rewrite it in a more academic style in the box on the right.
Guess the words one at a time. Type a word in the box, then press "Check" to see if it is
right. You can ask for a hint, but you'll lose a point if you do.

Text
Most people take drug overdoses because they find that it's difficult to sort out their problems clearly.
That's why you should treat your patients in a clear way. That means you should treat your patients in
a way that helps them to tell the difference between their problems and find ways to deal with them.
Answer

Most overdoses are taken when individuals are finding it difficult to sort out their life
problems in a clear way. For this reason, the approach to treatment must, above all
else, be a clear one; that is, one which helps the patient separate out each of his
problems and plan ways of dealing with them.

2. Writing formally
Exercise 2
Rewrite the following paragraphs in a more academic style.
I would call Wagner a subjective artist. What I mean is that his art had its
source in his personality; his work was virtually independent, I always feel, of
the epoch in which he lived.
On the other hand, I always consider Bach an objective artist. You can see
that he worked only with the forms and ideas that his time proffered him. I do
not think he felt any inner compulsion to open out new paths.
Suggested answer.
Wagner was what might be called a subjective artist in that his art had its
source in his personality. His work seems virtually independent of the epoch
in which he lived.
On the other hand, Bach can be considered an objective artist. He seems to
have worked only with the forms and ideas that his time proffered him,
feeling no inner compulsion to open out new paths.

5. Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the
responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts
of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different
signaling words.
Academic writing is explicit in several ways.
1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organization of the ideas in the text (Biber,
Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic
English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the
text is related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling
words.
For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is
going to change, make it clear.
The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on
American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas
DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It
was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However,

even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious
difficulties.
If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another
sentence, make it explicit.
While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the
period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the
significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because
the current account deficit appears much smaller in current
(1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.
If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.
Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the
capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the history
of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as
feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by
the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation
of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land.
Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical
Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the
ties of local community are all important.
If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.
He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes
the husband and father of his own family. In addition, he has a
definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to
do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian
Mission School.
If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.
This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular
clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern
context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin,
refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have
Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.
For more information see Writing Paragraphs: Signalling.
2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.
If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it.
Do THIS in academic writing

McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find

the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners
still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland
state.
NOT
Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the
Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern
problem within an all-Ireland state.
NOT
Researchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English
more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a
solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.

6. Accuracy
Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow
specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and
"phonemics"; General English does not.
In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse,
for example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with "syntax".
Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly, "gathering" or
"conference".
Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".

7. Hedging
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your
stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different
subjects prefer to do this in different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a
hedge.
Hedging

8. Responsibility
In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence
and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an
understanding of any source texts you use.

In academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source
text. You must also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and
justification for, any claims you make.
This is done by paraphrasing and summarising what you read and acknowledging the
source of this information or ideas by a system of citation.

Reporting - paraphrase, summary &

synthesis
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other
people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials and
that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill
for every student. Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a
student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other texts", which is "a
major part of their academic experience." It is very important when you do this to make
sure you use your own words, unless you are quoting. You must make it clear when the
words or ideas that you are using are your own and when they are taken from another
writer. You must not use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own: this is
Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious offence.
The object of academic writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of
the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. You can do this
by reporting the works of others in your own words. You can either paraphrase if you
want to keep the length the same, summarise if you want to make the text shorter or
synthesise if you need to use information from several sources. In all cases you need to
acknowledge other people's work.

Paraphrase
Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another person in your own words. You need to
change the words and the structure but keep the meaning the same. Please remember,
though, that even when you paraphrase someone's work, you must acknowledge it. See
Citation.
Look at this example:
Source
It has long been known that Cairo is the
most populous city on earth, but no-one
knew exactly how populous it was until last
month.
Paraphrase
Although Cairo has been the world's most
heavily populated city for many years, the

precise population was not known until four

weeks ago.
The following stages may be useful:
Read and understand the text.
Make a list of the main ideas.
Find the important ideas - the important words/phrases. In some way mark
them - write them down, underline or highlight them.
Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases - do not change
specialised vocabulary and common words.
Change the structure of the text.
Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - e.g.
cause/effect, generalisation, contrast. Look at Paragraphs: Signalling for
more information.
Express these relationships in a different way.
Change the grammar of the text: change nouns to verbs, adjectives to
adverbs, etc., break up long sentences, combine short sentences.
Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece of
continuous writing.
Check your work.
Make sure the meaning is the same.
Make sure the length is the same.
Make sure the style is your own.
Remember to acknowledge other people's work.
1. Read and understand the text. See Reading: Strategies for help here.
2. Find the important ideas, write down the important words/phrases and find alternative
words, or synonyms. Keep specialised vocabulary and common words.
Examples:
Paul Ekman from the University of California has conducted a long series of
experiments on how nonverbal behaviour may reveal real inner states.
Paul Ekman who works at the University of California has performed a sequence
of investigations on the way nonverbal behaviour may disclose real internal
conditions.
There are reckoned to be over 4,000 plant species used by forest dwellers as food
and medicine alone.
There are calculated to be more than 4,000 plant species utilised by forest
inhabitants just as foodstuffs and drugs.
Memory is the capacity for storing and retrieving information.
Memory is the facility for keeping and recovering data.
Research and publications are accumulating in each of the four fields of
anthropology at an exponential rate.

Studies and books are gathering in all of the four areas of anthropology at a very
fast speed.
It is worth looking at one or two aspects of the way a mother behaves towards her
baby.
It is useful to observe several features of how a mother acts when she is with her
small child.
Note: This is not enough by itself. You also need to change the words and the structure of
the text.
3a/b. Identify the meaning relationships in the text and express them in a different way.
Examples:
Many invertebrates, on the other hand, such as snails and worms and crustacea,
have a spiral pattern of cleavage.
In contrast, many invertebrates, such as snails and worms and crustacea, have a
spiral pattern of cleavage.
Similarly, the muscles will not grow in length unless they are attached to tendons
and bones so that as the bones lengthen, they are stretched.
Likewise, if the muscles are not attached to tendons and bones so that as the bones
lengthen, they are stretched, they will not grow in length.
Besides being a theory about the basis and origin of knowledge and the contents
of our minds in general, empiricism is also sometimes a methodology.
Not only is empiricism a theory about the basis and origin of knowledge and the
contents of our minds in general, it also sometimes a methodology.
As opposed to this, Locke is often supposed to be saying that, in addition to
properties, things have a "substratum" which "supports" their properties.
Locke is often supposed to be saying, on the other hand, that, in addition to
properties, things have a "substratum" which "supports" their properties.
Consequently in a sense one may speak of the Common Law as unwritten law in
contrast with Statute Law, which is written law.
In a sense, therefore, one may speak of the Common Law as unwritten law in
contrast with Statute Law, which is written law.
Note: This is not enough by itself. You also need to change the structure of the text.
3b/c. Change the grammar of the text:
For example:
change nouns to verbs
This rewriting of history was not so much a matter of a new start.
This rewriting of history was not so much a matter of starting again.
Here he lives with the labourers in one of the barrack rooms, and out of his
small earnings makes a start at having a house built.
Here he lives with the labourers in one of the barrack rooms, and out of his
small earnings starts to have a house built.
change verbs to nouns

The Normans invaded in 1066.

The Norman invasion took place in 1066.
The bomb exploded and caused many casualties.
The explosion caused many casualties.
change adverbs to adjectives
He wrote frequently.
He wrote on frequent occasions.
Politically, it was a bad decision.
From a political point of view, it was a bad decision.
change active verbs to passive
We can relate a study of this kind to texts in other media too
A study of this kind can be related to texts in other media too.
In this treatment the teacher can use a variety of techniques to elicit the
language learners already know.
In this treatment a variety of techniques is used to elicit the language
learners already know.
break up sentences
Given the extent to which deforestation increased markedly in the four
southern states during 1987 and 1988, it is heartening news that during the
early part of the 1989 dry season the burning seemed to have been
curtailed somewhat, due to a combination of policy changes, better
controls on burning, and most important of all an exceptionally wet "dry"
season.
Deforestation increased markedly in the four southern states during 1987
and 1988. On account of this, it is heartening news that during the early
part of the 1989 dry season the burning seemed to have been curtailed
somewhat. The reason for this is a combination of policy changes, better
controls on burning, and most important of all an exceptionally wet "dry"
season.
In 1851 the average family size was 4.7, roughly the same as it had been in
the seventeenth century, but the 1 million couples who married during the
1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best decade in
English history to have been brought up in, raised the figure to 6.2.
In 1851 the average family size was 4.7, roughly the same as it had been in
the seventeenth century. However, the 1 million couples who married
during the 1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best
decade in English history to have been brought up in, raised the figure to
6.2.
combine sentences
Tropical forests are defined here as evergreen or partly evergreen forests.
They grow in areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipitation in any
month for two out of three years. The mean annual temperature is 24-plus
degrees Celsius. The area is essentially frost-free.
Tropical forests are defined here as evergreen or partly evergreen forests,
in areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipitation in any month for

two out of three years, with mean annual temperature of 24-plus degrees
Celsius, and essentially frost-free.
The third National Government followed upon the resignation of the
Liberal ministers and of the free trader, Snowden. This happened in
September 1932. After this it became little more than a Conservative
government. A few ex-Labour and Liberal politicians were added. They all
owed their seats to an electoral pact with the Conservatives.
The third National Government followed upon the resignation of the
Liberal ministers and of the free trader, Snowden, in September 1932, after
which it became little more than a Conservative government, with the
addition of a few ex-Labour and Liberal politicians, all owing their seats to
an electoral pact with the Conservatives.
Note: This is not enough by itself. You also need to change the words and the structure of
the text.

Summary
A summary is a shortened version of a text. It contains the main points in the text and is
written in your own words. It is a mixture of reducing a long text to a short text and
selecting relevant information. A good summary shows that you have understood the text.
Please remember, though, that even when you summarise someone's work, you must
acknowledge it. See Citation.
Look at this example:
Source
The amphibia, which is the animal class to
which our frogs and toads belong, were the
first animals to crawl from the sea and
inhabit the earth.
Summary
The first animals to leave the sea and live on
dry land were the amphibia.
The phrase "which is the animal class to which our frogs and toads belong" is an
example, not a main point, and can be deleted. The rest of the text is rewritten in your
own words.
Try this exercise.
The following stages may be useful:
Read and understand the text carefully.
Think about the purpose of the text.
Ask what the author's purpose is in writing the text?
What is your purpose in writing your summary?
Are you summarising to support your poins?

Or are you summarising so you can criticise the work before you introduce
your main points?
Select the relevant information. This depends on your purpose.
Find the main ideas - what is important.
They may be found in topic sentences.
Distinguish between main and subsidiary information.
Delete most details and examples, unimportant information, anecdotes,
examples, illustrations, data etc.
Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases - do not change
specialised vocabulary and common words.
Change the structure of the text.
Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - e.g.
cause/effect, generalisation, contrast. Look at Paragraphs: Signalling for
more information. Express these relationships in a different way.
Change the grammar of the text: rearrange words and sentences. Change
nouns to verbs, adjectives to adverbs, etc., break up long sentences,
combine short sentences.
Simplify the text. Reduce complex sentences to simple sentences, simple
sentences to phrases, phrases to single words.
Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece of
continuous writing. Use conjunctions and adverbs such as 'therefore', 'however',
'although', 'since', to show the connections between the ideas.
Check your work.
Make sure your purpose is clear.
Make sure the meaning is the same.
Make sure the style is your own.
Remember to acknowledge other people's work.

4b/c. Distinguish between main and subsidiary information. Delete most details and
examples, unimportant information, anecdotes, examples, illustrations, data etc. Simplify
the text. Reduce complex sentences to simple sentences, simple sentences to phrases,
phrases to single words.
Examples:
People whose professional activity lies in the field of politics are not, on the
whole, conspicuous for their respect for factual accuracy.
Politicians often lie.
Failure to assimilate an adequate quantity of solid food over an extended period of
time is absolutely certain to lead, in due course, to a fatal conclusion.
Lack of food causes death.
The climatic conditions prevailing in the British Isles show a pattern of alternating
and unpredictable periods of dry and wet weather, accompanied by a similarly
irregular cycle of temperature changes.
British weather is changeable.

 It is undeniable that the large majority of non-native learners of English

experience a number of problems in attempting to master the phonetic patterns of
the language.
Many learners find English pronunciation difficult.
Tea, whether of the China or Indian variety, is well known to be high on the list of
those beverages which are most frequently drunk by the inhabitants of the British
Isles.
The British drink a large amount of tea.
It is not uncommon to encounter sentences which, though they contain a great
number of words and are constructed in a highly complex way, none the less turn
out on inspection to convey very little meaning of any kind.
Some long and complicated sentences mean very little.
One of the most noticeable phenomena in any big city, such as London or Paris, is
the steadily increasing number of petrol-driven vehicles, some in private
ownership, others belonging to the public transport system, which congest the
roads and render rapid movement more difficult year by year.
Big cities have growing traffic problems.
Example 1: Volcanic Islands

Example
As part of an essay, you need to include a section of about 100 words on the formation of
volcanic islands. You find the following text:
Volcanic Islands
Islands have always fascinated the human mind. Perhaps it is the instinctive response of
man, the land animal, welcoming a brief intrusion of earth in the vast, overwhelming
expanse of sea. When sailing in a great ocean basin, a thousand miles from the nearest
continent, with miles of water beneath the ship, one may come upon an island which has
been formed by a volcanic eruption under the sea. One's imagination can follow its slopes
down through darkening waters to its base on the sea floor. One wonders why and how it
arose there in the midst of the ocean.
The birth of a volcanic island is an event marked by prolonged and violent travail: the
forces of the earth striving to create, and all the forces of the sea opposing. At the place
where the formation of such an island begins, the sea floor is probably nowhere more
than about fifty miles thick. In it are deep cracks and fissures, the results of unequal
cooling and shrinkage in past ages. Along such lines of weakness the molten lava from
the earth's interior presses up and finally bursts forth into the sea. But a submarine
volcano is different from a terrestrial eruption, where the lava, molten rocks, and gases
are hurled into the air from an open crater. Here on the bottom of the ocean the volcano
has resisting it all the weight of the ocean water above it. Despite the immense pressure
of, it may be, two or three miles of sea water, the new volcanic cone builds upwards
towards the surface, in flow after flow of lava. Once within reach of the waves, its soft
ash is violently attacked by the motion of the water which continually washes away its

upper surface, so that for a long period the potential island may remain submerged. But
eventually, in new eruptions, the cone is pushed up into the air, where the lava hardens
and forms a rampart against the attacks of the waves.

Read the passage carefully twice from beginning to end.

Remember your purpose: to describe the formation of a volcanic island.
Select the relevant information
Mark all the points which should come into your answer. Do this very carefully,
and be sure not to miss anything.
The birth of a volcanic island is an event marked by prolonged and violent
travail: the forces of the earth striving to create, and all the forces of the sea
opposing. At the place where the formation of such an island begins, the sea
floor is probably nowhere more than about fifty miles thick. In it are deep
cracks and fissures, the results of unequal cooling and shrinkage in past ages.
Along such lines of weakness the molten lava from the earth's interior presses
up and finally bursts forth into the sea. But a submarine volcano is different
from a terrestrial eruption, where the lava, molten rocks, and gases are hurled
into the air from an open crater. Here on the bottom of the ocean the volcano
has resisting it all the weight of the ocean water above it. Despite the
immense pressure of, it may be, two or three miles of sea water, the new
volcanic cone builds upwards towards the surface, in flow after flow of lava.
Once within reach of the waves, its soft ash is violently attacked by the
motion of the water which continually washes away its upper surface, so that
for a long period the potential island may remain submerged. But eventually,
in new eruptions, the cone is pushed up into the air, where the lava hardens
and forms a rampart against the attacks of the waves.

Make notes

island formation: earth versus sea.

where? sea bed, not more 50 miles thick, cracked and uneven.
weak lava bursts through.
c.f. land volcano: no sea pressure
how? lava cone pushes upwards
surface - washed away by waves submerged
lava hardens island.

Using this list of points, write your rough draft, referring to the original only when
you want to make sure of some point.
A volcanic island comes into being after a long and violent struggle has taken
place between the forces of the earth and the sea. The island begins to form when
hot lava breaks through weak points on the sea-bed where the earth's crust is not
more than fifty miles thick and is marked by deep cracks. The volcanic island,
unlike a land volcano, has to push up through the immense pressure of the sea.
The cone made up of lava finally reaches the surface, but it does not appear

because waves wash away its upper surface. When the lava hardens it stands up to
the waves and the island is formed.
After correcting your draft, write an accurate copy of your text.
A volcanic island is born only after a long and violent struggle between the forces
of the earth and the sea. It begins to form when hot lava breaks through a cracked
and uneven part of the sea-bed where the earth's crust is weak. Unlike the land
volcano, it has to build upwards despite the immense water-pressure until it finally
reaches the surface. Even then it is too soft to withstand the waves and remains
underwater until the cone is pushed into the air from below and the lava hardens.
Check your work.
Take care to make your text accurate. Your sentences should be well connected to
each other so that your text reads as a continuous paragraph.

Exercise 1: Progress in Samoa

As part of an essay, you need to include a section of about 100 words on the advantages
and disadvantages of progress from the Samoans' point of view. You find the following
text:
Progress in Samoa
Samoa Sasa sat cross-legged in his one-room, open-air home, shooing away chickens that
strutted across the floor mats. Bananas cooked on the wood stove. Naked children cried
in nearby huts. From one hut came the voice of Sinatra singing 'Strangers in the Night' on
a local radio station.
The sound of progress frightened Sasa. For most of his 50 years time has stood still. Now
small European-styled homes are springing up around his village in Western Samoa and
the young men are leaving for New Zealand. In the town there are experts from all over
the world advising the Samoan Government on many development projects that Sasa
does not understand.
The people of Luatuanuu Village - including his eight children - have always worked the
banana plantations and respected the custom that the Matais (family chiefs) like Sasa
represented absolute authority.
They owned all the land communally, they elected a parliament and they administered
justice in each village, thus leaving few duties for the nation's 219-man police force.
Would all that, too, change? Sasa wondered.
'We are a poor country and change must come,' Sasa said through a translator. 'But I do
not want it so fast. I do not want my children to go to New Zealand to look for big
money. I want them to stay here in Luatuanuu and work our plantations as we always
have done.'
The confusion Sasa feels is shared by many of the 150,000 Western Samoans - and
undoubtedly by the peoples of other newly independent, developing nations as well. The
capital, Apia, is teeming with people wanting to help: an 80-member US Peace Corps
headquarters, experts from the United Nations, investors from Japan, analysts from the

Asian Development Bank and civil engineers from New Zealand.

Already streets are being torn up for a new road system. The hospital is being rebuilt with
a loan from New Zealand. A new 1 million Government hotel has opened to promote
tourism - an industry the country is not quite sure it wants. A loan from the Asian
Development Bank will modernise the communications system. Japanese investors have
opened a sawmill and are building houses. When these and many other development
schemes are completed and Western Samoa, one of the world's poorest nations in cash
terms, is forced into the twentieth century, what is to become of its culture?
'Most Samoans want the modern amenities, but they don't want to throw away our culture
to get them,' said Felise Va'a, editor of the Samoan Times. 'There is no easy answer
because in many ways our culture retards development. The question people are asking
is, what is a balance between the past and the future?'
The tradition of communal land ownership stultifies individual incentive and has resulted
in neglect of the land. The system of permitting only the nation's 15,000 Matais to elect
45 of the 47 MPs destroys political involvement. The exodus to New Zealand - and the
money the emigrants send home - creates a false economy and results in thousands of
Samoan families ignoring the land and living off the earnings of their expatriate children.
New Zealand permits 1,500 Western Samoan immigrants a year and each year 1,500 one per cent of the population - go. They, together with thousands of other Samoans in
New Zealand on temporary work visas, send home about 3 millions a year. The money
provides a boost to Western Samoa's agricultural economy, but it also is inflationary, and
the inflation rate has been 35 per cent in two years.
Western Samoa has travelled a long way in the 12 years since independence. It has
political stability and a people who are 90 per cent literate. It offers investors a cheap
labour force, and a land that is 80 per cent uncultivated. It offers visitors the most
uncorrupted Polynesian culture left anywhere today.
(From an article in The Guardian by David Lamb)
How do you go about it?
One possible approach is to go through the following steps:
Read through the text from beginning to end.
Remember your purpose: to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of progress
from the Samoans' point of view.
Select the relevant information
Mark all the points which should come into your answer. Do this very carefully,
and be sure not to miss anything.
Change the structure. You should now have a brief list in your own words of all
the points you marked in 4.
Sasa frightened by progress
doesn't understand development
Samoa poor country, needs change
Sasa doesn't want change fast
doesn't want young people to emigrate
many other Samoans confused

 Samoans want benefits of progress

but don't want to lose traditional culture
they want balance past and future
system of land ownership inefficient
electoral system undemocratic
money sent by emigrants good for economy
but causes inflation and neglect of land
Without looking at the original text, join these points together into a paragraph.
Change the order of the points if necessary, to make the construction more logical.
Use conjunctions and adverbs such as 'therefore', 'however', 'although', 'since', to
show the connections between the ideas.
Here is a possible paragraph:
Samoa is a very poor country with an inefficient system of land ownership
and an undemocratic electoral system. Change is necessary; however, many
Samoans, like Samoa Sasa, are worried about the speed of development. They
want the benefits of progress, but find it difficult to understand what is
happening, and are frightened of losing their traditional way of life. They do
not want their young people to leave for New Zealand, and although the
emigrants send money home, the increased wealth is causing neglect of the
land and inflation. Samoa's problem is to find a compromise between past and
future.
Look again at the text, just to check that you have not changed the meaning of anything;
make corrections or rewrite the paragraph if necessary.
Now try this question yourself: As part of the same essay, you need to include a
paragraph of not more than 100 words describing the changes that are taking place in
Samoa. Write the paragraph.
Press this button to check your answer:

Citing sources
Introduction
One of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other
people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials that
you have studied and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact,
this is an essential skill for every student. Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the
most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other
texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience." For this reason, any
academic text you read or write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your
own.

In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear what
your point of view is in relation to the topic or essay question. The object of academic
writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to
present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working
with other peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your view is not clear,
you will be told you have not answered the question or something similar. It is essential
therefore that it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.
There are two main ways in which you can show your view (Tadros, 1993):
negatively

lack of mention of any other writer

positively

first person pronouns ("I")

comments and evaluations ("two major drawbacks", "of no great merit",
"as X insightfully states", )

It will always be assumed that the words or ideas are your own if you do not say
otherwise. When the words or ideas you are using are taken from another writer, you
must make this clear. If you do not do this and use another person's words or ideas as if
they were your own, this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious
offence.
The ideas and people that you refer to need to be made explicit by a system of citation.
The object of this is to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a source.
You need to acknowledge the source of an idea unless it is common knowledge in your
subject area. It is difficult sometimes to know whether something is common knowledge
in your subject or needs acknowledging. In general, if your lecturer, in lectures or
handouts, do not acknowledge the source you can assume that it is common knowledge
within your subject.
The object of academic writing is therefore for you to present your ideas in your own
way. To help you do this, however, you will need to use the ideas of other people and
when you do this, you need to say where the words and ideas are from.
There are several reasons for this (See Thompson, 1994, pp. 178-187 for more
information).
You need to show that you are aware of the major areas of thought in your
specific subject. This allows you to show how your contribution fits in, by
correcting previous research, filling gaps, adding support or extending current
research or thinking.
You need to support the points you are making by referring to other people's work.
This will strengthen your argument. The main way to do this is to cite authors that
agree with the points you are making. You can, however, cite authors who do not
agree with your points, as long as you explain why they are wrong. Do not make a
statement that will cause your reader to ask, "Who says?"
If you are a student, you need to show that you have read and understood specific
texts. You need to show that you have read around the subject, not just confined
your reading to one textbook or lecture notes.

 You must not use another person's words or ideas as your own so you need to say
where they are from.
You usually do this by reporting the works of others in your own words. You can either
paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same, summarise if you want to make the
text shorter or synthesise if you need to use information from several sources. Do not
forget, though, that the central line of argument, the main voice, should be your own. This
means that you will need to comment on or evaluate any other works that you use. If you
do not do this, you will be accused of being too descriptive, of not being critical or
analytical enough, or of not producing a clear argument.
There are many ways of refering to other writers - check with your department for
specific information.
The most common system is called the Harvard system. There is no definitive
version of the Harvard system and most universities have their own. But the one
used here - the American Psychological Association style - is well known and
often used, especially in social sciences and business (American Psychological
Association, 1983, 1994, 1999, 2001, 2010).
If you are a humanities student, click here or see Gibaldi (2003) and Modern
Languages Association (1998) for another version of the author-date system.
Many scientists use a numerical system, often called the Vancouver style or BS
1629. Click here or see International Committee of Medical Journal Editors
(1991) for more information.

Citing - APA style

There are two ways in which you can refer to, or cite, another person's work: a) by
reporting or b) by direct quotation.

a) Reporting
This simply means reporting the other writer's ideas into your own words. You can either
paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same or summarise if you want to make the
text shorter. See Reporting: Paraphrase & Summary for more information. There are two
main ways (Swales, 1990, p. 148) of showing that you have used another writer's ideas:
integral
According to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates
that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.
Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are
learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983).
OR non-integral
Evidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical
phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.

Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983).
depending on whether or not the name of the cited author occurs in the citing sentence or
in parenthesis.
If you want to refer to a particular part of the source:
According to Peters (1983, p. 56) evidence from first language acquisition
indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.
(At end of essay)
References
Peters, A (1983). The units of language acquisition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

b) Direct Quotation
Occasionally you may want to quote another author's words exactly. For example:
Hillocks (1982) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes,
"The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on
compositions is generally ineffective" (p. 267).
(At end of essay)
References
Hillocks, G. (1982). The interaction of instruction, teacher
comment, and revision in teaching the composing process.
Research in the Teaching of English, 16, 261-278.
If you do so, keep the quotation as brief as possible and quote only when it is necessary.
You must always have a good reason for using a quote - and feeling unable to paraphrase
or summarise is never a good reason. The idea of an essay is for you to say something for
yourself using the ideas of the subject; you present ideas you have learned in your own
way. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, not reproducing their
words. Your paper should be a synthesis of information from sources, expressed in your
own words, not a collection of quotations. Any quote you use should not do your job for
you, but should add something to the point you are making. The quote should support
your point, by quoting evidence or giving examples or illustrating, or add the weight of
an authority. It should not repeat information or disagree with your point.
Reasons for using quotations:
quote if you use another person's words: you must not use another person's words
as your own;
you need to support your points, quoting is one way to do this;

 quote if the language used in the quotation says what you want to say particularly
well.
Reasons for not using quotations:
do not quote if the information is well-known in your subject area;
do not use a quotation that disagrees with your argument unless you can prove it
is wrong;
do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of the original source;
do not quote if you are not able to paraphrase the original;
do not use quotations to make your points for you; use them to support your
points.
If you decide to use a quotation, you must be very careful to make it clear that the words
or ideas that you are using are taken from another writer.
This can be done in several ways, either integral or non-integral:
Widdowson (1979, p. 5) states that "there is a good deal of argument in
favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use
language to communicative effect."
According to Widdowson (1979),"there is a good deal of argument in favour
of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to
communicative effect" (p. 5).
According to Widdowson, "there is a good deal of argument in favour of
extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to
communicative effect" (1979, p. 5).
According to one researcher, "there is a good deal of argument in favour of
extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to
communicative effect" (Widdowson, 1979, p. 5).
(In all cases at end of essay)
References
Widdowson, H. G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
When you are using a direct quotation of a single phrase or sentence, quotation marks
should be used around the words, which must be quoted exactly as they are in the
original. However, note the following:
You may wish to omit some of the authors original words that are not relevant to
your writing. In this case, use three dots (...) to indicate where you have omitted
words. If you omit any of the authors original words, make sure you do not
change the meaning.

He stated, "The placebo effect, ... disappeared when behaviors were studied
in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviors
were studied.
If you need to insert material (additions or explanations) into a quotation, use
brackets, ([...]).
Smith (1982) found that "the placebo effect, which had been verified in
previous studies, disappeared when [his own and others] behaviours were
studied in this manner" (p. 276).
If the material quoted already contains a quotation, use single quotation marks for
the original quotation (...).
He stated,"The placebo effect, ... disappeared when behaviours were studied
in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours
were studied.
If the direct quotation is long - more than two or three lines, it should be indented
as a separate paragraph with no quotation marks.
According to Smith (1982, p. 276):
The "placebo effect," which had been verified in previous studies,
disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner.
Furthermore, the behaviours were never exhibited again, even
when real drugs were administered. Earlier studies were clearly
premature in attributing the results to the placebo effect.
(In all cases at end of essay)
References
Smith, G. (1982). The placebo effect. Psychology Today, 18, 273278.

Secondary sources
In all cases, if you have not actually read the work you are referring to, you should give
the reference for the secondary source - what you have read. In the text, you should then
use the following method:
According to Jones (as cited in Smith, 1982, p. 276), the ....
(At end of essay)
References

Smith. G. (1982). The placebo effect. Psychology Today, 18, 273278.

Language
Reporting - Paraphrasing and Summarizing
Reporting uses paraphrase and summary to acknowledge another author's ideas. You can
extract and summarize important points, while at the same time making it clear from
whom and where you have got the ideas you are discussing and what your point of view
is. Compare, for example:
Brown (1983, p. 231) claims that a far more effective approach is ...
Brown (1983, p. 231) points out that a far more effective approach is ...
A far more effective approach is ... (Brown, 1983, p. 231)
The first one is Brown's point of view with no indication about your point of view. The
second one is Brown's point of view, which you agree with, and the third is your point of
view, which is supported by Brown
Here are some more expressions you can use to refer to someone's work that you are
going to paraphrase:
If you agree with what the writer says.
The work of X indicates that ...
The work of X reveals that ...
The work of X shows that ...
Turning to X, one finds that ...
Reference to X reveals that ...
In a study of Y, X found that ...
As X points out, ...
As X perceptively states, ...
As X has indicated ...
A study by X shows that ...
X has drawn attention to the fact that ...
X correctly argues that ...
X rightly points out that ...
X makes clear that ...
If you disagree with what the writer says.

X claims that ...

X states erroneously that ...
The work of X asserts that ...
X feels that ...
However, Y does not support X's argument that ...
If you do not want to give your point of view about what the writer says.
According to X...
It is the view of X that ...
The opinion of X is that ...
In an article by X, ...
Research by X suggests that ...
X has expressed a similar view.
X reports that ...
X notes that ...
X states that ...
X observes that ...
X concludes that ...
X argues that ...
X found that ...
X discovered that ...
Quoting
Sometimes you may want to quote an author's words exactly, not paraphrase them. If you
decide to quote directly from a text, you will need an expression to introduce it and
quotation marks will need to be used:
As X said/says, "... ..."
As X stated/states, "... ..."
As X wrote/writes, "... ..."
As X commented/comments, "... ..."
As X observed/observes, "... ..."
As X pointed/points out, "... ..."
To quote from X, "... ..."
It was X who said that "... ..."

This example is given by X: "... ..."

According to X, "... ..."
X claims that, "... ..."
X found that, "... ..."
The opinion of X is that, "... ..."
Concluding
After quoting evidence you reach a conclusion:
The evidence seems to indicate that...
It must therefore be recognised that...
The indications are therefore that...
It is clear therefore that ...
Thus it could be concluded that...
The evidence seems to be strong that...
On this basis it may be inferred that...
Given this evidence, it can be seen that...