ACS6001 - GP - L1-9 Single File

ACS6001 Systems
Modelling
Dr George Panoutsos
Department of Automatic Control and
Systems Engineering
Welcome!
Dr George Panoutsos
Amy Johnson Building (ACSE), Room D8a
g.panoutsos@sheffield.ac.uk
ACS6001 2010-2011 Copyright
MOLE
Lecture Slides
code, examples
Notes
Extra Material
Module Structure
ACS6001 Systems Modelling
30 Credits for the whole of ACS6001
Assessment: Assignment 12.5% - ACS6001.02b GP
Monday 29 Nov. 2010, 4pm
(barcode system)
Module Structure Syllabus

1.Introduction
2.Theoretical
& Empirical
Equations
3. System
Linearisation
4. First
Order
Systems
5. Second
Order
Systems
6. Transfer
Function
Models
7. DC Motor
Models
8. Block
Diagrams
9. State Space
Models
Recommended text (secondary reading)

Aslaksen E. and Belcher R., Systems Engineering, Prentice
Hall, 1992
Close C. M., Frederick D. K and Newell J. C., Modelling
and Analysis of Dynamic Systems, 3rd Ed., John Wiley &
Sons, INC. 2002
Dorf R. C. and Bishop R. H., Modern Control Systems, 9th
Ed., Prentice Hall, 2001
Hung V. V. and Esfandiari R. S., Dynamic Systems
Modelling and Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1998
Systems Engineering Approach

Control
Modelling
Computing
Design
System
Testing
Abstraction
Computer
Simulation
Systems Modelling
Performance
Mathematical
Analysis
Dynamic Analysis
Systems Engineering Approach

Systems Modelling
Systems Engineering
What is systems engineering?
Systems engineering is defined as the art

of designing and optimising systems
starting with an expressed need and
ending up with the complete set of
specifications for all the system elements.
Aslaksen & Belcher, Sys. Eng. Ch.2
10
Systems Engineering
What is systems engineering?
Aslaksen & Belcher, Sys. Eng. Chapter 2
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
11
Systems Modelling
1. System description and
abstraction
We need to
have an understanding of the system
be able identify the systems relevant
components
be able to suggest an appropriate
abstraction level
Example
12
Systems Modelling
2. Modelling the system
Solving the model
A mathematical
model is a description
of a system in terms
of equations
Close, Modeling and Analysis of Dyn
Sys, pp2-4
y=f(x)
13
Systems Modelling
2. Modelling the system
Solving the model
The model is only an

approximation of the
real system!
Validation
Testing
y=f(x)
14
Systems Modelling
3. Computer aided
simulation
Easier to analyse
complex and/or large
scale systems
MATLAB/Simulink
(Dr Z Q Lang)
Y1=f(x1)
Y2=f(x1,x2)
Y3=g(x3)
Y4=g(x1,x3)
Y5= Y3-Y1
15
Systems Modelling
Performance related to
design/specification
amplitude
4. System analysis and

performance evaluation
Did we achieve our targets?

If not, what we can do to
improve?
time
16
Systems Modelling
Example of the systems engineering
approach
Student attention level in lectures
17
System Abstraction
What is abstraction and why we need it?
simplification
Partitioning the system allows for a reduced
complexity
Easier to focus on specific system properties
Fundamental to the systems approach
18
Example:
The human cardiovascular system
High abstraction level
19
Example:
Low abstraction level
20
Example:
The human
cardiovascular system
Very low abstraction level!
21
Example:
What is the correct abstraction level?
Problem specific
It needs to include the systems properties under
investigation
Sometimes its not possible to get to the right
abstraction level! (why?)
22
Systems Modelling
What is a model?
A model is representation of something
The model should be as similar as possible to the
entity that it represents
but can never be exactly same as the real thing!
23
Systems Modelling
Types of model
Physical toy model of a car
Pilot plant a small/large scale working model
of a system
Mathematical set of equations describing
the real system
24
If we have the model of a

system we can
Try out proposed changes,
experimentation
Reduce cost easier, cheaper, faster
but not always!
Reduce risk
(People trust computers!)
25
but there are limitations:

The model is not 100% accurate
Approximation (errors? Semester 2)
The system, or specific parameters, may

not be possible to be modelled
Can also be time consuming, expensive to
develop a model (contradicts advantages!)
26
but there are limitations:

Validation can be difficult
Example?
(People dont trust computers!)
27
Mathematical Models
can be applied to a variety of systems:
Engineering
Biomedical
Financial
Weather
+ many more!
28
Mathematical Models
For this course:
Model is a set of mathematical equations
describing the behaviour of a system
29
Modelling errors
Parameters difficult to measure
i.e. friction
Time varying parameters

Due to wear, aging
Environmental errors
Temperature, pressure, humidity
30
Good modelling practice

As simple as possible!
Model each component in the system
separately
Test each component model
Combine the components models into a
model of the full system
Test the full system model
31
Example
32
Modelling Techniques
Theoretical equations
System behaviour is known from theory
Example: electrical circuit
33
Empirical Equations
System behaviour is not known from theory
or too complex!
Input-output relationship is measured via

practical tests
1. Select and apply an appropriate input signal
2. Measure the corresponding output (response)
34
3. Fit a mathematical relationship
curve fitting, regression or
Neural Networks, Fuzzy Modelling
Example: CV system
35
Example:
Mathematical model of CV system
(simplified form)
Blood pressure (systolic mmHg)
Cortisol level (total metabolites)
Blood pressure
Cortisol
100
5000
120
6000
140
7000
160
8000
36
In practice a combination of
theoretical/empirical models may be used
as necessary
Example: electrical circuit
Independent study:
Complexity Generality!
regarding systems modelling

1.Introductio
n
2.Theoretical
& Empirical
Equations
3. System
Linearisation
4. First
Order
Systems
5. Second
Order
Systems
6. Transfer
Function
Models
7. DC Motor
Models
8. Block
Diagrams
9. State Space
Models
Physical System Equation Models

Physical system equation models usually
take the form of first or second order
ordinary differential equations (o.d.e. s)
1st
dY
= AY + BX
dt
2nd
d 2Y
dY
=A
+ BY + CX
2
dt
dt
Physical System Equation Models

Note that these are both linear equations
that can only be applied if a system is
approximately linear.
INPUT X
SYSTEM
COMPONENT
OUTPUT Y
Superposition principle
Test for linearity:
Suppose: Input X 1 (T ) Output Y1 (T ) and
Input X 2 (T ) Output Y2 (T )
What does
input of X 1 (T ) + X 2 (T )
give?
If X 1 (T ) + X 2 (T ) Y1 (T ) + Y2 (T ), system is linear.
If not, system is non-linear.
Examples
Close, Modeling and Analysis of Dyn Sys
Superposition principle
In general:
Electrical, mechanical systems:
Approximately linear over certain operating
range
Thermal, fluid systems: non-linear
Easiest if we apply a linear model to

represent the system
1st 2nd order ode
Many system components are close to

linear for a normal range of inputs
Normal = range of inputs expected under
normal operating conditions
What if the system component

is non-linear?
Can we still apply linear equations?
Linearisation
Suppose the input (x)/ output (y) relationship is: y (t ) = g [x(t )]
Carry out Taylor Series expansion about
dg
y = g ( x0 ) +
dx
d 2g
( x x0 ) +
dx 2
x= x0
x= x0
( x x0 ) 2
d 3g
+
dx 3
2
x= x0
( x x0 ) 3
+
3!
(1)
If the range x x0 is small, the slope at
x = x0 is a good approximation to the curve.
Hence, (1) approximates to: y = g ( x0 ) +
dg
dx
Or:
where y0 = g ( x0 ) and
( x x0 )
x= x0
y = y0 + m( x x0 )
m=
dg
dx
x= x0
(m is the slope of the curve at the operating point).

This can be alternatively written as:
( y y0 ) = m ( x x0 )
or as: y = m x
10
Multiple inputs
with one output
Suppose
y = g ( x1 , x2 , xn )
Expanding about
and neglecting high
order terms:
g
y = g ( x10 , x20 , xn 0 ) +
x1
g
( x1 x10 ) +
x2
x= x0
+
( x2 x20 )
x= x0
g
xn
( x1 xn 0 )
x= x0
11
Example:
Pendulum
L
Torque is a non-linear function of

T = MgL sin
1
0.8
0.6
Torque
0.4
0.2
0
-pi
pi
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-4
-3
-2
-1
Angle
12
To form a linear approximation:

Take first derivative and evaluate at equilibrium:
T = MgL
d sin
( )
d
0
= MgL cos 0o 0o
= 0
= MgL
This is reasonably accurate over the range
13
Real BME system:

Blood pressure monitoring in the ICU
150
140
130
Angle: 0.63, MSE : 19.34, STD Res : 4.32
120
Blood Pressure
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
500
600
700
800
900
Sampling Time
1000
1100
1200
14
Types of systems
Linear across the whole range
Linear for specific range
Linear only around a specific point
Other types of non-linearity
Saturation
Dead-zone
15
Grossly non-linear systems

Saturation
Dead-zone
Other non-linearities: delay, backlash
A look-up table may be used to describe the
system
16
st
1
Order Systems
Modelled by a first order o.d.e.
Example 1
A cup of coffee cooling from 100 o C to room temperature of 21o C .
M odelling
It is known from theoretical considerations that the rate of heat loss if proportional to
the difference between the temperature of the coffee and room temperature (thus,
the rate of heat loss decreases as the temperature of the coffee falls).
It is also known from theoretical considerations that the rate of fall in temperature is
proportional to the rate of heat loss.
Thus:
where T is the temperature of the coffee,

time variable and k is a constant.
This will be developed further in a little while.
dT
= k (T Troom )
dt
(1)
Troom
is the room temperature, t is the
17
st
1
Order Systems
Example 2
A water tank with a steady flow of water into the top of the tank has a leak from the
bottom of the tank.
The rate of leakage is proportional to the depth of the water in the tank, H.
Water flows into the tank at a constant rate, S.
M odelling
Rate of inflow = S
Rate of outflow = KH, where K is a constant
Hence, rate of change of water level in tank is:
dH
= S KH
dt
This will be developed further in a little while.
(2)
18
Use of models
Models are created in order to investigate how the real system that the model
represents behaves. We may wish to determine the following from the models above:
Example 1
o
How long will it take for the coffee to cool to 90 C ?
Example 2
What level will the water settle down to in steady-state?
What is the depth of water at some general time t?
These questions can be answered by solving the relevant system model.
N.B. solving or simulating a model involves forming an expression for the output
variable of the system as a function of time.
Solving example 1
To predict the time t when the coffee has cooled to a temperature of 90 o C :
Rearrange equation (1):
dT
+ kT = kTroom
dt
We need to find an expression for T in terms of the other system variables.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to get the required expression directly from equation

(3) because this equation contains both T and dT/dt terms.
This is a well known problem with first order differential equations.
(3)
It was shown last week how to solve this sort of problem.

For a system with input u and output x, represented by the equation:
dx
ax = bu (4)
dt
bu
a solution can be obtained as:
(5)
x( t ) = e at x( 0 ) +( e at 1)
a
The general solution (5) can be used as a solution to equation (3) if the following
substitutions are made:
x = T, a = -k, b = k, u = Troom
Thus, at T = 90 o C : 90 =. 100e kt ( e kt 1)21
90 = 79e kt + 21
e kt = 69 79 ;
Thus, kt = 0.1353
We are trying to find a value for t but we have only got a value for kt
Hence, we need to know k.
k depends on the strength of the coffee, and the amount of sugar.
We can find an approximate vale for k but not its exact value.
Hence, although we know the general form of the model from the background theory,
there is an error because we do not know the exact value of k.
ekt = 79 69 = 1.1449
Solving equation 2 (Leaking water tank)
What level (value of H) will the water settle down to in steady-state?
What is the level of the water (value of H) at some general time t?
When the water level reaches steady-state, the rate of change of level is zero, i.e.
dH/dt=0.
Hence, from equation (2), S = KH [Equation (2) was dH/dt = S KH]
Thus, H = S/K
Note that we need to know the value of the parameter K in order to get H
To get an expression for the value of H at some general time t, we need to solve
equation (2).
To do this, we can apply the general solution for a first order system given in equation
(5) if we make the following substitutions:
X = H, a = K, b = 1, u = S.

1.Introduction
2.Theoretical
& Empirical
Equations
3. System
Linearisation
4. First
Order
Systems
5. Second
Order
Systems
6. Transfer
Function
Models
7. DC Motor
Models
8. Block
Diagrams
9. State Space
Models
nd
2
order systems
These are modelled by 2nd order ODEs

We will look at two examples:
Mass-spring system (MS system)
Damped mass-spring system (D-MS System)
Note: 1)elastic deformation 2) linearity
MS System
Newtons second
law of motion states:
forces acting on body = mass of body acceleration
Consider a small
displacement of
mass y downwards:
Force exerted by spring = Ky
Thus, Ky = My
or My + Ky = 0
D-MS System
Forces are as before, but we

also have the dampers
force: Damper force = Cy
Newtons 2nd law of motion

Cy Ky = My
or My + Cy + Ky = 0
Solution of
equations
nd
2
order system
Output = f(t)
Analytical type of solution (as the one
developed for 1st order systems) is very
difficult for 2nd order systems!
We can use Laplace transform instead
Laplace Transform
Time
domain,
differential
equation
Laplace
Transform
Laplace
variable S,
algebraic
equation
D-MS System
Solution of:
My + Cy + Ky = 0
Laplace transform:
M [ s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y (0)] + C [sY ( s ) y (0)] + KY ( s ) = 0
Initial conditions?
D-MS System
M [ s 2Y ( s ) sy (0) y (0)] + C [sY ( s ) y (0)] + KY ( s ) = 0
(Eq. 1)
Initial conditions:
Let y (0) = y0 ; y = 0 at t = 0
This means displacement of mass M at time

zero is y0 and initial velocity is zero.
Note: If we specify that initial conditions are zero, we

must check that this is true ------ we cannot just
assume that initial conditions are zero!
9
Inserting initial conditions in equation (1) gives:
Ms 2Y ( s ) Msy0 + CsY ( s ) Cy0 + KY ( s ) = 0

i.e.
Y ( s) =
(Ms + C ) y0
(Eq.2)
Ms + Cs + K
2
Equation (2) can be written as:

C
s + y0
A( s )
M
Y (s) =
=
C
K B( s)
s2 +
s+
M
M
where A( s) = s +
C
Cs K
2
+
y0 and B ( s ) = s +
M
M M
(Eq.3)
The equation B(s) = 0 is known as the characteristic equation of the system.

The roots of the characteristic equation are the values of s which make B(s) = 0
The roots are also known as the poles of the system.
The poles determine the character of the response (i.e. whether it is oscillatory or
not).
The roots of A(s) are known as the zeros of the system.
At the zeros, the function for Y(s) in equation (3) becomes equal to zero.
10
Design example
returning to equation 3:
s+5
Then : Y ( s ) = 2
s + 5s + 6
Let
C
=5 ;
M
Factorising the denominator:

Y (s) =
s+5
(s + 2)(s + 3)
K
=6
M
y0 = 1
11
Design example
Expanding as partial fractions:
3
2
Y (s) =
(s + 2) (s + 3)
Y (s) =
k1
k
+ 2
(s + 2) (s + 3)
k1 =
(s + 2)(s + 5) = (s + 5) = 3 = 3
(s + 2)(s + 3) s =2 (s + 3) s =2 1
k2 =
(s + 3)(s + 5) = (s + 5) = 2 = 2
(s + 2)(s + 3) s =3 (s + 2) s =3 1
12
Design example
Performance evaluation
Step Response
0.9
0.8
0.7
Amplitude
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
Time (sec)
2.5
3.5
13
Design example
Step Response
c/m=5 -> 3
0.7
0.6
(damper)
Amplitude
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time (sec)
3.5
4.5
14
Design example
k/m=6 -> 10
Step Response
0.45
0.4
(spring)
0.35
Amplitude
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time (sec)
3.5
4.5
15
Design example
Have we finished our design?
No! we cannot apply S domain equations to
the system!
16
Finally, we require y(t).
Apply Inverse Laplace Transform:
(using standard Laplace transform tables)
[ ] = (s 1 a )
Laplace transform table shows that: L e
Hence,
Y (s) =
1
at
L1
=
e
s a
at
(Eq.4)
3
2
(s + 2) (s + 3)
For first term in Y(s), a = 2 and for second term a = 3
Hence, applying inverse Laplace transform on Eq.4,
y (t ) = 3e 2t 2e 3t
17
Simulation languages
Clearly, the process of simulation by solving the model
equations is tedious.
Because of this, simulation is usually carried out by using
purpose-designed simulation languages
Different simulation languages require the system to be
described in different ways.
One way is to express the system in terms of first and
second order ordinary differential equations (as just
developed in recent lectures).
Another way is to express the system in terms of the
transfer functions of its components.
18
Transfer function
The relationship between the input and
output of a system component is often
expressed in terms of the TRANSFER
FUNCTION (TF).
L [ y (t ) ]
TF =
L [ x(t ) ]
with all initial conditions zero
19
Transfer function
LTI only!
Cannot describe internal system structure
(i.e. in/out only)

1.Introduction
2.Theoretical
& Empirical
Equations
3. System
Linearisation
4. First
Order
Systems
5. Second
Order
Systems
6. Transfer
Function
Models
7. DC Motor
Models
8. Block
Diagrams
9. State Space
Models
DC Motors
Widely applied in industry
Robot manipulators
Disc drives
Machine tools
Home appliances
etc.
DC Motors
Benefits
Provide accurate speed/position control
Portable
High torque
Drawbacks
Not enough power for certain applications (use
hydraulics instead)
Difficult to use in gas explosion risk environments
DC Motors
Main components:
A rotor (armature)
which rotates and
therefore creates the
torque for the load
A stator (does not
move) which is used to
create a magnetic field
for the rotor
DC Motors
Electromagnetic phenomena:
Torque creation due to a current in a
conductor (rotor) that is exposed to a
magnetic field (created by the stator)
Induction of back EMF to the rotor due to a
moving conductor (rotor) in a magnetic field
(created by the stator)
DC Motors
Physics: Some units that well use:
Force: N=kgm/s2
Torque: Nm
Current: A (Ampere)=C/s (Coulomb/s)
Magnetic Field: T (Tesla)=N/(Am)
Magnetic flux: Wb (Webber) = Tm2
DC Motors
Creation of torque:
Lorentz Force
dF = idl B
DC Motors
Torque:
T=I A B sin
where A is the area of
the current loop (coil)
DC Motors
The DC motor so far works as

a compass so something
else is needed
10
DC Motors
Brushes
Commutator
11
DC Motors
In practice:
Several coils are added into to armature to increase torque.
As an approximation
T = Ka I
12
DC Motors
Back EMF (electro-motive force)
Faradays law of induction
(one coil)
(many coils)
d c
dA( B cos )
=
dt
dt
d
= AB sin
= AB sin
dt
e =
eb = K b
Kb = K a
eb
- +
-
13
DC Motors
Electrical and mechanical equations:
dI
ea = Ra I + La
+ eb
dt
d 2
d
J 2 +F
=T
dt
dt
14
DC Motors
Differential equation
model of armature
controlled DC motors
dI
ea = Ra I + La dt + eb
T = K a I

J + F = T
, = d / dt
e
K
=
b
b
Kb = K a
15
DC Motors
Laplace transform
16
DC Motors
Solve ia as a function
of ea, then use the
result in the torque
equation
17
DC Motors
Use the new torque
result in the
mechanical equation
18
DC Motors
Use the back EMF
equation and solve for
theta
19
DC Motors
Armature
-
Motor Load
20
DC Motors
Frequently the
armature inductance
is neglected
TF Model
La=0
Differential equation
21
DC Motors
Frequently the
armature inductance
is neglected
La=0
TF Model
22
DC Motors
State-space
representation:
Define state variables:
Define control and
input variables:
23
DC Motors
DC Motor with a gearbox
Inertias, frictions: common reference
NL NM = n
NL
NM
+
Inertia
Friction
Angle
Motor
Jm
Fm
m
Load
JL
FL
L
24
DC Motors
Load to motor gear ratio: NL/NM=n
Mechanical equation:
25
DC Motors
n = N L N M = L M = r1 r2
2 r1 N M = 2 r2 N L
J m m = Tm r1 f c Fmm
J L L = r2 f c FL L
Tm=
m =
fc
fc
= L
= f c r2
26
DC Motors
Mechanical equation
2
2
J
+
n
J
+
(
F
+
n
FL )m =
Tm
( m
L) m
m
or
J m + Fm =
Tm
where:
J=
J m + n2 J L , F =
Fm + n 2 FL
27
DC Motors
The modelling process:
1. Schematic diagram of the system
Real system -> diagram
2. Mathematically describe the physical laws

governing the system
3. Apply the physics/equation to the system
28
DC Motors
4. Derive an output-input set of equations
describing the process under
investigation
5. Apply Laplace transform to bring the
equations to a transfer function format
6. Draw a block diagram of the
process/system in TF format
29
DC Motors
7. Use a software package to further
investigate/analyse the system (i.e.
simulink)
30
Conclusions: DC Motors
Transfer functions for systems under
investigation are not typically available
Control/Systems engineer to derive them!
Physical models are very useful

Only if the underlying physics are
known/understood/straightforward
31
Conclusions: DC Motors
Physical models allow the engineer to:
See the effect of various system parameters
Give physical meaning to the states of the
system
Get a better understanding of the limitations
of the model
modelling is the most time consuming stage
of the control design workflow

1.Introduction
2.Theoretical
& Empirical
Equations
3. System
Linearisation
4. First
Order
Systems
5. Second
Order
Systems
6. Transfer
Function
Models
7. DC Motor
Models
8. Block
Diagrams
9. State Space
Models
What weve seen so far

Dynamic systems modelling:
ODEs
Laplace transform
Transfer Function
TF and matrix form

representation
For a single equation:
Or:
Y ( s) = G ( s) R( s)
Y ( s ) = G1 ( s) R1 ( s ) + G2 ( s ) R2 ( s )
For a system of multiple simultaneous

equations
Two TFs
Y1 ( s ) = G11 ( s ) R1 ( s ) + G12 ( s ) R2 ( s )
Y2 ( s ) = G21 ( s ) R1 ( s ) + G22 ( s ) R2 ( s )
or in Matrix Form:
Y1 ( s ) G11 ( s ) G12 ( s ) R1 ( s )
Y ( s ) = G ( s ) G ( s ) R ( s )
22
2 21
2
In general, for J inputs and I outputs
Y1 ( s ) G11 ( s )
Y2 ( s ) G21 ( s )

Y ( s ) G ( s )
I I1
G1J ( s ) R1 ( s )
G2 J ( s ) R2 ( s )
GIJ ( s ) RJ ( s )
Why would we be interested in the matrix form?
Example:
Complex D-MS system
k
c2
M1
c1
M2
Example:
Complex D-MS system
Review of modelling strategy
(1) Split system into its separate component parts
(2) Model each component separately
(3) Combine the component models into a model
of the full system
Here, there are two main components, M1 and M2
k
c2
M1
c1
M2
Example:
Difficulty: to get the damper forces right
k
c2
M1
x1
c1
x2
M2
w(t)
Forces on M1
Spring force : Kx1( t )
Damper force : C1 [ x 1( t ) x 2( t )]
Accelerating force : M1x1( t )
relative velocity of M1 with respect to M2 )
Equating forces:
Newtons 2nd law of motion: ODE (1)
Forces on M2
Damper forces : C 2 x 2( t ) C1 [ x 2( t ) x 1( t )]
Accelerating force : M2 x 2( t )
Disturbing force : W( t )
Equating forces:
Newtons 2nd law of motion: ODE (2)
10
Transfer function matrix

s 2M2 + s( C1 + C 2 )
sC1
X 2( s ) W( s )
= 0
2
X
(
s
)
s M1 + sC1 + k 1
sC1
11
Block Diagram
The facility to represent the relationship of
a systems variables using diagrammatic
means
Block Diagram representation
Modern Control Systems, Dorf & Bishop
12
Block Diagram representation

Block diagram: core element in the
systems engineering approach
Unidirectional blocks that represent the
TF of the variables of interest
X
G(s)
Cause and effect relationship (TF)

13
Example:
DC Motor TF model:
ea(s)
G(s) =
G(s)
(s)
14
The gain block

A
X(s)
Y(s)=AX(s)
Or A=-5
Or k/M
Or 1/t
Y(s)
15
The transfer function block

X(s)
F(s)
Y(s)
F(s): any transfer function

Example: first order system: F(s)=A/(s+5)
the integrator: F(s) = 1/s
16
Block diagrams in series

X(s)
F(s)
Y(s)
G(s)
Equivalent diagram:
X(s)
Numerical example
F(s)G(s)
V(s)
V(s)
17
Block diagrams in parallel

F(s)
X(s)
V1(s)
+
G(s)
Equivalent diagram:
X(s)
Numerical example
Y(s)
V2(s)
F(s)+G(s)
Y(s)
18
Example:
s 3 + 12 s 2 + 35s + 19
s 3 + 9 s 2 + 26 s + 24
19
Negative feedback
U(s)
V(s)
G(s)
Z(s)
H(s)
Y(s)
V ( s) = U ( s) Z ( s)
Y ( s ) = G ( s )V ( s )
Z ( s ) = H ( s )Y ( s )
eliminate V ( s ), Z ( s )...
Y ( s ) = G ( s )[U ( s ) H ( s )Y ( s )]
[1 + G ( s ) H ( s )]Y ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s )
or :
G (s)
T (s) =
1 + G ( s) H ( s)
20
Negative feedback
U(s)
G(s)
V(s)
Y(s)
Z(s)
Equivalent diagram:
H(s)
U(s)
Numerical example (H: unity)

G (s)
1 + G ( s) H ( s)
Y(s)
21
Positive feedback
U(s)
G(s)
V(s)
Y(s)
+
Z(s)
Equivalent diagram:
H(s)
U(s)
G (s)
1 G ( s) H ( s)
Y(s)
22
Example:
1
s 2 + a1s + a0
23
Revisiting the D-MS system

3
2
Y (s) =
(s + 2) (s + 3)
24
DC Motor
Armature
-
Motor Load
25
System representation
We can also use signal flow graphs
(independent study)
26
5
X(s)
1
s
1
s 3 + 3s 2 + 4
1
s2 + 3
s+2
s 4 + 3s
+
+
Y(s)

1.Introduction
2.Theoretical
& Empirical
Equations
3. System
Linearisation
4. First
Order
Systems
5. Second
Order
Systems
6. Transfer
Function
Models
7. DC Motor
Models
8. Block
Diagrams
9. State Space
Models
State space models

Classical Modern Control
The time-domain approach
Non-linear
Time-varying
Multi-variable
State variables
Definition: The state of a system is a set of
variables such that the knowledge of these
variables and the input functions will, with
the equations describing the dynamics,
provide the future state and output of the
system.
(Dorf & Bishop, Modern Control Sys.)
State variables
For a dynamic system, the state of the
system is described using the state
variables:
[x1(t), x2(t),, xn(t)]
Simple Example:
ON/OFF switch!
The state variables allow the system
outputs to be calculated for all time
provided that the inputs are known for all
time and the initial conditions are known.
State equations
The differential equations in the state
variables relating the system inputs to the
system outputs are known as the state
equations.
The D-MS system

(with an external force)
D-MS
k
Equation for system is ( see earlier lecture) :

My(t ) + Cy (t ) + Ky (t ) = U (t ) (1)
U(t)
M
y(t)
We can represent this system using two

state variables:
Mass position y (t )
Mass speed y (t )
The state variables:
x1 (t ) = y (t )
x2 (t ) = y (t )
My(t ) + Cy (t ) + Ky (t ) = U (t )
(1)
Substituting in the state variables:
Mx2 (t ) + Cx2 (t ) + Kx1 (t ) = U (t )
What happened to the 2nd order dynamics?

State space representation of systems: not unique!
State space representation
x1 (t ) = x2 (t )
U (t ) Kx1 (t ) Cx2 (t )
(
)
=
x
t
2
M
M
M
(3)
(2)
10
We may also select the following state variables:
x1 (t ) = Ky (t )
x2 (t ) = K 2 y (t )
Using Eq.1 :
My(t ) + Cy (t ) + Ky (t ) = U (t )
State space representation
M
C
x (t ) + 2 x2 (t ) + x1 (t ) = U (t )
2 2
K
K
x1 (t ) = x2 (t ) / K
K 2U (t ) K 2 x1 (t ) Cx2 (t )
x2 (t ) =
M
M
M
11
State space representation (Eq.3)
x1 (t ) = x2 (t )
U (t ) Kx1 (t ) Cx2 (t )
(
)
=
x
t
2
M
M
M
This is usually expressed in matrix form:
x1 0
x = K
2
M
1
C
x1 0
+ 1 U
M x2 M
12
Linear Dependency
The state variables must be linearly
independent!
x1 (t ) = y (t )
x2 (t ) = Ky (t )
this will not result in 1st order odes
13
Linear Dependency
In general:
For a system of order n, if [x1(t), x2(t),, xn-1(t)]
are state variables then xn(t) is not a legitimate
system variable if it can be expressed as a liner
combination of the other state variables such as:
xn(t)=c1x1(t),+c2x2(t)+ + cn-1xn-1(t)
14
In general, for a system with n state variables and m inputs:
And in matrix form:

x 1 a11 a12 a1n x1 b11 b1m u1
x a
a 22
x 2

2
21

x n an1 ann x n bn1 bnm um
15
x1
x
2
is known as the state vector

x n

Usually the state space models are expressed in the following form:
where x is the state vector ,
u1

u is the input vector

um
a11 a1n

A=
an1 ann
b11 b1m

B=
bn1 bnm
x = Ax + Bu
16
The output y of the system can be expressed as:

y1

where y =

y n
c11 c1n

C=

c n1 c nn
y = Cx
17
Using state space models

We can work directly with the governing
differential equations of the system in the
time domain
1st order ODEs: easier to solve
Treat multivariable systems as SISO
Directly design and analyse non-linear
systems
18
Using state space models

Can use Matlab/Simulink to work directly
with state space models

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ACS6001 Systems

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