TLIC3607A - Apply Safe Driving Behaviours - Learner Guide

TLIC3607A Apply safe
driving behaviours
Learner Guide
Contents
What this Learner’s Guide is about ........................................ 2
Planning your learning ........................................................... 3
Section 1............................................................................................. 4
Road law in Victoria ............................................................... 4
Section 2........................................................................................... 49
Driving Techniques .............................................................. 49
Section 3........................................................................................... 60
Driving Techniques, Observation Skills and Risk Factors.... 60
Section 4........................................................................................... 73
Human Perception and Decision Making ............................. 73
Section 5........................................................................................... 87
Evasive Action...................................................................... 87
TLIC3607A Apply safe driving behaviours
© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

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What this Learner’s Guide is about
This learning guide is about the skills and knowledge required to apply high-‐
level safe driving skills to enable drivers to apply safe driving behaviours. This
includes higher order skills, such as hazard perception, risk control and safe
driving judgment, decision making and multi-‐tasking.
The Elements of Competency from the unit TLIC3607A Apply safe driving
behaviours covered in this Learner’s Guide are listed below.
Define and apply safe driving behaviours
Interpret and apply low-‐risk driving strategies
Interpret and apply road rules applicable to safe driving
Manage collision when driving a vehicle
This unit of competency is from the Transport and Logistics Training Package
(TLI07).
ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

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Planning your learning
It is important to plan your learning before you start because you may already
have some of the knowledge and skills that are covered in this Learner’s
Guide. This might be because:
1. you have been working in the industry for some time, and/or
2. you have already completed training in this area.
Together with your supervisor or trainer use the checklists on the following
pages to help you plan your study program. Your answers to the questions in
the checklist will help you work out which sections of this Learner’s Guide you
need to complete.
This Learner’s Guide is written with the idea that learning is made more
relevant when you, the learner, are actually working in the industry. This
means that you will have people within the enterprise who can show you
things, discuss how things are done and answer any questions you have. Also
you can practise what you learn and see how what you learn is applied in the
enterprise.
If you are working through this Learner’s Guide and have not yet found a job
in the industry, you will need to talk to your trainer about doing work
experience or working and learning in some sort of simulated workplace.

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Section 1
Road law in Victoria

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What Laws do I need to be aware of?
The movement of pedestrians, vehicles, passengers and freight on public
roads in Victoria is governed under the Road Safety Act, and the corresponding
Road Safety Regulations. The purpose of these laws is to ensure a safe
environment for all road users, while maintaining efficient and diverse use of
this limited public resource.
Readers should also bear in mind that movement and transport on our roads
are also controlled under other laws and acts such as the Dangerous Goods
Act, the Environment Protection Act and the Occupational Health and Safety
Act, as well as the regulations and by-‐laws of various government and local
authorities. Drivers who intend to engage in the transport of goods or
passengers should ensure that requirements of these other acts are also met.
Intersections
An intersection is where two or more highways meet.
Intersection: boundaries
Where two or more highways meet at cross roads: junctions of property lines;
Where two or more highways meet not at cross roads: prolongations of the
property lines;
Where property lines are not defined the area where vehicles on separate
highways may collide.
Modified Intersection
Has sign, island or markings indicating:
carriageway of one highway continues through the intersection, and
the other carriageway(s) do not.

Terminating Intersection
(refer also to definition terminating

carriageway)
Is where two or more highways meet other

than at a crossroad.
It does not include:

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 a modified intersection, or
 an intersection where there is:
 a roundabout sign
 a give way to right sign
 a stop sign;
 a give way sign, and
 traffic lights in operation.
Choked Intersections
You must not enter an intersection, if the intersection or the carriageway
beyond the intersection is blocked or will become blocked before you can
pass through the intersection. This applies even when you are directed by a
traffic control signal.
Zones
Shared Zone
Any driver entering or proceeding through a Shared Zone must give way to
pedestrians on or about to enter Zone. Speed limit in a shared Zone is 10 kph.
A pedestrian on a shared zone must not unduly obstruct or hinder the passage
of any other pedestrian or vehicle on, or about to enter on the shared zone.

Road markings
Double Lines
a) Must not permit any portion of your vehicle to travel on, or over the
right of the continuous side of double lines. You can cross from the
broken or dotted side when safe to do so.
b) You cannot park alongside the continuous side of double lines unless
parking provided.

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Giving Way
Meaning of 'Give Way'
When there is danger of collision with other vehicles or pedestrians, or if you
would be creating a dangerous situation you should;
 Slow down, stop or remain stationary for as long as required to
prevent danger of collision.
Giving Way At An Intersection
To whom do you give way at an intersection (including animals driven or
ridden)?

a) Approach an intersection at a speed that will enable you to avoid a
collision.
b) At a cross intersection where two vehicles each on separate carriageways
approach or enter the intersection and there is danger of collision, give
way to the vehicle on your right.
c) At a "Terminating" intersection, give way to all vehicles travelling along or
turning from the intersecting carriageway, bicycle path, segregated
footway or shared footway.
d) While within an intersection a driver must not impede the progress of a
tram from any direction.
EXCEPTIONS ARE:
 Where the driver having the another vehicle on his right has entered the
intersection in accordance with an instruction of a traffic control signal
displaying a green circle.
 Where the driver of a vehicle on the right has passed or is passing a Stop or
Give Way sign relating to that intersection.
 Where the driver of a vehicle on the right is approaching a terminating
intersection.
 Where the driver of a tramcar is not required to give way to other vehicles
while entering, within or leaving a roundabout.
 Where give way to the right does not apply when the driver on right is
turning or is about to turn from a continuing carriageway at a modified
intersection.
Give way turning (Left)
 Give way to any other vehicle except when the other vehicle intends or
makes a right turn or U turn.
 Give way to pedestrians, crossing the intersecting carriageway.
Give way turning (Right)

 Give way to oncoming vehicles.

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 Give way to pedestrians crossing the intersecting carriageway.

 Give way to any bicycle that has entered or is approaching the intersection
from the same or the opposite direction along a bicycle path, shared
footway or segregated footway.
 Give way on a continuing carriage when at a modified intersection to a
vehicle coming from other direction of continuing carriageway.
 At a modified intersection a vehicle travelling along a continuing
carriageway is deemed not to be turning. A vehicle entering or leaving a
continuing carriageway is deemed to be turning.
Note: If the driver or bicycle rider is making a right turn from left lane
according to regulations, they must give way to all vehicles travelling along
the carriageway they are intending to leave as well as pedestrians crossing the
street they are turning into.
Giving way while making U Turns

 You must have clear view for 150 metres of traffic from either direction.
 Give way to all vehicles except at a roundabout or where another vehicle is
at a Stop or Give Way sign or if approaching a terminating intersection.
 Give way to pedestrians.
Turns
Left Turns
The driver turning left must start their turn keeping their vehicle to the left of
other vehicles and as near as practicable to the left boundary to make their
turn.
Exceptions:-‐
 Driver of a tram or
 Public commercial passenger vehicle who has passed to the right of a
safety zone controlled by a traffic light with the appropriate white ‘B’ or
‘T’.
The driver can select a different position provided signs or road markings
allow them to use that position.
 It is the driver’s responsibility nearer or nearest to the left boundary to
remain to the left of other vehicles throughout the turn.
 It is the driver’s responsibility to the right of any other vehicles to keep to
the right of other vehicles throughout the turn.
Right Turns
The driver making a right hand turn on a two-‐way road

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 Must start the turn as nearest practicable to the left of the centre of the
carriageway;
 Turn right of the centre of the intersection and;
 Finish the turn as nearest practicable to the left of the centre of the
carriageway.
The driver can select a different position provided signs or road markings
allow them to use that position.
 It is the driver’s responsibility nearer or nearest to the centre of the
carriageway to remain to the right of other vehicles throughout the turn.
 It is the driver’s responsibility to the left of any other vehicles to keep to
the left of other vehicles throughout the turn.
The driver making a right hand turn on a one-‐way carriageway into a one-‐way
carriageway
 Must start the turn as nearest practicable to the right boundary;
 Turn right of the centre of the intersection and

 Finish the turn as nearest practicable to the right boundary.
Note:-‐
If the driver of a vehicle is turning right from the left of a tram line or safety
zone or traffic island or reservation, they must not impede the progress of
trams or public commercial vehicles travelling in the same or opposite
direction.
Bicycle riders may position for a right turns, parallel and near as practical to
the left boundary they are leaving and line up parallel and near as practical to
the left boundary of the carriageway they are entering. Note if there is traffic
lights that the rider must wait for the green circle in the carriageway they are
entering.
Right turn from left lane
Where intersection is so marked with signs, driver must complete right turn,
entering the intersection from the left lane and in accord with traffic signals
and enter the new carriageway as near as practicable to the left of the
carriageway. The driver shall remain as near as practicable to the left
boundary of the carriageway that they are about to enter and not leave the
intersection until in accordance with a green light in respect to the
carriageway that they are entering.
Making A "U" Turn
Give right turn signal.

 Must have clear view for 150 metres or traffic from either direction.

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 Give way to all vehicles except at a Roundabout' or where other vehicle is
at a Stop of Give Way sign or if approaching a terminating, intersection.
 Give way to pedestrians.
 If you pass a "No U Turn" sign a "U' turn is not permitted until you pass an
intersection more than 6 metres wide.
Stop Signs
A red octagonal sign with the word “Stop” in white with white border.
What Are Your Obligations When Passed Or Passing

A Stop Sign?
Stop the vehicle before reaching and as near as practicable to the stop line (if
any). If no stop line exists’ stop at the closest point past the sign f v which the
driver has a clear view of other vehicles approaching the intersection.
Give way to every vehicle travelling along or turning from any intersecting
carriageway, bicycle path, segregated footway and shared footway.
Give Way Signs
Give way to every vehicle travelling along or turning from any intersecting
carriageway, bicycle path, segregated footway and shared footway.
Roundabout Signs
When Passed or Passing A Roundabout Sign
Triangle sign, white background, red border, black broken and directional
arrows
When Passed or Passing A Roundabout Sign

a) Give way to every vehicle within the roundabout, approaching from the
right
b) Pass to left of Central Island, give way to any tram within or entering.
Speed
Speed limits
What Are The Victorian Speed Limits?

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a) 100 kilometres per hour on any length of highway.

b) 40 kilometres per hour local traffic precinct sign.
c) Any other speed indicated by a speed restriction sign.
d) Where there is provision for lighting by street lamps (built-‐up area) or
urban development and no restriction sign, 60 kilometres per hour must
not be exceeded.
a) In a shared zone at a speed not exceeding 10 kph
Miscellaneous
Use of Signals
If the driver intends to suddenly slow down, stop, turn, diverge or make a U
Turn they are required to signal for a minium of 30 metres if they are moving.
Before moving they must signal for a reasonable amount of time.
Signal must not remain in operation after the completion of the turn or
diverging.
Note: You do not have to show a signal if you are proceeding straight at a
roundabout.
Opening Doors and Alighting From Vehicle
A person must not:

a) open or leave open a door of a vehicle; or
b) alight from a vehicle—
so as—
a) to cause danger to other persons , or
b) to impede the passage of traffic
Use Of Horns Etc.
A person must not use the warning instrument on a vehicle, except
a) when necessary as a traffic warning or
b) as an indication that the vehicle intends to overtake another
vehicle.
Choked Intersections
Despite any instruction of a traffic-‐control signal to proceed, a driver of a
vehicle must not enter on, or attempt to cross an intersection, if
a) the intersection: or
b) the carriageway beyond the intersection—
is blocked or is likely to become blocked by vehicles before the driver can pass
through the inters.
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Reversing
A vehicle on a carriageway is permitted when it is safe to do so and the
distance is reasonable.
Towing
a) Maximum distance between motor cycles and maximum length of tow rope
2.5 metres.
b) Flag, cloth or other material, minium. 30 centimetres square and illuminated at
night.
c) Defective brakes -‐ must use approved rigid towing device.
d) Both drivers must be licensed for vehicle type.
e) If towing a caravan or trailer safety chains required.
f) If towing at night, towed vehicle must be fitted with legal rear red lamp.

Note:

a) A "P" driver is permitted to tow or be towed
b) A "L" driver is not permitted to tow, or be towed.
Towed Vehicles
You must not drive a vehicle with another motor vehicle attached behind,
which has the wheels in contact with the ground, unless:-‐
 a driver, licensed to drive that type of vehicle, is in charge of the towed
vehicle,
 -exception:
road grader owned or used by a highway authority attached by rigid
steering device and effective lights.
 the towed vehicle can be controlled safely; and
 the brakes of the towed vehicle are not defective;
 -exception:
if the towed vehicle is attached by means of an approved coupling
and drawbar
 the space between the vehicles is no more than 3.5 metres (car
etc); or if either vehicle is a motor cycle—2.5 metres; and
 if the vehicles are joined by a rope, chain or wire, there is clearly
visible a flag or cloth not less than 30 centimetres square, fixed to
the centre of the rope,
 at night,
 flag must be lit by white light from towed vehicle, so lit is visible.
 towed vehicle must have approved rear red lamp(tail lamp)
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Trailer
 You must not tow a trailer in which a person is riding.
 A person must not ride on or in a trailer being towed,

 except:
trailer, (not a caravan), towed by a tractor at less than 25 kph, or
 a machine designed for construction and maintenance work, or
 an articulated tram, or
 an articulated commercial passenger vehicle
Communication Equipment
The driver of a motor vehicle must not, while driving the vehicle, use a hand
held—
 telephone; or
 microphone; or
 similar instrument or apparatus— in the vehicle
Signs
“ No Right Turn” Sign
You cannot make a right turn
You cannot make a U turn.
“No Overtaking Or Passing” Sign
No two vehicles shall be abreast of each other between the signs.
Regulatory Signs
These signs inform us of laws that must be obeyed and the appropriate action
that should be taken.
Warning signs
These signs inform you of possible danger ahead so the appropriate action can
be taken.
Temporary work signs
Temporary work signs are normally erected at work sites to give advice of
potential danger.
Freeway and guidance signs
These signs are there to give information and a general warning.

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Regulatory Signs
Shared footway
Segregated footway
Tram signs
Transit lane
Truck lane

The footway is End shared Shared Zone— End shared Tram Lane sign.
shared by both Footway zone is shared zone sign You must not
pedestrians by pedestrians travel on the
and bicycles; and motor tram lane when
Bicycles must vehicles. the tram lane
give way to Maximum sign is in
pedestrians speed is 10 operation.
entering or on km/h.
a shared Pedestrians
footway. must not
obstruct
vehicles.

End Tram Lane Transit Lane. End Transit Truck Lane End Truck Lane
Buses, taxis, or Lane Only trucks &
vehicles buses can use
carrying 2 or this lane, unless
more you are
occupants, and entering or
motor cycles leaving the lane
can travel in within 50
this lane. Some metres of

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may permit making a turn.

bicycles

Bicycle lane
Bus lane
No bicycle
No goods carrying vehicle
Local traffic precinct

Segregated End Bicycle Lane End Bicycle Bus Lane
Footway: Segregated This lane is for Lane This lane is for
pedestrians Footway Bicycles only buses and may
and bicycles and may only only be used by
must keep to be used by cars cars within 50
their section. if parking, metres of an
Pedestrians making left intersection
must not stand, turns within 50 you are turning
or obstruct metres of the into.
bicycles on intersection or
bicycle side. if overtaking
RHT vehicles
turning.


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End Bus Lane No bicycles. No goods Local Traffic End local traffic
Riding of carrying Precinct: area
bicycles is vehicles over Maximum
prohibited. 4.5 tonnes Speed Limit 40
allowed to pass kph
sign without
permit from
VicRoads or the
council

Share zone
Speed restriction sign
Stop here on red signal
No overtaking
Keep left unless overtaking
Over dimension route

End local traffic Shared Zone Signifies end of Speed Speed
precinct for pedestrians zone shared by restriction sign, restriction
and vehicles. pedestrians usually found zone:
Speed limit (10 and vehicles. at start of Maximum
kph) and speed zone: speed 100 kph
pedestrians Maximum
must not speed 60 kph
obstruct
vehicles


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Speed Zone Vehicles must Indicates On multi-‐laned Vehicles with

sign not proceed narrow or carriageway, over dimension
110 kph while red light dangerous vehicles must permit must
(This only is displayed. road or bridge. keep left unless follow specific
found on overtaking routes in
certain major other vehicles metropolitan
highway). area.
OD sign
indicates route.

Pedestrian crossing
Children's crossing
Safety zone
Railway crossing
Give way to pedestrians
Handheld stop sign

This sign is Pedestrian Pedestrian You must STOP This sign is
placed at a Crossing crossing MAY if any placed on a
pedestrian You must give also have pedestrian is structure
crossing. It way to all alternating on the crossing alongside a
may also be pedestrians on flashing amber or if any vehicle tram track and
found at the the crossing. lights erected. travelling in the erected for the
rear of a tram same direction safety of tram
to remind you has stopped passengers.
to watch for You must keep
pedestrians. left of structure
at all times.


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Uncontrolled You must stop Controlled Drivers must Hand held stop
Railway at stop line or railway give way to sign used by
crossing ahead before crossing, (2 pedestrians roadwork team
approach with crossing, and tracks). Stop if before to control
caution. check for lights are proceeding. traffic.
trains. When flashing (or bell Often seen at
safe, select low sounding?). Do entrance/ exit
gear and do not proceed of driveway,
not change until lights stop lanes etc
gears until flashing.
across if you
are in a heavy
vehicle.

Give way sign
Give way to the right sign
Roundabout signs
Stop signs
No entry sign
Bridge load limit
No right turn
No left turn

Give way to all Drivers must Roundabout You must STOP Vehicles may
traffic give way to give-‐way sign. at stop line and not pass this
travelling along vehicles on the Give way to all then give way sign.
or turning from right. vehicles on the to all traffic
any roundabout, travelling along
intersecting approaching or turning from
carriageway, you from the any
bicycle path, right. intersecting
shared or carriageway,
segregated bicycle path
footway. etc.
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Load Limit No right turn No left turn
Sign; sign. sign
Maximum This also means
Gross Vehicle 'no U-‐turn until
Mass or Gross you pass a
Train Mass intersection 6
indicated on metres or more
sign. wide.

Clearway signs Parking signs

Clearway zone. End Clearway Advises of Clearway no End of
No standing or Clearway. No standing. Clearway
parking during standing within If time limited, If no other
indicated the times times will be signs, you are
times. specified on displayed on permitted to
the sign. May the sign. stand / park
also indicate: beyond this
'tow away sign.
zone' on sign.


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No parking End of no Designated No parking Controlled
area parking area parking area sign. parking:
You must not Park within number and
leave a vehicle marked bays or fraction beside
standing for lines if any. letter P
more than 15 indicates
minutes. maximum time
allowed in
hours. Eg 2P
means 2 hours.

Parking Standing signs

No parking at Parking No parking. If Parking Denotes end of
any time permitted, limited, times permitted. If previous
(unless specific subject to any or conditions limited time, parking area.
times are restrictions will be denoted hours indicated
indicated.) denoted on the on the sign. by number /
sign. fraction.
Other
conditions also
written on sign.
(eg tickets)


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No Standing End of no No Standing No standing No standing-‐

Area standing area. Area You must not If limited,
You may not (as previous) leave vehicle conditions
leave a vehicle standing, in written on sign
standing in this direction of
area at any arrow
time.

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Standing signs
Loading zone
Permit zone
Directional signs

No standing or End of parking * Zone Loading Zone Only vehicles
parking, area which has (may be bus, Only vehicles with the
subject to any a two hour taxi, truck, mail setting down appropriate
conditions time limit or other) or taking up permit are
listed on the Only vehicles of goods, and permitted to
sign. May also type shown on vehicle is a stand/ park
be indicated by sign may stand truck, a courier, here.
arrow(s) on or park here. or a delivery
sign. vehicle..

This lane only This lane only Vehicles must Indicates all Indicates all
turns right – turns left – you only proceed traffic must traffic must
you must turn must turn left. only in the turn right – turn left – even
right. direction even if more if more than
shown. Left or than one lane. one lane.
right turns are
not permitted.


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No right turn from left lane
Left and right turning only lanes
Emergency stoping lane

You must not You must not A U turn may Indicates that Right turn from
make a left, proceed be made legally the left lane only.
right or U turn. beyond this carriageway After entering
sign. carries traffic in intersection,
two directions. you must stop,
and wait for
lights on right
before
completing
turn.

Left lane may Lane may only Right lane may Lane may only No stopping or
only be used by be used by only be used by be used by parking in lane,
traffic turning traffic turning traffic turning traffic turning except in case
left. left. right. From right of emergency.
From this lane this lane you Erected on
you must not must not freeway
proceed proceed
straight ahead straight ahead
or turn right. or turn left.


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Warning sings
Type of bend Type of intersection

Winding road Hair-‐pin turn Road bends to Road bends Road bends
ahead. Use (to the left) left.. sharply to left. sharply to left,
caution and then sharply to
reduce speed. the right

Road bends You are Intersection: Y Intersection: T intersection
right, then left approaching Cross roads Y road junction Road
the end of a terminates at a
divided road T intersection.
and entering a
two way
carriageway.
Beware of
oncoming
traffic
Stop sign ahead
Roundabout ahead
Number of lanes in either direction
Traffic lights ahead
Children ahead
Pedestrians ahead
Railway crossing

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You are You are There is one You have a Warning:
approaching a approaching a lane available restricted view children
stop sign roundabout. for traffic in the of traffic crossing the
ahead, which Slow down and direction you signals ahead. road
may not be prepare to give are travelling, Slow down and
clearly visible. way to the and two lanes be prepared to
right available for stop
traffic
travelling in the
opposite
direction.

Pedestrians Approaching a Approaching a Approaching Approaching
crossing the railway railway an an
road crossing – crossing with uncontrolled uncontrolled
proceed with lights-‐ proceed railway railway
caution with caution crossing. crossing on an
Proceed with angle. Proceed
caution. with caution.

Railway crossing
Stock crossing
Merging traffic
Gravel roads
Narrow bridge
Dip
Steep decent

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Slippery when wet
Kangaroo ahead

Railway Railway line Farm animals Road / Gravel road –
crossing on the ahead. cross road at carriageway reduced
road you could Caution: trains this point merges other traction
be turning into road at this
point

Narrow bridge Your view of You are Slippery Watch for
ahead. Take approaching approaching a conditions kangaroos on
care when traffic may be steep down hill ahead if wet, road or
passing or restricted slope. Reduce icy or snowy roadside areas
overtaking because of a speed and conditions. (Especially at
other vehicles. depression in select a lower dusk).
the road. gear if
Beware of necessary.
approaching
traffic and keep
to your left.

Advisory bend speed
Tourist route
National and State route numbers
Truck parking area
Play ground
Low clearance
Height gauge for heavy vehicles

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Advisory Tourist Route National and Indicates the Warns drivers
maximum State route area on to be aware
speed for bend marking signs – highway where children playing
(in good applying to heavy vehicles in the area.
conditions) is major highways may be lawfully
55 km/h. and roads. parked.

Low clearance Indicates Petrol available Telephone High vehicles
sign. clearance in here – as available here – should use this
Bridges etc. metres. Placed indicated by as indicated by lane; Gauge will
Indicates where sign. sign. indicate
clearance in clearance is (flashing lights)
metres. low but more if vehicle will
Placed where than 4.3 m not pass
the clearance is clearance.
less than 4.3 m

Freeway & Guidance Signs

Freeway
Wrong way
Prohibited things on freeway
Temporary warning signs

Prepare to stop
Road works ahead
Number of lanes in certain directions

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Entrance to Beginning of You are Sign indicating
existing freeway. entering the that
freeway wrong pedestrians,
direction of a bicycles,
one way street. animals (or
Found at exit other things as
of a Freeway. indicated on
sign) are
prohibited on
the freeway

Warning Temporary Temporary Road works Left land ends,
drivers of roadworks roadworks ahead. merge right.
roadworks; sign. sign. Advises drivers
Traffic delays Traffic should You must stop. to approach
expected. proceed slowly. with caution

Road works
Part road closed
Loose gravel

Advanced warning of roadworks ahead.


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Alcohol and Other Drugs
It is an offence to drive a motor vehicle while:

 under the influence of an intoxicating liquor or of any other drug to the
extent of not having proper control of the vehicle or
 having more than the prescribed level of alcohol in their blood (BAC)
NOTE: having lower than the prescribed level BAC does not excuse the driver
from the offence of driving under the influence of alcohol.
Alcohol
Prescribed concentration:
 Maximum Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) allowed in Victoria is 0.05%.
 LEARNER DRIVERS and PROBATIONARY DRIVERS are restricted to 0.00 %
BAC
 Drivers of Heavy Vehicles and taxis are also restricted to 0.00% BAC.
Refer to course notes on alcohol and its effects for safe drinking levels.
Drivers required to undergo preliminary breath test, breath analysis test or
blood test, when required to do so. Testing may be random or specific. It is
an offence to refuse a breath or blood test
However:
 If you give blood test, you don't also have to take breath test
 A second test may be required of you.
 Test must be conducted within 3 hours of you having driven, (or believed
to have driven)
 Test is not lawful if conducted within 15 minutes of having consumed
alcohol
Crossings
School Crossings
Marked cross walks with a sign or a red flag with white writing or an orange
flag with black writing marked “children crossing” and
an orange with black writing or red with white writing “STOP” sign held
across or partly across carriageway. (Supervisor)
Approaching A School Crossing
A driver of a vehicle must approach at a speed which would enable that driver
to stop before reaching the crossing if necessary.

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Stop At A School Crossing
When:
 a pedestrian is on the crossing.
 a vehicle travelling in the same direction is stopped.
 a barrier or stop sign is facing a driver.
Proceed Through the School Crossing
When the crossing is clear of all pedestrians and stop signs.
Pedestrian Crossings
 alternate black and white stripes parallel to centre of carriageway or white
stripes if road surface has enough contrast and
 pedestrian crossing sign (walking leg sign) and may have
 twin diagonally opposed alternating flashing yellow lights may be erected
Approaching a Pedestrian Crossing
A driver of a vehicle must approach at a speed that would enable that driver
to stop before reaching the crossing if necessary.
Stop At a Pedestrian Crossing
When:-‐
 a pedestrian is on the crossing and there is danger of collision.
 a vehicle travelling in the same direction is stopped.
Proceed after having ‘given way” to any pedestrian on the crossing.
Your Vehicle
Registration
 It is an offence to an unregistered motor vehicle or trailer on a highway
 It is an offence to own an unregistered motor vehicle or trailer which is
used on a highway,
Unless the vehicle is exempted from requirement to be registered.
Exempt trailers:
 Under 200 kg
 Under 3 m in length (including draw bar)
 No wider than vehicle towing it,
 Not being a boat trailer.
Other vehicles exempted from registration requirement

29
 A motor vehicle being towed on a highway

 Agricultural implements and certain agricultural transport bins etc.
 Special vehicles operating within 25 m of approved properties, in accord
with permission.
Maintenance and condition
Vehicles to be in good order
A person must not drive a vehicle or a combination of a vehicle that is not in a
safe condition.
Seat belts
Must be worn correctly adjusted and fastened by all persons seated in a
moving vehicle:-‐
Exceptions:-‐
 VicRoads exception.
 Driving vehicle in reverse
 Medical reasons (certificates).
 Deliveries of goods but at no greater speed than 25 kph.
Child Restraints
 Seat belts must be suitable for children's size and mass, properly fitted and
adjusted
 If a child less than 18 years of age the driver must ensure that the child is
properly restrained.
unless:
 vehicle is not required to be equipped by seatbelts, and
 is not equipped with a suitable belt or restraint, or
 the vehicle is an ambulance, or
 a proper medical certificate excepting use of restraint
No offence if child is in rear seat, and driver proves to the court that it was not
possible to use a restraint..
However, this excuse does not apply to children under 1 year old, unless
 vehicle is a taxi, or
 is registered in another state, or
 there is no seating position that is not already occupied..
Lights
Stationary vehicle at night
Lamps required:-‐

30
 Front clearance lamps

 One white light on each side of front of vehicle visible for 200 metres' (if
one, must be right of centre).
 Rear clearance lamps
 One or two red lamps on rear (if one, must be right of centre).
 White light to illuminate rear numberplate, visible for 20 metres.
 Rear reflectors. These lights are not required when the vehicle is less than
2.2 metres wide and is clearly visible for 200 metres by street lamps.
Vehicle driven on a highway
Lamps required:-‐
 Two headlamps (or two alternative headlamps or two fog lamps).
 Two parking lamps.
 One or two rear red lamps (if one' must be right of centre). If registered
after 7 March 1972 must have two brake lamps.
 One or two rear red lamps (if one' must be right of centre).
 White light to illuminate rear number plate, visible for 20 metres
 Two reflectors.
Fog lamps
May only be used during abnormal atmospheric conditions and other
headlights must be extinguished.
Use of Hazard Warning Lights

 The driver of a vehicle fitted with hazard warning lights must activate
those lights when—
a) the vehicle is stationary in a hazardous position on a carriageway and
b) in the case of a vehicle licensed by the Roads Corporation for the
carriage of school children to the exclusion of other passengers (other
than teachers or supervisors)-‐-‐ the vehicle is stationary on a
carriageway for the purpose of picking up or setting down a school
child.
 “hazard warning lights” are amber signal lamps which can be operated to
flash simultaneously and regularly at the front and rear of the vehicle and
on both sides of it.
Heavy Vehicles: safety equipment
Portable Warning Signs for Disabled Heavy Vehicles
Must be 3 portable warning devices of a type approved by VicRoads carried if
the vehicle exceeds 4.5 tonnes GVM when:-‐
 outside a built-‐up area; or

31
 in a built-‐up area between sunset and sunrise and each of which is capable
of being visible at a distance of 200 metres to oncoming traffic when
placed on the carriageway.
Loading
 A person must not drive a motor vehicle or a motor vehicle to which is
attached a trailer unless the load or equipment of that vehicle, trailer or
other vehicle is secured
a) by appropriate equipment and
b) will prevent the load or equipment from—
c) hanging or projecting from the vehicle in a manner likely—
d) to cause injury or damage to a person or property
e) to cause a hazard to other road users; or
f) becoming dislodged or falling from the vehicle.
Loading of Pole-‐Type Articulated Vehicle
A person must not drive a pole-‐type articulated vehicle loaded with logs or
timber carried length ways unless the load is—
a) supported by steel chocks; and
b) securely chained to the vehicle by 2 or more sets of chains.
Drive safely
Driving In A Dangerous Manner
A person must not drive a vehicle in a careless, dangerous or reckless m
manner.
Occupants (Positions of Drivers And Passengers)
Except for a motor cycle, a driver or passenger of a motor vehicle must not
have any part of their body—
÷ in contact with any external step, the roof or the bonnet;
÷ protrude through any door, window or other opening;
÷ to extend or protrude beyond the side, front, rear or extremities of the
vehicle
Exceptions
 A driver may give authorised hand signals
 a person (other than the driver of a garbage vehicle) engaged in the
collection of garbage or waste if—
o the speed of the vehicle does not exceed 25 kilometres an hour;
and

32
o the person is on an adequately constructed step or footboard
and holding on to hand grips firmly attached to the vehicle.
o if the vehicle is an emergency vehicle.
Motorcycles
A person must not drive a motor cycle with any person riding or being carried
on the motor cycle other than—
 securely seated in the side-‐car, or

 securely seated on a pillion seat behind the driver’s seat,
 Driver and pillion passenger must wear approved type helmet
 A pillion passenger must be seated astride and facing forward.
 To carry a pillion passenger, the seat must be equipped with secure hand
grips, and the motor cycle equipped with footrest (independent of the
driver’s) each side for the pillion passenger.
Position on Road
The driver must keep as near as practicable to the left boundary of the
carriageway.
Exceptions
 Left lane is blocked for other usage.
 If the driver is about to turn right.
 You intend to overtake.
 The carriageway is divided by two or more lanes and is exclusive for
vehicles in the same direction (reservation). This does not apply if you are
in a ‘keep left unless overtaking’ zone.
 The lane is allocated for other uses, eg ‘bus lane’
Overtaking
When overtaking a moving vehicle, other than a tram, the driver of the vehicle
must pass to the right of the vehicle at a safe distance.
Exceptions:
 If the other vehicle is making a right hand turn, you may overtake on the
left if safe to do so.
 If the carriageway has 2 or more marked lanes provided its safe.
Note:
 You must not overtake a vehicle on any side if the other vehicle is making
any turn whilst that vehicle is displaying a sign ‘do not overtake turning
vehicle’.
 You must not overtake any vehicle unless it is safe to do so from oncoming
vehicles.
 Overtaking trams whether stationary or moving must be on the left side.

33
 Bicycles must not overtake vehicles on the left, if the other vehicle is
turning or intends to turn left. ( If the other vehicle is not turning then a
bicycle can overtake on the left)
 The horn may be used to warn the other driver that you intend to
overtake.
 You must not resume your position in front of the other vehicle unless you
are safely clear of that vehicle.
If there is 3 to 5 marked lanes, you may overtake in the centre lane provided
the centre lane is free of oncoming vehicles.
Except;
When signs or lights prohibit the use of this lane.
Passing Vehicles
You must keep to the left when passing a vehicle travelling in the opposite
direction.
Following Too Closely
The driver of a vehicle must keep the vehicle a safe distance from the rear of
any preceding vehicle.
The driver of a long vehicle, except when overtaking, if the conditions permit
must keep the vehicle at least 100 metres from the rear of any preceding long
vehicle.
“long vehicle” means a vehicle. or a combination of vehicles which, together
with any load or projection, exceeds 7.5 metres in length.
but this does not apply—

 in a built up area; or
 if the vehicle is on a dual, divided carriageway
Accidents
What is an accident ?
An accident is where a motor vehicle is involved in a collision, and there is
injury to a person or damage to property. Property includes other vehicles,
private and public property and buildings, roadside fittings and equipment -‐
signs, poles, markers etc.
Who is involved ?
If a your vehicle has caused or contributed to an accident, or is part of that
accident then you are involved. The current law states:

34
“...if owing to the presence of a motor vehicle an accident occurs...”
This regulation is very wide. It includes vehicles being driven, or stopped or
left parked on the highway in a way that causes a hazard to other road users.
It is not necessary that your vehicle actually has come in contact with another
vehicle or object, only that the accident was partly caused by the presence of
your vehicle, which includes its occupants, load, trailer or other fittings.
I am in an accident. What must I do ?
You have legal responsibilities that are set out below.

 You must stop immediately.
 You must give whatever assistance you can, especially to injured persons.
 At the scene of the accident you must provide your full particulars to:−
a) all injured persons or their representative(s), and
b) the owner(s) of property damaged or destroyed, or their
representative, and
c) any police officer present.

The particulars you must give are:
a) The driver’s name and address, and
b) The owner’s name and address, and
c) Any identifying number (registration number) of the vehicle.

Reporting an accident.
You must report an accident to police if:

 a person is injured, or
 property is damaged or destroyed, and the owner or owner’s
representative is not present.
In this case, if police do not attend, the accident must be reported to the
police station nearest the scene of the accident.
If the owner of the damaged property or his/her representative is present, and
nobody is injured, you are not legally obliged to report the accident to the
police.
Showing your licence
You must show your licence to any police officer who requests it. Drivers of
heavy vehicles must also show their licence to VicRoads officers in uniform,
when requested to do so. You are not legally required to show your licence
to other drivers.
Alcohol and Accidents

35
Injured:
After an accident any injured person taken to hospital is required by law to
allow a blood sample to be taken by the doctor. This applies to drivers,
passengers and pedestrians. There are heavy penalties for those who refuse
this blood test.
Driver:
 Even if you are not injured, a police officer who attends the accident may
require the driver to take a Preliminary Breath Test which gives an
indication of the level of alcohol in your blood.
 If this test indicates your BAC is over the legal limit, the police officer will
also require you to immediately attend a formal Breath Analysis Test or
blood test. This test may not be conducted within 15 minutes of you having
consumed alcohol,(RSPR 303) and must be within 3 hours of you having
last driven (RSA 48.1).
 The results of these tests are admissible in court as evidence of an offence.
You must comply, and there are very tough penalties for those who refuse
these tests.
Responsibility for damage caused
Both the driver and the owner of the vehicle are responsible for any injury or
damage directly caused by that vehicle.
Violence -‐ “Road Rage”
Often accidents or near misses can lead to strong emotional responses and
vigorous discussions over who was at fault. However all forms of aggressive
behaviour on the roads are prohibited. There are regulations dealing with
road violence -‐ often called ‘road rage’-‐ and the penalties are very severe. This
offence includes threats, violence, driving in a dangerous or intimidatory
manner and general aggressive behaviour on the highway. The penalties may
even include a gaol term.
Cleaning up afterwards
Whoever removes the vehicle from the roadway also has the responsibility to
ensure that the road is cleared of debris, such as broken glass, other parts or
spilt load. Debris must not be left on the road creating a hazard for other
vehicles.
Damage to you vehicle
You must not drive an unroadworthy vehicle on the road. If accident damage
to your vehicle makes it unroadworthy, the vehicle must be repaired before it
can be driven further. In many cases it may be necessary to tow the vehicle
away from the scene.

36
Entering and Leaving a Highway
You must not turn from a highway into a private drive or entry unless the turn
can be made safely.
A vehicle turning from a highway into a private driveway must:

 if turning left, as near as practicable as for a left turn at an intersection;
 if turning right, as nearly as practicable as for making a right turn at an
intersection.
At Night
When driving a vehicle on a highway at night, the driver should adjust his or
her speed so that, in the case of an emergency, they are able to stop within
the distance that you can see. This is your head light range.
Road Position
A driver must keep as near as practical to the left unless:-‐

• Making a right hand turn.
• Overtaking.
• If lane on left is allocated for other uses.
• Two or more marked lanes exclusive for vehicles travelling in the
same direction as the driver.

If facing sign keep left unless overtaking you must keep left unless overtaking
or making a right hand turn or traffic condition require otherwise.
Lanes
Transit Lane
Marked lanes on carriageway with signs indicating you must not drive in lane
except within 50 metres of making a left turn.
Exceptions are:
A vehicle with two or more people.
Tram.
Bicycle
37
Taxi or motor cycle.
Public commercial passenger vehicle.
Truck Lane
You may not drive in a truck lane unless driving a vehicle with a gross vehicle
mass or gross train mass exceeding:-‐
(a) 4.5 tonnes; or
(b) any other GVM specified on a truck lane sign;
exceptions:
(a) when entering or turning from the highway, or
(b) when overtaking on the left of a vehicle turning right, or
(c) when leaving parking area at boundary of carriageway.
exception only applies within 50 metres of point of turning, overtaking or
entering.
Driver may drive in truck lane if truck lane sign, with words or symbols, allows
that class of vehicle.
Multi-‐Lane Carriageways

÷ On a two-‐way carriageway divided into 3 or 5 marked lanes, the driver of a
vehicle must not drive the vehicle in— (#RSR
503).

a) the centre lane, except—
i. to overtake another vehicle; or
ii. in preparation for a right turn: or
iii. if the centre lane is at the time allocated exclusively to vehicles travelling
in the direction in which the driver is travelling; or
b) any lane to the right of the centre line, unless the lane is marked for that
use.

÷ On a two-‐way carriageway divided into 4 marked lanes the driver vehicle
must not drive in the far right lane.
Driving Within Lanes Or Single Line Of Traffic

÷ You must drive entirely, or as nearly as practicable, in a single lane or line
of traffic.
÷ You must not move laterally unless safe to do so.

38
÷ A vehicle or vehicle combination, having length over 7.5 metres, with
approved sign saying “DO NOT OVERTAKE TURNING VEHICLE” affixed to
rear (or rear of trailer), may move out of marked lane if:
i. it is not practicable for turn to be made entirely from within lane, and
ii. can diverge safely, and
iii. is within 50 metres of making turn. (RSR #
507).
Parking
General Rule:

Driver is permitted to park a vehicle on a highway (refer definition of
highway) unless particular restrictions apply. These may be :

÷ restricted areas, where only particular classes of vehicles can park, or
÷ prohibited areas, where no vehicle may park, or
÷ time limited, controlled parking areas
How to Park

÷ Vehicle must be parked as near as practicable, and parallel to the left hand
boundary of a two-‐way carriageway, or to either boundary of a one way
carriageway, unless parking restriction signs are erected.
÷ In a marked parking area, vehicles must be left parked entirely within the
marked bays.
Centre Road Parking

It is not permitted to reverse from these areas.
Unattended Vehicle
Should be parked so that:-‐
÷ their wheels are turned to the kerb on grade;
÷ the handbrake on;
÷ leave in gear;
÷ stop the engine;
÷ lock the ignition;
÷ remove the key;
÷ secure the vehicle by locking the doors.

Note:
÷ Automatic leave in park.
÷ Manual leave in low gear.


39
Summary Of Parking Distances And Restrictions

Bicycle ÷ may be parked on footway if not obstructing
pedestrians or other vehicles
÷ may be left standing in bicycle rack.
Bicycle Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs
Bicycle Path ÷ do not park vehicles in front of bicycle path
Bridge ÷ not unless bridge is as wide as approaches, if no
other restrictions
Bus Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs
Bus Stop ÷ 18 metres approach side,

÷ 9 metres departure side
÷ only attended public commercial buses
permitted to park in bus stop.
Clearway ÷ no parking during times clearway is in operation
Disabled ÷ no parking in disabled zone, unless displaying

disabled sticker.
÷ vehicles with disabled sticker may park in time
restricted parking area for double the normal time
restriction
Double lines ÷ do not park opposite double, unbroken lines

÷ if double lines, broken on one side, do not park
opposite unbroken side.
Driveway ÷ do not park in front of or so close to driveway, as
to restrict access to driveway, passage, right-‐of-‐way
Excavations ÷ no parking alongside and obstruction or

excavations on carriageway, if traffic will be
obstructed.

40
Fire Hydrant, ÷ 1 metre both sides(include: plug, white diamond,

blue marker)
Footway ÷ do not park on footway

÷ do not park in front of footway
Freeway ÷ no parking on freeway
Intersection with ÷ 9 metre restriction from intersection, when

carriageway under 6 crossing carriageway is less than 6 metres wide.
metres wide

Intersection: ÷ 18 metres approach, 9 metres departure
(Controlled)
Intersection: ÷ 9 metres both sides

(Uncontrolled) ÷ no parking in intersection, except along the
continuing side of a T intersection, and. if parking is
not otherwise restricted.

Keep Clear ÷ no parking in keep clear area or zone
Large Vehicles ÷ if over 6 m in length, no more than 1 hour in built-‐
up area.
÷ outside built-‐up are, may park on shoulder of
carriageway, (if no restrictions)
Letter Box (Australia ÷ 3 metres: approach and departure. Only

Post) Australia Post vehicles permitted to stop at letter
box.(after signed ‘Mail Zone’)
Motor cycle ÷ may be left standing on footway, if not
obstructing pedestrians or other vehicles.
No Parking Sign ÷ not permitted to park in that area for more than
15 minutes in any one hour, during the times of the
restriction

41

42

No Standing Sign ÷ not permitted to park in that area during the times of
the restriction
Pedestrian Crossing ÷ 9 metres both sides ( two way carriageway)

÷ 9 metres approach side (one way carriageway).
Railway Crossing: ÷ 18 metres from nearest rail
Reservation ÷ do not park on reservation, unless parking has been

allowed by the Highway Authority.
Safety Zone ÷ not between safety zone and kerb

÷ and 9 metres both sides of safety zone
School Crossing ÷ 18 metres both sided (two way carriageway)

÷ 18 metres approach side (one way carriageway)
Taxi Zone ÷ only attended taxis permitted to park
Traffic Control ÷ 9 metres, both sides

Signals (Not At
Intersection-‐-‐includes
intersections under 6
m wide)

Traffic island ÷ 9 metres from that park of carriageway opposite traffic
island

Traffic-‐Control ÷ 18 metres approach side, 9 metres departure side
Signals (At An
Intersection)

Tram Stop ÷ 9 metres approach side
Transit Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs

43
Truck Lane ÷ parking restrictions as indicated on the signs
Tunnel ÷ not unless tunnel is as wide as approaches, and if no
other restrictions

44
Lights
Standard traffic light (three circles)
Traffic lights with extra tram control lights
Standard traffic lights with single green arrow
Standard traffic lights with green and amber arrows
Standard traffic lights with green, amber and red arrows
Flashing red lights at fire stations

Green light: Amber light: Red light: Tram is Traffic is
You are free to You must stop You must not controlled by permitted to
proceed ahead, when you see proceed in any their own light. turn left,
or turn left or this signal direction when proceed ahead
right, when unless it is facing this and turn right.
safe to do so. dangerous to signal
do so.

All traffic must All traffic must Traffic is Buses only (and Flashing red
stop, except stop, except permitted to taxis where lights erected
for left turn right turn proceed indicated) are at fire station:
traffic. traffic. straight ahead permitted to Stop and give
and turn left. proceed. way to fire
Right turn trucks leaving
traffic must fire station.
stop.


45
Pedestrian lights
Overhead lane control lights

Green, walking Flashing red. Red stationary Coloured arrows
figure: Pedestrians must figure: and X's over lanes
Pedestrians may not begin to cross, Pedestrians must on road.:
cross. but may complete STOP and wait for a Green arrow -‐ you
crossing if they green signal may travel in that
have already lane; Red X -‐ you
commenced. may not travel in
that lane.

Road markings
Right turn only lanes
Centre line markings
Hazard ahead road warning markings
Slip lanes

Road markings With double These line You can go on You can go on
warns of a right lines markings warn or above a or above a
turn only. It is surrounding drivers of single white broken white
best to take the entry approaching line provided line provided
position left of markings, you danger. that it is safe to that it is safe to
centre of the must not travel do so. do so.
carriageway as on or above
early as double lines
practicable to and be careful
stop overtaking of overtaking
vehicles. vehicles on the
right breaking

46
the law.

Overtaking can Double lines You must not A Continuous The slip lane is
only occur with mean that you travel in bike longitudinal not controlled
the vehicle must not go on lane unless you yellow line by the traffic
which has the or above these are turning and marked on a lights. You
unbroken lines. within 50 carriageway to must give way
section and metres of the the left of a to pedestrians
when safe to intersection, or tram track. as well as all
do so. you are vehicles.
overtaking a
right turning
vehicle. You
can park the
vehicle as long
as there are no
signs stating
differently.

Stop lines


47
Stop line is a single line or 2 lines not more than 300 millimetres apart across the whole or
part of the carriageway.


48
Section 2
Driving Techniques

49
The road safety picture
Each year around 2,000 people are killed and another 30,000 seriously injured
as a result of road crashes.
Road crashes are the fourth most likely cause of death among Australians in
terms of years of potential life lost. This follows cancer, heart disease and
suicide.
On an international scale, Australia is recognised as world leaders in road
safety. Australia has performed very strongly both in terms of fatalities per
10,000 vehicles, where we are second only to the UK and fatalities per 100,000
population, where we are fourth behind the UK, Netherlands and Japan.
(Federal Office of Road Safety, 1997)
Road deaths have fallen from a high of 3,800 in 1970 to 2,015 in 1995.
The introduction of Australian Design Rules for motor vehicles and
compulsory seat belt wearing in 1970 and the introduction of random breath
testing for drink driving in 1978, were both important in terms of reducing the
road toll (Federal Office of Road Safety, 1997). A major social and economic
issue which costs the Australian community $6.1 billion annually. To put this
annual cost in perspective, it's worthwhile considering that this is more than
the total national expenditure on roads each year (Federal Office of Road
Safety, 1997). Each fatal crash is estimated to cost $750,000 and each serious
injury $115,000 with an annual total cost of well over $1 billion (Federal Office
of Road Safety, 1997). The Bureau of Transport and Communications
Economics, estimates there is over half a million road crashes each year. The
social cost to the community is incalculable. The effect on families, friends and
the local community can be devastating and remain forever.
18-‐25: young drivers
Drivers aged between 18-‐20 years have 2.5 times the accident rate of older
drivers, with drink driving and inexperience remaining the critical issues for
young drivers up to 25 years of age.
Young male drivers are more likely than young females to be involved in
crashes due to excessive speed, while young females appear to be more
involved than males in crashes due to inadequate driving skills.
Young people aged between 18 and 25 years make up 12% of the population
but represented 30% of all road fatalities in 1996 (Victorian Government, 1996).
Young drivers travel more at high-‐risk times than older drivers, for example,
late at night.
The needs of novice drivers

50
As a group, researchers believe that drivers take between five to seven years
to reach mature risk levels.
Skills and abilities of novice drivers
New drivers lack important skills, particularly those needed to acquire and
process information. They are less able to maintain full attention and less
likely to take in the information they need from the driving environment.
Normally novice drivers are not as good as experienced drivers in scanning the
environment, recognising potential hazards while at a safe distance to make
tough decisions quickly. They tend to underestimate the danger of certain
risky situations and overestimate if in others as well as overestimate their own
driving ability to handle emergencies.
Improved skills alone are not sufficient to ensure novice drivers safety, but
tends to build overconfidence and increases exposure to risks.
Choices and behaviourism's of novice drivers
Crashes are caused by decisions drivers make as much as by what they are
able or unable to do. The majority of novice drivers' risk taking, comes from
inappropriate behaviour reflected from taking deliberate risks to seek
stimulation. They are travelling at high speeds and often while impaired by
drugs or alcohol.
Compared to more experienced drivers, novice drivers more often choose to
drive too fast and follow other vehicles too closely. They run yellow lights,
accept smaller gaps in traffic, and allow less room for safety. As a result of
their choices, and perhaps because of skill deficiencies as well, they have more
rear-‐end crashes and run-‐off-‐the-‐road crashes than experienced drivers.
In traditional driver training many novice drivers do not have the experience
to control their vehicle in an emergency situation. They tend to rely too much
on their reflexes.
They often do not leave enough space between themselves and the vehicle in
front. Therefore, there is a higher risk from having to brake very hard and lose
control of the car or be hit from behind. Many novice drivers reduce their
vision by following the vehicle in front too closely. Therefore, they have to
concentrate on its actions rather than looking further ahead to see if there are
potential hazards. They have less time to scan to the sides and make sure that
they are not a danger to other road users, including pedestrians and cyclists.
As part of a driver training strategy, learners must be encouraged to
understand that they must wear the emotional, financial, legal and medical
consequences of a possible crash.

51
Novice drivers need to be made aware that the impatient driver behind them
can just drive off and are not very important.
General rules about novice drivers
Speeding
Young drivers in their first three years of holding a license are over-‐
represented in serious speeding offences.
Passengers
Novice drivers have a much greater chance of having an accident while
carrying two or more passengers.
Seat belts
Novice drivers have a lower usage of seat belts than other driving groups.
Accidents involving young drivers
Over confidence is a major factor as to why novice drivers are over
represented in road crashes and this can be due to poor training, doubtful
motivation, personal and social environment, showing off, and peer group
pressure.
Their attention skills may be inadequate due to inexperience. They drive more
in the conscious realm instead of doing things automatically in the
subconscious realm. The other factors effecting attention may be due to the
influence of drugs and/or alcohol
Driver judgement may be poor, due to lack of training and guided experience,
influenced by drugs and/or alcohol, or the effects of fatigue and vision.
Information processing capabilities may not be properly developed due to lack
of interest or proper training and experience in detecting potential hazards,
making sound driving decisions on how to protect from that danger.
Decision making skills may be poorly developed due to lack of guidance as
they pick up experiential experience from different road and whether
environments, volume of traffic and the time of day.
Human error
Approximately 95% of crashes involve human error
Learning to drive is different from other kinds of learning such as using a
computer. Unlike a trained computer operator, the newly licensed driver is not
sitting safely in an office.
52
Mistakes made when driving can have serious consequences and lead to injury
or even death.
Since nearly all road crashes are a result of human error, the practise of low
risk driving behaviour can help avoid unnecessary mistakes.
Travelling at high speed
The human body was designed for pedestrian speeds. In fact, our reactions to
what we see and hear are geared to movement at about 5 km/h, yet vehicles
move at a speed many times faster.
60 and over age group
Fatalities
The 60 years and over age group makes up 16% of the population and
comprised 21% of all road fatalities in 1996. In the same year, 14% of drivers
killed were aged 60 and over. Although the absolute number is comparatively
low, they are disproportionately involved on a distance travelled basis
(especially from age 70 onwards).
One of the reasons for this over representation comes from the tendency for
older drivers to become slower to react, declining vision and hearing
impairment.
Generally, older drivers are involved in more fatal and serious accidents during
the week than on weekends. They also have a higher concentration of
accidents from mid-‐morning to mid-‐afternoon.
Older drivers tend to be in more accidents at intersections because of the
complex decision making required.
They do however tend to take fewer risks and are generally more cautious.
Usually they are less likely to be involved in crashes due to speeding, drink
driving or fatigue.
Age related problems
Eye sight.
Eyesight can cause difficulty when reading signs and reduce a persons ability
to scan the roadway judge speed, conditions and distance of their own
vehicle, other vehicles and pedestrians. Vision is also effected by bright lights,
such as the glare from oncoming vehicles at night and multiple lights in busy
built up areas.

53
Information processing.
Age often causes a slow down of information processing which makes it hard
to focus attention between multi hazards.
Experience
Older drivers with many years of experience are also generally very safety
conscious in their approach to driving and this reduces the risks they
consciously choose to take whilst driving.
Towards the year 2011
The number of licence holders aged over 65 will increase more than six fold,
from around 100,000 to about 600,000 in year 2011.
Vehicle safety
Anti-‐lock braking systems (abs)
The distance it takes to stop a vehicle is widely influenced by many factors and
it is subject to the same laws of physics for any other moving body.
Applying the brakes too heavily can causes the vehicle to skid thus resulting in
an increased stopping distance. Finally the vehicle comes to a halt due to
frictional forces. Ensuring that these frictional forces are maximised
continually, means reducing the amount of skidding. This can be reduced with
Anti Lock brakes.
Braking distances sometimes can be significantly reduced in wet weather with
an ABS vehicle but the real winner is having positive steering when turning
and manoeuvring. Basically, ABS allows the wheels to continue turning,
enabling the driver of the vehicle to steer and still maintain maximum braking
potential around hazards.
In short, the ABS senses the rotation of the wheels starting to stop turning
and then it releases the brake pressure enough to allow rotation again. This
technique can be duplicated manually by a highly trained driver. Even a highly
trained professional may not achieve the same amount of precision as a ABS
system. It takes many hours of practise on an off road skid area to achieve
similar results.
Traction control
When traction control is engaged, it automatically reduces engine power and
if required, applies braking pressure to the spinning wheel to ensure smooth
acceleration with maximum control under varying road conditions.
The human collision

54
The focus of road safety has been measuring the number of fatalities but
modernised emergency services and procedures along with safer cars and
improved roads, means that serious injuries is occurring more than the normal
fatalities experienced in the past.
Experts believe that approximately 50% of road accident victim admissions
consist of brain injury and approximately 70% of these victims are below 25
years of age. This figures are sourced from at least 3000 road crash victims
according to one hospital's records. (Source Holden Australia)
The human body experiences rapid deceleration during a crash and because it
cannot defy Newton's first law which states that "a body continues in its state
of rest, or motion in a straight line, at constant speed, unless it is compelled to
change that state by an external force acting upon it." When travelling at 60
kmp/h before an accident both you and the car will try to continue in that
state of motion.
The large force which acts on the car is exerted by the object which the car
strikes stopping momentum while the occupants of the car continue travelling
at 60 kmp/h until the force acts upon them.
The occupants come to rest and this is the difference between survival and
death. The wearing of a correctly fitted seat belt is going to be a major
contributing factor as to whether a person survives or not. When the crash
occurs parts of the human body that are in direct contact with the safety belt
are halted at approximately the same rate as the vehicle but the rest of the
body, head and limbs continue to move according to Newtons Law.
The parts of the body not restrained by the seat belt in a high speed crash can
strike different parts of the vehicle. The knees of the driver and front
passenger usually strike the underside of the dashboard. The arms usually
strike the upper side of the dashboard. Leg and arm injuries are a lot easier to
heal than head injuries. The head, supported and halted by the neck may
strike the steering wheel, dashboard or windscreen depending on an
enormous amount of variables (Holden). According to Volvo's crash testing
data the body weight is equal to 3000 kg in a crash at 50 km/h which explains
why the seat belts stretches and catches the person and why there should not
be any loose items in the back of the vehicle.
Inertial effects are primary causes of brain injury. A large amount of force on a
small area equates to a large amount of pressure.
As explained in the Holden crash testing information, brain injury occurs
through inertial effects refers to the brain's state of motion. Before the
collision the brain is travelling at 60 km/h. Immediately after the collision the
brain is at rest. The brain is surrounded by a fluid and supported in place by
small membranes. The fluid and membranes try and cushion the brain during
its sudden and rapid deceleration. If the brain collides into the skull, bruising
occurs. The extent of the collision determines the amount of bruising and
55
corresponding brain damage. Damage to the brain can lead to concussion,
permanent brain damage, comatisation or death.
The organs around the abdomen often receive enormous injuries as they are
essentially squashed by the seat belt. The organs protected by the ribs are
relatively safe provided the rib cage doesn't break. When a rib breaks it may
result in a punctured or collapsed lung.
The air bag.
Many of today's survivors would have died instantly at the scene of the
accident if it was not for the seat belt. As described earlier, seat belts play a
most important role in slowing down the momentum of the body within the
vehicle in a catching effect but because of the limitations of the human body
and the potential striking of objects in the vehicles a person can still receive
serious injuries or possibly die.
Prevention of some of these injuries can come from the use of an air bag.
Imagine a large bag of soft cushioning air inflating in front of you as the car
comes to a sudden halt. The benefits are obvious.
With an almighty BANG, the air bag leaps into action. In less than a few
thousandths of a second the air bag is inflated. Within a few milliseconds the
air bag starts to deflate.
As stated in the Holden crash testing information, an air bag is designed to
inflate only when the vehicle experiences an impact with a solid object at
around 18 kmp/h to 20 kmp/h. Deceleration must be very high to detonate the
air bag. The computer that controls the air bag makes a decision in a few
milliseconds to detonate the gas cylinders that will inflate the air bag. The
propellant detonates and inflates the air bag while the driver collapses
towards the dashboard. As the body lunges forward into the air bag, the bag
deflates, allowing the body to sink comfortably towards the dashboard with
minimal injury minimised.
The timing of the airbag is critical. There are two main possible faults with an
air bag. If the airbag is inflated too early it will already be deflating when the
driver's head strikes the airbag. This would result in a reduction of
effectiveness due to its failure to support the driver's head. The other possible
fault is if the airbag is too late and the driver's head is too close to the steering
wheel it may be struck suddenly by the inflating airbag. The result would
effectively reduce impact time and therefore increase the impact forces.
The air bag is only one link in a series of many that form an integral chain of
events that unfold during a collision. It most certainly is not designed to
replace the seat belt. A safety belt alone gives much better protection than an
airbag alone. The combination of the two safety devices increases the chances
of surviving a collision with minimal injury.

56
The occupant survival zone.

As stated in the Holden crash testing information, the collision between the
car and the object being struck is different to the collision that the occupant
of the vehicle experiences. The occupant may experience much higher forces
than the vehicle.
As the vehicle crumples, the occupant of the vehicle is still in a state of
motion. Older style seat belts had a lot of slack (these belts were not always
adjusted to fit properly). They allowed the occupants to continue moving
forward until they received a solid jolt from the seat belt.
A short and sudden stopping distance caused by an inelastic and poorly fitted
safety belt creates enormous forces. Modern, inertia type safety belts are
much better. During a collision the seat belt locks. There is still a considerable
amount of spooling that takes place. Spooling is the tensioning of the slack on
the real of the seat belt. Webbing clamps reduce the amount of spooling that
takes place during a collision.
The lap sash seat belt is much better than the lap belt. The New Commodores
and many other modern vehicles are fitted with lap sash belts for all seating
positions. The lap portion of the seat belt should pass across the hipbone. This
bone is very strong and can withstand relatively large forces. The lap portion
of the belt should not be allowed to rise up to the abdomen. The abdomen
has very little bone structure and consists mainly of soft organs. The soft
organs in the abdomen can be easily damaged in the event of a collision.
The sash portion of the seat belt should fit snugly across the shoulder. It
should not be allowed to ride up towards the neck. It is designed to restrict
the movement of the main torso. The main torso contains a large percentage
of the body's mass and therefore requires a large force to halt its movement
during a collision.
The arms and legs of the occupants of the vehicle are still left unsupported. It
is not practical to restrict the movements of the arms and legs during the
normal course of travelling. It must therefor be assumed that these limbs will
be left to the mercy of the objects they collide with during an accident. It is for
this reason that the materials used inside the cabin are energy absorbing and
contain no sharp edges.
The backs of seats are well padded for the rear passengers. The dashboard is
also padded and set back as far as possible to reduce the likelihood of injury.
The legs of the front seat passengers are still likely to strike the dashboard
area. Knee bolsters are fitted to minimise injury. There are no sharp objects
left in the dashboard area.
Modem radios have replaced the older style that contained dangerous knobs.
Air vent controllers no longer contain long levers that can easily penetrate the
skin in the case of a serious accident.
57
The crumple zone.

Solid old cars are not safer than new cars (Holden Australia, 1995). New cars
are designed to crumple. A car that crumples absorbs energy reducing the
severity of impact on the vehicle's occupants. There are several simple
comparisons which can be made to assist the understanding of this principle.
Imagine you are jumping up and down on a trampoline. It is easy to reach
heights of three meters above the trampoline. As you jump on the trampoline,
the springs on the trampoline gradually retard your motion. The result is a
smooth and harmless collision. Compare this situation to jumping off the roof
of a house and landing on concrete. It is quite easy to break your legs or
ankles. The collision is considerably more severe. The major difference is the
stopping distance. The increased stopping distance of the trampoline results
in a much smaller impact force. The increased stopping distance of a car
designed to crumple, brings the occupants to a more gradual stop. A greater
stopping distance provides a smaller risk of injury.
Another example of this principle is catching a hard ball. Imagine if someone
was to drop a 7.5 kg bowling ball into your waiting hands. Even from a height
of 50cms it would be possible to catch the ball without risk of injury. Now
consider the same event, this time imagine your hands are fiat on the concrete
when the ball is dropped. The catch would most likely result in injury.
In the first example the hands of the catcher are allowed to gradually absorb
the energy of the collision process. In the second example the hands of the
catcher would most likely be crushed. The reason for this is that the concrete
will not move much as a result of the bowling ball landing. There is only a very
small deformation distance on the hand. The action will create enormous
forces because of the short stopping distance.
A critical factor in an accident is the ability of a vehicle structure to deform to
the maximum possible extent without intrusion into the cabin space. The
cabin is the survival capsule. The passenger capsule is often referred to as the
occupants' survival space.
Objects should not be allowed to penetrate the cabin space. Some of the
existing penetrable objects are designed to retract when an impact is occurs.
The foot pedals in the Holden Commodore for example are designed to bend
back leaving the maximum amount of occupant protection space.
When designing a car, it is important to make sure that the car will crumple
progressively.
The engine and its components must not be allowed to intrude into the cabin
of the vehicle. Car engines are now mounted in such a way that in the event
of an accident the engine will be pushed downwards, under the vehicle.
Engine components that are very rigid, such as an air conditioner compressor,
the master brake cylinder and the alternator, are staggered throughout the
58
engine bay. If these solid components were all in line, they would not allow
the engine bay to crumple. Alternately, they would deform the firewall of the
cabin and intrude into the survival space.
The 'speed kills' campaign looks at the effect that a change in velocity has on
the forces involved in a collision. Strictly speaking it is not the speed that
counts but the change in speed or velocity that counts. Clearly a smaller
impact speed will result in considerably smaller impact forces.

59
Section 3
Driving Techniques, Observation

Skills and Risk Factors

60
Road conditions
It is important to evaluate what the road is like. The road itself is one
reason why you always need to be adjusting your speed. Urban and
rural roads can require different driving techniques and skills to each,
adding another dimension to the scope of conditions.
Poor road surfaces
You will need to slow down for:

Pot holes, dirt and gravel roads. Road works need extra care. Loose
gravel is especially dangerous.
Curves
Slowing down (relevant to the angle and camber of the curve) before
entering a curve is the best driving practice, then accelerate slightly
whilst driving out of the curve in a front wheel drive. In a rear wheel
drive once the vehicle is balanced, you can accelerate gently after you
pass the apex of the curve, throwing the vehicles weight back onto the
drive wheels. Braking heavily in the middle of a curve can be
extremely dangerous. Too much speed on the approach to and in a
curve is a common cause of skidding.
Slippery roads
These may be caused by moisture, gravel, dirt, mud or ice. Some areas
that are often slippery will be signposted. There are two main times
when there is far less traction than from gentle steady rain. When it
first starts to rain, mixing oil, rubber and dirt on the road surface and
after some time this is eventually washed away. The other time is
when it has been raining heavily and there is a build up of water on the
surface and in turn causing a build up of water between the tyres and
the road surface creating hydroplaning/aquaplaning.
On sealed roads in poor conditions, you should double your space
cushion and with unsealed roads, triple the space cushion.
Reading the road surface
The types and conditions of road surface affect the stability of a
vehicle.
Signs to look out for

 Change from bitumen to loose gavel, which could cause instability
and potential braking problems.

61
 Types of cambers. (Positive, negative and crown cambers)
 Oil, dust and rubber build up at traffic lights (particularly when wet
and it has not rained for some time).
 Deterioration in the road condition adversely affects braking and

cornering.
 Negative cambers, which cause cornering problems.
Other conditions which affect driving greatly.

Danger signs
 Noticing traffic congesting ahead should prompt drivers to develop

a defence procedure and escape route for that situation.
 Looking out for speed scatter on freeways, causing variation in
traffic flow.
 Shoulders of the road may be made of gravel and fall negatively
away from the sealed surfaces. They may be soft or wet causing
nearside wheels to run on unstable ground (problems with braking,
steering or sudden acceleration).
 When the shoulder is lower than the sealed road, driving back onto
the road can have a tram line effect, preventing the near side
wheels returning to the road.
Unsealed roads
Unsealed roads have distinctive problems associated with them:-‐
 Road markings cannot be painted on the surface, eg., centre lines
and edge-‐lines.
 It is difficult to distinguish between the edge of the gravelled road
and the soft shoulders.
 Rain severely deteriorates the road surface, causing run off.
 Tyre traction significantly reduced.
 Dry weather dust is a problem.
 Other vehicles throwing stones.
 Scattered potholes and corrugations minimise vehicle stability.
Added care is needed to drive on these looses surfaces.

62
Damaging the suspension as well as throwing the vehicle around are
adverse effects that are dramatically increased with speed.
Be very wary of on coming vehicles on blind corners as the driver may
not having total control of their vehicle.
Corrugated roads
The ridges of the corrugations are evenly spaced but give a rough ride
unless the vehicle is driven at or above a certain speed. To ride
corrugations smoothly, the steering linkage, suspension and
particularly the shock absorbers must be in good condition. You
should not accelerate powerfully or it could provoke axle tramp and
instability.
Hairpin bends and zigzag roads
These type of corners are reasonably straight forward when

negotiating a right-‐hand corner but left-‐hand corners are more difficult
as the curve is far tighter from the correct side of the road and may be
smaller than the minimum turning circle of the vehicle. If the vehicle
approaches a left-‐hand corner whilst keeping close to the left, it may
be impossible to exit on the correct side of the road, so choose an
approach path out from hard left. This increases the chance of having
a head on accident, especially if other vehicles have too much speed
causing understeer.
Hazardous periods
Dusk and sunrise bring additional visibility hazards. Picking out objects
and the natural movement of stock and wildlife are major concerns as
well as some blindness.
Slippery surfaces
Reduce speed as soon as you even suspect that the road surface is
likely to change (snow and surface road water are obvious) and try to
adopt a speed which will require as little variation (braking or
acceleration) as possible. A vehicle will not usually lose traction if there
is no change in speed or direction unless the gradient or crossfall of
the surface is steep.
If you have to stop for any reason, ensure that the driving wheels of
your vehicle are on the most stable part of the road so as to be able to
move off again more safely. If you have to turn round and retrace your
tracks and are forced to place either the front or the rear wheels on
less stable ground in doing so, always keep your driving wheels on the
most stable surface.

63
When descending a very slippery surface always select a lower gear to
avoid using the brakes as they will most likely lock very easily and be
difficult to remedy.
Driving in fog
In daylight, headlights should be switched on, not for their lighting
effect but to make you more visible to other drivers. Drive at a speed
that will able you to stop within the distance of your forward vision.
Centre line or edge markings are useful guidelines in fog, both day and
night. High beam must not be used in fog, because the light reflects
back from the moisture-‐laden air, further affecting visibility so if you
have fog lights, switch of your headlights and only use fog lights.
Use of lights
The driver of a vehicle must turn on headlights between sunset and
sunrise. The non-‐use of lights during the hours of twilight or dusk has
been the cause of many accidents.
Headlights must be dipped within 200 metres of the rear of a vehicle
that you are following and within 200 metres of an oncoming vehicle.
The use of high beam may be very helpful when two vehicles are
approaching each other on a blind corner. A high beam may illuminate
trees, fence or road cuttings and be visible to an oncoming driver
several seconds before he comes into view. They can also be use to
make other drivers aware that you are present in daylight.
Night driving
Spotlessly clean windows and particularly the front and rear screens,
both inside and out is extremely important in night driving. It is
important that you select a speed relevant to the visibility you
headlights create. Remember, after dipping your head lights 200
metres before the other vehicle, you may need to quickly flash your
high beam to determine what is between you and the oncoming
vehicle or the vehicle you are following.
Avoid looking directly into the lights of an oncoming displaying high
beam on because it may blind you. Instead angle your eyes down and
to the left and guide the vehicle by the left side or shoulder of the
road, never the middle. You should, without blinding your self quickly
glance to determine the oncoming vehicle's position because it may
have drifted to your side.
Your eyes at night

64
When bright headlights are about 30 metres away, it is very difficult to
see objects beside or beyond the approaching vehicle. After the
vehicle has passed, your vision does not return to normal for some
time.
Even the lights of a single vehicle can create complex eye adjustments
between the time you first see them and the time they pass.
Observation
Central vision and peripheral vision
Faulty seeing habits are a major cause of accidents because the novice
driver fails to see the hazard and react appropriately without being
rushed.
Central vision is used to focus, giving clarity. At 30m the central cone is
only a bare 1.5m wide, at 91m the cone is 5m wide, and at 305m, it
becomes 16m wide. This is why when the person looks further up the
road, effectively their central eye sight widens.
Poor or inexperienced drivers normally make the mistake of using
central vision for steering, gluing their eyes to the road so fixedly that
significant changes in the wider traffic pattern may be missed.
Peripheral vision, often called fringe vision works up, down and side to
side, acting as the attractor so as central vision can be used more
freely.
Many novice drivers use peripheral vision for judging turns and gaps
associated with other vehicles, which at times can be dangerous
without reassessment using central vision.
Visual search techniques
Aim high in steering
This means look well ahead with the eyes aimed high. The basic rule is
the faster the speed, the further it will be necessary to aim your vision.
Straight line steering can be assisted using high aim steering path
selection determined by the central vision which should cause the
novice driver to track the vehicle in the middle of this path in their
early stage of development. Many novice drivers fix their eyes on
objects they are worried about hitting such as kerbs, trees, poles and
other vehicles. This can be distracting not only in terms of attention
but also the vehicle may start to track towards these objects.

65
It is important when training novice drivers that they learn to train
their eyes to work between long and short range so as the mind thinks
between long, medium and short range also.
With oncoming vehicles, a driver should check lane position and other
vehicles stability while they are still a long distance away. At night, the
driver should keep glancing well in front of his headlight spray, looking
for dark shapes on the road before turning high beam according to
regulations. The driver central vision must determine whether there is
a potential hazard between them and the oncoming vehicle.
If the oncoming vehicle is dazzling a driver with high beam, it is
important that central vision determines road position, using either
the left-‐hand lane markings or road edge to minimise potential
blindness.
You should also be aware of an oncoming vehicle's road position, using
your peripheral vision closes to your central vision for quick glances, in
order to determine whether the oncoming vehicle has drifted towards
you.
See the whole scene
Seeing the whole scene is observing all the road and traffic situations
both ahead and behind. Following distance is critical to achieving big
picture observation because it is important that objects such as other
vehicles, pedestrians, road markings, signs and poles ahead are only a
small part of the traffic scene.
Keep the eyes on the move
Keeping the eyes moving helps detecting changes in the speed and
direction of other vehicles and observe potential risks. Part of the
reason eyes must keep moving is the need to base decisions on a
holistic approach as well as remove potential blind spots from the eyes
and things which cause vision block.
Mental awareness
We see with our eyes but we observe with the mind. Your eyes are
only the lenses but your mind is the film and it selects what it wants to
see.
Depth perception
Depth perception refers to your ability to judge the distance between
you and an object that you see. It is also concerned with the size and
shape of the object in terms of depth and plays a major role in your

66
decision making in relation to how people and pedestrians approach
you and how you approach other objects, vehicles and pedestrians.
Vision acuity
Clearness of vision is called ‘visual acuity’
Eye sight problems
Eye blind spot
If you are teaching a person who has only one eye, it is important to
teach scanning techniques to compensate the natural blind spot in the
eye.
Source: D.Oldfield. Basic and Advance Driving Handbook. 1986

Gregory's Scientific Publications, Universal Press Pty Ltd
In every human eye there is a natural blind spot. In the right eye it is
about 15 degrees to the right of the straight-‐ahead line or visual axis
and for the left eye the same amount to the left. The angle of
blindness is usually about 5.5 degrees horizontally and about 7.5
degrees vertically.
At 50 metres this would represent an area of 3 metres x 4.5 metres,
enough to conceal a cyclist, pedestrian or even a car.
This can be demonstrated by a very simple test. On a blank sheet of
paper draw 2 similar marks approximately 6 centimetres apart. To test
the right eye, cover (do not close) the left eye and look straight ahead
at the left mark. Begin by holding the page about 30 centimetres from
the eye and gradually move the page closer. Initially the right mark will
be visible in the peripheral field of the right eye, but there will be a
stage, when the page is about 20 centimetres away from the eye, or a
little more, when the right mark will vanish momentarily. It will
reappear as the page is moved closer still.
 

This natural occurrence can come into play any time the bridge on the
nose blocks either eye from compensating the other eye. Eg such as
looking left and right at intersection when the person relies on turning
the eyes only with a slight head movement or the car pillar interferes
with one of the eyes vision.

67
Night blindness
Night driving requires special visual techniques because even if the
driver has good vision or advance observation skills they are still
limited in many ways by the range of headlights.
It is clear that many experienced drivers do not recognise the visual
limitations of driving with headlight illumination only (eg., Leibowitz
and Owens, 1986), and this needs to be clearly illustrated and linked to
an appropriate feeling of discomfort at “driving blind.”
Eyes adjust much more slowly to darkness than to light. Although most
of the adjustment takes place in the first few minutes, there is still
substantial adjustment taking place for as long as half an hour in a dark
place.
The role of the iris to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye.
If the iris cannot operate fast enough to allow more light in the
adjustment back to dark is very slow.
The problem is that even the lights of one single vehicle causes
complex eye adjustments from the time the light becomes visible,
grows in intensity and then reduces.
Factors which effect driving
Choice of speed
Safety margins
Novice drivers must commit to proper and moderate speed choice. To
do this they have to recognise the effects of excessive travelling
speeds and error correction time required by both themselves and
drivers. The main speed selected should be based on the road and
weather conditions, as well as the amount of hazard density. Speed
should be selected to give the driver time to observe and make
appropriate decisions to avoid the risk.
Safe gap acceptance
Novice drivers should be able to define safe gap acceptance and
perform cognitive skills related to estimating and verifying the time of
impact relevant to the closing rate of approaching and oncoming
vehicles. Both road and weather conditions should be taken into
account.
As part of a training strategy, the driver should be able to discuss the
effects of frustration on gap acceptance and a safe and unsafe gap.

68
They also must be able to demonstrate safe gap selection in different
manoeuvres, such as pulling out and passing, giving way at
intersections, following, overtaking and passing gaps.
Note: When turning or pulling out in front of other vehicles, it is
important that the driver checks mirrors to verify safe gap selection
and the closing rate of an approaching vehicle.
Risk priortisation
Novice drivers need to priorities the risks in context, situations and
actions that contribute to crashes. To do this the trainer must show
the trainee how to priorities hazards in order of approach, where there
is potential high risk, other vehicles or pedestrians.
Personal limitations in risk assessment
It is important for novice drivers to personalise their limits, particularly
in evaluation of risk. It is a good training strategy in order to evaluate
the novice drivers personal risk assessment and to encourage a
running risk commentary on their evaluation of potential risk. This will
allow you to provide feedback showing the limits of risk assessment as
well as enhancing appraisal and maybe self-‐monitoring of their own
ability.
Considering other peoples differing point of view
It is important that a driver can learn to predict the likely actions of
others as well as taking into account what they think the other driver
can see from their positions and in effect what they are trying to do or
expect to do.
Space and use of safety cushion
Safety cushion
Of all the defensive driving techniques people use, one of the most
important for people with high or low skill levels in situations where
there is a concentration or variation in vehicles, bad road or weather
conditions, is a personalised safety cushion.
In short it maximises the time needed to stop or manoeuvre to avoid
danger of collision from any direction. As the speed increases so
should the space around you. If the space is reduced the speed must
be reduced to fit the space available. Safety cushion is achieved front
and rear by using correct following distances. Increase the forward
following distance if the following vehicle does not keep sufficient
distance by adding the number of seconds required by the following
vehicle to the front of your vehicle. Safety cushion also needs to be

69
created when passing or overtaking so position on the road should be
taken as early as practicable.
Be seen
It is very important to be are seen by other vehicles and you must take
into account that because a person looks at you it does not mean that
they have seen you. They may not be mentally thinking about you,
such as people not looking for motor bikes but just cars. Also you
must observe whether the person can see you with both their eyes so
as the blind spot in eyes is removed.
Our primary aid in making ourselves seen is by the use of signals, when
stopping or turning. Sounding the horn or flashing the headlights can
be used to attract attention. Don't place your car in the blind spot of
others. Don't be obstructed by large vehicles. Sometimes you can
check if you have been seen by using eye contact with the other driver.
Have an escape
As part of the decision-‐making process when driving along you should
consider alternatives if something were to go wrong. This would allow
an escape route and possibly prevent an accident. The other factor is
if an accident is unavoidable, you will need to decide where the safest
impact is. Don't drive in the right lane because it increases your
potential of having a head on collision. When approaching
intersections at any speed, you should cover the brake so as to
minimise stopping distance, thus, reducing the potential of having a
high impact collision.
Intersection safety
Worldwide, approximately half of all road crashes occur at

intersections, so it is of the utmost importance to develop training
strategies that make the trainee mentally aware of safety factors
relevant to approaching intersections.
"T" intersections are dangerous but not as dangerous as cross
intersections. At cross intersections other vehicles can be driven at
high speed through the intersection. The reality is that red lights or
stop and give way signs are not a physical barriers that will stop the
other vehicle. Because human error plays a major role when drivers
are distracted by many internal and external problems, sometimes
they are temporarily unaware of traffic conditions. The general rule is
that intersections, where traffic is stationary is generally safer than a
clear intersection where a vehicle is more likely to speed through and
cause the crash.

70
Vision blockout
Vision blockout basically relates to an external object or internal part
of the vehicle like the car pillar which blocks visibility. Some examples
of blockout are trees, plants, parked cars, car pillars, passengers,
fences, poles, other vehicles and buildings that block vision in some
way.
Two important factors that relate to vision blockout that which always
be taken into account when driving.
1. Never make a decision to proceed in any direction unless that
decision is based on a clear uninterrupted view of all potential
danger.
2. Never approach a hazard that has vision blockout at a speed that
will your vehicle or a following vehicle to break heavily to avoid
danger of collision.
Approach speed at intersections
Stopping distance, sight distance and the amount of vision blockout as
well as other vehicles, should govern speed approach to intersections.
Statistics show that the average driver approaches intersections 18
kmp/h above a safe speed for stopping, which can be shown by the
percentage of brake pressure required to stop. If a following vehicle is
driving aggressively with a poor following distance, due to the added
reaction time the brake pressure will be even greater for the following
vehicle, sometimes causing rear end crashes when the first vehicle
unexpectedly stops.
As stated in the law, vehicles must approach intersections at a speed
that will enable them to stop if necessary. It is very important that we
approach the intersection at a speed which will enable you to control
the speed of the following vehicle and this in effect allows us flexibility
in our driving actions if something goes wrong.
Fatigue
Drivers often make the mistake of staring fixedly at the road ahead
creating tunnel vision and highway hypnosis when they start to go to
sleep. This tends to be most apparent on freeways during long trips.
Another factor that causes this highway hypnosis is motor sound
creating a constant dull hum.
The general rules which apply when feeling tired:-‐.

 If someone else is with you and they are not tired then let them
drive.

71
 Have at least a 15 minute break to rest every one to two hours.
 Do not rely on coffee or "stay awake" drugs.
 Rest up before long trip.
 Do not drive during times that you normally sleep. (Most crashes
are caused by fatigue occurring between 11 PM and 8 AM)
 Shifting your eyes and thoughts from one area of the road to
another.
 Another high-‐risk time is early to mid-‐afternoon, but this does not
mean that fatigue will not occur at other times.
 If you are on medication, check the labels and ask your doctor or
pharmacist about how they would effect your driving and any
possible side effects.
Stress
It is important to try to relieve stress because it can affect your driving
and you could be up to 5 times more likely to be involved in a crash. If
you have any problems with health, family or work then this might
take your concentration away from the tasks of driving.

72
Section 4
Human Perception and Decision

Making

73
Human perception and decision making is very subjective and hard to
measure.
Motivations and attitudes play a major role in how people perceive
what is happening around them and how they behave. Everyone
interprets information differently and this is why interpretations are
subjective when evaluating the cause of event, the degree of control
we feel we have over a situation and knowledge gained by past
experiences.
People tend to draw conclusions based on previous experience.
Drivers must be trained to perceive potential danger, by learning to
perceive hazard causing events that they may not have experienced
before.
Perception consists of the mental processing of information by the
senses. The mind observes and processes making an interpretation
relevant to visual patterns (templates or schemers) which results in
the recognition and identification of potential hazards.
These visual patterns are strongly influenced by what we tend to
expect to see. For example, as we drive down the road things that
interest us grab our attention like a particular model or colour of car
we may like or want to buy.
Perception is also influenced by other senses beside vision such as
hearing, balance and muscle senses. These factors play a large part in
detecting problems in special hazardous situations and high-‐
performance driving, but less so than vision in routine driving,
especially for novices.
Perception limitations
The driver is able to observe and perceive only a small fraction of the
information available in the environment. This limitation plays a major
role in hazard selection and how the mind then starts to priorities and
effect recognition of different closing rates of approaching vehicles
and pedestrians.
Motivation
Emotions, drives and appetites are internal forces imposing individual

to solicit gratification of individual requirements. It is this motivation
which influences behaviour and direct choices.

74
While motivation comes from within, it may be closely associated with
external factors such as individual incentives and disincentives (eg.,
Wilde, 1994a) as well as more internal motivators such as personal
norms (Parker et al., 1992) or “active caring” (Geller, 1991).
In terms of how motivation relates to driving, motivations tend to
influence what the driver chooses to do, as opposed to what they are
able to do.
Skills and experience
If you have never been taught correct driving skills from the initial
stages, experience you gain over a period of time may not be of
benefit to you. Good driving doesn’t come naturally and it is reliant on
good tuition and guided experience over a period of time. In many
occasions, novice drivers are extremely lucky to survive as they build
experience both good and bad in an experiential way, relying heavily
on trial and error which can have major consequences in hazardous
situations.
To decrease risk to the novice driver, experience should be assisted by
encouraging the novice driver to provide a sound “margin for error",
while enhancing skill level. It is useful (wise) to encourage the novice
driver to strive to master more difficult driving tasks such as those
required on an extended trip, night driving, negotiating different
terrain and conditions.

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Information processing
Novice driver v's the experienced driver
Taken from Drummond, 'A Review and Discussion of Issues Related to
Training.'
Skill Perception Novice driver Experienced driver
 Perceives non-‐moving  Generally interprets moving
hazards being more hazards as being more
dangerous dangerous
 Analyses each feature  Perceives recurrent general
separately and independently, patterns, eg. perceives a
therefore cannot process as pattern as a single chunk
much information therefore does not have to
search and integrate as much
Integration  Has difficulty in integrating
diverse information into
overall assessment of
hazardous situations.
Attention  Fails to switch attention  Develops effective and
flexible priortising
 Poor in attending to relevant  Strategies therefore can
aspects of the driving switch attention rapidly
environment between sub-‐tasks
Judgement  Has difficulty in judging gap
clearance and closure speeds
Reaction times  Slow for complex traffic  Fast for complex traffic
situations situations
Search  Looks near the vehicle.  Looks further away from the
Monitors only obviously vehicle
dangerous situations Monitors potentially
 Monitors vehicle controls and dangerous situations
uses mirrors frequently  Monitors vehicle controls
infrequently and uses mirrors
 Turns head while changing
less frequently
lanes.

76

Skill Novice driver Experienced driver
Car control  Braking and acceleration  Smoother braking and
often abrupt. acceleration
 Slow recovery after  Fast recovery after avoidance
avoidance manoeuvres manoeuvres
Speed  Average speed increases  Slows for potentially
during the first year of dangerous situations.
driving.
 Fails to slow for potentially
dangerous situations.
 Shows a conscious
preference for speed over
safety.
Confidence  More likely to rate himself or  Less likely to rate himself or
herself as a better-‐than-‐ herself as a better-‐than-‐
average driver. average driver.
 May overestimate the crash
risk in low to medium risk
situations but underestimate
risk of less frequent high risk
situations.
Risks  Seat belt used less frequently.
 Drives closer to the vehicle in
front.
 Underestimates risks.
Characteristics of  Lack of thought about
deviant potential implications.
behaviour  Feelings of repression.
 Rebelliousness and
selfishness.
 Low self-‐esteem and regard
for civic responsibility
Decisions
Decision-‐making is never ending in driving, as the driver estimates the
risks and then determines a suitable course of action. It is important to
establish with the novice driver that they form part of the traffic scene
and that they must make choices and decisions that maximise the

77
safety of others and themselves and these choices are made
continuously.
It is important as a trainer, that you monitor whether the novice driver,
on approach to hazards, covers the brake pedal then slows down and
stops if necessary to help their decision method. Early position
selection and covering the brake pedal on approach to hazards, is a
practical way of assessing if the novice driver has made a decision to
avoid potential danger.
How the brain thinks
In the conscious mind, the human brain thinks of approximately 7 to 10
things at once.
In the subconscious mind, the human brain thinks of approximately

100 things at once. Things that we are subconsciously competent at,
are breathing, blinking and other thinks we do without thinking
consciously.
How speed effects vision
The eyes normally send 40 complete new pictures per second to the
brain, yet, we only observe 7 of these pictures. This alters due to the
speed we are travelling at.
 Observation is best when stationary (100%).
 At 70 km/h, visual acuity deteriorates to about 50% of stationary
awareness.
 At 100% km/h, visual acuity deteriorates to about 25% of stationary
awareness.
Mental habits
Attention of the mind
Training should develop the novice driver to automatically become

‘unconsciously competent’ at physical and mental driving skills.
The advantages of this automation are that it reduces stress and
intense or prolonged concentration, as well as allows the driver to
perform multiple tasks simultaneously without being out of their
comfort zone. This allows the novice driver to focus on and place
hazards in order of priority.

78
When new performances levels have to be achieved, conscious focus is
swapped to the new task. An example of this is, if a person
competently drives an automatic vehicle and decides to learn how to
drive a manual vehicle, the normal subconsciously competent
observation skills and decision-‐making skills become impaired.
Instead, the driver is driving within the conscious realm within the
vehicle learning to use the clutch and change gears. This is why you
must provide a physically and emotionally safe environment (comfort
zone) that will take the pressure away from the driver until they
become unconsciously competent.
Sometimes it is important to segregate physical and mental skills
during this learning phase, making sure that the novice driver has
developed many vehicle control skills in the subconscious competence
before introducing enhanced decision making skills associated with
processing from scanning, risk management and calculating crash
avoidance space.
It is important that you focus the learner driver's attention on the
required performance, assisting the learner driver, when required,
with tasks that are not automatic. It is important to intervene if the
learner driver is not capable of performing a task landing outside their
comfort zone.
As a training strategy, the learner driver should be shown how to
rationally and practically select and filter information so as they can
switch their conscious attention in plenty of time, to deal with new
events or problems that require a complex decision. The key factor
here is the need to select a speed at which the novice driver can make
new decisions consciously without being under pressure. This relates
to hazard density, where the more potential hazards need to be
observed and decisions made and therefore the slower the speed the
novice driver must drive in order to compensate.
Low-‐risk driving (developing an in-‐built alarm).
Usually low-‐risk drivers can talk with passengers whilst driving

competently, having no trouble in being aware when to stop talking
and concentrate on the task at hand. People with sound experience
have an in-‐built ‘alarm’ which alerts them to a potential hazard
whenever they are in a new situation or whenever they consider that
their response time could be jeopardising safety.
Low-‐risk drivers aim to commence forecasting events a minimum of 5

seconds before they occur which maximise their observation and
decision making time. If their following distance is not sufficient to
allow them to forecast potential hazard events, then they adjust speed
and position in order to achieve this.

79
Utilising this training strategy, the instructor trains the learner driver to
calculate the "5 second" distance at varying speeds, which shows how
distance increases with speed and why it is important to alternate
thinking between short, middle and long range observation.
This may be done from the passenger side so as the novice driver is
under no pressure or needs to think about other factors in driving as
the driver trainer demonstrates and the novice driver verbalises
technique.
Optimism bias
Psychologists who study the relationship between thinking styles and

behaviour have discovered that people who think optimistically
behave differently to those who think pessimistically. People who are
optimistic tend to be more positive in the way they think, believing
that they are more in control of their lives. In turn, they believe that
more positive outcomes will occur than negative outcomes for them in
comparison to their peers.
Normally, when optimistic people experience negative events they

tend to brush them aside, not as failure, but more as a temporary
setback, most likely caused by bad luck or unfortunate circumstances.
Typically, optimistic people do not take things personally if they fail,
instead, they tend to view the failure as just one incident and had
nothing to do with their overall ability. Optimistic people do not tend
to spend a lot of time on reflection after failure because they still feel
that in the future they will still be able to avoid any future negative
events.
Psychologists argue that, as a result of their thinking habits, optimists
are happier than pessimists and tend to make much better progress
towards achieving their goals. They have a strong sense of control and
disregard for failure. The negative side to this is they tend to take more
risks and in turn this factor on the road can cause horrific outcomes.
Optimistic people have an exaggerated sense of control, believing

nothing unfortunate will happen to them. The other person going
through a stop sign illegally may be in danger but if they did, because
they have better reflexes and skills will be able to avoid the crash. For
this reason they do not believe that they need to be as cautious as
those negative thinking unskilled drivers with conservative views and
driving habits.
Unrealistic optimism and driving
There are links between unrealistic optimism and risk taking in driving.
Unrealistic optimism is common in most drivers. The research of many

80
road safety experts, often conclude with findings that many average
drivers consider themselves to be of above average and less likely to
be involved in a crash than their peers.
Source: Framework of Driver Education, 1997
Following are examples of thought processes that may fuel this
perception They provide a guide to the teaching approach needed to
align the drivers' thinking more accurately:
 'I learnt to drive in only eight lessons and passed my test the first
time.'
 'I have good reflexes and so l am more likely to avoid a crash.'
 'I'm told driving is dangerous but I haven't crashed.'
 'I've driven in some pretty tough conditions and managed to control
the car OK.'
 'I see information which says crashes are common but I haven't
crashed.'
 'I've driven thousands of kilometres and made very few serious
mistakes.'
 'I see other drivers making mistakes all the time.'
 'I can guess which people are most likely to crash by the stupid
things they do.'
 'I must be less likely to crash and if I do crash it's move bad luck
than bad management.'
It is important that part of your driver training strategy addresses
problems associated with promoting optimism bias views in the
learner driver. It is also important that when training licensed drivers
who display a optimistic view that you show their limitations both in
vehicle control and those relating to perception and risk taking. Your
training strategy must include the recognition of failure and the
importance of learning to reflect on this failure to minimise risk in the
future from other drivers and their own behaviour.
Attribution theory
Source:-‐ Framework of Driver Education, 1997
When people explain what they think caused an event, their
description is based on what may be called their worldview. A
worldview is constructed over time, in response to answers given to a
series of questions: 'Why did that happen?' or 'What caused that?'
Such a process starts very early in life and continues whenever
something new or unexpected is experienced. This world view may
lead people to see themselves as having caused either all or part of an

81
event, or it may lead them to see the cause as being outside their
control.
Causal attribution theory is a psychological theory that argues that

people who attribute the cause of an event to factors outside their
control will behave differently to those who take all or some
responsibility for the cause of those events. Taking responsibility for
the cause of an event is called internalising. For situations that have an
undesired outcome, internalising could be described as having a 'my
mistake view. Attributing cause to other factors, such as other people
or just bad luck', is called externalising.
The attribution theory suggests that people with a 'my mistake'

worldview will be more cautious in risky situations. To avoid causing
problems, they anticipate problematic events. When they make
mistakes, they recognise the part they play and look for ways to avoid
repeating the mistake.
People who internalise are more likely to give themselves useful
feedback on their performance than people who externalise.
However, internalising in itself will not guarantee improved
performance. Knowledge is necessary, both of the specific cause and
of what may lead to the solution, otherwise the ''why?' questions may
be answered incorrectly. Hence, with the appropriate knowledge and
skill and internal worldview, explanations may be explored and
improvements made. With an external view, knowledge is largely used
only to provide excuses.
Causal attribution and driving
Source: Framework of Driver Education, 1997
The causal attribution theory presents itself as a powerful tool for
improving driver skill and, more importantly, driving behaviour.
Learning experiences should aim at producing, in students, a world
view that:-‐
 Recognises failure when it occurs and situations that could have
resulted in failure;
 Asks challenging and appropriate Why?' questions;
 Seeks explanations that point to internal factors;
 Provides achievable solutions.
It is important that the novice or licence driver take ownership of all
events and internalises their world view as part of this ownership.
As a trainer how you comment on potential danger can have an effect
on whether the driver internalises or externalise the problem.

82
'Look out for bad drivers' can develop an external view.
Recognise where the other driver can make mistakes and crash with
you, can develop an internal view. The novice driver must learn to
recognise other drivers mistakes to be able to internalise.
Recognise optional responses
Drivers should learn to describe optional courses of action and how
much time they have to take this action in response to potential
hazards. They should also be able to evaluate which response is more
appropriate, discussing the reasons based on hazard priortisation. It is
important for them to discuss the problems with inaction.
Risk acceptance
The driver should be able to justify the factors which shape their own
personal level of risk acceptance, discussing what level of risk they
judge decision making by.
Retry/abort
If the drivers first choice is not appropriate, then they must be able to
quickly reassess potential danger and re-‐alter course appropriate to
prevent danger of collision.
Motor skills
The drivers must have competent psychomotor skills in order to
properly execute the intended action whilst the vehicle is under total
control. They should be able to verbalise their decision based on what
could effect vehicle control.
Novice drivers risk acceptance
Jonah (1986) provides a good summary of research on the positive and
negative value (or “disutility”) of risk for young drivers. He summarises
suggested positive utilities such as: outlet for stress, impressing
others, increasing stimulation or arousal, taking control and acting
independently, opposing adult authority, frustration, fear of failure at
school, and peer acceptance.
Based on Finnish data, Summala suggests that it takes about 50,000
kilometres (30,000 miles) of driving “before a young driver has
satisfied his strongest extra motives and learnt to use the car rationally
or as rationally as the older experienced driver:

83
The value of safety
A competent driver who values safety, bases this safety on

motivations that encompasses the following:
 They highly value life, both their own and others as well as property
in our society.
 They understand and apply the road rules to minimise confusion by
their own behaviour with others on the road.
 They understand what a risk is and how to priorities and protect
themselves on the approach to them.
 Is aware of the potential consequences of accidents.
How to promote safe driving behaviour
The behaviour of drivers is seldom governed by altruistic motives (ie.
unselfish regard for others). Training should prepare drivers with an
attitude to preserve their own safety.
Human behaviour is generally motivated more powerfully by self-‐

preservation. Therefore, you should aim to make reduced risk-‐driving
strategies a personal motivation for survival (defensive driving).
The world view attitudes to road sense
Attitude
Attitude determines how knowledge and skills will be used. It
determines whether a driver will be cooperative or competitive in
traffic, whether he or she will accept a high level of risk or put into
practice the concepts taught in defensive driving courses.
As a practice your biggest contribution to your child's safety and

effectiveness behind the wheel will be from your example. Patience,
courtesy and a willingness to improve will be your greatest assets.
The safety effects of good driving skills appear to be offset by
overconfidence and increased exposure to risk. Well trained novice
drivers become licensed sooner and drive more, in part because of
their own increased confidence, but also because their parents often
give them more freedom to drive.

84
Hazard perception, risk evaluation, and risk

acceptance
What drivers are able to do and what they choose to do are two
different things. Knowledge of how to control a car is not as critical to
safety as individual motivation. Strong motivation makes up for weak
skills more so than strong skills make up for weak motivation. Without
strong motivation to reduce risk, advanced driving skills can lead to
more crashes, not fewer.
Risk acceptance is not the same thing as crash acceptance. Few drivers
will take a risk if they know it will result in a crash. Instead, risky
choices result from poor risk perception and the inability to detect
hazards often coupled with overconfidence. Good risk detection, good
risk evaluation and strong motivation may support each other.
However, if driver education is to produce safer drivers it must
reinforce the individual and community factors that positively
influence personal motivation and social responsibility.
Attention
Attention is meant to include alertness, arousal, and vigilance that are
essentially 'internal' predispositions in respond to the environment.
Attention drives the searching, scanning, and noticing that the driver
does. It is assumed that attention is both automatic and controllable
by deliberate action of the driver, and that the quality of this control
can improve through experience. Critical factors in control of attention
are dividing it over the many driving tasks and switching the allocation
of attention. Attention must be distributed among different areas (eg.,
ahead v's. behind) and different categories of objects or information
(eg., objects in the road v's. instruments)
It is possible to be 'paying attention' and still miss important
information in the environment because of scanning or other
detection or perception failures. Our model assumes that attention is
necessary but not sufficient for the detection of visual targets and
other information input.
Alertness
Recognise effects of impaired states on alertness
Alertness is fundamental to attention and novices should understand

the range of possible levels of alertness and be able to identify the
internal states and external factors that can effect it. They should be

85
able to assess and recognise symptoms of fatigue, preoccupation, and
substance effects.

86
Section 5
Evasive Action

87
Another car coming head on
 It is important not to assume that the other driver is on the wrong
side of the road because it could be you.
 Remember your greatest braking potential is on a sealed road, so
reduce speed as much as possible in case you have to leave the
road.
 Flash headlights to high beam a short bursts as an awareness tool,
not a blinding tool and blow the horn as well.
 Look for an escape to the left, even if it means leaving the road,
selecting a place where you will not collide with a tree or pole.
 Do not attempt to swerve to the right because the other driver is
likely to instinctively swerve to the left and even if you miss that car
you may hit following vehicles.
Skidding
Remember there are three types of skids, front wheel, rear wheel and
four wheel. Unless you have been trained to recognise the various
types of skids as well as trained to apply the specific remedy for each
type of skid:-‐ the best general advice you can give to a novice driver is
whatever you were doing with the brake, accelerator or steering
wheel when the skid started, ease off gently and steadily and
undertake the following:
Κ Release any braking or acceleration that has been applied.
Κ Reduce any acceleration that may be the skid.
Κ If the vehicle starts to oversteer then turn the steering wheel into
the skid being careful not to oversteer.
If the vehicle starts to understeer then it is important to straighten the
wheel to regain traction and steering control. If you still need to brake
in order to reduce speed, it is important to reduce the speed enough
so that if you need to turn you are able to while still maintaining
traction. Be prepared in case the vehicle starts to oversteer.
If you are unable to regain control and there is danger of collision then
it is important to brake heavily to stop the vehicle in case the vehicle is
in a four wheel skid.

88
Note: If the vehicle you are driving does not have ABS and you have to
brake and steer around a hazard it is import to steer the vehicle in the
intended direction before applying an emergency braking technique.
Foot brake failure
Foot brake failure has been very rare since the mid 1970's due to a dual
circuit braking system which means two separate independent
hydraulic systems. Basically if there is a failure then whichever system
fails normally does not work on all four wheels the other system
should apply enough pressure to slow the vehicle down.
If the brakes fail the following is the recommended procedure:
 Pump the brake pedal in order to try and increase hydraulic
pressure.
 Apply the hand brake holding the button in order to gauge
maximum brake potential before wheel lockup.
 Change back to a lower gear both in a manual or automatic vehicle.
 Be prepare in case vehicle starts to weave.
Brake fade
Brake fade occurs when the brakes have been used excessively, such
as when going down a mountain road or when regularly stopping
starting at high speeds. As the brakes heat up, it decreases brake
efficiency which in turn increases stopping distance.
Accelerator sticking
It is important to remember that novice drivers when learning can
press the brake and accelerator at the same time, especially if they are
wear large heavy shoes.
 If your vehicle has a kill switch to shut down the motor use it if there
is danger of collision.
 If the vehicle does not have a kill switch and there is danger of
collision you must disengages the motor.
 In a manual car you can depress the clutch pedal or knock the
vehicle into neutral. (The motor will start to over rev, so it will be

89
important to turn off the ignition taking care not to turn the key
back to the steering lock position.
 Remember, brake and steering efficiency may be effected, so be
prepared to come to the assistance of the driver.
 If you are driving and the accelerator sticks then you can turn off
the ignition taking care not to turn the key back to the steering lock
position.
 Be prepared for the steering to become heavy if fitted with power
steering and the brake effectiveness to be reduced.
 You can leave the vehicle in gear especially in a manual where the
motor will help with braking.
Steering failure
If the steering fails and the vehicle is pointing in the direction you are
intending to go and there is no danger of collision, it may be best to
allow the vehicle to slow down naturally unless the hand brake
operates on the front wheels. If the hand brake is used, it is important
that you do not lock up the wheels potentially causing the vehicle to
alter course. If the vehicle is not a front wheel drive then you may
then change back gears at points where there will be minimum motor
compression in slowing.
If there is potential danger of collision with vehicles, pedestrians or
objects you will have no choice but to brake in an emergency and
provided that there is no road camber the vehicle should slide to a
stop in a straight line wherever the vehicle was headed.
Punctures and blowouts
You have different types of tyre blowouts creating unique handling
reaction in the vehicle depending on whether it is front, rear or
multiple tyres have been effected.
Rear wheel tyre blowouts
The rear of the vehicle may start to weave and if practical you should
let the vehicle slow down naturally.
If you require a quick stop, leaving in mind that the weight moves
forward under braking, the vehicle should stop in a fairly straight line.
Front wheel tyre blowouts

90
Steering will become a problem and if the hand brake operates on the
rear wheels then if can used by holding and adjusting the button in
case the rear wheels start to lock.
If in a front wheel drive vehicle, do not change down gears because of
engine compression.
If you must brake to avoid danger collision, do it as gently as possible,
expecting the vehicle to alter course relevant to the wheels with most
grip.
The bonnet flies up!
 Look for a gap under the bonnet to see ahead or look out of the
driver's side window.
 Brake smoothly and pull over where it is safe and practical.
 Tie the bonnet down with wire or rope for additional security, even
if it appears to be OK after inspection.
Broken windscreens
Most modern vehicles have laminated windscreens so they do not
shatter from flying stones.
If the windscreen of an older vehicle was to shatter, then you must:
 Stop the vehicle in a safe position as soon as practicable, looking
out of the side window to improve visibility.
 Once you have stopped it is important to remove all glass and if you
have some adhesive tape, it could be used to hold the glass in a
position to make it easier to remove without collapsing into the
vehicle in hundreds of pieces.
 You will need to make a decision, as to which direction you will push
the windscreen and this will be relevant to whether you have a
sheet or rug to catch the glass.
 It is important to remember that even if you think most of the glass
has been removed when you drive along you still might get glass
particles in your eyes. For this reason, it is important to wear some
form of eye protection.

91
 It is important to drive slowly with the side windows up to minimise
the amount of wind flow, in effect, pressurising the cabin but you
must be careful to not pop out the rear window.
Overheating vehicle
The most important thing if the vehicle is overheating, is to stop the
vehicle in a safe place and turn the engine off.
You should wait until the motor cools down before attempting to
evaluate the cause of overheating. At no stage, while the motor is hot
should you remove the radiator cap or open the header tank cap.
If you use a rag to slowly release the radiator cap while the motor is
still hot it important to release cap in stages to reduce the pressure.
Remember adding cold water can cause hot metal to crack so it is
advisable to continue running the motor while you add water
extremely slowly.
Fire
If a vehicle catches fire it is important that the safety of passengers
and the community is put first. If the vehicle runs on LPG then it is
best to leave the fire to be extinguished by professional fire fighters.
If the you have no choice to put the fire out then the following factors
must be taken into account.
 Remember you must lift the bonnet very slowly trying to minimise
exposure of extra oxygen to the fire.
 Turn the ignition off and if it is an electrical fire and there is no
danger from the flames, disconnect one of the battery terminal
leads.
 Use an appropriate fire extinguisher.
 Do not use water on petrol fires.
 If you are unable to gain access to a fire extinguisher then use a rug,
sand or dirt as an alternative.
Bush fires
The golden rule, if possible, is never get caught in a bush fire.

92
 If you are caught in a bush fire and the fire is about to pass over you,
then it is safer to stay inside the vehicle.
 You should close all windows and doors and make the car as airtight
as possible by closing or blocking the air vents.
Move the front seats as far as possible forward, lying on the back floor
with the front seat angled slightly over you to help protect you from
the heat. If available cover yourself with a rug.

93

TLIC3607A - Apply Safe Driving Behaviours - Learner Guide

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TLIC3607A Apply safe

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

What this Learner’s Guide is about

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

Planning your learning

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

Road law in Victoria

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

What Laws do I need to be aware of?

An intersection is where two or more highways meet.

Has sign, island or markings indicating:

carriageway of one highway continues through the intersection, and

the other carriageway(s) do not.

(refer also to definition terminating

Is where two or more highways meet other

It does not include:

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

Meaning of 'Give Way'

Giving Way At An Intersection

Give way turning (Right)

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

 Give way to pedestrians crossing the intersecting carriageway.

Giving way while making U Turns

The driver making a right hand turn on a two-­‐way road

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

 Turn right of the centre of the intersection and

Right turn from left lane

Making A "U" Turn

Give right turn signal.

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

What Are Your Obligations When Passed Or Passing

Give Way Signs

When Passed or Passing A Roundabout Sign

When Passed or Passing A Roundabout Sign

What Are The Victorian Speed Limits?

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

a) 100 kilometres per hour on any length of highway.

Use of Signals

Opening Doors and Alighting From Vehicle

A person must not:

Use Of Horns Etc.

“ No Right Turn” Sign

You cannot make a right turn

You cannot make a U turn.

“No Overtaking Or Passing” Sign

Temporary work signs

Freeway and guidance signs

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

may permit making a turn.

No goods carrying vehicle

Local traffic precinct

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

Speed restriction sign

Stop here on red signal

Keep left unless overtaking

Over dimension route

ADELG1059 © Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009

Speed Zone Vehicles must Indicates On multi-­‐laned Vehicles with

Give way to pedestrians

Handheld stop sign

© Armstrong’s Driver Education P/L January 2009 ADELG1059

Give way to the right sign

The driver making a right hand turn on a two-‐way road

Speed Zone Vehicles must Indicates On multi-‐laned Vehicles with

No Standing End of no No Standing No standing No standing-‐

 securely seated in the side-‐car, or

Violence -‐ “Road Rage”