Earths Satellite Orbits and its

significance

L. Sowmia Narayanan
Project Manager, Mission Analysis, PSLV Project
VSSC / ISRO

Sowmia / PSLV 1

A satellite is any smaller object that travels

around a larger object.

Satellites
artificial.

The Moon is a natural satellite

Earth just like the
Earth is a
satellite to the Sun.

Artificial
satellites
spacecraft that are
space by people.

are

either

called

natural

or

to the
natural

are
human-made
built and sent into

Sowmia / PSLV 2

Each satellite has a set path in space called an

orbit.

The speed and the angle with which a

satellite is
injected
determine
the
satellites orbit.

The Soviet Union launched the first artificial

satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957. Since then, the
United States and about 40 other countries
have developed,
launched
and operated
satellites.

Today, about
6,000 pieces
Earth

3,500 useful satellites and

of space junk are orbiting

Sowmia / PSLV 3

Earths Artificial Satellites

Communications
Remote sensing / Surveillance
Weather forecasting
Space Explorations
Size / Shape / Orientation of the spacecraft
orbit depends up on its applications.

Sowmia / PSLV 4

Presentation Topics

Fundamental laws of Orbital Mechanics

Types of Orbits
Orbital Elements & Its significance
Special orbits
Hohmann Transfer
Orbital plane change
Orbital Perturbations

Sowmia / PSLV 5

Orbital Mechanics
v

Study of the motion of artificial

satellites moving under the influence of
forces such as

gravity

atmospheric drag

thrust etc.,

Sowmia / PSLV 6

Basic orbital parameters

Sowmia / PSLV 7

Review of Conics (Calculus of Trigonometry)

Properties of Conics

Circular
Elliptic
Parabola
Hyperbola

(Eccentricity e = 0)
(0<e<1)
(e=1)
(e>1)

Eccentricity is the ratio of Focus

off-centre to semi-major axis

Sowmia / PSLV 8

Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion:

Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)
Developed by Kepler based on the
precision measurements of Tycho
Brahe, that the moon and the planets
moves around the elliptical orbits
In 1609, Keplers 1st and 2nd law of
Planetary motion :
1st Law : The orbit of a planet is an
ellipse with the sun in one focal point
2nd Law : A line connecting the sun
and a planet sweeps equal areas
in
equal time intervals.
In 1619, Keplers 3rd law of Planetary
motion :
3rd Law : The squares of the planets
orbit period is proportional to the mean
distance to the sun to the third power.
The orbits of the artificial satellites around earth follow the same fundamental laws
Sowmia / PSLV 9

&

Is a also called Central Force

filed if m << M
Sowmia / PSLV 10

Equatorial plane

Sowmia
Sowmia
/ PSLV
/ PSLV
11

Vc

mV
=
r

Sowmia / PSLV 12

Circular orbit : F1 (Centrifugal force) = F2 (Gravitational Force of attraction)

mV2/r = GMm/r2
= GM = 398601 km3/s2

GM
Vc =

r
; r = RE + h = 6378.135 + 622 km

Vc for 622 km orbit is 7.546 km/s

Circular orbit

Sowmia / PSLV 13

VA

VP

o
o

Earth

rp
For Elliptical orbit, Velocity at any
instant is given as

ra

2 1
V =
r a

For 180 x 36000 km Elliptical orbit

a
= 24468.135 km
[0.5 x ((180+6378.135) + (36000+6378.135))]
rPerigee = 6558.135 km
rApogee = 42378.135 km
Velocity at Perigee altitude is VP = 10.26 km/s
Velocity at Apogee altitude is VA = 1.5877 km/s

Elliptical orbit

Sowmia / PSLV 14

Non-Returning Orbits :
v
Parabola
v
Hyperbola
* Semi major axis is unbounded
* Useful trajectories for Inter
Planetary Missions

Velocity required at Injection :

Vescape = v2 * Vc (For Parabolic orbit)
Escape velocity from Earth surface

Ve = v2 * 7.910 = 11.186 km/s from

surface of Earth (Without Drag Loss).
For 622 km altitude, Ve = 10.672 km/s
V > Ve ; It is a Hyperbolic orbit
Sowmia / PSLV 15

ELLIPSE

Vcircle

HYPERBOLA

V
CIRCLE

~ 7.8 km/s

Vparabola ~ 11.2 km/s

Vsev

~ 16.7 km/s

SEV-(Solar Escape
Velocity)

PARABOLA
Escape
Velocity

A SATELLITE IS AN OBJECT
WHICH
FALLS AROUND THE
EARTH

ELLIPSE

SATELLITES AND ORBITS

Sowmia / PSLV 16

Equation of central Force field wrt

Inertial frame of reference
2

d r
GMm
F = ma = m
=
dt
r This Equation is valid for uniform
gravitational filed and for absence of
d r
atmosphere and third body effects
+ =0
Also, this equation is valid only for m <<M
dt r
2

The above equation is 2nd order differential equation

with 3 degrees of freedom.

Requires 6 Initial values for propagation

Sowmia / PSLV 17

To define a orbit at any instant (i.e., Initial values for orbit

propagation), Following ANY ONE THE THREE sets are
required at specified time instant wrt some Reference
Frame.
v

6 components of state vector (3 Position

velocity components : x, y, z, u, v & w) ----- (A)

&

OR
v

Orbital or Keplers Elements (a, e, i, O, & u) --- (B)

OR

Flight parameters namely, Altitude, Inertial Velocity,

Flight path angle, Velocity Azimuth, Latitude &
Longitude (h, V, , Az, ? & O) ------ (C)

Note : From given any set values (A), other two set values (B or C)
can be derived and Vice Versa.
Sowmia / PSLV 18

Reference Frame for Definition of Orbital (Kepler) Elements

Towards North

Completes Right
Handed Triad

Y
Origin : At centre of Earth

Towards First

point of Aries ( )
(Vernal Equinox)
Note : Inertial Frame of reference frozen at specific time (Epoch)

ECI Frame : Earth Centered Inertial Frame

Sowmia / PSLV 19

Definition of Orbital (Kepler) Elements

v

Orbital elements (is also called Keplerian Elements),

Defines an Orbit, its Orientation about Earth and
place the satellite on the ellipse at a particular time.

Five Orbital Elements are needed to determine the

orbit Geometry (a, e, i, O, )
[ a & e : determines Size & Shape of the Orbit
i, O & : Determines physical orientation of the
orbit in space]

One more element is needed to calculate the

position of satellite in the orbit at any time.
Sowmia / PSLV 20

Orbital Elements
Semi-major axis

Defines the size of the orbit.

Eccentricity

Defines the shape of the orbit.

Inclination

Defines the orientation of the orbit with

respect to the Earth's equator.

Argument of Perigee

Defines where the low point, perigee, of

the orbit is with respect to the Earth's
surface.

Right Ascension of
the Ascending Node

Defines the location of the ascending

and descending orbit locations with
respect to the Earth's equatorial plane.

True Anomaly

Defines where the satellite is within the

orbit with respect to perigee.

Sowmia / PSLV 21

Definition of Ascending and Descending node

S/C orbit intersects Eq. plane at two points called Node

Ascending Node (when S/C cross Eq. Plane from South to North)
Descending Node (When S/C cross Eq. plane from North to South)
Z Orbital plane

Line joining Asc. & Desc. Node along

Eq. plane is called as Nodal Line

Desc. Node

?
Asc. Node Equatorial
plane

Sowmia / PSLV 22

Definition of Orbital (Kepler) Elements

RAAN (O ) Right Ascension of Ascending Node

Determines orientation of the nodal line and
Direction of S/C Movement.
Z

Orbital plane

Y
Equatorial
plane

Sowmia / PSLV 23

Definition of Orbital (Kepler) Elements

Argument of Perigee ( ) Angle between Line of

nodes and Perigee.

RAAN & Arg. of Perigee fixes orientation

orbit W.R.T. Frame of reference

of

the

Z
Orbital plane

Perigee
Direction

Equatorial
plane

Line of
Nodes

Sowmia / PSLV 24

Definition of Orbital (Kepler) Elements

Reference Epoch (T0) : At start of Orbit Propagation

True Anomaly at reference Epoch (u 0) :

Angle from Perigee to the satellite position at T0
Z

u0

Perigee
location

S/C Position at
Reference Epoch

Equatorial
plane

u0

+
Perigee
location

Line of
Nodes

Orbital plane

Sowmia / PSLV 25

Non-Uniform Gravity due to Earth Oblateness

Earth Gravity Potential can be expressed by Following Non-linear
function as

Gravity at any location (Lat & Long) is dependant on above

function as

At Equator : Radius = 6378.135 km ; g = 9.80665 m/s2

At Poles :
v

Radius = 6356.783 km

Effects of Earths Oblateness

*
Secular variations in ,
*
Short and long Periodic variations in all
orbital elements
Sowmia / PSLV 26

The fact that the Earth is not a sphere but an ellipsoid causes the orbit
of a satellite to be perturbed

J2 : Oblateness term

Due to J4

Form of Earth : Including all

Harmonics

J3 : Pear-Shaped
term

Due to J5

Form of Earth due to Harmonics

Sowmia / PSLV 27

Effect of Earth perturbations on satellite orbits

Secular variations in ,
Sowmia / PSLV 28

Brief introduction to special orbits:

1. Sun synchronous polar orbit (SSPO)
- Orbit precession rate
2. GSO : Geo-stationary orbit
3. GTO : Geo-stationary Transfer Orbit (GTO)
- Argument of Perigee constraints
4. Molniya Orbit
- Effect of Argument of perigee Drift

Sowmia / PSLV 29

Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit (SSPO)

- Orbit precession rate

The sun synchronous orbit can be defined as the orbit

in which the orbital plane rotates in a year in unison
with the one revolution / year apparent motion of the
sun.

The advantage of the sun synchronous orbit is that

the observation conditions can be kept with a
constant solar incident angle.
Sowmia / PSLV 30

Effect of non Sun-synchronous Polar orbit

Looking from Top view

Orbital plane
Night

Schematic position of Earth wrt Sun &

Polar Orbit with out Earth perturbations.
Orbit orientation (RAAN O) is fixed wrt
Reference frame.

P3

Day

SUN
P4

Angle between Sun-Earth & Orbital plane

makes different angle at each day. Implies
different sun illumination at every pass of
satellite & day. Comparison of different
day photograph is not feasible.

P2

Earth Position P1

Sowmia / PSLV 31

Sun-synchronous Orbit

Sowmia / PSLV 32

Sun-synchronous Orbit

Sowmia / PSLV 33

Sun-synchronous Polar orbit

Orbital plane

Angle between the satellite orbital

plane and the direction to the Earth
Sun remains constant

SUN

Rotational
direction of
orbital plane

North pole of
the Earth

Diagram of the sun-synchronous orbital

plane relative to the direction of the Sun

SSPO ENABLES REPEATED

OBSERVATIONS AT THE SAME
ILLUMINATION
Sowmia / PSLV 34

Processional rate or
Drift of Ascending node

Sowmia / PSLV 35

Prograde orbit

Retrograde orbit

Satellite has Easterly

Satellite has Westerly
velocity component
velocity component
Precession of Orbital Plane due to Earths Oblateness
Sowmia / PSLV 36

GSO : Geo-stationary orbit

The orbit with the same earth rotation rate (Orbital

period of 24 Hrs) is called an earth synchronous orbit
or geosynchronous orbit.

The geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero

deg (i = 0 deg) is called a geostationary orbit
because the satellite looks stationary over the
equator from a ground
surface view.

A Geostationary satellite is useful for covering wide

areas.
Many
meteorological
satellites
and
communication satellites are geosynchronous types.
Sowmia / PSLV 37

Arthur
Clarkes
Scheme

Geosynchronous
Orbit
Clarke Orbit
36,000 km

Satellite revolves at
same angular speed
as the earth

Visibility zones
of Satellites
Illustrating global
communication with the use
of three stationary satellites

GEO-STATIONARY ORBIT
FOR COMMUNICATION

Sowmia / PSLV 38

Sowmia / PSLV 39

Location of Geo-stationary Satellites of ISRO

GSAT-2 (480E)
INSAT-3E (550E)
INSAT-3C (740E)
Kalpana-1 (740E
GSAT-3 (740E))

INSAT-3A (93.50E)
INSAT-3B (830E)
INSAT-2E (830E)

Co-located

Sowmia / PSLV 40

GTO : Geo Synchronous Transfer Orbit

Launch Vehicle will place the communication satellites in GTO.
Orbital parameters at Injection :
Perigee & Apogee Altitude
Inclination & Argument of Perigee

Sowmia / PSLV 41

S/C Inclination for planar trajectory

i = Inclination of the Orbit
Az = Launch Azimuth at lift-off
L0 = Latitude of the launch site
Cos (i) = sin (Az) cos (L0)
For 102 deg Azimuth & SHAR as
Launch site, inclination of the orbit
Will be 17.8 deg.

Az

Sowmia / PSLV 42

Hohmann Transfer

?V2

Walter Hohmann - 1925

Minimum Energy Transfer
Change from one circular orbit
to another circular orbit using
Elliptical transfer.

?V1

Assumption : Instantaneous
Velocity (Impulse) addition.
?V1 = VEP VCA
?V2 = VCC VEA
VEP = V Elliptical at perigee altitude B
VCA = V Circular for orbit A
VCC = V Circular for orbit C
VEA = V Elliptical at Apogee altitude of B
Sowmia / PSLV 43

Hohmann Transfer
To Transfer from initial
circular parking orbit to
GSO
Perform first burn to
transfer to an elliptical
orbit which just touches
both circular orbits

GSO

Perform second burn to

transfer to final circular
GEO orbit

GTO

Initial Circular
Parking Orbit
Sowmia / PSLV 44

? V1
G
S
O

G
T
O

R = 42378 km

For 180 x 36000 km Elliptical orbit (GTO)

Velocity at Perigee altitude is VP = 10.26 km/s

VCA

Velocity at Apogee altitude is VA = 1.587 km/s

Required circular velocity at Apogee is
VCA = (398601/42378.135)0.5 = 3.067 km/s
Delta-V1 to be added to circularize at Apogee is 1.48 km/s

GTO to GSO

Sowmia / PSLV 45

Finite Burn Losses : Due to Low Thrust / Weight ratio

GTO to GSO using very small

thrusters like AOCS thrusters ( 22 N)

Finite burn losses :

Finite burn losses are

significant for ( T / W ) < 0.3
and has to be analyzed by
numerical simulations

Finite burn
exceed 20%

losses

may
Sowmia / PSLV 46

GTO : Effect of Inclination Correction :

Delta-V required for plane change alone
? V = 2 Vi sin(a/2)

?V required for a = 17.8 deg inclination

correction at apogee altitude is 0.491 km/s

(Valid only for plane change at Equator)

GTO plane

Vi is the velocity of the spacecraft at the instant

of plane change manoeuvre)
a is the Angle of plane change.

This imposes two constraints :

1. Minimum velocity point is THE OPTIMUM
Location for plane change

GSO plane

2. Minimum Energy required for plane

change at Equator.
Sowmia / PSLV 47

Plane change / Delta-V

addition location

Effect on i

Effect on RAAN

1. At Equator
2. At poles
3. At any location in orbit

i changes (opt)
No RAAN change
No i change
RAAN alone changes
Both i & RAAN changes respectively

A
i1

i2

O1 /
O2
Inclination & RAAN change

i1

i2

O
Inclination change alone
Sowmia / PSLV 48

Energy saving in
combined maneuvers for
GTO to GSO
dv2=Va2+Vs2-2*Va*Vs*cos(i)

Transfer orbit
Va (1.609 km/s )

Combined maneuver
Dv (1.831 km/s)

i = 28.5 deg
Circular orbit at GSO
Vs(3.0747 km/s )
For Separate Maneuvres :
1. Plane change manevure (For i Correction) DV1 = 0.791 km/s
2. Circularization Maneuver (Perigee raising) DV2 = 1.469 km/s
Total DV = 2.260 km/s

DV saving is 0.429 km/s

Sowmia / PSLV 49

Molniya Orbit
Apogee altitude = 39863 km
Perigee altitude = 504 km
Inclination = 63.4 deg
Period = 43082 s (Half day).

Devised by USSR to
provide features of
GSO
with
better
coverage
of
the
northern latitudes and
without large plane
change that would be
required from their far
northern launch sites
Launch from
Plesetsk, Russia in
due East direction
result in 62.8 deg
inclination orbit

Sowmia / PSLV 50

v Viewed from Earth fixed coordinates

orbit raises alternately above Eurasian
continent & North American continents.
v There is a 8 Hr period over the
Eurasian continent each day when North
American Continent is also in view.
v During
that
period,
a
single
spacecraft
can
serve
as
the
communication link between continents.

v A Constellation of Three
spacecrafts would provide a
continuous direct link.

Molniya Orbit
Sowmia / PSLV 51

Sowmia / PSLV 52

Orbit Perturbations

A satellite is always under the influence of disturbing forces,

that tend to deviate the satellite orbit from its true Keplerian
nature

The sources of these disturbing forces are many. Some of

them are,
v

Atmospheric Drag

Earths Oblateness

Solar Radiation

Third Body Perturbations

Sowmia / PSLV 53

Atmospheric Drag

Drag Force on
the satellite is

Drag Acceleration
on the satellite is

1
F = C V 2S
D
2 D
F
C S
1 D 2
D
a =
=
V

D
m
2 m

Drag Parameter of the satellite is

( Ballistic Coefficient )

C S
D
m

Drag force affects all orbital parameters except i and O.

Rate change of semi major axis value determines the life time of the spacecraft
Heavier the spacecraft, less is the drag.
Primary effects: Lowering semi-major axis
For Elliptical orbits apogee is decreased much more than perigee
For circular orbits, its an evenly-distributed spiral
Sowmia / PSLV 54

Dragging Down the ISS

Sowmia / PSLV 55

Earths Oblateness Effects

*
*

Secular variations in , (Given below)

Short and long Periodic variations in all
orbital elements

2
3
R
3
2i 1
= 1 J
Sin

3 2
0
2 2

2
2
2

a 1 e

3
R2
5

2
& = J
2 Sin i Effect
2
2 2 2
2

orbit
a 1 e

2
3
R
& = J

Cosi
Effect
2
2 2 2
a 1 e 2

is explained in Molniya

is explained in SSPO

Sowmia / PSLV 56

v Third body effects

Gravity from additional objects complicates matters
greatly
No explicit solution exists like the 2-body problem
Third body effects for Earth-orbiters are primarily due
to the Sun and Moon
Affects GEOs more than LEOs

v Solar radiation Pressure

Changes eccentricity of the orbit

Sowmia / PSLV 57

Station keeping in GEO

Three Major perturbations are :
1.
2.
3.
A.

Lunar Solar Perturbations

Earth oblateness effects (Ellipticity of equator )
Solar radiation pressure

North South Control

Perturbations due to Luni-Solar Gravity Effects :

Inclination will change at an initial rate of about 0.85

degrees per year. After 26.5 years the object would
have an inclination of 15 degrees, decreasing back to
zero after another 26.5 years.

A lot of energy has to be spent for maneuvers that

compensate this tendency.
Sowmia / PSLV 58

Figure of Eight (8) Ground Trace for an Inclined GSO

Longitude (deg)

Figure-8 Ground trace results from the motion of the

satellite around its orbit combined with the rotation of
Earth.

Sowmia / PSLV 59

GSO : North South Control

On-Orbit Time (Yrs)

Inclination variation for

first 10 years.

Change of the orbital plane by a north thrust, V>0.

The dashed line indicates the orbit before the thrust.

Sowmia / PSLV 60

Station keeping in GEO (Contd..)

B. East - West Control

Perturbations due to ellipticity of the Earth equator :

q
q

The ellipticity of the Earth equator is causing an EastWest drift if the satellite is not placed in one of the
stable (75 degrees longitude east, 105 degrees
longitude west) or unstable (11 degrees longitude west,
161 degrees longitude east) equilibrium points.
Period of satellite operation : up to 15 years
Typical Delta-V Required : 46 m/s per year
This implies requirement of Most fuel efficient
propulsion system (higher Isp system like Plasma / Ion
Thrusters)
Sowmia / PSLV 61

GSO : East West Station keeping:

Change in Longitude drift due to Earths gravity field

Sowmia / PSLV 62

GSO : East West Station keeping:

East burn with a three axis

stabilized spacecraft
Change in orbit due to an
East burn
Sowmia / PSLV 63

Effect of Solar radiation pressure on a Geo-Synchronous

Orbit satellites.

Induces systematic variations in Orbital eccentricity.

Effect will be smaller for Heavy satellites.

Orbital Eccentricity variations

Eccentricity vector shift
Sowmia / PSLV 64

Comparison of satellite orbits

Mission

Orbit Type

Semi-major Axis
(Altitude km)

Period

Inc.
(deg)

Other

Communications

Geo-stationary

42,164 (35,786)

24 hrs

~0

e0

Remote Sensing

Sunsynchronous

~ 6500-7300
(~150-900)

~90 min

~ 95

e0

Navigation (GPS)

Semi-Geo
synchronous

26,610 (20,232)

12 hrs

55

e0

Space shuttle

Low-Earth Orbit

~ 6700 (~300)

~90 min

28.5 or
57

e0

Communication /
Intelligence

Molniya

26,571 (rP=7971)
(ra=45,170)

12 hrs

63.4

= 270 deg
e = 0.7

ISS (International Circular /

Space Station
Elliptical

~ 6700 to 6800
( ~ 320 to 410)

51.6

ISS orbit inclination selected to meet both US Shuttle and

Russian Soyuz / Progress capability. (Due East Launch from
Baikonur gives 45.6 deg inclination, but range safety (china)
violation dictates, 51.6 deg inclination launch only)

Sowmia / PSLV 65

Orbital Motion: Reality is More

Complicated Than Two Body Motion

Thank you ALL !

Typical trajectory for Interplanetary Mission
Sowmia / PSLV 66