National Art Education Association

Bridging the Theory-Practice Divide in Contemporary Art Museum Education

Author(s): Melinda M. Mayer
Source: Art Education, Vol. 58, No. 2 (Mar., 2005), pp. 13-17
Published by: National Art Education Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27696060
Accessed: 04-08-2015 18:28 UTC
REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/27696060?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

National Art Education Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Education.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 63.117.124.116 on Tue, 04 Aug 2015 18:28:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

thatisunprecedented
tor^Wrenallenge

"w
,^^j^^B(^^^B|H|ffau

was knownregarding
how
Where nottoo longago little
I inthefield.
people learninthemuseum,nowmultipletheorieshave emerged(Falk
& Dierking1992,2000;Hein 1998;Roberts,1997;Yenawine,1988).New
Thedilemmaforartmuseumeducatorsis
theoriesbreednewpractices.

to selectthetheoryand craftthepracticethatwill promotemeaningful

who canbe anyonefromchildrento
experiencesforvisitors,
learning
senior citizens.

This predicament of aligning theory

and practice points to thematuration of
thefield of artmuseum education, which
was criticized inthe 1980s for its lack of
grounding ineducational theory (Eisner &
Dobbs, 1986). Now, the contemporary art
museum

educator

has

access

to various

theories of learningas well as emerging

teaching strategies.Although K-12 art
educators experienced shifts innotions
of learningduring the lastdecades of the
20th century,the focus inthis article is art
museum

education.

in
Art

The challenge forK-12 art educators

and artmuseum educators is different
due to themore structured character of
school learning and the narrower range of
ages. On what basis, therefore,should art
museum educators decide the theoretical
foundation of their teaching?Once having
made that choice, what are the difficulties
involved in translating that theory into
good practice? Before takingup these
questions, some context regarding
teaching in the artmuseum is needed.

Museum

Contemporary
Education

MARCH 2005

This content downloaded from 63.117.124.116 on Tue, 04 Aug 2015 18:28:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

/ ART EDUCATION

13

Prior to developing knowledge

learn

regarding how people

art museum
educators

their

focused

on what

more

attention

and how

influence

they

of museum

visitors.

of art museum

content

obvious?the

seemed

Providing

educational programs that elucidated

and illuminated theworks of art in the
collections was thebasis of teaching
(Excellence and Equity, 1992). Art
museum

were

educators

to

expected

pass along the art historical information

provided to themby themuseum's
the curators.
The discipline
researchers,
a deter
of art history, therefore, played

To figure
educators

looked to sources beyond arthistory.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, art

museum
such

educators

explored
increasingly
fields as communication
theory and

educational psychology inorder to create

effective,

interactive

teaching

techniques.

Whether developing questioning strate

gies designed to stimulate higher order
thinkingskills or differentiatinggallery
teaching for themultiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1983) of artmuseum visitors,
these

strove

educators

to teach

not only

about theircollections, but also inways

thatmade the experience of themuseum
to visitors.
personally
meaningful
Museum
education
programs
provided

background informationon the artistand

work,

introduced

cultural

contexts,

defined useful vocabulary, cultivated the

looking skills of visitors, facilitated inter

pretation,

and

visitors

enabled

to make

connections between their lives and the

artworks (Yenawine, 1988).While art

museum
on what

educators
to teach

focused
and how

their practice
to teach,

researchers attempted to identifyhow

learn inmuseums.1
As was
the
people
case in art education
at large, throughout

the late 1980s and into the 1990s the

results of research appeared in the
burgeoning literatureofmuseum
education.
current

museum

14

Here,
theories

then,
and

is an overview

strategies

museum

is

educators

Writers

and

of education

researchers
draw

the

upon

work of such educational psychologists

as JohnDewey, Jean Piaget, and Lev
Vygotsky in formulatingconstructivism.
The most thoroughpresentation of a
constructivist

theory

for museums

is

Museum
George Hein's Learning in the
(1998). Hein writes thatvisitors construct
knowledge bymaking connections
between their lives and the objects they
inmuseums.

encounter

the

Moreover,

meanings visitors derive fromtheir

mining role in the content of educational

in the art museum.
experiences
out how to teach, art museum

areas

inmany

The

teaching

collection.

among

constructivism.

should teach than on the learning

processes

Fostering Aesthetic

Constructivism
A theoryof learning that is gaining

inmuseums,

in the museum,

experience

which

not curatorially,

the museum

develops

inworks

and meaning

content

ships,

of

of artworks.

understandings

Housen and Yenawine believe thatmost

art museum

visitors,

young

or old, are

naturally

do when

beginning viewers?Stage I (Accountive)

and Stage II (Constructive). Supporting
what

these

viewers

interpretingimages plus enabling them to

grow should be the objective of the art
in selecting

educator

and

Hein advocates thatboth educators and

exhibition designers develop practices
that facilitate thisnormal learning

appropriate questions, and facilitating

process.

constructivism,

Two

essential

constructivist

features
learning.

are requisite
First,

to

learning

process.

Second,

what

is learned

must be confirmed not throughexternal

criteria of the discipline, such as art
history,but through thevisitor's own
sense-making

mechanism.

is in

Relevance

the lifeof the beholder.

Constructivistmuseum pedagogy
provides visitorswith many different
interactive learning opportunities through
which visitors could make meaningful
connections between objects and their
own

lives. Experiences

lation,

experimentation

conclusions

also would

that invited

specu

and coming
be provided.

to

Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS), the

approach to teachingwith works of art
initiatedbyAbigail Housen and Philip
is an example

artworks,

sequencing

employing

reflection.

observation-based

learners

the

As with

are active

as

they

consider multiple points ofview and use

evidence

the partici

pantmust be actively engaged in the

Yenawine

to confirm

observations.

As

does Hein (1998), Housen and Yenawine

use thewritings of cognitive psychologist
Lev Vygotsky concerning the social
dimension of learning to informVTS.

What

is learned must be

confirmed not through

external criteria of the
discipline, such as art
history, but through the
sense

visitor's

own

making

mechanism.

of a construc

tivistmethod of learning in the art

of

visual

art (Yenawine, 2003). The goal of teaching

throughVTS is to enable visitors to build

museum

generated.

visitors'

literacy?the ability to interpretrelation

their own

can be

stimulated by all aspects of themuseum,

not just the art, are determined not by the
aims of exhibition designers, but by the
goals thevisitors hold. Even in themost
overtlydidactic exhibition, the
knowledge visitorswalk away with is
personally,

Development
Housen's (1987) interest in thenature
of learning inartmuseums dates back to
the 1970s.Through extensive research on
aesthetic learning she developed a stage
theoryregarding aesthetic development.
Housen and Yenawine used this theoryto
create Visual Thinking Strategies.
Through guided questioning, VTS

museum.

of

learning.

ART EDUCATION / MARCH 2005

This content downloaded from 63.117.124.116 on Tue, 04 Aug 2015 18:28:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

While

and Yenawine's

Housen's

research on VTS is ongoing, theirrecent

studies (Housen, 2002) provide evidence
their

used

of transfer?students

increasing visual literacy inother

disciplines. VTS curriculum is applied
primarily in schools, yet artmuseum
educators appear tobe adopting itmore
broadly than theydidwhen VTS firstwas
introduced to the field in the 1990s.

The Contextual Model of

on museum

First, theyexpanded our understanding

of the context of learning in themuseum
beyond the object throughcreating the
Contextual Model of Learning (CML).
Second, having articulated thismodel,
Falk and Dierking are among the first
to propose

researchers

that visitors

studies

evaluation

conducted

by

Falk, Dierking, and theirassociates since

the 1980s. CML framesvisitor learning as
occurring through the overlapping and
of the personal,

contexts

interacting

and physical.

sociocultural

Museum

context

within

cultural

of experience.

frameworks,

visitors

experience

of cultural

and

of the museum

can

These

three

the museum
social

experi

include

contexts

every

provide

thematrix throughwhich visitors learn in

themuseum and should be taken into
account

in educational

programming.

Falk and Dierking are key figures in

defining and theorizing free-choice
learning
reading

for museum

a newspaper

educators.
or surfing

compatible.

educators

visitors

pursue

sometimes

their own means,

through

whereas the goals and objectives of

Like

and untried

researched

and clear statement of thisapproach for

museum

education.

The long-heldnotion that thepurpose

of museums

is to reveal

historical

infor

mation through the display of objects is

turned on itshead inRoberts's book. She
points out that the knowledge imparted
a story, an
always was
Roberts
contends,
story.
that learning occurs when

in the museum
"official"

the

Internet,the learning thatvisitors acquire

in themuseum is directed through their

is

to

for educators

a thoroughly

presents

however,
visitors

create

their own

she

Moreover,

suggests that the simple recognition that

these

are not

narratives

institutional

complete could open teachingpractice to

the fullerparticipation of themuseum

recent

in the museum

make in craftingpractice. InFrom

Knowledge toNarrative (1997), Lisa
Roberts

forward.

Some

than constructivism,

set of choices

role

tives

they put

the narra

in presenting

the museum's

Emerging Approaches

the influenceof literarytheoryon

museum education. With the influxof
literarytheory into the field comes
another

to consider

professionals

visitor.

are completely

learning

narra

meaningful

theuse of practices thatmake apparent

One way

distinguish the two isby noting thata

museum educator might have established
objectives in constructivist teaching that

recent

many

thing fromthebuilding and itsgalleries to

the parking lot,giftshop, restaurant,and
bathrooms.

learning
museum

them construct

invites museum

free-choice

Somewhat parallel in effect,yetmore

ence within themuseum constitutes the

sociocultural context. The physical
context

and

approach.

tives?Although she does not suggest

specific teaching techniques, Roberts

of schools.

are quite

art

What are the consequences to teaching in

themuseum? What do visitors need to
help

LiteraryTheory

with friends,family,or a group. This

combination

museum

education and distinguished itfromthe

learning

of this narrative

implications

determined by thevisitors.

Additionally,while museums present

cultural content and are experienced
museum

looking

characterized

the new

with

correspondence

supplants the notion of informal learning,

once

literary

histories (Moxey, 1991;Bal & Bryson,

1994).
In the closing chapter o?From
Knowledge toNarrative, Roberts (1997)
challenges educators to consider the

and interests.
choices, motivations,
In some respects
free-choice
learning

which

upon

Drawing

learning.

theoryalso brings Roberts work into

own

free-choice

visitors bringwith them theirown

personal

museum

at artworks.

Constructivism

environment.

The CML grew out of the research and

museum

and

thoughts,

constructivist

theory.Wolfgang Iser'swork in reader

response theory,a branch of literary
theory thatclaims the reader rather than
the author determinesmeaning, played a
significantrole inRoberts's view of

with theworks of art

formal

engage infree-choice learningwhen in

the museum

own

one's

not unlike

themselves,

within the privacy of

learning while

is twofold.

learning

occurring dialogues?
those with partners,

themselves?stimulate

Learning
The contribution of JohnFalk and
Lynn Dierking (1992,2000) to the
discourse

onwhat theysee. Interpretationis shaped

asmuch by the lifeexperience visitors
bring toviewing objects as by theworks

Three simultaneously

narratives

based

to learning
approaches
also draw upon
literary

theory.McKay and Monteverde (2003)

present thenotion of dialogic looking as
an alternative to the facilitated educa
tional

to museum

offered

experiences

visitors.While itwould appear that

dialogic looking ismore of a strategythan
a theoryof learning, it isbased on
Bakhtin's

or many
of heterglossia
comes
out of socio

theory

voicedness,

which

linguistics.When applied to viewing

works

of art inmuseums,

classrooms

or

daily life,dialogic looking is a three-fold

to meaning-making.

approach

three

approach,

simultaneously

dialogues?those
the privacy

In this
occurring

with partners,within

of one's

own

thoughts,

and

with theworks of art themselves?

stimulate learningwhile looking at
artworks.

MARCH 2005 / ART EDUCATION

This content downloaded from 63.117.124.116 on Tue, 04 Aug 2015 18:28:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

15

Like Roberts, Reese (2003) and

Garoian (2001) propose a narrative

Calling the Question

to learning in the museum.

approach
They write of viewers
creating meaning
as they "perform" the museum.
Five
are performed
contexts
in an intertextual

decide upon what basis to craft their

teaching practice? In reflectingon the

dialogue

when

visitors

narra

construct

tives inartmuseum exhibitions. Visitors

perform (1) perception, (2) autobiography,
(3)museum culture, (4) the institution,
and (5) interdisciplinarity.
Visitors are
empowered to both create theirown
meanings and reflectcriticallyupon those
being presented to them inexhibitions
through thispedagogy.
In addition to the theories of learning
identified

above,

museum

educators

are

definingadult learningas distinct from

child learning (Sachatello-Sawyer et al.,
2002). Like theircolleagues in the
schools,

art museum

educators

also want

to develop teaching strategies that are

responsive

of culture,

to diverse
ethnicity,

audiences
gender,

age,

in terms
and

disability.With thisplethora of theories

and strategies to choose from,knowing
how to teach in themuseum is not an
easy

task.

How

some

choices,

visitors.

art museum

should

common

factors

that could guide educators. The

researchers

and

educators

emerge

above

drew

from constructivist

Museum

process.

circumstances.

Falk and Dierking (2000) as well as

Roberts (1997) remindus thatvisitors go
but enter

reasons,

learning

as a leisure

to museums

these

Furthermore,

activity.
assert

researchers

thatalthough visitorswant themuseum

to be memorable,

experience

they also

want itto be enjoyable. Itwould behoove

viewer-centered.

museum

the visiter

Furthermore,

meaning-making.

The use of constructivismby K-12

and art specialist

generalist

on curators

could

also

be

factors

inguiding practice. When giving tours to

school

groups,

art museum

educators

could align theirmethods with teachers

Alternatively,
through constructivism.
"new" art historians
write about
the
narratives

multiple
when

that viewers

at artworks.

looking

consistency

An art museum

to interpretation

Visitors come to the

museum

by choice and
stay for the length of
time they choose. Yetf

making is importantin the theories or

strategies put forwardbyHousen and

the bridge traversing

the theory-practice

with

inmeaning

of conversation

and McKay
and
Monteverde.
By favoring conversation
inmuseums
rather than
among visitors
Yenawine,

Roberts,

these educators
experts,
recognize
that meaningful
learning occurs when

visitors' interpretationsbuild on the

comments
group,

and

of a social

conversations

as Vygotsky

asserted.

Although Falk and Dierking draw upon

Vygotsky'swork when theydiscuss the
sociocultural context, it isnoteworthy
that free-choice learning is theorized
based on small peer or familygroupings,
rather

than on large organized

tours

such

as school field trips.Falk and Dierking's

years of visitor study inmuseums of all
kinds revealed thatmost visitors come to
museums in small groups. This habit
indicates

that free-choice

learning

while

they learn.

Although most of the theories and strate

gies presented here are complex, theyput
themuseum visitor rightin themiddle of
meaning making. Such theories promise
enticing educational experiences that
make itpossible forvisitors toproduce
theirown insightsand discoveries about
life, and art.

themselves,

create

and teachingwithin the institution.The

importance

to consider

therefore,

experience

pleasurable

as

teachers

well as the influenceof the new art

histories

educators,

how the theories theysubscribe to and

themethods theydevise offervisitors a

should be an active participant in

structural

Bridging Theory and Practice

What are the difficulties involved in

translatingtheory intogood practice once
the choice of learning theories has been
made? While itwould seem that the
relationship of theoryand practice inart
museum

?theory

education

should

be

inseparable

informingpractice and practice

can become
quite
theory?they
reforming
educators
distant from each other. When
embrace

new

theoretical

be extremely
alize

it can
positions,
to reconceptu

challenging
and oft-practiced
comfortable

teaching

methods,

redefine

concepts,

and

interrogateone's longheld beliefs and

values regardingwhat is importantto

a new set of goals and

teach. Layering
on old methods
does not trans
objectives
or learning. As a result, a
form teaching
between
chasm can emerge
widening

theoryand practice and thepromise of

exciting new learningopportunities for
visitors can be lost.Negotiating this
divide can be both perplexing and
deceptive.

strate

gieswould be a good choice forwalk-in

16

for many

should not be discipline-centered, but

educator who devises teachingmethods

that fostermultiple narratives brings

divide also may be

visitor choice.

and Monteverde's

tainmentand enjoyment is a primary

motivating factor.They represent visits

and literarytheory.Both of these areas

assert the centralityof theperson in the
learning

these

to museums

who

developed the theories and strategies

presented

McKay

dialogic looking also appears suitable in

educators

ART EDUCATION / MARCH 2005

This content downloaded from 63.117.124.116 on Tue, 04 Aug 2015 18:28:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

To furthercomplicate themuseum
educators'

is the way

come

Unlike

challenge
to the museum.

visitors

the struc

turedregularityof learning in schools, art

museum

occurs

education

only occasion

ally.Even a class field tripto an art

museum

occurs

generally

only once

year (Falk & Dierking, 2000). As Falk and

Dierking remindus through thename of
the approach
they embrace, museum
of free choice.
learning is largely a matter
come to the museum
Visitors
by choice

and stay for the lengthof time they

choose. Yet, thebridge traversing the
theory-practicedivide also may be visitor
choice. Good theoryshould lead to

museum

education

practices

that enable

visitors tomake illuminatingand

personally meaningful choices when
interpreting

works

of art.

Melinda M. Mayer isAssistant

Professor in theDivision ofArt
Education and ArtHistory, University
ofNorth
mayer@unt.

Texas,

Dent?n.

E-mail:

edu

REFERENCES
Bal, M. and Bryson, N. (1991). Semiotics
art history. The Art. Bulletin,
73(2),
175-208.

and

Eisner, E. W. and Dobbs, S. M. (1986). T?ie

on
uncertain profession:
Observations
the state of museum
?ducation
in twenty
A?neiican
published
Education

art museums.

(A report
by The Getty Center for
in the Arts.)

Falk, J. H. & Dierking, L. D. (1992). The

museum
DC:
experience. Washington,
Whalesback
Books.
Falk, J.H. & Dierking, L. D. (2000). Learning
Visitor experiences
and
from museums:
themaking
ofmeaning. Walnut Creek, CA:
AltaMira

Press.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames

theory ofmultiple
Basic Books.

K. (1994) The practice

of theory:
cultural politics, and art
Postructuralism,
history. Ithaca and London: Cornell

Moxey,

ofmind:

intelligences.

The
New York:

Garoian, C.R. (2001). Performing the museum.

in AH Education.
Studies
42 (3), 234-248.
in themuseum.
Hein, G. E. (1998). Learning
and New York: Routledge.
A. (1987). Three methods
for under
audiences. Museum
standing museum

London
Housen,

1-11.
Studies Journal, Spring-Summer,
Housen, A. C. (2002). Aesthetic
thought,
critical thinking and its transfer. Arts and
Leam
ing Joumal.
18(1),

University Press.
E. B. (2003). Art takes me

Reese,

Engaging
members
processes
Education.

there:

the narratives

of community
through interpretive exhibition
and programming. Art

56 (1), 33-39.
to
Roberts, L. (1997). From knowledge
narrative: Educators
and the changing
museum.

Washington,
Institution Press.

DC:

Smithsonian

Sachatello-Sawyer,
B., et al. (2002) Adult
museum
programs: Designing
experiences. Walnut Creek,
meaningful
CA: AltiMira

Press.

Yenawine, P. (1988). Master

teaching in an art
museum.
InPatterns
in practice
(1992).
Washington, DC: Museum Education
Roundtable.
Yenawine,

P. (2003).

Jump starting visual

56(1), 6-12.

literacy, Art Education,

ENDNOTE
of museum
Researchers
learning come
all parts of the museum world?science

from

children's museums,
centers, history museums,
etc.
zoos, botanic gardens, art museums,

S. W. & Monteverde,
S. R. (2003).
looking: Beyond the mediated
Dialogic
56 (1), 40-45.
experience. Art Education,

McKay,

?S?lUfS
?m^Mm

mm

MARCH 2005

This content downloaded from 63.117.124.116 on Tue, 04 Aug 2015 18:28:43 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

/ ART EDUCATION

17