The Gospel of Matthew

Title: The Gospel according to Matthew

Author: Matthew (also called Levi) the tax collector (10:3)

Alternative Views: (1) someone (not an apostle) because he was too free
in his use of a secondary witness (Mark); (2) someone not a Jew because
of perceived ignorance of Jewish customs and culture; too anti-Jewish
Evidence: Ireneus, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, Jerome unanimously
held for apostle Matthew. Title kata Maqqaiou “according to Matthew”
was to denote authorship. Papias attributes Gospel to Matthew.

Date: Before c. AD 70 or c. AD 70-100 (favor early date)

Evidence: Early date supported by early church fathers (who supported
Matthean priority); indicates Temple is still standing (5:23-24; 12:5-7;
23:16-22; 26:60-61); Payment of Temple tax (17:24-27) after AD 70
would have gone to temple of Jupiter in Rome; Late date supported by
Markean priority; references to destruction of city and to the church

Provenance: uncertain; Judea, Syria, Antioch among others have been suggested

Readership: Probably Jews because of its many Jewish features

Purpose: To demonstrate Jesus was the promised Messiah pointed to by the Old
Testament; the promised eschatological kingdom had dawned with Jesus’
death, burial and resurrection; the messianic rule continues in the world
in believers; this kingdom is a fulfillment of Old Testament hopes and
foretastes of future Kingdom; to effectively instruct and catechize the
church; effective in equipping Christians for Jewish Evangelism.

Text: relative stable

Canonicity: universally received as soon as it was published and was the most cited
Gospel for centuries

Genre: Gospel (historical account of the genealogy, person, ministry,

teaching,
passion, resurrection, and post-resurrection of Jesus the Messiah)

Sources: May have borrowed from Mark and “Q”, a lost collection of Jesus’ sayings
Written independently under inspiration of the Holy Spirit and based upon
Matthew’s eyewitness memories (preferred, Matthew, who was an
eyewitness, would not have relied upon Mark, who was not an eyewitness.)

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Summary: Jesus, who was a descendant of the royal line of David (1:1-16), preached
His Kingdom (chs 3-7), demonstrated His authority (chs 8-10), continued to
preach in an atmosphere of rising opposition (chs 11-25), was crucified and
resurrected (chs 26-28)

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 The Gospel of Mark

Title: The Gospel According to Mark

Author: John Mark, who accompanied Paul and Barnabus on the first missionary
journey and returned early
Evidence: Papias, Ireneus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen
credit the Gospel to John Mark

Date: And of AD 40s, AD 50s, AD 60s AD 70s (favor late 50s)

Evidence: (40s: (13:14) said to reference Caligula in AD 40; 3 papyrus
fragments from Qumran, Peter may have visited Rome in 40s)
(50s: Peter in Rome in middle 50s, Luke (AD 62) relied on Mark)
(60s: Some say written after Peter’s death; internal evidence favors a
date during or shortly after onset of persecution in Rome; Mark 13 said to
reflect situation in Palestine during Jewish revolt in AD 67-69)
(70s: Mark 13 said to reflect actual experience of the sacking of Jerusalem
by the Romans in AD 70)

Provenance: Probably Rome, the only other early tradition is Egypt (Chrysostom)
Modern scholars prefer Antioch (Bartlet) or Galilee (Marxsen)

Readership: Gentile Christian audience, probably in Rome based on Roman provenance

Purpose: Jesus is the Son of God, but especially the suffering Son of God; believers
are to be followers of Jesus; Christians must walk the same road as Jesus-
humility, suffering, and death if necessary

Text: 1:1- huiou theou (“Son of God”) omitted from a few important early
manuscripts, but found in majority of early and important mss. Most likely
accidentally omitted
16:9-20 - probably not written by Mark as the ending for his Gospel (I agree
but it does have equal weight as part of Canon)
Missing from two most important mss., Jerome and Eusebius discount it;
two other endings exist indicating doubt as to actual ending intended; contains
non-Markan words and expressions; does not flow naturally after v. 8

Canonicity: Based upon eyewitness, the Apostle Peter

Genre: Gospel (historical account of person, ministry, teaching, passion, and

resurrection of Jesus the Messiah)

Sources: Apostle Peter (attested to by Papias, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria,

Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius) (preferred)
Possibly a written pre-Markan passion narrative (speculative)

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Summary: An action-oriented narrative of Jesus’ Galilean ministry (chs 1-8), His
showing the way of glory and suffering (chs 9-10), His final ministry in
Jerusalem (chs 11-13), His passion and empty tomb narratives (chs 15-16).

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 The Gospel of Luke

Title: The Gospel According to Luke

Author: Luke, probably a Gentile Christian

Evidence: Affirmed by Marcion, Ireneus and Tertullian; no early
tradition attaches any other author to this Gospel; strongest objection
is difficulty reconciling some statements in Acts with what Paul says in
his letters (very weak argument)

Date: c. AD 62 (written with Acts) (preferred) or AD 75-85

Evidence: no event later than AD 62 mentioned in Acts; leaves Paul in
prison at the end of Acts; Pauline epistles ignored in Acts; friendly picture
of Rome (unlikely after Nero persecution AD 64-65)
Arguments for later date: Fall of Jerusalem must have already occurred
(denies Jesus’ prophetic ability); if Luke used Mark he must be later; must
be near the time of Matthew (no reason given); Many had written (Luke 1:1)
and this would have taken time.

Provenance: unsure; some say regions of Achaea (conjecture); some speculate Rome or
Antioch

Readership: addressed to “most excellent Theophilus”

a wider audience, predominantly Gentile is indicated (dedicated to someone
with a Greek name; clear showing of salvation to Gentiles; Greco-Roman
style of preface)

Purpose: Give in prologue (Luke 1:1-4); to write an orderly account based upon his
collection of the facts. Thus, he meant to write an historical account

Text: Major differences in Western text; this text has a tendency to harmonize
passages and generally remove difficulties (i.e. it is an edited text); Western
text omits some readings well attested elsewhere

Canonicity: Universally accepted as authoritative and part of Canon; Didache and Gospel
of Peter used Luke; Justin Martyr, 2 Clement, and Marcion used Luke

Genre: Gospel (historical account of the genealogy, person, ministry,

teaching,
passion, resurrection, and post-resurrection appearances of Jesus the Messiah)

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Sources: Assumed that Luke used Mark and source(s) shared with Matthew (“Q”) and
source(s) not used by others (“L”) (speculative, no evidence of Q or L)
Luke attests to using written and oral sources (1:1), but he implies that he is
writing because his sources were incomplete or inaccurate, which could not
be applied to Matthew or Mark. Written under guidance of Holy Spirit and
the use of unspecified written and oral sources (preferred)

Summary: Book begins with details of the birth of John the Baptist and the birth and
boyhood of Jesus (ch 1-4:13); it then moves to Jesus in Galilee (4:14-9:50),
Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (9:51-19:44), His ministry in Jerusalem
(19:45-21:38), and His crucifixion and resurrection (chs 22-24)

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 The Gospel of John

Title: The Gospel According to John

Author: John the son of Zebedee, apostle

Alternative View: Written by disciples of John after his death (21:24 may
allow for some editing by associates, but v. 25 indicates a single author)
Evidence: Author identifies himself as “the disciple whom Jesus loved”
(21:20-25); that disciple associated often with Peter (13:23-25; 20:2-8;
21:2,7,20-23, cf. Acts 1:13; 3:1-4, etc.); the apostle John not mentioned
by name; Polycarp’s attestation cited by Irenaeus.

Date: Either c. AD 65-69 or c. AD 80-95 (favor later date)

Evidence: Late date supported by church tradition; passages implying that
the Temple was still standing (2:19-20; 5:2; 11:47-52) support early date.

Provenance: Possibly Ephesus (so church traditions)

Readership: General public, intended especially for non-Christians (20:31)

Evidence: 20:31 clearly points to non-Christians or “seekers”; the Jewish
elements of the book suggest to some Jewish readers, while the Logos in
the Prologue (1:1, 14) suggests to others a Gentile readership

Purpose: To encourage people to believe in Jesus (20:31); secondarily, perhaps to

supplement the Synoptic Gospels

Polemics: Argues for the deity of Jesus; implicitly argues against views of Jesus as
less than fully man; possible polemic against followers of John the Baptist

Text: 1:18 -- monogenes huios (“only Son”) or monogenes theos (“unique

God”); the latter more likely; 7:53-8:11 (woman caught in adultery) almost
Certainly not part of John, possibly displaced from Luke

Canonicity: Written by an apostle; accepted virtually without question by early church

Genre: Gospel (historical account focusing on the death of Christ, material

selected
and to some extent shaped by author’s theological concerns)

Sources: Some sources possible, but no clear evidence of them (despite some
scholars’ speculation about a “gospel of signs”)

Summary: Jesus, who was the divine Word made flesh (1:1-18), worked many signs
that showed his divine glory and his life-giving purpose (chs 2-11), and
then died and rose from the dead to give us life (chs. 12-21).

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 Acts

Title: The Acts of the Apostles

First used in anti-Marcionite prologue to Luke and Ireneus
Luke probably did not give book a title. 2nd and 3rd century authors suggested
“The Memorandum of Luke”, and “The Acts of All the Apostles”

Author: Luke, a Gentile Christian and companion of Paul (preferred)

Evidence: unchallenged by the early church fathers
Liberal view: not a companion of Paul because:
(a) question testimony of early church, (no valid reason to question)
(b) author incorporated companion’s writing, (style of book is uniform)
(c) rhetorical use “we” rather than historical, (no evidence of this use)
(d) Paul of Acts is sharp contrast to Paul of epistles-a companion would not do
that (differences attributed to context, differences exaggerated)

Date: Either c. AD 115-130 or c. AD 80-95 or c. AD 62-63 (prefer early date)

Evidence: AD 115-130 because book written to reconcile opposing factions
(Jewish vs. Gentile) [abandoned when shown that such factions did not exist]
AD 80-95 book written some years after gospel (dated AD 70), cannot be after
AD 95 (Domitian persecution) because of optimistic attitude toward Rome
and author does not appear to know about Paul’s letters [date for gospel based
on false assumptions, ignores Nero’s persecution AD 64-65, not referring to
Paul’s letter indicates early date]
AD 62-63 because of abrupt ending of book. Book finished when Paul had
been in Rome for 2 years - AD 62. If author knew results of Paul’s trial he
would have included it - ¼ of book dedicated to trials and defense of Paul.

Provenance: Same as Gospel of Luke

Readership: Addressed to Theophilus (1:1)

Based on purpose for writing the book, it would be more broadly for all
Christians.

Purpose: General purpose to edify Christians. He describes historical foundation for

Christian faith and shows that the church is the culmination of biblical history.
Salvation was entrusted by Christ to His apostles and through empowering of
Holy Spirit they brought message to ends of the earth.

Text: Western text about 10% longer than generally accepted text.
Considered a secondary text because additions smooth grammatical
difficulties, clarify ambiguous points, expand references to Christ, add
notes of historical detail and interest.

Canonicity: Same as for the Gospel of Luke

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Genre: history (preferred)
others suggested: acts (narratives which recount heroic deeds of individuals or
cities), historical novel, succession narrative

Sources: written records (Luke 1:1)

oral transmission (Luke 1:2)
none can be specifically identified due to uniformity of text
Alternate: Harnack postulated, based on doublets, 3 sources, Jerusalem A,
Jerusalem B, and Antiochene (entire premise is speculative)

Summary: Luke describes the foundations for the church and its mission (1:1-2:41), the
church at Jerusalem (2:42-6:7), the church straining the bounds of traditional
Judaism (6:8-9:31), the ministry of Peter (9:32-12:24), Paul’s travels to the
Gentiles (12:25-19:20), and Paul’s journey to Rome (19:21-28:31)

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 Romans

Title: Romans

Author: Apostle Paul (Rom 1:1)

No serious challenge

Date: c. AD 57
Evidence: Rom 15:22-29: Paul is planning on traveling to Jerusalem to deliver
an offering, then to Rome to visit on his way to Spain, thus must have been
written near the end of the third missionary journey

Provenance: Written from Corinth

Evidence: Paul spent 3 months in Greece (Acts 20:3), most likely Corinth
(2 Cor 13:1, 10): Paul’s commendation of a woman who lived in Cenchrea
(neighboring city) (16:1-2); Gaius (16:23) may be same Gaius Paul baptized
in Corinth (1:14); Erastus (16:23) may be same as Erastus on inscription
found in Corinth

Readership: All in Rome (both Jews and Gentiles) who are loved by God and called to be
saints (1:7, 15)

Purpose: I have written you quite boldly on some points, as if to remind you of them
again (15:15). Several purposes: past battles with Judaizers in Galatia and
Corinth; Paul’s upcoming visit to Jerusalem and his uncertain reception;
secure a missionary base for work in Spain; unify divided Christian
community in Rome around the Gospel

Polemics: Against his theology as being antilaw, and possible anti-Jewish

Text: 16:25-27 (the location of the doxology): it is omitted in some manuscripts and
appears in different places in others. Usually expected at the end of a letter.
Its placement after Ch. 14 or Ch. 15 could indicate the letter ended there at
one time.
Alternatives: Paul originally wrote Ch. 1-14 and then added Ch. 15-16 before
the letter was sent to Rome (unlikely-Ch. 14 and 15 are too closely connected)
Marcion (or someone else) cut the last 2 chapters due to bias against Old
Testament (most likely-my preferred view)
Some argue Ch. 16 does not belong because Paul greets personally many
believers in a church he had not yet visited (he probably met many of them
when the Jews were forced out of Rome, or when they traveled for other
reasons)

Canonicity: Written by an Apostle

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Genre: An Epsitle

Summary: After his opening greeting (1:1-17), Paul expounds upon the Gospel as the
righteousness of God by faith (1:18-4:25), as the power of God for salvation
(Ch. 5-8), the Gospel and Israel (Ch. 9-11), the Gospel and the transformation
of life (12:1-15:13), followed by his closing (15:14-16:27)

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 First Corinthians

Title: First Corinthians

Author: Apostle Paul (1:1; 3:4-6; 16:21)

No serious challenge

Date: c. AD 55
Evidence: Gallio was proconsul in Achaia during first 7 months of AD 52
(Acts 18:12). Allowing for Paul’s travels and 2 ½ year stay at Ephesus this
brings us to AD 55

Provenance: Ephesus (16:8)

Readership: Church at Corinth (1:2) which would have consisted of some Jews but
primarily Gentiles (based on the population of Corinth)

Purpose: Paul wrote to address several problems that he had heard about in the
Corinthian church: immature Christians had formed partisan groups (1:11);
dissatisfaction with Paul’s leadership (4:3, 15; 9:1-2); abuses of the Lord’s
Table (11:17-34); at least one notorious case of immorality (5:1-5); public
litigation among members (6:1-8); uncertainties about the place of marriage
(Ch. 7); eating food offered to idols (Ch. 8); infatuation with some spectacular
gifts without love (Ch. 12-14); aberrant view of resurrection (Ch 15)

Polemics: Against factionalism caused by following human leaders instead of Christ

Text: 14:34-35 - some argue non-Pauline interpolation and place it after verse 40.
None omits the verses. (arguments inconclusive, prefer current order)

Canonicity: Authored by an Apostle, widely quoted from first century onward.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After his introduction (1:1-9) Paul addresses disunity and the need for unity in
the church (1:10-4:21), immorality (Ch. 5-6), marriage (Ch. 7), Christian
liberty (Ch. 8), worship (Ch. 11-14), the resurrection (Ch. 15), and his plans
and greetings (Ch. 16)

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 Second Corinthians

Title: Second Corinthians

Author: Apostle Paul (1:1; 10:1)

Date: c. AD 56-57
Evidence: Based upon Paul’s completing 1 Corinthians in AD 55 and that
his travels had taken him to Macedonia (2:12-13; 7:5; 8:1-5; 9:2)

Provenance: Macedonia (as noted under Date above)

Readership: Church at Corinth (1:1b)

Purpose: Paul expresses relief that his “tearful letter” had not hurt the Corinthians but
had produced the desired response in some. He further addresses those
still opposed to him

Text: Ch. 10-12 - some question the severe tone in sharp contrast to Ch. 1-9
several explanations: Ch. 10-12 are associated with the “painful letter”
(no Greek manuscript suggests the letter ended after Ch. 9); the entire book
was written at one time (preferred-I would add that Ch. 1-9 were written to
those who had responded favorably to Paul’s earlier admonitions; Ch. 10-12
were written to those who still opposed Paul); Ch 10-12 written after Ch. 1-9
was sent (again, no evidence of separate letters); Paul stopped writing after
Ch. 9 and picked up again after he had heard bad news (no evidence that
Paul received new information.
2:14-7:4-some argue that this constitutes all or part of a separate letter
(unlikely-even though the line of thought from 2:13 to 7:5 is choppy, there
is no evidence that it does not belong)
6:14-7:1-some argue for an interpolation and non-Pauline language
(arguments are unconvincing)
Ch. 8-9-interpolations (arguments are not convincing)
Preferred view: 2 Corinthians written as we see it today

Canonicity: Written by an Apostle, not quoted by early fathers as 1 Corinthians.

Attestation abundant from AD 175 onward (Thiessen)

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After his greeting (1:1-11), Paul discusses the nature and purpose of his
ministry (1:12 - Ch. 7), the collection for the Christians in Jerusalem
(Ch. 8-9), his apostleship (10:1-12:13), and his intended visit to Corinth
(12:14-13:14)

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 Galatians

Title: Galatians

Author: The Apostle Paul

Attribution: Gal 1:1; 5:2

Date: Approx. AD 48 (preferred), or AD 52-57 (during third missionary journey)

Evidence: Early date if Paul is writing to South Galatians; He doesn’t
mention the Council of Jerusalem; Peter’s withdrawal from table of Gentiles
(2:12) more likely early. Late date if Paul is writing to North Galatians; style
similar to Corinthians and Romans; 2:5 may refer to results of Council of
Jerusalem [Thiessen]; Paul had already visited Galatia twice; with regards to
persecution, it seems to fit between 2 Corinthians and Romans.

Provenance: Macedonia or Greece [Thiessen]

Readership: Various races, predominantly Gentile, in South Galatia (preferred)

Evidence: We have information about people and places Paul visited;
“region of Phrygia and Galatia” best understood of the area Paul would
go through when he left Lystra and Iconium; “Galatians” only word available
to embrace people in all the cities (Antioch, Lystra, Iconium, Derbe);
“Galatian churches” contributed to collection for believers in Jerusalem;
Northern area not opened like the South; Paul’s opponents not likely to
have followed him into difficult North area; Ramsay argues church developed
along great lines of communication (South Galatia).
Alternative: Ethnic Galatians in the North
Evidence: In the speech of the day, “Galatia” meant the place inhabited by the
Gauls in the North; “Galatia” would not have been used of Phrygians,
Lycaonians or Pisidians; there is no evidence that Paul experienced opposition
when he preached to the Galatians

Purpose: Oppose Judiazers who had put the Gospel in serious compromise with their
false teaching. Paul appealed to the Galatians to return to the faith in which
they had been saved.

Polemics: Against Jewish Christians who wanted the Galatians to submit to the Torah.

Text: A few minor variants

1:18; 2:9, 11, 14 - confusion between Aramaic name Cephas and Greek name
Peter - substitution of better-known Greek name for unfamiliar Aramiac
(preferred)
1:6 - question of adding “of Christ” after “grace” (doesn’t change meaning)
1:15 - “God” before “was pleased” (doesn’t change meaning)

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Canonicity: Written by an Apostle
Accepted early. Barnabas, 1 Clement, Polycarp, Justin Matyr allude to it.
No dispute on genuineness in early church.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: Paul begins the letter with a concise introduction (1:1-5) followed by a
personal vindication of his Apostleship and message (Ch 1-2), a doctrinal
discussion on the principles of justification (Ch 3-4), followed by the practical
applications of the privileges of justification (Ch 5-6)

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 Ephesians

Title: Ephesians

Author: The Apostle Paul (preferred)

Attribution: 1:1 and 3:1
Evidence: Similar language or direct quotes by Clement of Rome, Ignatius,
Polycarp, Hermas, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullina, Irenaeus [Thiessen]
Wide circulation; Pauline features abound.
Alternate views: someone other than Paul (modern)
Arguments: Theology cannot be ascribed to Paul (supposed differences are
subjective); Words not used elsewhere (Paul was versatile, his other letters
also contain unique words); Style is different, i.e. long sentences (again a
tribute to Paul’s versatility); Taken as “early catholic” writing with name of
Paul used for authenticity (no evidence)

Date: c. AD 57-59; c. AD 60-61 (preferred); or AD 70-90

Evidence: 57-59 assumes Paul is the author and is in prison in Caesarea; 60-
61 assumes Paul was the author and he was in prison in Rome; 70-90 assumes
Paul was not the author, and letter written when the Pauline epistles were
collected. See Philippians for argument for Roman imprisonment.

Provenance: Prison in Rome (Written about the same time as Philippians – See Philippians
provenance.)

Readership: Church in Ephesus

Attribution: 1:1
Alternates: May have been meant for the Laodiceans (Marcion)
Most likely a circular letter (with destination to be filled in when delivered)
with the copy to the Ephesians being the only one that survived. May have
been sent with Tychicus when Paul sent Colossians and the copied and
circulated to Ephesus (preferred)
Evidence: “in Ephesus” is missing in some of the best MMS. Letter is calm
and impersonal for dear friends. Some parts seem to indicate that the writer
did not know the readers (1:15; 3:2; 4:21). That Paul had spent time with the
Ephesians and had a close friendship can be seen (Acts 19:8, 10; 20:31; 20:17-
38)

Purpose: An important statement of Christian truth that may have been greatly needed
in more than one first-century situation.

Text: 1:1 - in Ephesus” disputed (see discussion above in Readership)

Canonicity: No record of anyone in early church questioning its authenticity

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Genre: Epistle

Summary: After the opening salutation (1:1-2), Paul discusses God’s purpose and
fullness for the church (Ch 1-3), God’s plan for His Son to build the church
and the principles for its members (Ch 4), God’s standards for faithfulness and
submission in the church (Ch 5), and God’s provision for His children’s
spiritual battles (Ch 6).

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 Philippians

Title: Philippians

Author: Apostle Paul

Attribution: 1:1
Evidence: Letter claims to be written by Paul. No serious question as to the
author.

Date: late 50’s to early 60’s (prefer later date)

Evidence: written while Paul was in prison (1:7, 13, 17); he was expecting to
be released (1:19-26) thus after Ephesians (Date determined by which
imprisonment is assumed - see following).

Provenance: Prison in Rome (preferred)

Evidence: Reference to Praetorium (centered at Rome). Greetings sent from
those in Caesar’s household (4:22).
Alternate view: prison in Caesarea or Ephesus (evidence is inconclusive).

Readership: Church at Philippi, primarily Gentiles.

Purpose: Report on Epaphroditus’ illness. Express gratitude over a gift from Philippian
church. Report on Paul’s present circumstances. Urges church to unity,
warning against false teachers. He commended Timothy to them.

Polemics: Opposes false teachers.

Text: 2:5-11 some hold not Pauline due to some unusual vocabulary and rhythmic
style. Some consider it to be pre-Pauline. Consider as coming from Paul
because there is no convincing reason not to. (preferred)

Canonicity: No significant questions.

1 Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp speaks of Paul having written to Philippians.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After the greeting (1:1-11), the author relates his personal circumstances
(1:12-26), exhorts the church to fulfill various duties (1:27-2:18), discusses
his plan for the future (2:19-30), warns them against false teachers (3:1-4:1),
admonishes them to follow his example (4:2-9), acknowledges the gift they
had sent (4:10-20), and closes with a salutation and benediction (4:21-23).

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 Colossians

Title: Colossians

Author: Apostle Paul (preferred)

Attribution: 1:1, 23; 4:18
Alternate Views: a follower of Paul due to:
(1) language and style - unique terms (also true of Paul’s other letters);
synonyms joined together and verbose style (subjective); contains a number
of stylistic features found elsewhere in New Testament only in Paul.
(2) theology - absence of important concepts, presence of concepts not found
elsewhere (a person claiming to be Paul would include Pauline topics to add
credibility to the signature).
(3) relation to Ephesians - too close a relationship (subjective and
inconclusive).

Date: late 50s or early 60s (prefer later date).

See discussion in Philippians – written about the same time.

Provenance: Paul was in prison (4:3, 10, 18)

See discussion in Philippians.

Readership: Church at Colossae, composed of Gentile and Jewish Christians.

Purpose: Refute errors of false teachers.

Polemics: Against a blend of Jewish and Hellenistic false teachings.

Text: 3:6 - “upon those who are disobedient” added after “the wrath of God is
coming” in many MSS. - may have been added by scribes who remembered
Ephesians 5:6, or dropped by accident by a copy mistake (preferred).

Canonicity: No real doubt as to authenticity. May have been referred to in Epistle of

Barnabus; Justin Martyr refers to it; accepted by Marcion; included in
Muratorian Canon; cited by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After Paul’s introduction (1:1-12), he deals with redemption and the person
and work of Christ (1:13-2:3), warnings against false philosophy (2:4-3:4),
practical application of death and resurrection of Christ (3:5-4:6),
concluding with his final greetings and salutation (4:7-18).

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 1 Thessalonians

Title: 1 Thessalonians

Author: Apostle Paul

Attribution: 1:1; 2:18
Evidence: Pauline vocabulary and style.

Date: Early 50s

Evidence: Based on Corinthian provenance, Paul appeared before Gallio in
Corinth (Gallio can be shown to have come to Corinth in early summer AD
50). The letter was probably written before his arrest.

Provenance: Corinth
Evidence: 3:6 states that Timothy had “just now come to us from you.”
Timothy had joined Paul in Corinth, coming from Macedonia (Acts 18:5).

Readership: The Church at Thessalonica which was a new church composed of both
Jewish and Gentile Christians.

Purpose: Timothy had just come from Thessalonica and Paul wrote to meet their needs
as reported by Timothy. Paul was being slandered by Jewish opponents, Paul
wrote to strengthen them in persecution (2:14), that they not adopt pagan
sexual practices (4:3-8), to clear up misunderstandings of Christ’s return
(4:13-18), and provide teaching on the end times (5:1-11).

Text: 2:7 - read “gentle” or “babies” due to MSS differences as to whether to

include or omit a Greek n. (prefer “gentle” as it seems to fit the rest of the
verse “as a nursing mother”).

Canonicity: May be reflected in 1 Clement and Ignatius; included in Marcion’s Canon

and in Muratorian Fragment. Quoted by Ireneus.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After the opening greeting (v1), Paul provides some personal thoughts for the
Thessalonian Church (Ch 1-2), some practical instructions relating to moral
purity, disciplined living, death and the rapture, and basics of Christian living
(Ch 3-5:22), closing with a blessing and an admonition (5:23-28).

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 2 Thessalonians

Title: 2 Thessalonians

Author: Apostle Paul (preferred)

Attribution: 1:1; 3:7
Evidence: Internal claims, resemblances in opening and closing with Pauline
writings.
Views: some suggest non-Pauline author because eschatology incompatible
with 1 Thessalonians - no parallel for the “man of lawlessness” in other
Pauline writings (not a conclusive argument to reject author).
Others say non-Pauline because of likenesses and differences with
1 Thessalonians (likenesses would point to same author; differences due to
Paul’s versatility as a writer).

Date: Early 50s, shortly after 1 Thessalonians (preferred).

Those who say non-Pauline date it later, after Paul’s death.

Provenance: Corinth (same as 1 Thessalonians).

Readership: The Church at Thessalonica which was a new church composed of both
Jewish and Gentile Christians (same as 1 Thessalonians).

Purpose: To reinforce what he had written in the first letter. He did not, however,
have to defend himself against slander as in the first letter.

Text: No issues noted.

Canonicity: Attested by Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin. Included in Marcion Canon and
Muratorian Fragment. Ireneus quotes it by name.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After Paul’s greeting (1:1-2), he provides comfort for affliction (1:3-12),
correction for prophetic error (2:1-17), concern for the Church (3:1-15),
closing with a benediction (3:16-18)

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 1 Timothy

Title: First Timothy

Author: Apostle Paul (preferred)

Attribution: 1 Timothy 1:1
Liberal View: not by Paul, possibly pseudonymous because:
vocabulary differences from ten Pauline epistles (new words found in
other writings prior to A.D. 50; Paul uses words with different meanings
in different contexts); stylistic differences (due to different circumstances of
the letters); historical problems (we know very little of what Paul did and
nothing after his first imprisonment in Rome); false teachers were Gnotics
(Gnosticism not fully developed until 2nd century); ecclesiastical organization
(discusses elders, but no other church organization); theology (Pauline terms
used in different way).

Date: middle 60s or second century (prefer early date).

Evidence: Late date proposed by those who hold letter as pseudonymous to
allow for development of Gnostic ideas. Early date fits with Paul’s
martyrdom during Nero’s reign (d. 68). Eusebius says Paul died in AD 67.

Provenance: Uncertain, but Macedonia is suggested, based on 1 Timothy 1:3.

Readership: Timothy

Purpose: To give Timothy the guidance he needed for his work as superintendent of
churches.

Polemics: Opposes false teachers.

Text: 3:16 – “hos” (who) or “theos” (God) – generally agreed that former is correct.
(prefer “hos”).
1:15 and 3:1 – most editors read “pistos” (faithful) (preferred) but some have
“anthropinos” (human).

Canonicity: Quoted by Polycarp, Athenagoras and later writers. Included in Muratorian

Canon. Modern questions have arisen, but not widely held.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After his greeting (1:1-2), the author gives instructions concerning false
doctrine (1:3-20), the church (chs 2-3), false teachers (ch 4), pastoral
responsibilities (ch 5), and the man of God (ch 6).

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 2 Timothy

Title: Second Timothy

Author: Apostle Paul (preferred).

Same arguments as 1 Timothy.

Date: middle 60s or second century (prefer early date).

Same arguments as 1 Timothy.

Provenance: In prison facing imminent execution most likely during his second
imprisonment in Rome.
Evidence: Onesiphorus searched for him and found him in Rome (1:16-17).

Readership: Timothy

Purpose: To relate his own experiences and expectations and to encourage and instruct
Timothy.

Polemics: Opposes false teachers.

Text: 1:13 – “hon” (which) - may be a primitive corruption (sense not greatly
changed).

Canonicity: May be echoed in 1 Clement and Ignatius; quoted by Polycarp; Ireneus refers
to the letter, saying it was written by Paul to Timothy, as does Clement of
Alexandria. Included in Muratorian Canon.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After the greeting (1:1-5), the author discusses the perseverance of a man of
God (1:6-18), the patterns of a man of God (ch 2), the perils of a man of God
(ch 3), the preaching of the man of God ending with Paul’s triumph, needs,
and farewells (ch 4).

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 Titus

Title: Titus

Author: Apostle Paul (preferred).

Same arguments as 1 Timothy.

Date: c. AD 57 or middle 60s (prefer late date).

Evidence: Early date supposed by Titus absence when Romans written, Paul
may have sent him to Crete when Paul set off for Jerusalem (writing then).
Late date supported by supposition that the letter was written after Paul’s
first imprisonment in Rome. Written before 2 Timothy and around the same
Period as 1 Timothy.

Provenance: Paul was in or on the way to Nicopolis where he planned to spend the winter.
(Titus 3:12).

Readership: Titus, a trusted helper.

Purpose: To give Titus needed instruction concerning the work in Crete.

Polemics: Opposed false teachers.

Text: No issues noted.

Canonicity: Written by an apostle. Clement of Rome may have alluded to it; Tertullian and
Ireneus quote Titus. Included in Muratorian Canon. Universally recognized
from end of 2nd century.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After the salutation (1:1-4), the author discusses qualifications of Bishops
(1:5-9), false teachers (1:10-16), teaching good conduct (2:1-3:8), methods
of dealing with heretics (3:9-11), and his conclusion (3:12-15).

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 Philemon

Title: Philemon

Author: Apostle Paul

Attribution: versus 1, 9, 19

Date: Late 50s or early 60s (prefer late date)

Evidence: Early date supposes Paul imprisoned in Ephesus; Later date
supposes Paul’s 1st imprisonment in Rome; written about the time of
Philippians as Paul was expecting to be released (v. 22).

Provenance: Written from the same place as Colossians. Most likely Rome during Paul’s
first imprisonment (verses 1, 9).

Readership: Primarily Philemon, but also addressed to Apphia (possibly his wife),
Archippus, and the church that met in their home (verse 1-2).

Purpose: To appeal to Philemon to not employ the full rigor of the law against a
returning slave, Onesimus, who had become a believer under Paul’s ministry.

Text: Nothing of significance noted.

Canonicity: Written by an apostle. Included in Muratorian Canon. Tertullian accepts it

and Origen quotes it. Some strong bias against it in the 4th century, but
Jerome and Chrysostom successfully defended it.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: After the greeting (v. 1-3), the author discusses the character of one who
forgives (v. 4-7), the actions of one who forgives (v. 8-18), and the motives
of one who forgives (v. 19-25).

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 Hebrews

Title: Hebrews

Author: Attribution: None

Views: Early church tradition holds Paul (Clement of Alexandria, Origen),
Western church resisted Pauline authorship until 4th century (Jerome and
Augustine argued for Paul). (Pauline authorship preferred).
Other views: Barnabas, Apollos, Priscilla and Aquila, various others.
Evidence: Against Paul: absence of his characteristic salutation; author
Says he heard the Gospel from “whose who heard him” (Heb 2:3).
For Barnabas: Levite from Cyprus who may have had anti-temple
perspective; called “son of encouragement” and may have written “word
of exhortation” (13:22). (Hebrews is not anti-temple, but shows the sacrificial
system is obsolete; terminology for “word of exhortation” too common to
make such a definitive determination.)
For Apollos: native of Alexandria, some have found connections with Philo
of Alexandria. (Basic elements of Hebrews are far removed from Philo and
his philosophy.)
For Priscilla: with Aquila in a minor role would account for interchange of
“we” and “I”; they were sufficiently informed to teach Apollos; they probably
knew Timothy; antifeminist tendencies of early church could account for no
author’s signature. (No evidence for their authorship; Heb 11:32 is masculine
singular.)

Date: Between AD 60 and 100, most likely before AD 70

Evidence: Earliest date due to addressing 2nd generation Christians and time
was needed for them to develop. Latest date due to references in 1 Clement
(written c. AD 96), and Timothy was still alive (Heb 13:23).
Before AD 70 due to present-tense verbs connected with temple ritual.
Indicates sacrifices were still being offered (preferred date)

Provenance: Unknown. Heb 13:24 – “Those from Italy send you their greetings”, but the
Expression is too unclear to assume written from Italy.

Readership: Most likely Jewish Christians (since the Old Testament is cited as if the
readers would recognize its authority) either in Palestine (due to repeated
references to temple sacrifices) or Rome (place where the epistle was 1st
known).

Purpose: Christians are urged to maintain their confession. The Superiority of Christ
over the Jewish sacrificial system is emphasized.

Text: Well preserved.

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Canonicity: In the West: widely known and quoted, but not received as canon. Muratorian
Canon excludes it. Jerome and Augustine successfully argue for acceptance.
In the East: canonicity never doubted. Incorporated into Pauline corpus in
2nd century.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: The author discusses the superiority of Jesus Christ’s position (1:1-4:13),
Priesthood (4:14-7:28), priestly ministry (8:1-10:18), the superiority of the
believer’s privileges (10:19-12:29), and the superiority of Christian behavior
(13:1-21), ending with a postscript (13:22-25).

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 James

Title: James

Author: Attribution: (1:1), James, a servant of God

Views: James the son of Zebedee, brother of John, one of the 12; James
the son of Alphaeus, one of the 12; James the father of Judas; James the
“the Lord’s brother”; an unknown James; pseudonymous.
Evidence: James the son of Alphaeus and James the father of Judas are too
Obscure; James the son of Zebedee martyred (c. A.D. 44) too early; James
the Lord’s brother (preferred) – Greek of epistle similar to speech attributed
to James in Acts 15:13-21.
For pseudonymous – the brother of the Lord would have alluded to his
special relationship to Christ (not necessarily true, he exhibited Christian
humility by not referring to this relationship, relationship to Christ may not
have been highly valued); letter written in fairly good Hellenistic Greek
(quality is exaggerated, Jews were conversant in Greek).

Date: Early to middle 40s; AD 62; end of 1st century (prefer early date)
Evidence: Early to middle 40s – time for Paul’s teaching on justification
to begin to have influence and before the Jerusalem Council ( AD 48 or
49).
AD 62 - late in James’ life for Paul’s letters to become well known; the
typical 2nd generation Christian worldliness that James deals with. (Paul’s
letters did not need to be well known, only his teaching; worldliness is
seen in all generations of Christians.)
End of 1st century is held by those who hold to pseudonymous author.

Provenance: Probably Jerusalem where James the brother of the Lord was a church leader.

Readership: Jewish Christians

Evidence: Old Testament mentioned in a natural way (1:25; 2:8-13); met in a
synagogue (2:2); widespread use of Old Testament and Jewish metaphors;
addressed to 12 tribes scattered among the nations (1:1) which may have been
Christians scattered from the persecution in Jerusalem.

Purpose: To encourage Christians who were being persecuted, to correct conditions due
to their low spiritual state, and to clear up some doctrinal misconceptions
related to justification.

Polemics: Opposed using justification by faith as an excuse for moral laxity.

Text: No problems noted.

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Canonicity: Origen is 1st to cite as Scripture; Eusebius cites James frequently but
classified it among the “disputed books”; included in Syriac translation
and the Peshitta; excluded from Muratorian Canon. Decisive acceptance
occurred after Jerome accepted it.

Genre: Epistle
It contains a typical introduction for an epistle but lacks the usual postscript.

Summary: After his greeting (1:1) the author discusses various topics such as trials,
wisdom, wealth, temptation, and gifts (ch 1), opposes partiality and barren
faith (ch 2), qualities required in teachers (ch 3), various dangers (ch 4),
closing with instructions to oppressed, the power of prayer and help for
the backslider (ch 5).

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 1 Peter

Title: 1 Peter

Author: Attribution: (1:1), Apostle Peter (preferred)

Views: Not Peter.
Evidence: for Peter – author is “a fellow elder, a witness of Christ’s
sufferings” (5:1); a number of expressions that would come naturally
from a companion of Christ; resembles words attributed to Peter in Acts.
Against Peter – excellent Greek (Peter and John were not uneducated, only
unschooled in Rabbinic learning, Greek was widely spoken in Palestine,
therefore they could have produced polished Greek.); no evidence of
knowledge of events in Jesus’ life (author not indulging in reminiscences
of life with Jesus, this didn’t fit his intent); persecution referenced like that
during Domitian or Trajan (scattered and local persecutions in many
places).

Date: 60s (preferred); late 1st or early 2nd century.

Evidence: Early date - persecution point to Nero’s reign, little
ecclesiastical organization. Late date – if persecution is assumed to be
under Domitian or Trajan.

Provenance: Probably Rome

5:13 – “She who is in Babylon” where Babylon is symbolic reference to
Rome.

Readership: 1:1 – God’s elect, strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus,
Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” – names point to Northern
Turkey. Addressed primarily to Gentiles (1:18 applies to Gentiles and
not Jews).

Purpose: Emphasize proper Christian conduct in the face of anti-Christian hostility

and on the compensatory gift of salvation that will reach completion in the
future.

Text: No problems noted.

Canonicity: Written by an apostle. Alluded to in 1 Clement, Barnabas, Polycarp, and

Hermas. First quoted by Ireneus. Eusebius considered it an authentic writing.

Genre: Epistle

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Summary: After the opening salutation (1:1-2) the author encourages the readers to
remember their great salvation (1:3-2:10), to remember their example before
men (2:11-4:6), to remember their Lord will return (4:7-5:11), and ending
with his conclusion (5:12-14).

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 2 Peter

Title: 2 Peter

Author: Attribution: (1:1), Simeon Peter

Views: most conservative hold to Peter (preferred); modern scholars
suggest pseudonymous.
Evidence: For Peter – letter’s claim; church traditions ascribes to Peter;
more natural for Peter to use unusual form “Simeon” than an imitator;
eyewitness to transfiguration (1:16-18); had previously written letter to
same recipients (3:1); Shows closeness to Paul (3:15).
For pseudonymous – reference to Paul suggests authoritative collection of
Pauline epistles (author shows little knowledge of Pauline doctrines);
reference to “the fathers” (3:4) shows a date later than Peter (probably refers
to Jewish patriarchs, not first Christians); would not have made use of
nonapostolic source, Jude (not certain that Jude was a source, no reason to
believe an author would use any source for useful words); writer opposing
Gnostic teaching ( no Gnostic system matching 2 Peter).

Date: Before c. AD 68 (preferred) or 2nd century before c. AD 150.

Evidence: Early date presumes Peter is author; Peter’s death was c. AD 68;
author speaks of his death being imminent (1:14); suggests that several of
Paul’s letters had already been written. Late date presumes pseudonymous;
before AD 150 because it was used in Apocalypse of Peter (c. 150).

Provenance: Most likely Rome (assuming Peter is author) since by tradition he spent the
last years of his life there.

Readership: If 3:1 refers to 1 Peter then same audience as that letter. He wrote with the
entire church in mind.

Purpose: Instruct Christians in how to defend themselves against false teachers and
their deceptive lies.

Polemics: Opposes false teachers.

Text: 3:10 – heurethesetai “will be laid bare (NIV)”, Westcott and Hort call this a
primitive corruption. (prefer original reading, even though it is unusual, it
appears to agree with the other stylistic idiosyncrasies of the epistle)

Canonicity: Written by an apostle. Accepted 1st in the East; Origen calls it a “disputed
writing”; Eusebius does not accept it as canon, but recognized it as useful.
In the West it was unknown or overlooked; Jerome refers to it as considered
by some to not be written by Peter; Not in Athanasius’s festal letter of 367.
Accepted some time after that.

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Genre: Epistle

Sources: May have used Jude, or Jude and Peter may have used a source that is now
lost (speculative).

Summary: After opening with a salutation (1:1-2), the author encourages the readers to
know their salvation (1:3-11), to know their Scriptures (1:12-21), to know
their adversaries (ch 2), and to know their prophecy (ch 3).

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 1 John

Title: 1 John

Author: Attribution: None.

Views: John the son of Zebedee, an Apostle; Some argue for someone
(unnamed) other than John. (prefer the Apostle John)
Evidence: For John – some support from early church fathers (Papias, Ireneus,
Clement of Alexandria); many striking similarities with Gospel of John in
theme, vocabulary, and syntax, same stark polarities, penchant for parallelism;
written with the authority of an Apostle.
Against John – subtle but significant differences between Gospel and 1 John
in doctrine and wording (little weight based on purpose of each); words or
expressions in one not found in the other (not a decisive conclusion);
reconstructions of the development of Johannine community (misguided
inquiry).

Date: early 90s.

Evidence: based on the purpose it seems to come after the Gospel of John.

Provenance: Most likely Ephesus.

There is evidence that John moved to Ephesus at the time of Jewish Wars
(AD 66-70) and ultimately died there.

Readership: Probably sent to churches somewhere in the Ephesus area.

Purpose: Stresses that Jesus is Christ come in the flesh and genuine belief in Jesus is
manifest in obedience to God’s commands and love for God’s people.

Polemics: Opposes false teaching, possible a very early from of Gnosticism or Docetism.

Text: 5:7-8a – found in no Greek MS before 14th century, would have expected to
be used in ancient Trinitarian debates, probably added later (agree)

Canonicity: Written by an Apostle.

Attested to by Origen, Eusebius; included in Muratorian Canon; included in
Athanasius’s list of NT books and in lists approved by Councils of Hippo and
Carthage.

Genre: Epistle, although it does not have characteristic opening exhibited by

letters
from the 1st century.

Summary: After an introduction (1:1-4), the author discusses conditions for Christian
fellowship (1:5-2:14), cautions to fellowship (2:15-27), characteristics of

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 fellowship (2:28-5:3), and consequences of fellowship (5:4-21).
2 John

Title: 2 John

Author: Attribution: None.

Views: John the son of Zebedee, an Apostle; Some argue for someone
(unnamed) other than John. (prefer the Apostle John)
Evidence: Links in vocabulary and theme indicate same author as 1 John;
author refers to himself as “the elder” either because he is an old man, or
the senior elder in the Ephesus region.
Against John – see the arguments for 1 John, since 2 John has same author.

Date: Early 90s.

Same evidence as 1 John.

Provenance: Most likely Ephesus.

Readership: The chosen lady and her children.

Purpose: Warn against dangers inherent in traveling preachers.

Polemics: Opposes false teachers.

Text: No issues noted.

Canonicity: Written by an Apostle. Eusebius classed it as a disputed book. Muratorian

Canon probably includes it (refers to two epistles of John); included in
Athanasius’s list of NT books, and lists approved by Councils of Hippo and
Carthage.

Genre: Epistle.

Summary: The author discusses the basis of Christian hospitality (v. 1-3), the behavior of
Christian hospitality (v. 4-6), the bounds of Christian hospitality (v. 7-11), and
the blessings of Christian hospitality (v. 12-13).

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 3 John

Title: 3 John

Author: Attribution: None.

Views: John the son of Zebedee, an Apostle; Some argue for someone
(unnamed) other than John. (prefer the Apostle John)
Evidence: Links in vocabulary and theme indicate same author as 1 John;
author refers to himself as “the elder” either because he is an old man, or
the senior elder in the Ephesus region.
Against John – see the arguments for 1 John, since 3 John has same author.

Date: Early 90s.

Same evidence as 1 John.

Provenance: Most likely Ephesus.

Readership: Someone named Gaius, a common Roman name.

Purpose: Discuss the activities of Diotrephes and say he is coming to expose him.

Text: No issues noted.

Canonicity: Written by an Apostle.

Included in Athanasius’s list of NT books.

Genre: Epistle

Summary: Author gives commendation concerning Christian hospitality (v. 1-8),

condemnation for violating Christian hospitality (v. 9-11), and his conclusion
regarding Christian hospitality (v. 12-14).

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 Jude

Title: Jude

Author: Attribution: (v. 1) Jude a brother of James (and thus Jesus) (preferred)
Views: pseudonymous
Evidence: book claims to be written by Jude; probably does not call himself
the brother of Jesus in spirit of Christian humility.
For pseudonymous – none given (it is hard to find an argument why someone
would pose as someone with no great reputation in the early church).

Date: c. AD 65-80 (prefer); c. AD 100

Evidence: Early date allows time for false teachings to develop, but before
Jude became too old; “they said to you” (v. 18) indicates readers had heard
preaching of the Apostles. Late date suggested by those who hold to
pseudonymous; although very old, Jude could still have been alive then.

Provenance: None suggested; unknown.

Readership: “to those who have been called, who are loved by God the Father and kept
by Jesus Christ” (v. 1). Too general to identify further.

Purpose: Condemn apostates and urge believers to contend for the faith.

Polemics: Opposed false teachers.

Text: v. 5 – “Jesus” – holds Jesus delivered Israel from Egypt, many reject (Jesus
did deliver Israel; Moses was only God’s human representative.)
v. 22-23 – some MMS give three classes of people (preferred) and some two.

Canonicity: Traces of Jude may be found in Clement of Rome, Hermas, Polycarp,

Barnabas, and the Didache; mentioned in Muratorian Canon; cited by
Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria; Origen used it; Eusebius classes it
among the disputed books; some doubt caused by Jude’s use of
noncanonical writer (v. 14-15).

Genre: Epistle

Sources: v. 14-15 cites Book of Enoch, a noncanonical writing.

Summary: After his introduction (v. 1-2) the author condemns apostates (v. 3-4),
denounces apostates (v. 5-16), discusses the defenses against apostates
(v. 17-23), and closes with a doxology (v. 24-25).

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 Revelation

Title: Revelation

Author: Attribution: (1:1, 4, 9; 22:8), John

Views: Apostle John; someone not an Apostle, possibly John “the elder” or
John the Baptist; pseudonymous.
Evidence: For Apostle John – early church tradition (Eusebius, Ireneus,
Muratorian Canon, Papias [who knew John personally]), internal evidence
suggests the author was a John who was well-known.
Against Apostle John – author does not claim to be an Apostle or eyewitness
(author well-known to audience; identification as Apostle not important to
message); theological differences with fourth Gospel (contrasts overdrawn
and inconclusive); stylistic differences (possibly due to time differences in
writing books or the immediacy of the visionary experience).
John “the elder” (not clear that Papias was distinguishing this John from the
Apostle); John the Baptist (no evidence, speculative).

Date: c. AD 41-54; c. AD 54-68; c. AD 81-96 (preferred); c. AD 98-117.

Evidence: dates selected because of persecutions during the reigns of the
listed emporers; 41-54 – reign of Claudius (too early);
54-68 – reign of Nero – primarily due to myth that Nero would return from
the dead and lead a Parthian army (Revelation different from details of myth),
Rev. 11:1-2 indicates the Temple still standing (probably refers to future
rebuilt Temple), and Rev. 17:9-11 as applied to Roman Emperors (difficult
to apply to actual emperors);
81-96 – tradition of strong persecution under Domitian; Domitian stressed his
deity; conditions of church more compatible with this time period.
98-117 – reign of Trajan (too late).

Provenance: Patmos, a rocky and rugged island in the Aegean Sea which acted as a Roman
place of exile.

Readership: Seven churches in the Roman province of Asia.

Purpose: Reveal Jesus Christ as the risen, glorified Son of God. To encourage
Christians who face antagonism of an unbelieving society by showing the
triumph of Christ over anti-Christian forces in the world.

Text: No specific issues identified.

Canonicity: Alluded to by Ignatius and Barnabas; probably used by author of Shepherd

of Hermas; quoted as authoritative by Papias, Justin, and Ireneus; found in
Muratorian Canon. Some questioned the book, especially in the East,
primarily due to distaste for the eschatology of the book.

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Genre: apocalypse (1:1) – uses extensive symbolism and dualistic concept of
history
prophecy (1:3) – claims to speak for God
epistle (1:4) – opening address and salutation, circular letter to seven churches
Methods of interpretation:
preterist – described events in the authors day
historical – Middle Ages movements found conditions mirrored in their day
futurist – fulfillment in last days of human history, yet to come (preferred)
idealist – symbolism to help us understand God’s person and ways

Summary: The author is directed by God to record the things which he had seen (ch 1),
the things which are (letters to the seven churches) (ch 2-3), and the things
which will take place after this (ch 4-22).

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