Understanding the Centrifugal Compressor Equipment Interaction

Many compressor operators often find difficulty in comprehending compressor behavior with respect to system
changes, particularly when coupled with other operational changes. An example is how to predict possible flow
increase when there is still some room for a speed increase. Where will the new operating point be if a change
is made will it shift along the constant pressure line to the right, along the system curve or along the
compressor curve itself? How are power consumption and efficiency predicted in such cases? For the benefit of
operators, compressor behavior with respect to the connected systems and related problems are presented for
common operating scenarios.
Fig. 1 shows a typical arrangement of a compressor operating in a process system. The compressor is taking
suction from a source, point A at pressure P1, and discharging at pressure P2 at point B into a process system
consisting of pipelines, valves and equipment. The gas is transported through this system to be delivered to
point C at pressure P3. The line pressure drop, (P2 P3), is usually denoted as P (delta P) of the system.

Fig. 1. Typical process compressor arrangement.

System curve. The plot of pressure drop versus flow gives the system curve (Fig. 2a). The total pressure drop
has two components, the superincumbent pressure or static pressure difference between points B and C, and
the dynamic pressure drop, i.e., the drop due to friction, velocity change, etc. The static pressure drop of any
system is constant and is independent of the flow through the system, whereas dynamic pressure drop varies
directly as the square of the velocity or flowrate.

Fig. 2a. Total pressure drop has two components.

The system curve is independent of the gas supply source or the equipment that is delivering gas into the
system. The curve remains unchanged unless any component of the system is changed, like opening a manual
or a control valve, pipe size change, etc. As a valve in the system is opened, flow increases, i.e., the pressure
drop decreases, shifting the system curve to the right (curve b in Fig. 2a). When the valve is throttled, the
system curve moves to the left (curve c).
Compressor curve basics. The flow, Q, head (or differential pressure, P) and speed, N, relationship of a
centrifugal compressor is very similar to that of a centrifugal pump (Fig. 2b). The major difference is that a
pump handles liquid, which is a noncompressible fluid. Hence, density and volumetric flow remain unchanged
throughout the flow process. A compressor handles only gas, which is compressible. As the pressure of a gas
stream changes during compression or flow, density or specific volume changes correspondingly.

Fig. 2b. Compressor operating limits are between surge

and stonewall.

As shown in Fig. 2b, centrifugal compressors have continuously falling pressure-flow characteristics. A family of
parallel curves represents compressor operation at different speeds. For a compressor operating at a constant
speed, the pressure increases as the flow decreases and vice versa. If reduction in flow continues, at one point
compressor operation becomes unstable and a momentary flow reversal takes place. This leads to a very rapid
pulsating flow backward and forward through the compressor internals, resulting in severe vibration and
consequent damage. This phenomenon is known as surge and the flow at which surge occurs is the surge
point for that particular speed. The surge point shifts to the right as speed increases (Fig. 2b). The line joining
the surge points of curves at different speeds is the compressor surge line. To avoid surge, compressors are
always operated at flows greater than surge point, i.e., at a reasonable distance to the right of the surge line.
As flow increases, a point is reached at the right-hand extreme of the compressor curve after which the flow
can not increase no matter what changes are made on the outlet side. This point is known as stonewall for the
compressor for that particular speed. Like the surge point, the stonewall point also shifts to the right as speed
increases (Fig. 2b). However, unlike surge, no adverse effect occurs to the compressor at the stonewall point.
Therefore, the operating regime of a compressor is confined between these two limits, i.e., surge and stonewall.
The set of curves including the limit lines is also known as the compressor operating map.
Relationship between compressor and system curves. When a compressor is connected to a system, the
operating point can be obtained by superimposing the system curve (Fig. 2a) on the compressor curve (Fig.
2b), resulting in Fig. 2c. The point at which the compressor curve for a particular speed meets the system curve
represents the compressor operating point for that speed. That means the compressor would deliver flow and
pressure corresponding to the intersection point in Fig. 2c. Under no circumstances can the compressor deliver
any other flow or pressure (at that speed), unless a change is made in the system. Only when some change is
made in the connected system (say, change in valve opening, pipe size, length, etc.), does the operating point
shift along the compressor curve. Otherwise, the compressor will continue to operate at that fixed flow and
pressure.

Fig. 2c. The operating point is obtained by superimposing

the system and compressor curves.
So, it can be noted that although a system is quite independent of its upstream source equipment, in this case
the compressor, compressor operation is very much dependent on its downstream connected system.

Compressor behavior in common applications. The figures shown later are only schematics of the most
common compressor configurations. They are neither complete in all details, nor do they represent all possible
configurations. Several variations and different control system arrangements are also possible, although not
shown here.
1. Single-speed compressor drive with suction / discharge pressure control. Fig. 3 shows the typical
arrangement of a single-speed (motor-driven) compressor. In this configuration, a compressor operates
similarly to a motor-driven pump. The compressor takes suction from the suction drum and discharge into the
piping system.

Fig. 3. In this configuration, a compressor operates similarly

to a motor-driven pump.
The main objective of any compressor control is to maintain a balance between discharge and incoming flows.
This is done by tracking pressure in the suction drum by means of a pressure controller, which regulates a
control valve mounted either on the suction or discharge line. In some installations, a pressure controller is also
installed on the compressor discharge line, which works in conjunction with the suction side pressure controller
through a signal selector or a microprocessor-based control module. In case of low pressure gas, it is more
common to provide the control valve on the discharge line.
Scenario 1.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. Consider that at a particular instance flow coming into
the drum drops. Outgoing flow being higher than incoming flow, suction drum pressure falls momentarily. The
pressure instrument mounted on the suction drum senses this drop. The pressure controller takes action by
closing the control valve on the discharge line (or suction line) to reduce the flow. As the control valve closes,
the system curve shifts to the left (Fig. 4a).

Fig. 4a. As the control valve closes, the system curve shifts
to the left.
Consequently, the operating point (a) also shifts to the left along the compressor curve to the point of
intersection (b) with the modified system curve, where the compressor flow equals the reduced incoming flow.
So, in this type of arrangement, compressor capacity control is achieved by shifting the system curve along the
compressor curve backward and forward, as shown by arrows in Fig. 4a.
Scenario 1.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. As incoming flow drops, the compressor will try to
find the operating point in the way described in scenario 1.1. If, however, flow drops below the surge control
point, the compressor surge control system sends a signal to the recycle valve (also called antisurge valve
(ASV), a quick-acting control valve) to open. Part of the outlet flow is then returned back to the suction side via
the ASV. Thus, the inlet flow (incoming + recycle) is never allowed to fall below the surge control point to avoid
surge (Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4b. Inlet flow is never allowed to fall below the surge
control point.

In this case both the ASV and pressure control valves mounted on the compressor discharge line take action
simultaneously, i.e., the former opens and the latter closes.
Scenario 1.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. In most of these cases, the online valve at the
consumer end is throttled, either manually or through the process control system, to achieve the desired flow
reduction. For example, in case of gas supply to a boiler, heater or gas turbine, the control valve at the inlet of
the equipment is throttled matching the equipment load. The valve may even close if the equipment trips. This
event in effect changes the system curve, shifting the operating point to the left until the desired lower flow is
achieved (similar to scenarios 1.1 and 1.2). The control valve on the compressor outlet line will, however, open
instead of closing, in contrast with scenarios 1.1 and 1.2. The reverse phenomenon follows when gas demand
increases. The same control sequence would also follow when gas is to be delivered to a consumer at a
constant pressure.
In summary, for all single-speed compressors, variation in flow is achieved only by varying the system curve
position backward and forward. The operating point shifts along the compressor curve, as shown in Figs. 4a to
c.

Fig. 4c. The online valve at the consumer end is throttled to

achieve the desired flow reduction.
2. Variable-speed compressor drive with speed controller. Fig. 5 shows a general arrangement of a
compressor driven by a gas turbine driver. The compressor control module varies gas turbine speed through
the speed control module, matching the process requirement.

Fig. 5. The compressor control module varies gas turbine

speed.
As explained earlier, the system curve is independent of the compressor curve and the points at which the
system curve cuts the set of compressor curves are the corresponding operating points at different speeds. The
speed is changed by a variable-speed driver to achieve varying flowpressure requirements. The driver is often
a gas or steam turbine, although variable-speed electric motors are also used in certain cases. In this type of
arrangement, a pressure controller mounted on the suction line controls the speed of the variable-speed driver.
In some installations, pressure controllers mounted on both suction and discharge lines control the driver speed
through a signal selector. Microprocessor-based advanced compressor control systems are also used instead
of a simple PID controller.
Scenario 2.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. As in the case of a single-speed compressor, here also
compressor suction and discharge controllers are used through a low-signal selector or a compressor control
module to modulate the driver speed. As the incoming flow to the suction drum decreases, compressor suction
pressure decreases. The pressure controller on the suction side detects this pressure drop and sends a signal
to the driver (turbine) to slow down until a new operating point is reached where the discharge flow equals the
reduced incoming flow (point a to b in Fig. 6a).

Fig. 6a. The pressure controller sends a signal to the driver

to slow down.
In this case the system curve remains unchanged. Only the operating point shifts down along the system curve,
unlike in the similar scenario using a single-speed drive (1.1) where the operating point moves along the
compressor curve (note the difference).
Scenario 2.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. In case of a variable speed compressor, if the
incoming flow decreases below the surge control point, the compressor first slows down similarly to scenario
2.1. The operating point starts to shift down along the system curve until the minimum sustainable speed is
reached (Fig. 6b). If the corresponding flowrate is still not reached, the surge control valve begins to open along
the minimum speed curve. The surge control valve continues to open until the sum of forward and recycle flow
is equal to the flow corresponding to the intersection point of the system and compressor curves (at the
minimum operating speed).

Fig. 6b. The operating point starts to shift down along the
system curve.

system curve.
It should be noted that under certain circumstances like this, the ASV might open even when the discharge flow
is higher than the surge flow at the minimum speed. However, this sequence of control takes place only if the
speed controller and the driver are fast enough to respond and rectify the changing condition. If the flow change
is very rapid, the fast-acting antisurge control system acts through the ASV ahead of the speed controller to
save the compressor from surging.
Scenario 2.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. As in the case of a single-speed compressor, the
system curve also moves to the left due to throttling of the consumer valve(s) to achieve flow reduction. The
suction pressure controller now starts sending a signal for the driver to slow down. The operating point moves
horizontally from point a to be along the fixed-pressure line until it meets the compressor curve at a speed that
corresponds to the reduced flowrate (Fig. 6c). If the flow increases the reverse phenomenon takes place.

Fig. 6c. The operating point moves horizontally from point

a to point b.
Scenario 2.4: Compressor delivers at a fixed pressure to consumer; set pressure changed. When the
compressor is connected to a piping system to deliver gas at a constant pressure to a consumer, the static
pressure difference (P2 P3) in Figs. 1, 2a and 2c remains constant. In fact, in all the scenarios described, this
difference is assumed to be constant. Now, if the pressure setting at the consumer end is lowered, the static
pressure curve in Fig. 2a moves down (Fig. 6d). Correspondingly, the system curve also shifts down to the
right, although its slope remains unchanged. The shifted system curve now meets the compressor curve at a
new location on the right-hand side of the original point. This means flow increases as discharge pressure
decreases. However, if the flow coming to the compressor suction drum is not increased at the same rate (say,
due to nonavailability of excess gas), suction pressure would drop. The lower suction pressure triggers the
pressure controller to take effect through the compressor control system to slow down the compressor. Thus,
the operating point shifts along the new system curve to meet the new speed curve at a point where the flow
equals the incoming flow. The reverse happens when the pressure is increased.

Fig. 6d. If the compressor setting at the consumer end is

lowered, the static pressure curve moves down.
In summary, when a compressor is driven by a variable-speed drive (gas turbine, steam turbine, etc.), the
operating point may shift either along the compressor curve, the system curve, the fixed pressure line, or a
combination of them depending on the nature of change as discussed. This is quite different from a compressor
driven by a single-speed drive (electric motor) described earlier.
3. Gas molecular weight changes.
Scenario 3.1: MW decreases. Change in hydrocarbon gas composition, hence in molecular weight (MW), is
quite common. Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure from the same compressor at the same speed.
The compressor curve shifts down as shown in Fig. 7. The compressor in this case will speed up automatically,
through the suction / discharge pressure controller, to develop the same pressure (point b back to a). If the
compressor is already at its maximum sustainable speed (say, at 105% of rated speed as per API), the
compressor flow drops to a value corresponding to the intersection point of the system and the new compressor
curves (point b).

Fig. 7. Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure.

This flow reduction may eventually increase the suction pressure, as the compressor cannot cope with all the
incoming gas. The excess gas may then start to escape to the vent or flare, even though all operating
conditions may appear unchanged. This phenomenon of gas escaping to flare is often experienced in process
plants. If gas from a compressor suction drum is suddenly found going to flare when the compressor is running
normally at its full speed, MW reduction is often the first suspect.
This problem is also faced when a compressor rated to handle heavy saturated gas is operated in recycle mode
for a long period through an aftercooler. The gas continues to become leaner due to cyclic compression and
cooling, resulting in lower discharge pressure. At this point, if the compressor has to feed forward, it fails to
develop the required discharge pressure. The recycle valve still remains partly open, returning some gas to
suction side. The incoming gas starts to escape to flare from the suction drum, unless the vicious cycle is
interrupted manually. Sometimes while a compressor is running in recycle mode, light seal gas leaks through
worn out seals into the compressor casing, which may result in a similar problem.
Scenario 3.2: MW increases. Conversely, an increase in MW results in a higher discharge pressure. The
compressor curve shifts up for the same speed. The net result is an increase in compressor flow, of course, if
additional gas is available. If not, the compressor is slowed down by the suction / discharge pressure controller.
In case of a single-speed compressor, flow is directly reduced by throttling the control valve on the discharge
(or suction) line.
Impact of MW variation on compressor stability. Note that unlike the effects of suction pressure and
temperature variations, MW change has a much greater effect on performance and, hence, compressor
stability. This effect is more visible on multistage compressors. When MW increases, the initial stage(s) may be
operating at the rated (or increased) flow, but subsequent stages may be operating at progressively lower flow
due to higher pressure from the preceding stage. The flow in some of these stages may drop below the surge
point even when the inlet flow to the compressor is much higher than the surge point. Incidentally, reducing MW
does not have the reverse effect, i.e., it does not enhance compressor stability.
Going to extremes, change in MW may decrease compressor stability to such an extent that when some stages
are at surge, others in the same compressor may be at stonewall. Conventional compressor control and surge

protection systems fail to detect such instability. The compressor map provided in the control system no longer
holds good as the flow-pressure-speed relationship is altered by the change in MW.
This, however, should not give an impression that compressors can operate only at a fixed (rated) MW.
Compressor design normally allows operation over a certain MW range without running into surge in any stage
(usually, there is enough distance between the surge and normal operating points). In case of a substantial
change in MW, compressor performance and stability should be reassessed, preferably with the assistance of
the compressor vendor.
4. Compressor flow increases beyond rating. If the driver (motor, steam or gas turbine) is sufficiently large
and sufficient inlet gas is available, it may often be possible to derive somewhat higher throughput from a
compressor without being unduly overloaded. The throughput is increased automatically by the control system
for reasons described earlier. MW change is one main reason; the other being actual system pressure drop
lower than estimated in design. Lower destination pressure or higher suction pressure may also cause a flow
increase, often to the operators benefit. In all these cases, the system curve shifts to the right to meet the
compressor curve at a higher flowrate. This is true for both single- and variable-speed compressors.
If all other compressor and driver operating parameters are within acceptable limits (below alarm and trip
points) and MW variation is within the specified design range, such operation at increased flowrate is not
expected to cause any instability or mechanical problem in the compressor. The operating point in this case is
well within the compressor design operating regime.
Barring the question of efficiency, a centrifugal compressor like a centrifugal pump can be operated
anywhere on its curve between surge point (or surge control line, SCL) and stonewall by shifting the system
curve, provided the driver is adequately sized. However, if the increase is due to a change in MW where the
compressor curve itself shifts, this should be limited to the specified MW variation range. In fact, during a
factory acceptance test (FAT), compressors are actually operated at varying flowrates within the compressor
map range to verify the developed pressure and other parameters.
Besides the above many other scenarios are possible. It is not possible to identify and discuss them all
separately. However, some of the common scenarios and problems presented will help to understand and
interpret the behavior of many others not described here.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Compressor Handbook for the Hydrocarbon Processing Industries, Gulf Publishing Co., Book Division.
Lapina, Ronald P., Estimating Centrifugal Compressor Performance, Volume-1.
Pichot, Pierre, Compressor Application Engineering, Volume-1.