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MATTER AND ITS FORMS

Matter can be defined as anything that occupies space, (i.e., has a volume), possesses mass, offers resistance and
can be felt through one or more of our senses.
Till very recently, it was assumed that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Scientists have established that there are
two fundamental entities in the universe : Matter and Energy.

Is Matter Around us Pure

Matter can be broadly divided into two major groups, 'Pure' and 'Impure'.
Purity' as a chemical concept signifies something quite different. When we say a substance is pure, it means that the
constituent particles that make up the substance are of only one type and have the same chemical nature. For example, in
chemical terms, pure water implies that it is made of only one type of molecule i.e., H 2O. Accordingly, the chemical
classification of matter specifies two main categories of substances, pure substances and mixtures (impure substances).

Matter that is divided into pure and impure substances can be further categorized. Pure substances can be divided into
'elements' and 'compounds';
Impure substances, commonly called 'mixtures' can be further divided into homogeneous' and 'heterogeneous' mixtures.

Pure Substances
A pure substance has the same composition throughout. For example, different samples of water, prepared by different
methods, by different people at different places always consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by mass and 2:1 by
volume. The distinctive features of pure substances are:

A pure substance is composed of the same kind of particles e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, water, sodium chloride, etc.

A pure substance is homogeneous, irrespective of its origin or method of preparation.

A pure substance has definite properties, characteristic of itself.

A pure substance has the same composition throughout. For example, different samples of water, prepared by different
methods, by different people at different places always consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by mass and 2:1 by
volume. If any sample has a different ratio of these elements, then it certainly is not water.

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Remember :
A solution of salt in water or sugar solution being homogeneous appears to consist of one type of particles. But it is made up of
more than one kind of particles. Hence it is not a pure substance. It is a mixture.
Pure substances can be classified into elements and compounds.
Lavoisier, a French chemist, was the first to do this on the basis of quantitative studies. He showed that when we heat
mercuric oxide it changes into mercury and oxygen.

Mercuric oxide is a compound because it decomposes into simpler substances, whereas mercury and oxygen cannot be
further decomposed into anything simpler as they are elements.

Element
An element is defined as a pure substance as it is made up of only one kind of atoms having the same atomic
number.
The smallest particle of an element is the atom, which has all the properties of that element. It cannot be further reduced to
simpler substances by ordinary physical or chemical processes. Example : Hydrogen and oxygen
Remember :
Noble gases, some metals, carbon, silicon etc. have only one atom in their molecules. These are called monatomic molecules.
Some elements have two atoms in their molecules. These are called diatomic molecules e.g., hydrogen (H 2), oxygen (O2),
nitrogen (N2), chlorine (Cl2), etc. Those elements that have more than two atoms in their molecules are said to be polyatomic.
For example a molecule of phosphorus consist four atoms (P 4), and that of sulphur contains eight atoms (S8).
Elements can be broadly divided into four categories: Metals, non-metals, metalloids and noble gases.

Metals : These are generally solids with characteristics such as hardness, malleability, ductility, high tensile strength,
lustre and ability to conduct heat and electricity. Example: Copper, iron, zinc etc.

Non-metals : These are generally non-lustrous, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity. Example: Sulphur,
phosphorus, nitrogen etc.

Metalloids : Metalloids are those elements that have properties, which lie in-between those of metals and non-metals.
Example: Arsenic, tin, bismuth etc.

Noble gases : Are a group of six elements that do not combine with other elements and tend to exist by themselves. They
are characterized by extreme chemical inactivity.. Example: Neon, helium, argon etc.

Compound
A compound is a pure substance that is formed by the combination of atoms of two or more elements by either
transfer or by sharing of electrons.
The atoms of the different elements in a compound are chemically combined in a fixed and constant proportion. If this
proportion is different, the same elements produce entirely a different compound.
Example : Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen present in the ratio of 2:1 by volume and 1:8 by weight; if the ratio
by volume changes to 1:1 and by weight to 1:16, it forms an entirely new compound called hydrogen peroxide. Thus,
compounds are represented by a definite formula with its constituents combined in fixed proportions.
While the combination of two or more elements forms a compound, similarly, two or more simple compounds can form a
complex compound by a process called synthesis.
A compound as a pure substance can be decomposed into simpler substances by some suitable chemical technique.
However, the properties of compounds are absolutely different from the properties of the elements that constitute the
compound.

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For instance, hydrogen is combustible and oxygen is a supporter of combustion. But their product, water, neither burns, nor
helps in burning. It actually extinguishes fire.
Another familiar example is that of sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a violently reactive metal while chlorine is a highly
poisonous gas with a choking and irritating smell. One cannot even think of consuming a piece of sodium or breathing in
chlorine as such. But their product, i.e., sodium chloride, is consumed by all of us daily in the form of common salt.
Formation of a compound is a chemical process and always involves exchange of energy.
For example, hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water, liberating heat. Nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitric oxide by
absorbing heat. During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water combine to form carbohydrate with absorption
of light energy. The elements present in a compound can be re-obtained only by chemical processes. Water can be
decomposed to hydrogen and oxygen only by electrolysis. If we bring a magnet near a sample of iron sulphide, the iron
present in the iron sulphide cannot be separated.
We can summarize the properties of compounds as follows :

A compound cannot be separated into its constituents by mechanical or physical means.

Properties of a compound differ entirely from those of its constituent elements.

Energy changes are involved in the formation of a compound.

The constituent elements in a compound are in a fixed proportion by weight.

A compound is a homogenous substance. That is it is same throughout in properties and composition.

A compound has a fixed melting point and boiling point. For example, ice melts at 0 oC.

Impure Substances - Mixtures

Impure substances are commonly called mixtures. A mixture is a material containing two or more elements or compounds
that are in close contact and are mixed in any proportion. The constituents of mixtures exhibit their individual properties. These
constituents can be separated by physical means.
Example : air, gunpowder, etc.
Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition through out its mass.
For example, sugar or salt dissolved in water, alcohol in water, etc. While in a heterogeneous mixture the composition is not
uniform throughout its mass. Different portions of a heterogeneous mixture show different properties. There are visible sharp
boundaries. Example: Oil and water, salt and sand, etc.
We can now summarize the properties of mixtures as follows:

A mixture may be homogenous or heterogeneous.

The constituents of a mixture can be separated by physical means like filtration, evaporation, sublimation and magnetic
separation.

In the preparation of a mixture, energy is neither evolved nor absorbed.

A mixture has no definite melting and boiling point.

The constituents of a mixture retain their original set of properties. For example, magnet attracts iron filings in a mixture of
sand and iron powder.

Types of Mixtures

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Matter

MixtureType

Example

Solid

Solid mixture

Iron filings and sulphur

Solid

Liquid mixture

Common salt and water

Solid

Gas mixture

Air entrapped in soil

Liquid

Gas mixture

Oxygen dissolved in water

Gas

Gas mixture

Air containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide etc.

Liquid

Liquid mixture

Water and alcohol

Q : Differences Between Mixtures and Compounds

Mixtures

Compounds

A mixture c b spdrated into its constituents by physical

processes (filtration, evaporation, sublimation, distillation)

A compound cannot be separated into its constituents by

physical processes. It can be separated by chemical means.

A mixture shows the properties of its constituents

A compound has a new set of properties different from its

constituents

Composition of a mixture varies and the constituents are

present in any proportion by weight. ft does not have a
definite formula.

The composition of a compound is fixed and the constituents

are present in fixed proportions by weight. It has a definite
formula.

The constituents do not react chemically, thus no energy

changes takes place

Chemical reactions take place and energy changes in the

form of heat and light are involved

A mixture does not have a fixed melting point and boiling

point Examples: air, sand and salt

A compound has a fixed melting point and boiling point

Examples: 1.120 (water), FeS (iron sulphide)

Remember :

The components hydrogen and oxygen cannot be separated by physical methods such as filtration or evaporation.

Hydrogen and oxygen are present in a fixed proportion of 1: 8 by weight

Energy changes accompany the formation of this compound i.e., heat and light are given out.

Properties of water are entirely different from the constituents, hydrogen and oxygen.

The boiling point of water is 100oC at 76 cm of Hg i.e., one atmospheric pressure.

Types of Mixtures
Mixtures can be classified based on the composition and can be broadly divided into three groups, depending on whether the
constituents are elements or compounds or both.

Element with an Element (forming alloys)

a) Oxygen and nitrogen
b) Sodium and mercury (amalgam)

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c) Copper and zinc alloy.

Compound with a Compound

a) Water and salt
b) Water and alcohol
c) Salt and sugar.

Element with a Compound

a) Oxygen and water (air dissolved in water)
b) Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour (air).

Mixtures can also be grouped on the basis of their physical states.

Mixtures of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Solid

salt and sugar

salt and water

Dust in air

Liquid

Mercury and copper

Alcohol and water

clouds

Hydrogen and palladium

Oxygen and water

Air

Gas

Characteristics of Compounds and Mixtures

Characteristics

Compounds

Mixtures

Composition

Made up of atoms of elements in a fixed

proportion

Made up of elements, or compounds, or both in any

proportion

Nature

Particles are of the same kind

Particles are of different kinds

Structure

Always homogeneous

May or may not be homogeneous

Separation

Components can be separated only by

chemical means

Components can be separated by physical means

Energy
changes

Energy is always evolved or absorbed

Generally no energy is evolved or absorbed

Appearance

Components cannot be seen separately

Components may or may not be seen separately

Preparation

Always involves a chemical change

Involves only physical change

Properties

Entirely different from those of the

constituents

No property of their own. Show the average properties of

all the constituents

Constituents of mixtures in matter

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Separation of the Constituents of Mixtures
The separation of the various constituents of different mixtures depends on the properties of the constituents. Some of these
properties are size, density, magnetic nature of particles, solubility, miscibility, differences in boiling and melting points,
sublimability, diffusibility and absorbance.

Sedimentation and Decantation

Sedimentation is the process by which insoluble heavy particles in a liquid are allowed to settle down. This is a simple
process that most people employ at home. For example, suppose you are making some tea and have boiled the water and
added the tealeaves into the water. Then you realize that you cannot find the strainer. You may look for a clean piece of cloth
but do not succeed. What would you do? Keep the tea with the leaves, aside for some time. The tealeaves begin to settle
down. This settling down of the particles in lower part of the container is called sedimentation. Another example of
sedimentation is the settling of mud particles in water.

Decantation is the process by which, a clear liquid obtained after sedimentation, is transferred into another container,
without disturbing the settled particles. After the tealeaves have settled down, the clear tea (liquor) from the top can be
poured into a cup. This transfer of the clear tea is called decantation.

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

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French chemist A. Lavoisier laid the foundation to the scientific investigation of matter by describing that substances react by
following certain laws. These laws are called the laws of chemical combination. These later on formed the basis of Dalton's
Atomic Theory of Matter.

Law of Conservation of
Mass
According to this law, during any physical or chemical change, the total mass of the products remains equal to the total
mass of the reactants.

Law of conservation of mass is also known as 'Law of indestructibility of matter'.

Example 1 : If 10 grams of CaCO3 on heating gave 4.4g of CO2 and 5.6g of CaO, show that these observations are in
agreement with the law of conservation of mass.

Solution : Mass of the reactants = 10gMass of the products = 4.4 + 5.6g = 10gSince the mass of the reactants is equal
to the mass of the products, the observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.

Law of Constant Proportion

Another French chemist, Joseph Proust, stated this law as 'A chemical compound always contains same elements
combined together in the same proportion by mass'.
For example, pure water obtained from different sources such as river, well, spring, sea, etc., always contains hydrogen and
oxygen together in the ratio of 1: 8 by mass. Similarly, carbon dioxide CO 2 can be obtained by different methods such as,

Burning of carbon

Heating of lime stone

By action of dilute HCl on marble pieces

But the different samples of CO2 always contain carbon and oxygen in the ratio of 3: 8.

Example 2 :

When 1.375g of cupric oxide was reduced on heating in a current of hydrogen, the weight of copper that
remained was 1.098g. In another experiment 1.179g of copper was dissolved in nitric acid and resulting copper nitrate
converted into cupric oxide by ignition. The weight of cupric oxide formed was 1.476g. Show that these results illustrate the
law of constant proportion.

Solution:
First experiment
Copper oxide = 1.375g
Copper left = 1.098g
Oxygen present = 1.375 - 1.098 = 0.277g

Second Experiment
Copper taken = 1.179g
Copper oxide formed = 1.476g
Oxygen present = 1.476 - 1.179 = 0.297g

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Percentage of oxygen is approximately the same in both the above cases. So the law of constant composition is illustrated.

Law of Multiple Proportions

John Dalton (1803) stated this law as 'when two elements combine with each other to form two or more than two
compounds, the mass of the element which combine with the fixed mass of the other bears a simple whole number
ratio'.
Carbon monoxide (CO) : 12 parts by mass of carbon combines with 16 parts by mass of oxygen.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) : 12 parts by mass of carbon combines with 32 parts by mass of oxygen.
Ratio of the masses of oxygen that combines with a fixed mass of carbon (12 parts) 16: 32 or 1: 2

Examples 3:
Hydrogen and oxygen are known to form 2 compounds. The hydrogen content in one is 5.93% while in the other it is 11.2%.
Show that this data illustrates the law of multiple proportions.

Solution:
In the first compound hydrogen = 5.93%
Oxygen = (100 5.93) = 94.07%
In the second compound hydrogen = 11.2%
Oxygen = (100 11.2) = 88.88%

Ratio of the masses of oxygen that combine with fixed mass of hydrogen 15.86: 7.9 or 2:1
The ratio illustrates the law of multiple proportions.

Atoms and Atomic Theory

Atom was derived from the Greek word 'atoms', meaning 'indivisible'. Thus, it was considered to be indivisible.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

John Dalton provided a simple theory of matter to provide theoretical justification to the laws of chemical combinations in 1805.
The basic postulates of the theory are :

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All substances are made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

Atoms of the same element are identical in shape, size, mass and other properties.

Each element is composed of its own kind of atoms. Atoms of different elements are different in all respects.

Atom is the smallest unit that takes part in chemical combinations.

Atoms combine with each other in simple whole number ratios to form compound atoms called molecules.

Atoms cannot be created, divided or destroyed during any chemical or physical change.

Nature of Atom
The atom is the smallest particle of an element, which may or may not have independent existence. It is made up of subatomic particles like electrons, protons and neutrons. Atoms of one type of element differ from those of the other due to
different number of sub-atomic particles.

Representation of an Atom by a Symbol

Symbols of Common Metals
Sl. No

Name in English

Symbol

1.

Lithium

Li

2.

Sodium

Na

3.

Magnesium

Mg

4.

Aluminium

Al

5.

Potassium

6.

Calcium

Ca

7.

Vanadium

8.

Chromium

Cr

9.

Manganese

Mn

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Sl. No

Name in English

Symbol

10.

Iron

Fe

11.

Cobalt

Co

12.

Nickel

Ni

13.

Copper

Cu

14.

Zinc

Zn

15.

Gallium

Ga

16.

Strontium

Sr

17.

Molybdenum

Mo

18.

Silver

Ag

19.

Cadmium

Cd

20.

Tin

Sn

21.

Antimony

Sb

22.

Barium

Ba

23.

Tungsten

24.

Platinum

Pt

25.

Mercury

Hg

26.

Lead

Pb

27.

Bismuth

Bi

28.

Polonium

Po

29.

Radium

Ra

30.

Uranium

Symbols of Chemically Active Non-metals

Sl. No

Non - metal

Physical State

Symbol

1.

Hydrogen

Gas

2.

Nitrogen

Gas

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Sl. No

Non - metal

Physical State

Symbol

3.

Oxygen

Gas

4.

Fluorine

Gas

5.

Chlorine

Gas

Cl

6.

Bromine

Liquid

Br

7.

Astatine

Solid

At

8.

Carbon

Solid

9.

Iodine

Solid

10.

Sulphur

Solid

11.

Phosphorus

Solid

12.

Silicon

Solid

Si

Symbols of Chemically Inactive Non-metals or Noble Gases

Sl. No

Nobel Gas

Symbol

1.

Helium

He

2.

Neon

Ne

3.

Argon

Ar

4.

Krypton

Kr

5.

Xenon

Xe

6.

Radon

Rn

Atomic Mass Unit

The mass of 1/12th 12C isotope of carbon is now the standard used for defining one atomic mass unit (a.m.u). It is equal to
1.66 x 10-24 g.

Atomic Mass of an Element or Relative Atomic Mass

The atomic mass of an element is a relative quantity and is the mass of one atom of the element relative to
mass of one carbon-12 atom.

1/12 the

Thus,Relative atomic mass (RAM) of an element is the number of times one atom of an element is heavier than 1/12 the mass
of an atom of carbon [C-12].

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For example, if 1 atom of Na weighs as much as 23 parts of 1/12 of 12C isotopes, then the atomic mass of sodium is 23 a.m.u.
Remember:
Atomic masses are not expressed as whole numbers because natural elements are mixtures of two or more isotopes. The
atomic weight of chlorine is 35.43 amu. Chlorine exists as two isotopes

in the ratio 3:1

Therefore average atomic masses are not whole numbers.

Gram Atomic Mass (GAM)

The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called the gram atomic mass of an element. It is also called gram atom.

Example: The gram atoms present in 46 grams of sodium

Gram atomic mass is the relative atomic mass of an element expressed in grams.

Molecule Formation
Atoms of most of the elements do not exist independently. They either form molecules or ions.
An atom having a charge on it is called an ion. When an atom loses or gains charge, it gets converted into a positively or
negatively charged ion respectively. Ions may consist of single charged atoms or a group of atoms that have a net charge on
them.
Molecules are formed by combination of atoms or ions by chemically bonding to each other or held by attractive forces due to
the charges.

A molecule is smallest particle of an element or compound, which is capable of independent existence.

If the molecule is made up of atoms of the same element it is said to be homo-atomic. Examples: O 2, N2

If the molecule is made up of atoms of the different elements it is said to be hetero-atomic. Examples: CO 2, H2O, SO3,
HCl

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Depending upon the number of atoms in one molecule of the element it can be classified as:

The number of atoms, which constitute one molecule of an element, is called its atomicity.
Phosphorus: P4 - 4 atomicity
Sulphur: S8 - 8 atomicity
Oxygen: O2 - 2 atomicity
Recently a different form of carbon - C60 has been discovered. It is named Buckministerfullerene and has an atomicity of sixty.
A molecule of a compound consists of two or more atoms of different elements joined together in a fixed ratio.
Examples: CuSO4 contains Cu - 1 atom, S - 1 atom, O - 4 atoms

CHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

Every chemical substance is known by a specific name. But these names can sometimes be cumbersome, confusing and not
provide sufficient information about its chemical composition. To overcome this, each chemical compound is represented by a
chemical formula that gives its composition (constituent elements present) and the number of elements of each type present. A
formula will represent only the simple ratio of positive and negative ions.

Molecular formula

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A chemical formula that represents the composition of a molecule of the substance in terms of the symbols of the elements
present in the molecule is also called molecular formula. Discrete molecules can be described by this formula. As it represents
one molecule of the substance giving the names and number of atoms of the various elements present, it denotes the
molecular mass of the substance.
For example, the molecular formula of water is H 2O, which means that one molecule of water contains two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen. This also represents the molar mass, which is the sum of the gram atomic mass of all the atoms.
Gram atomic mass of 2 hydrogen atoms = 2 x 1.008 g
Gram atomic mass of oxygen atom = 16 g
Total molecular mass = 18 g

Molecular Formulae of Important Acids

Acid

Molecular

Acid

formula

Molecular
formula

Hydrochloric acid

HCL

Acetic acid

CH3COOH

Nitric acid

HNO3

Carbonic acid

H2CO3

sulphuric acid

H2SO4

Sulphurous acid

H2SO3

phosphoric acid

H3PO4

Nitrous acid

HNO2

Molecular Formulae of Important Bases

Base

Molecular

Base

formula

Molecular
formula

Ammonium hydroxide

NH4OH

Aluminium hydroxide

Al(OH)3

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH

Zinc hydroxide

Zn(OH)2

Potassium hydroxide

KOH

Iron(II) hydroxide

Fe(OH)2

Calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2

Iron(II) hydroxide

Fe(OH)2

Magnesium hydroxide

Mg(OH)2

Copper(II) hydroxide

Cu(OH)2

Molecular Formulae of Important salts - Oxides

oxide
Sodium oxide

Molecular

Oxide

formula

Molecular
formula

Na2O

Iron(II) oxide

FeO

Potassium oxide

K2O

Iron(II)oxide

Fe2O3

Calcium oxide

CaO

Lead(II)oxide

PbO

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Molecular

oxide

Molecular

Oxide

formula

formula

Magnesium oxide

MgO

Lead(4)oxide

PbO2

Aluminum oxide

Al2O3

copper(II)oxide

CuO

Zinc oxide

ZnO

Mercury(II)oxide

HgO

Molecular Formulae of Important salts - Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carbonate or Hydrogen carbonate

Molecular Formula

Carbonate or Hydrogen Carbonate

Molecular Formula

Sodium carbonate

Na2CO3

Magnesium hydrogen carbonate

Mg(HCO3)3

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

NaHCO3

Aluminum carbonate

Al2(C03)3

Potassium carbonate

K2C03

Zinc carbonate

ZnCO3

Potassium hydrogen carbonate

KHCO3

Iron (II) carbonate

FeCO3

Calcium carbonate

CaCO3

Lead (II) carbonate

PbCO3

Calcium hydrogen carbonate

Ca(HCO3)2

Tin (II) carbonate

SnCO3

Magnesium carbonate

MgCO3

Copper (II) carbonate

CuCO3

Molecular Mass
The molecular mass of a substance is the relative mass of its molecule as compared with the mass of a

units. It indicates the number of times; one molecule of the substance is heavier than

12

C atom taken as 12-

atom.

Calculation of Molecular Mass

Molecular mass is equal to sum of the atomic masses of all atoms present in one molecule of the substance.
Example: H2O
Mass of H atom = 1
Mass of 2H atoms = 2
Mass of O atom = 16
Molecular mass = 2 + 16 = 18g

Relative Molecular Mass

Relative molecular mass or RMM is the molecular weight of an element or a compound. It is the number of times one molecule
of the substance is heavier than 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon ( 12C).

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Gram Molecular Mass

Molecular mass expressed in grams is numerically equal to gram molecular mass of the substance.
Molecular mass of O2 = 32Gram molecular mass of O2 = 32g
Gram molecular mass is the relative molecular mass expressed in grams.

MOLE CONCEPT
Since it is not possible to calculate the weight of particles individually, a collection of such particles called mole is taken for all
practical purposes. It was discovered that the number of atoms present in 12g of carbon of
This is referred to as Avogadro number after the discoverer Avogadro.

12

C isotope is 6.023 x 1023 atoms.

A mole of a gas is the amount of a substance containing 6.023 x 10 23 particles. It is a basic unit of the amount or quantity of a
substance. The substance may be atoms, molecules, ions or group of ions.
Avogadro discovered that under standard conditions of temperature and pressure, (1 atm and 273 K) a sample of gas
occupies a volume of 22.4 L.

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Molar Volume
One mole of any gas at STP will have a volume of 22.4 L. This is called molar volume.

The molar volume [22.4 L at STP] plays a vital role in stoichiometric calculations because it is the link between volume and
mass in reactions involving gases.

Relationship Between Gram Molecular Weight and Gram Molecular

Volume
Gram molecular weight (GMW) or mole is the relative molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams. It is also called
gram molecular weight of that element.
Gram molecular volume (GMV) or molar volume is the volume occupied by one-gram molecular weight of a gas at STP
(Standard temperature and pressure).
All gases of equal volumes contain same number of molecules under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Equal
number of molecules of different gases will occupy equal volumes under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
One mole of gas = 6.023 x 1023 molecules

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1 mole of a gas = 22.4 L at STP

Important Relationships

1 mole of an atom = 1 gram atomic weight of an atom

1 mole of a molecule = 1 gram molecular weight of molecule

1 mole of a gas = 22.4 liters of gas at STP

1 mole of a substance = 6.023 x 1023, atoms, molecules or ions

1 molar volume = 22.4 dm3 /L at STP

Example: 1
Calculate the volume occupied by 2.8 g of N2 at STP.

Solution:
Molecular weight of N2 = 2 x 14 = 28 g
28 g of N2 at STP occupies = 22.4 L
2.8 g of N2 at STP = ?

2.8 g of N2 at STP occupies a volume of 2.24 L.

Example: 2
Calculate gram molecular weights of the following gases:
a. N2 (if 360 cm3 at STP weighs 0.45g)
b. Cl2 (if 308 cm3 at STP weighs 0.97g)

Solution:
Back to Top
a. 360 cm3 of N2 = 0.45g
22.4L of gas = 1 gram molecular weight
22.4L = 22,400 cm3. (1L = 1000 cm3)
360 cm3 of N2 = 0.45g

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22,400 cm3 of N2 = ?

Gram molecular weight of N2 is 28 g.b. 308 cm3 Cl2 = 0.979 g22.400

cm3 of Cl2 = ?
Molecular weight of Cl2 = 71.9 g

Example: 3
What is the volume of 32 g of sulphur dioxide measured at STP?

Solution:
Molecular formula = SO2
Molecular weight = 1 x 32 + 2 x 16 = 64 g
64g of SO2 occupies 22.4 L
32 g of SO2 = ?

Volume of 32 g of SO2 is 11.2 litres.

Example: 4
Back to Top
Calculate the volume at S.T.P. of 7.1g of chlorine.

Solution:
Cl = 35.51
mole of a substance = 22.4 L
1 Mole of a substance = 1 GMM
1 GMM of Cl2 = 71 g
71 g of Cl2 = 22.4 L
7.1 g of Cl2 = ?

7.1 g of Cl2 will occupy a volume of 2.24 litres.

Example: 5
Calculate the number of moles of nitrogen in 7g of nitrogen.

Solution:
1 mole of N2 = 1 GMM
1 mole of N2 = 2 x 14g = 28g
1 mole = 28 g
?=7g

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7g of nitrogen is equal to 0.25 moles.

Example: 6
Calculate the mass of 0.4 moles of water.

Solution:
1 GMM of water (H2O) = 2 x 1 + 16 = 18 g.18 g = 1 moleXg = 0.4 moles
weigh 7.2 g.

Example: 7
Back to Top
Calculate the gram atoms present in 8g of oxygen.

Solution:
Back to Top

Example: 8
Back to Top
Calculate the gram molecules present in 45 g of water.

Solution:
Back to Top

1 molecule = 2 + 16g = 18g of H2O? = 45 g of H2O

Example: 9
Back to Top
Calculate the number of molecules in 500g of sodium chloride.

Solution:
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0.4 moles of water

21
1 GMM = 6.023 x 1023 molecules23 + 35.5 g = 58.5g = 1 GMM of NaCl58.5g = 6.023 x 10 23molecules500g = ?

The number of molecules in 500g of sodium chloride= 34.2 x 6.023 x10 23 molecules

Example: 10
Back to Top
About 0.48 g of a gas forms 100 cm3 of vapours at STP. Calculate the gram molecular weight of the gas.

Solution:
Back to Top

22.4L of a gas = 1 GMM100 cm3 of gas = 0.48 g22.4 x 1000 of gas = ?

molecular weight of the gas is 107.52 g.

Gram

Numericals Based on Percentage Composition

Back to Top
All elements are represented by symbols and all compounds represented by chemical formulae indicating the number of
atoms of elements and also the proportion of the atoms in the compound.Example: Hydrogen atom is represented as
H.Hydrogen molecule is represented as H2.A compound of hydrogen, water is represented as H2O.In H2O - proportion of
atoms H : O = 2 : 1
Knowing the proportion of atoms in a compound, the percentage composition can be calculated. Percentage composition of a
compound is the percent by weight of each element present in it.

Example: 11
Back to Top
Calculate the percentage by weight of all the elements present in calcium carbonate.

Solution:
Back to Top
Calcium carbonate = CaCO3 Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16GMM = 1 x 40 + 1 x 12 + 3 x 16= 40 + 12 + 48 = 100 g

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Example: 12
Back to Top
Calculate the percentage by weight of potassium in potassium dichromate.

Solution:
Back to Top
Potassium dichromate = K2Cr2O7GMM = (2 x 39) + (2 x 52) + (7 x 16)= 78 + 104 + 112 g = 294 g

Empirical and Molecular Formula of a Compound

Back to Top

Numericals Based on Empirical Formula

Back to Top
Empirical formula is the formula of a compound, which shows the simplest whole number ratio between the atoms of the
elements in the compound. It does not indicate the actual number of atoms of the elements present but the simplest whole
number ratio.

Example:
Back to Top

Organic Compound

Empirical Formula

Molecular Formula

Benzene

C1H1

C6H6

Glucose

C1H2O1

C6H12O6

How can we differentiate a molecular formula from an empirical formula? If the subscripts in the formula have a common
divisor, it is usually a molecular formula. Generally the empirical formula is multiplied by this common divisor to get the
molecular formula.

Example:
Back to Top
Empirical formula of acetic acid is CH2OMolecular formula is CH3COOH = C2H4O2

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C1H2O1 x 2 = C2H4O2 [Molecular formula]
Steps for Calculation

Calculate the percentage by weight of each element.

Find out relative number of atoms by dividing percentage of weight by atomic weight.

Choose the simplest and the smallest ratio; divide all the ratios by it

If whole numbers are not obtained, then multiply it by a smallest integer to make it whole.

Example: 13
Back to Top
An oxide of iron contains 72.41% of iron. Calculate the empirical formula for the oxide of iron [Fe = 56; O=16].

Solution:
Back to Top

Element

% by wt

At wt

Relative No.of Atoms

Simple Ratio

Fe

72.41

56

72.41/56 = 1.29

1.29/1.29 = 1 x 3 = 3

27.59

16

27.59/16 = 1.72

1.72/1.29 = 1.33 x 3 = 4

Therefore simple ratio = Fe3O4.Empirical formula = Fe3O4.

Determination of Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

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Molecular formula is the chemical formula, which represents the actual numbers of atoms of each element present in a
compound.

Steps for Calculation

Back to Top

Calculate empirical formula

Use vapour density if given

If molecular weight given, calculate 'n' using this formula

Molecular formula = n x empirical formula

Example: 14
Back to Top
Calculate the molecular formula of a compound with vapour density of 30 having 40% carbon; 6.67% of hydrogen and the rest
is oxygen.

Solution:

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Back to Top

Element

% by wt

At wt

Rlative No.of Atoms

Simple Ratio

40

12

40/12 = 3.33

3.33/3.33 = 1

6.67

6.67/1 = 6.67

6.67/3.33 = 2

100 - 46.67

16

53.33/16 = 3.33

3.33/3.33 = 1

Empirical formula = C1H2O1Empirical formula weight = 12 x 1 + 2 x 1 + 1 x 16= 12 + 2 + 16= 30 g

Molecular weight = 2 x vapour density= 2 x 30= 60Molecular weight = n x empirical weight60 = n x 30

formula = n x empirical formula = 2 x CH2O = C2H4O2

Example: 15
Back to Top
A compound has molecular formula C5H10., what is its empirical formula?

Solution:
Back to Top

Ratio of C atoms to H atoms is 5:10 = 1:2Empirical formula is C 1H2

Atoms and Molecules - Test Questions

Question 1
Back to Top
Question: What is a symbol? What information does it convey?
Answer:

A short hand representation of an element is called symbol. It represents the following:

Name of the element

One atom of the element

One mole of atoms. It represents 6.023 x 1023 atoms of the element.

A definite mass of the element

Question 2
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Question: What is the difference between symbol of an element and formula of an element?

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Molecular

25
Answer: Symbol of an element represents the name of the element. It also represents one atom of the element. Example: H
represents hydrogen and C represents carbon A formula of an element represents the number of atoms in the molecule of the
compound. One molecule of hydrogen element contains two atoms of hydrogen; therefore the formula of hydrogen is H 2. 2H
represents two separate atoms of hydrogen, whereas H 2 represents 1 molecule of hydrogen similarly the molecular formula of
oxygen element and chlorine element is O2 and Cl2.

Question 3
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Question: Define atomic mass of an element.
Answer:
12 units.

The atomic mass of an element is the relative mass of its atom as compared to the mass of C - 12 atom taken as

Question 4
Back to Top
Question: State the laws of chemical combination.
Answer:

Laws of chemical combinations are:

i) Law of Conservation of Mass: The law states that during any physical or chemical change, the total mass of the product
remains equal to the total mass of the reactants.
ii) Law of Constant Composition: The law states that a chemical compound always contains same elements combined
together in the same proportion by mass.
iii) Law of Multiple Proportions: The law states that when two elements combine with each other to form two or more
compounds, the masses of one of the elements, which combine with fixed mass of the other, bear a simple whole number ratio
to one another.

Question 5
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Question: In an experiment it was found that litharge, red oxide of lead and lead peroxide contained 92.83%, 90.6% and
86.6% of lead respectively. Show that these figures are in agreement with the Law of Multiple Proportions.
Answer:

In litharge, the amount of lead = 92.83%

The amount of oxygen = 100 - 92.83 = 7.17% 7.17g of O 2 combines with 92.83g of lead

In red oxide of lead, the amount of Pb = 90.6%

The amount of oxygen = 100 - 90.6 = 9.4 %
9.4 g of oxygen combines with 90.6g of lead

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In lead peroxide, the amount of lead = 86.6%
The amount of oxygen = 100 - 86.6 = 13.4%
13.4g of oxygen combines with 86.6g of lead

Thus, the different weights of lead combining with fixed weight (1g) of oxygen are in the ratio 12.947: 9.638: 6.462 = 2:1.5: 1 or
4: 3: 2
This is in line with the law of multiple proportions.

Question 6
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Question: What do you understand by atomicity of an element? Give an example of a polyatomic molecule.
Answer: The number of atoms that constitute one molecule of an element is called its atomicity. Sulphur is a polyatomic
molecule: S8 - 8 is the atomicity.

Question 7
Back to Top
Question: What do the following stand for? (i) P4 and 4P (ii) O2 and 2O
Answer:

P4 - 1 molecule of phosphorus 4P - 4 atoms of phosphorus

O2 - 1 molecule of oxygen 2O - 2 atoms of oxygen

Question 8
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Question: How many gram atoms are present in 69 grams of sodium?

Answer:

The number of gram atoms present in 69 grams of sodium is 3.

Question 9
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Question: The mass of a single atom of an element Z is 2.65x10 -23g. What is its gram atomic mass?

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Answer:

1 atom of element Z has mass = 2.65 x 10-23g

Hence, 6.023 x 1023 atoms of element Z have mass

= 2.65 x 10-23 x 6.023 x 1023
= 15.69 g

Question 10
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Question: What is gram molecular mass?
Answer: The amount of a substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular mass is called gram
molecular mass.

Question 11
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Question: Calculate the molar mass of HNO3. [N = 14, O = 16, H = 1]
Answer:

Molar mass of HNO3.

H = 1 x 1 = 01
N = 14 x 1 = 14
O = 16 x 3 = 48
Total mass = 63 grams
Molar mass of HNO3= 63 grams

Question 12
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Question: Calculate the formula mass of CaCl2. [Ca = 40, Cl = 35.5]
Answer:

1(Ca) + 2(Cl) 40 + 2x(35.5) = 111 amu

The formula mass of CaCl2 is 111 amu.

Question 13
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Question: A certain non-metal X forms two oxides I and II. The mass percentage of oxygen in oxide I (X 4O6) is 43.7, which is
same as that of X in oxide II. Find the formula of the second oxide.

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Answer:
Now 43.7 parts of oxygen in I corresponds to = 6 oxygen atoms

Also 56.3 parts of X in I correspond to = 4 X atom

Now the atomic ratio X : O in the second

The formula of the second oxide is X2O5.

Question 14
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Question: (i) Calculate the mass of 0.2 moles of water (O=16, H=1).
(ii) What is the volume of 7.1 g of chlorine (Cl=35.5) at S.T.P.
Answer:

(i) Gram Molecular Weight of H2O = 2 x 1 + 16 = 18 g

1 mole of water weighs 18 g

(ii) Gram Molecular Weight of Cl2 (one mole)= 35.5 x 2 = 71 g.

71 g of Cl2 at S.T.P occupies 22.4 litres

Question 15
Back to Top

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Question: The reaction between aluminium carbide and water takes place according to the following equation:

Calculate the volume of CH4 released from 14.4 g of Al4C3 by excess water at S.T.P. (C = 12, Al = 27)
Answer:

Molecular weight of Al4C3 is (27 x 4) + (12 x 3) = 144

144 g of Al4C3 produces 3 x 22.4 litres of CH4 at S.T.P

Question 16
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Question: A compound of sodium, sulphur and oxygen has the following percentage composition. Na=29.11%, S=40.51%,
O=30.38%. Find its empirical formula (O=16, Na=23, S=32).

Answer:
Empirical formula is NaSO1.5 or to its nearest whole number i.e., the formula is Na 2S2O3.

Question 17
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Question: Solid ammonium dichromate with relative molecular mass of 252 g decomposes according to the equation.

(i) What volume of nitrogen at S.T.P will be evolved when 63 g of (NH 4)2Cr2O7 is decomposed?
(ii) If 63 g of (NH4)2Cr2O7 is heated above 1000C, what will be the loss of mass? (H=1, N=14, O=16, Cr=52).
Answer:

252 g of (NH4)2Cr2O7 gives one mole or 22.4 litres of N2 at S.T.P as per the given equation.

(ii) At temperatures above 1000C water is in the form of steam.

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Products as vapours are N2 and H2O.
The transformation of solids and liquids into gaseous substances results in loss of mass.
Total weight of gaseous products = {(2 x 14) + 4 (2 x 1) + 16}
= 28 + 72 = 100 g
Heating 252 g of (NH4)2Cr2O7 causes 100 g loss of mass.

The loss of mass is 25 g

Question 18
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Question: How many litres of ammonia are present in 3.4 kg of it? (N = 14, H = 1)
Answer:

Gram molecular weight of NH3 = 14 + (1 x 3) = 17 g.

17 g of NH3 = 22.4 litres

=
= 4480 litres.

Question 19
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Question: About 640 mL of carbon monoxide is mixed with 800 mL of oxygen and ignited in an enclosed vessel. Calculate
the total volume of gases after the burning is completed. All volumes are measured at S.T.P.
Answer:

The chemical reaction actually taking place is:

Volume of O2 used = 320 mL.

Volume of O2 left = 800 - 320 = 480 mL.
Volume of CO2 formed = 640 mL.

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Therefore the total volume of gases after burning is 480 + 640 = 1120 mL.

Question 20
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Question: Calculate the number of moles of ammonium sulphate present in 15.84 kg of it. (H=1, N=14, O=16, S=32)
Answer:

Molecular weight of (NH4)2SO4

= (2 x 14) + (2 x 4) + 32 + (16 x 4)
= 132 a.m.u.
132 g of (NH4)2SO4 = 1 mole

The number of moles of ammonium sulphate present in 15.84 kg is 120 moles.

Question 21
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Question: What is the mass of 0.2 mole of lead nitrate? (N=14, O=16, Pb=207).
Answer:

Gram molecular weight of Pb(NO3)2 = 207 + (2 x 14) + 2(16 x 3)

= 207 + 28 + 96
= 331
1 mole of Pb(NO3)2 is 331 g
Therefore 0.2 mole of Pb(NO3)2 is 331 x 0.2 = 66.2 g

Question 22
Back to Top
Question: Find the total percentage of oxygen in magnesium nitrate crystals i.e., Mg(NO 3)2.6H2O (Atomic weight: H=1, N=14,
O=16, Mg=24).
Answer:

Molecular weight of Mg(NO3)2.6H2O

= 24 + 2(14 + 16 x 3) + 6(2 x 1 + 16)

= 24 + 124 + 108 = 256 a.m.u
Atomic mass of oxygen in Mg(NO3)2.6H2O is,
= 2 (16 x 3) + 6 (16) = 96 + 96 = 192

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Question 23
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Question: A compound has the following percentage composition H=2.04%, S=32.65%, O=65.31%. Relative molecular
mass of the compound = 98. Calculate its molecular formula (H = 1, S = 32, O = 16).

Answer:
Empirical formula is H2SO4
Empirical formula mass = (2 x 1) + 32 + (16 x 4) = 98.
Relative molecular mass = 98

Question 24
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Question: Calculate the amount of nitrogen supplied to soil by 1 quintal (100 kg) of ammonium nitrate (N=14, H=1, O=16).
Answer:

Molecular weight of NH4NO3 = 14 + (4 x 1) + 14 + (16 x 3)

= 80 g
Molecular weight of N in the above formula = 14 x 2 = 28
80 units of NH4NO3 yield 28 units of Nitrogen.

Question 25
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Question: Identify diatomic molecules from the following: (i) HCl (ii) P4 (iii) He (iv) O3 (v) H2S (vi) CO

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Answer:

HCl, CO are diatomic.

Question: In water, hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio of ________.
1.

1:8

2.

2:12

3.

2:3

4.

1:2

Answer:

Question 2
Back to Top
Question: An example of a triatomic molecule is ___________.
1.

Ozone

2.

Nitrogen

3.

Carbon monoxide

4.

Hydrogen

Answer:

Question 3
Back to Top
Question: The quantity of matter present in an object is called its _________.
1.

Mass

2.

Volume

3.

Density

4.

Vapour pressure

Answer:

Question 4
Back to Top
Question: Indivisibility of an atom was proposed by ___________.
1.

Dalton

2.

Rutherford

3.

Thomson

4.

Bohr

Answer:

Question 5

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Back to Top
Question: The value of Avogadro constant is ___________.
1.

6.022 x 1024

2.

6.022 x 1022

3.

60.22 x 1023

4.

6.022 x 1023

Answer:

Question 6
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Question: All samples of carbon dioxide contain carbon and oxygen in the mass ratio of 3:8. This is in agreement with the
Law of ___________.
1.

Conservation of Mass

2.

Constant Proportion

3.

Multiple Proportion

4.

Reciprocal Proportion

Answer:

Question 7
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Question: The atomic mass of sodium is 23. The number of moles in 46g of sodium is ________.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Answer:

Question 8
Back to Top
Question: The molecular formula of potassium nitrate is ________.
1.

KNO

2.

KNO3

3.

KNO2

4.

KON

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Answer:

Question 9
Back to Top
Question: Kalium is the Latin name of ________.
1.

Potassium

2.

Krypton

3.

Calcium

4.

Phosphorus

Answer:

Question 10
Back to Top
Question: The smallest particle of a substance that is capable of independent existence is _________.
1.

Atom

2.

Molecule

3.

Electron

4.

Proton

Answer:

Question 11
Back to Top

Question:
1.

Atomic number

2.

Atomic mass

3.

Atomic mass scale

4.

Number of electrons

Answer:

Question 12
Back to Top

Question:
1.

1.25

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36
2.

15

3.

14

4.

12

Answer:

Question 13
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Question: The molecular mass of ammonia is _________.
1.

17 grams

2.

31 grams

3.

20 grams

4.

25 grams

Answer:

Question 14
Back to Top
Question: Atomic mass of calcium is 40. The mass of 2.5 gram atoms of calcium is _______.
1.

40 g

2.

2.5 g

3.

100 g

4.

80 g

Answer:

Question 15
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Question: The number of atoms in a molecule of the elementary substance is called ________.
1.

Atomic number

2.

Avogadro number

3.

Atomic mass

4.

Atomicity

Answer:

Question 16
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Question: Avogadro number represents the number of atoms in ________.
1.

12 grams of 12C

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2.

320 grams of sulphur

3.

32 grams of oxygen

4.

1 gram of 12C

Answer:

Question 17
Back to Top
Question: The number of moles in 5 grams of calcium is _________.
1.

0.125 mole

2.

5 mole

3.

1.25 mole

4.

12.5 moles

Answer:

Question 18
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Question: 2 molecules of nitrogen are represented by ________.
1.

2.

2N2

3.

N2

4.

2N

Answer:

Question 19
Back to Top
Question: One mole of H2O corresponds to
1.

22.4 litre at 1 atm and 250C

2.

6.02 x 1023 atoms of hydrogen and 6.02 x 1023 atoms of oxygen

3.

18 g

4.

1g

Answer:

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Question 20
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Question: The number of molecules in 4.25 g of ammonia is approximately
1.

1.0 x 1023

2.

1.5 x 1023

3.

2.0 x 1023

4.

3.5 x 1023

Answer:

Question 21
Back to Top
Question: A sample contains 22 g of carbon dioxide. This is equal to
1.

One molar volume of carbon dioxide

2.

One mole of carbon dioxide

3.

Half mole of carbon dioxide

4.

Two moles of carbon dioxide

Answer: 3

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