Longitudinal Vibration Bars

4.
Natural Frequencies and Modes of Continuous Systems Using the Exact Method
4.1 Equations of Motion Using Newton's Second Law
We have seen that for discrete systems, the equations of motion may be obtained by applying
Newton's second law to the masses along the directions corresponding to their degrees of
freedom. The number of equations is equal to the number of degrees of freedom. The
number of natural frequencies (and modes) is also the same. On the other hand continuous
systems have distributed elastic properties as well as distributed mass. They have infinite
degrees of freedom. For example, a simply supported beam can vibrate freely in any one of
the infinite number of modes having any number of half-sine waves. So one may wonder
whether there will be an infinite number of equations of motion. Fortunately this is not the
case, and for most common engineering problems such as vibration of bars, shafts and thin
beams, there is only one equation of motion having an infinite number of possible solutions.
There are cases with more than one equation, for example two equations for arches and three
equations for shallow shells, but in any case the number of equations of motion is finite. This
leads to the question: "How does one obtain an equation of motion for a continuous system
that has infinite number of possible solutions?".
What is required is a general equation, which represents Newton's second law at any point in
the continuous system. This is obtained by applying Newton's second law to an infinitesimal
element at an arbitrary location in that system. This results in a partial differential equation.
This is the equation of motion for the continuous system. Once an equation of motion for a
given system is obtained then applying the boundary conditions to its general solution gives a
set of equations. The solution of these simultaneous boundary condition equations results in a
determinantal equation involving transcendental functions. This equation is the frequency
equation. In some simple cases closed form solutions to the frequency equation is possible
and one can get explicit expressions for the natural frequencies. For many practical problems
however, the roots of the frequency equation have to be found by a trial and error
computational procedure, and in this way the frequencies can be delimited to any desired
accuracy. This method is referred to as the exact method because it does give exact results to
several sets of standard problems but it must be noted that the derivation of the frequency
equation can be very difficult or impossible for many engineering systems. Other approximate
numerical techniques are more suitable for such problems but the approximate methods come
with a price and that is the uncertainty in the error. For this reason, engineers, researchers and
software developers who want to use or develop an approximate method should check the
For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH
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accuracy of their numerical procedure by testing it on a related problem for which an exact
solution is obtainable. For example one may need to calculate the natural frequencies of a
mechanical arm with a complex geometry and support conditions (See Figure 4.1.1). Before
using the results of an alternative numerical procedure or software package, one should check
if the results obtained using the alternative method agree with results from exact method for a
simpler case (Figure 4.1.2). While the actual problem involving a tapered beam with varying
axial force is very difficult to solve exactly, any procedure to analyze this system could be
tested on a uniform beam carrying an end mass subject to a constant axial end force which
could be solved analytically.
Figure 4.1.1
Figure 4.1.2
Numerical procedures can only tell us information about specific systems and to study the
effect of varying system parameters one needs to generate results for a number of sets of input
data. The exact method gives us an opportunity to get a deep understanding of the general
behavior of various systems. For these reasons, we will devote a considerable amount of
space to discuss the exact method and the results of its application to some common
continuous systems. We will start by describing the general procedure for deriving an
equation of motion for a continuous system.
Basic Steps for Deriving Equations of Motion
Step 1:
Step 2:
An infinitesimal element of the vibrating body is isolated and a free body

diagram is sketched showing all the forces acting on that element.
The induced elastic actions (forces or moments) are obtained in terms of the coordinate corresponding to the vibratory motion using the following relationships:
(a) force (or moment) - stress relationship;

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Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
(b) constitutive (stress - strain) relationship;

(c) strain - displacement relationship.
The induced actions in the direction of motion are summed to obtain the net
elastic action.
If there is any imposed dynamic loading (force vibration), its component in the
direction of motion is added to the net elastic action to obtain the net action
(force or moment).
The net action (force or moment) is related to the corresponding acceleration
(linear or angular) using Newton's second law. The resulting equation is the
equation of motion. This would be in the form of a partial differential equation.
Free Vibration Analysis

For free vibration analysis, step 4 is not necessary as there are no applied dynamic loads.
Substituting the prescribed boundary conditions into the general solution of the equation of
motion yields a frequency equation, often in a determinantal form. The roots of the frequency
equation give the natural frequencies. The corresponding natural modes can also be
determined using the general solution and the boundary conditions at each of the natural
frequencies. This is best illustrated using the examples in the next section. We will first study
the free vibrational behaviour of some simple skeletal elements such as bars, shafts and beams
before proceeding to two-dimensional systems. In this chapter we will be concerned only with
the calculation of natural frequencies and modes. The determination of the actual displacement
of a system for any given set of initial conditions will be discussed in chapter 6.

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4.2 Longitudinal Vibration of Bars

Derivation of Equation of Motion:
We will start with the free longitudinal vibration of bars which is one of the simplest cases of
continuous systems. Figure 4.2.1 shows a finite segment of a bar which has a cross sectional
area A (which may vary along the length) and is made of an elastic material having a density
and Young's modulus E. The positions of an infinitesimal element of the bar having length x
at rest, and at time t during vibration are also shown in the figure. Let u(x,t) be the longitudinal
displacement of the bar at time t, and F(x,t) be the dynamic axial force induced at the same
instance. F is taken as positive if it is tensile.
u
u+x
Displaced Element
Element in Equilibrium
Figure 4.2.1
Let us now proceed to derive the equation of motion.
Step 1:
Sketch the free body diagram of an infinitesimal element:

Ax
F+F
u
Figure 4.2.2
Step 2:
(a) Force - Stress relationship is: F = A
(b) Stress - Strain relationship is: = E
(c) Strain - Displacement relationship: =
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(4.2.1)
(4.2.2)
u
x
(4.2.3)
u
x
(4.2.4)
u
EA
x
x
x
(4.2.5)
Using the last three equations, F = EA

At any given time t, F =
Step 3:
The net elastic force is:
Step 4:
F + F - F = F
Since there are no external forces, this is the net force on the element and is
given by equation (4.2.5)
Step 5:
Using Newton's second law:

2u
t 2
Substituting equation (4.2.5) into the above gives
F = (Ax )
u
2u
EA
= A 2
x
x
t
(4.2.6)
This is the partial differential equation governing the longitudinal motion of an elastic bar. For
a homogeneous, uniform bar, EA is constant and equation (4.2.6) reduces to
E 2u 2u
=0
x 2 t 2
This may be solved using the method of separation of variables.

Let u ( x, t ) = f ( x) g (t )
(4.2.7)
(4.2.8a)
where f and g are functions of x and t only respectively. To determine the natural frequencies
and modes of linear systems, as usual, one can apply the simple harmonic time function.
Thus g(t) = sin (t + )
(4.2.8b)
Substituting equations (4.2.8a,b) into equation (4.2.7) gives the following ordinary differential
equation:
E d2 f
+2 f = 0
dx 2
(4.2.9)
General Solution for Uniform Bars of Finite Length

For a uniform bar of length L, the general solution to equation (4.2.9) may be written (see
Appendix A for the mathematical derivation)
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f ( x ) = H 1 sin
x
x
+ H 2 cos
L
L
(4.2.10)
where H1 and H2 are undetermined coefficients and is a dimensionless frequency parameter

given by
= L
(4.2.11)
For convenience we will later switch to a non-dimensional axial coordinate which is defined
by x/L but until we complete the present case we will retain the axial coordinate x. Equation
(4.2.11) may be obtained by substituting equation (4.2.10) into equation (4.2.9). The general
solution may be written in other forms also. For example another valid form
is f ( x ) = [H 1 sin (x ) + H 2 cos(x )] where =
. The natural frequencies do not depend

E
on the form of general solution as explained later. In this book the general solution for various
systems will be formulated to make the frequency parameters non-dimensional.
Equation (4.2.7) is a second order partial differential equation. The order of differentiation is
two with respect to both x and t. Therefore a complete solution requires two boundary
conditions and two initial conditions. However, for the calculation of natural frequencies and
modes only the boundary conditions are required. Substituting the general solution into the
boundary conditions results in frequency equations the roots of which are the natural
frequencies. The natural modes are obtained by substituting the calculated natural frequencies
and boundary conditions into the general solution (or its derivative). The following examples
illustrate this procedure.
Case 1: Both Ends Longitudinally Restrained
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.3
Since both ends are restrained the displacement u is zero at the boundaries.
At x=0, u=0.i.e. u(0,t) = 0.
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Since this is true for any t, f(0) = 0

Substituting equation (4.2.10) into this gives:
H1 (0.0) + H2 (1.0) = 0
(i)
Similarly, f(L) = 0 gives:
H1 sin + H2 cos =0
(ii)
From equation (i), H2 =0.
Substituting this into equation (ii) gives:
H1 sin = 0
Therefore either H1 = 0, or sin = 0.
H1= 0 is a trivial solution as H2 is also zero, which means there is no motion. However if sin =
0, H1 is not necessarily zero. This means vibration is possible if and only if sin = 0.
Hence sin = 0 is the frequency equation, the roots of which are = 0 or = n, where n is
any integer. It can be seen that = 0 also results in a trivial solution as u(x,t) would be zero.
Using equation (4.2.11),
n
L
As there are infinite possible values of n (1,2,3....), there are infinite number of natural
frequencies. The lowest (fundamental) natural frequency is given by
1 =
The nth natural frequency is
n =
n
L
To obtain the modes, H2 = 0 and = n may be substituted into the general solution for u.
This gives
u = H 1 sin
The nth mode is
sin
nx
sin (t + )
L
nx
L
The first two modes are shown in Figure 4.2.4. It should be noted that this figure is only a
representation of the displacement that takes place longitudinally.

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n=2
n=1
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.4
It is worth noting here that if f ( x ) = [H 1 sin (x ) + H 2 cos(x )] had been chosen as the general
solution, the frequency equation would be sin (L) = 0, giving L = n, but in this case,
since =
, the frequency expression would still be n =
n
L
The above solution may be obtained in a general manner using a matrix approach. Equations (i)
and (ii) may be written
[B]{H} ={0},
(iii)
where [ B ] =
sin cos
and {H } =
H1
H2
This is an eigen value problem, and for non-trivial solution

|B|= 0.
(iv)
This is the frequency equation in determinantal form. It gives
(0.0) cos - (1.0) sin = 0.
ie.
sin = 0, and as before = n.
Generally, the frequency equations are transcendental functions and sometimes they are only
expressed in a determinantal form, as expanding large determinants analytically, could be
difficult. The roots may have to be found by a trial and error procedure, by calculating the
determinant for various trial values of frequency and searching for a change in the sign of the
determinant. This approach is suitable for programming and will be used in some of the
examples for which interactive multi-media programs are available on the CD.
Case 2: Both Ends Longitudinally Free
Let us now consider free boundaries.

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x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.5
At a free boundary, the axial strain is zero.
u
= 0 . Since this is true for any time, f = 0
x
Differentiating the expression for f in equation (4.2.10)
Using the strain - displacement relationship
f=
(H 1 cos( ) + H 2 sin ( )) , where = x/L
f (0) = 0 gives:
f ( L) = 0 gives:
H 1 (1.0 )
H 1 cos
(4.2.12)
H 2 (0.0 ) = 0
(i)
H 2 sin = 0
(ii)
Once again, we may write this in the form [B]{H} ={0},
[B] =
/L
( / L) cos
( / L) sin
and {H } =
H1
H2
For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii) |B|= 0 gives
sin = 0
This is possible if either = 0, or sin = 0.

Let us investigate the two possibilities.
If = 0, unlike for case 1 the solution is not trivial.
From equation (4.2.8), u = H2 sin(t+).
But is zero since is zero. Therefore, u = H2 sin .
The displacement is independent of time. As u is zero, the bar remains free of any dynamic
axial strain. The relative positions of all points in the bar will remain unchanged. This
corresponds to a rigid body motion of the bar with zero frequency. Such systems that have at
least one zero natural frequency associated with one or more modes of rigid body motion are
classified as semi-definite systems.
If 0, then = n, and the natural frequencies are given by n =
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n
L
as for case 1.
u = H 2 cos(n )sin (t + )
From equation (i), for 0, H1 = 0 giving
cos(n )
The nth mode is:
The natural modes for this system are shown in Figure 4.2.6.
n = 0 (Rigid Body Motion)

n=1
n=2
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.6
Case 3: One End Restrained, Other End Free
Now let us consider a combination of fixed and free boundaries.
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.7
At x=0, the condition is the same as that for case 1 resulting in the following equation:
H1 (0.0) + H2 (1.0) = 0
At x=L, the condition is the same as that for case 2.
ie.
[H 1 cos H 2 sin ] = 0
(i)
(ii)
For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii),

cos = 0.
(Note we have missed some obvious steps including the definition of the elements of [B] and
the statement |B| = 0. From here onwards these steps will not be included except for some
complicated systems).
There are two possible solutions. Either = 0 or cos = 0.
From equation (i), H2 = 0. If = 0 then sin ( ) would also be zero. This means u(x,t) would
be zero, which is a trivial solution.
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Therefore for non-trivial solution, cos = 0

The roots are:
= (n-),
Using equation (4.2.11),
(2n 1)
2L
for n = 1,2....
E
Substituting H2 = 0 and the roots for into the general solution,

The nth mode is:
sin ((n 1 2 ) )
Figure 4.2.8 illustrates the modes for this case.
n=1
n=2
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.8
It may be noted that whether a system is semi-definite or not could be easily checked by
considering the question whether the system can be displaced freely without inducing any
internal strains. In the case of a free-free bar, such a rigid body displacement is possible, but
for Cases 1 and 3 it is not so.
Case 4: One End Restrained, Other End Carrying A Concentrated Mass
We have seen cases where either the displacement or the force is zero at a boundary. There are
many situations where neither of these is zero. One such example is a bar carrying a
concentrated mass (let us say a particle possessing mass or a completely rigid body) at one end
as shown in Figure 4.2.9.
m0
x=0
x=L
Figure 4.2.9
At x = 0, as for Case 1, f(x) = 0.

ie.
H1 (0.0) + H2 (1.0) = 0
At x = L, the boundary condition we need is not so simple.
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11
(i)
When dealing with a boundary where neither the displacement nor the force is zero, one has to
look for a relationship between the two. In the case of a connected mass, this relationship is
obtained by applying Newton's second law to the mass. In order to do this for a finite mass m0, it
is best to sketch a free-body diagram (see Figure 4.2.10).
F(L,t)
m0
u ( L, t )
Figure 4.2.10
- F(L,t) = m0 (L,t)
i.e.
-EA u(L,t) - m0 (L,t) = 0
But in determining natural modes, the motion is simple harmonic giving = -2 u.
Therefore
-EA u(L,t) + m0 2 u(L,t) = 0
Since this is true for any t, -EA f (L) + m0 2 f(L) = 0
Substituting equations (4.2.10) and (4.2.12) into the above gives:
EA
[H 1 cos H 2 sin ] m0 2 [H 1 sin + H 2 cos ] = 0
Rearranging we get
H1
EA cos
EA sin
m0 2 sin H 2
+ m0 2 cos = 0
L
L
(ii)
For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii) |B|= 0.

This gives the frequency equation:
EA cos
m0 2 sin = 0
L
Using equation (4.2.11) this may be reduced to tan - = 0, where is the ratio of the total
AL
mass of the bar to the tip mass m0 given by =
.
m0
Once the frequencies are found, the modes may be determined. Mode calculation means finding
the relationship between the constants H1, H2 by using all but one of the boundary conditions. In
the present case since H2 is zero, the mode is given by the term associated with H1. That is cos
(x/L).
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12
Special cases:
If m0 0, . Therefore from the frequency equation tan . The roots are given by
= (n-) which agrees with the result for case 3 as to be expected.
If m0 , 0. This means either or tan must be zero. This agrees with the roots of the
frequency equation for case 1. This demonstrates the fact that an infinite mass corresponds to a
fully restrained end. However, it should be noted that there would be another mode
corresponding to a low frequency vibration of the end mass in which the bar provides the elastic
restraint only. This frequency may be estimated by the formula =
EA
k
where k =
.
m0
L
The solution to Case 4 is available as an interactive tutorial modes951.exe. By changing the

magnitude of the end mass to a very large value one can observe that the first few natural
modes except for the lowest one, have very little translation at the end carrying the mass. The
lowest frequency will monotonically decrease with mass, and approach zero as the mass
approaches infinity. It is easy to miss this frequency if one looks for the roots of the
transcendental frequency equation, but it may be estimated using the simple formula given
above.
When dealing with non-standard boundary conditions, it is good to check the results by putting
limiting values (for example, in the case of an attached mass setting its magnitude to zero and a
very large value) and see if the solution for the special cases agree with what is readily
available.
Case 5: Both Ends Partially Restrained
Another end condition where one needs to obtain a relationship between the force and
displacement is a bar that is connected to a support that is not fully rigid (immovable). The
flexibility of a support may be modelled by an elastic spring of finite stiffness. Consider the
vibration of the bar shown in Figure 4.2.11, which is partially axially restrained by linear elastic
springs of stiffnesses k1 and k 2, at x = 0 and at x = L respectively.

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13
k2
k1
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.2.11
At x = 0, the force in the spring = the force induced in the bar (Newton's third law).
ie.
k1 u(0,t) = EA u(0,t).
k1 [H 1 (0.0) + H 2 (1.0 )] = EA
EA
ie.
[H 1 (1.0) H 2 (0.0)]
H 1 + k1 H 2 = 0
(i)
Similarly at x = L,
- k2 u(L,t) = EA u(L,t)
This is true for any t. Therefore
- k2 f(L) = EA f(L)
(The sign of spring force is negative because a positive f(L) causes compression in the spring)
Substituting equations (4.2.10) and (4.2.12) into the above equation yields:
k 2 sin +
EA cos
EA sin
H 1 k 2 cos
H2 = 0
L
L
(ii)
For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii) |B|= 0. This results in the following frequency
equation:
(k1 + k2 )EAL = 0
tan +
2
k1k2 L2 (EA )
Special Case:
If k1 = k2 then the system is symmetrical. This means the system can vibrate either in a
symmetrical mode or anti-symmetrical mode. The above frequency equation reduces to:
2kLEA
(iii)
tan + 2 2
2
k L (EA )
If a system is structurally symmetrical, its frequencies and modes may be calculated by

considering only one half of the structure and by using conditions of symmetry or anti-symmetry
at the centre as explained below.
Finding modes:
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14
Using the first boundary condition, H 2 =

f(x) = H 1 sin
Mode is sin
x
L
x
L
EA
+
+
EA
Lk1
cos
Lk1
H1
cos
Lk1
EA
x
L
When calculating modes, the ratios of the constants is calculated by taking one of them as
unity. If the term that is assumed to be unity were zero there would be arithmetic overflow as
a division by zero is involved. Therefore if any denominator term has a very small magnitude
then a different term should be selected as unity. For example, in the current problem, if k1 is
zero the above expression for the mode would become infinity. In such a case H1 should be
set to zero and the mode would then be cos (x/L)
Case 6: Symmetrical and Anti-Symmetrical Vibration of the System in Case 5
In a symmetrical vibration, the mode on one side of the centre line (x = L/2) is a mirror image
of that on the other side.
This means
u(0,t) = -u(L,t)
and for 0<x<L,
u(x,t) = -u(L-x,t).
At x =
L
L
L
, u , t = u , t
2
2
2
This is possible only if
L
,t = 0
2
(a)
Equation(a) forms a boundary condition for symmetrical vibration.

In an anti-symmetrical vibration, the displacement of both sides of the centreline will be in
phase.
u(x,t) = u(L-x,t)
As 0,
This means at x =
u
L
,
2
L
L
+ , t = u
, t
2
2
u = 0

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15
ie.
L
,t = 0
2
(b)
Equation (b) is a boundary condition applicable for the anti-symmetrical vibration of a

symmetrical system. This means the strain, stress and the force at the centre are zero. It is safer
to consider the anti-symmetrical boundary condition for longitudinal system in terms of force
being zero as this would hold even in cases where there is a concentrated mass at the centre (see
Case 9).
To obtain the natural frequencies and modes corresponding to symmetrical vibration, equation
(a) is used in addition to the boundary condition at any one of the ends. Similarly for analysing
the vibration corresponding to anti-symmetrical modes, equation (b) is used in conjunction with
any one of the end conditions.
To illustrate this procedure, let us consider the special case of k1 = k2 = k in case 5. As the
system is symmetrical let us consider the left half of it. At x = 0, the spring force is equal to the
force induced in the bar. This yields:
EA
H 1 + kH 2 = 0
(i)
For symmetrical vibration, substituting equation(4.2.8) into equation (a) gives:
H 1 sin
+ H 2 cos
=0
(ii)

EA
ie.
cos
tan
k sin
+ EA
(kL )
=0
=0
(iii)
This is the frequency equation for the symmetrical vibration.

For anti-symmetrical vibration, substituting equation (4.2.10) into equation (b) gives:
H 1 cos
H 2 sin
=0
For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (iv),

EA
sin
k cos

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16
=0
(iv)
ie.
tan
kL
=0
EA
(v)
This is the frequency equation for the anti-symmetrical vibration.
Note:
It can be shown that the left hand side of equations (iii) and (v) are the factors of
the left hand side of equation (iii) for case 5. This illustrates the fact that the
vibration modes of a symmetrical system consist of symmetrical modes and antisymmetrical modes. This is schematically illustrated in Figure 4.2.12.
Anti-Symmetrical Mode
Symmetrical Mode
x=0
x=L
Axis of Symmetry
Figure 4.2.12
If a symmetrical system has a mass or spring element at the centre, then the condition of antisymmetry is that the force at the centre of the system is zero, even if that centre is in the middle
of a mass or spring.

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Case 7: Stepped Bar

The system shown in Figure 4.2.12 has a geometrical discontinuity. The bar is made of a
material having density and Young's modulus E. The first segment of the bar is of length L1
and cross sectional area A1. The second segment has length L2 and cross sectional area A2. as
the system contains a discontinuity, it is convenient to use two functions u1(x1,t) and u2(x2,t) to
represent the longitudinal displacement in the two segments. x1,x2 are the longitudinal coordinates measured from the left hand end of the segments.
A1
x1 = 0
A2
x1 = L1
x2 = 0
x2 = L2
Figure 4.2.13
The dynamic displacements and their derivatives may be expressed in the following form:
u1 = H 1 sin
1 x1
L1
where 1 = L1
u 2 = H 3 sin
1 x1
L1
sin (t + ) ,
L2
+ H 4 cos
1
(4.2.13)
(4.2.14)
2 x2
where 2 = L2
+ H 2 cos
2 x2
L2
sin (t + ) ,
(4.2.15)
(4.2.16)
It should be noted that the time function sin(t+) is the same for both segments, as the entire
system vibrates together at the same frequency.
Boundary Conditions:
At x1 = 0, u1 = 0. Using equation (4.2.13) we get H2 = 0

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18
(i)
At x2 = L2, strain =
u2
= 0 . Differentiating equation (4.2.15) and substituting into this
x2
condition gives:
L2
[H 3 cos 2 H 4 sin 2 ] = 0 .
(ii)
Two more equations are required as we have four undetermined coefficients H1-4. These are
obtained using continuity conditions at x1 = L1 (or x2 = 0).
Continuity Conditions:
Since the displacement is continuous, u1(L1,t) = u2(0,t).
H1 sin 1 + H2 cos 1 - H4 = 0.
(iii)
Since the force is continuous (or by Newton's third law), F1(L1,t) = F2(0,t)
ie.
EA1u1(L1,t) = EA2u2(0,t)
Differentiating equations (4.2.13) and (4.2.15) and substituting into the above gives:
H1
EA11 cos 1
EA11 sin 1
H2
H 3 EA2 2 = 0
L1
L1
L2
Equations (i) to (iv) may be expressed in matrix form

[B]{H}={0}
For non-trivial solution |B|= 0. This yields the following frequency equation:
(iv)
(v)
A2 2 L1
sin 1 sin 2 cos 1 cos 2 = 0 .
A11 L2
Case 8: Restrained Bar Carrying A Concentrated Mass at A Mid-Point
Consider the longitudinal vibration of the system shown in Figure 4.2.14. It consists of a
uniform bar of length L, cross sectional area A, density and Young's modulus E, and a
concentrated mass m0 attached to the bar at distance a from the left hand end as shown in the
Figure. Both ends of the bar are fully axially restrained. The frequency equation of this system
is required.

S. Ilanko 2005
19
m0
x1 = 0
x1 = a
x2 = 0
x2 = L-a
Figure 4.2.14
The presence of m0 introduces a discontinuity. It is not possible to apply a single governing
differential equation for the whole bar. As in case 7, let us use two functions to represent the
dynamic axial displacements in the segments on either side of the mass.
For 0<x1<a,
u1 ( x1 , t ) = H 1 sin 1
x
x1
+ H 2 cos 1 1
a
a
1 = a
where
sin (t + )
(4.2.18)
For 0<x2<L-a, u 2 (x 2 , t ) = H 3 sin 2
x2
x2
+ H 4 cos 2
(L a )
(L a )
where
2 = ( L a)
At x1 = 0, u1 = 0 gives
At x2 = L-a, u2 = 0 gives
sin (t + )
H2 = 0
H3 sin 2 + H4 cos 2 = 0
Continuity Conditions:
Continuity of displacement at x1 =a is u1(a,t) = u2(0,t).
This yields
H1 sin 1 + H2 cos 1 - H4 = 0
Continuity of force at x1 = a is ensured by applying Newton's second law to the mass.
Consider the freebody shown in Figure 4.2.15,

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20
(4.2.17)
(4.2.19)
(4.2.20)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
m0
F1(a,t)
F2(0,t)
u1 ( a, t )
Figure 4.2.15
The net longitudinal force = F2(0,t) - F1(a,t) = EA[u2(0,t)-u1(a,t)]
The acceleration is 1(a,t) = - 2u1(a,t)
Therefore
EA[u2(0,t)-u1(a,t)] = -m02u2(0,t)
Differentiating equations (4.2.17) and (4.2.19) into the above yields:
H1
1
a
cos 1 H 2
1
a
sin 1 H 3
2
La
H4
m 0 2
=0
EA
(iv)
For non-trivial solution of equations(i)-(iv), |B|= 0

This gives the following frequency equation:
1
a
cos 1 + sin 1
La
cot 2
m0 2
=0
EA
In this case, the origin of the coordinate for the second bar (x2) could have been set at the right
end. This would have made the solution slightly simpler because H4 would have been zero.
The general approach used in the treatment of non-standard boundary conditions in Cases 4, 5
and 8 for the longitudinal vibration holds for other types of vibrations too. That is, finite masses
would require the application of Newtons second law of motion while elastic elements such as
springs would require the use of constitutive equations (F = k e).
Case 9: Symmetrical and Anti-Symmetrical Vibration of a Bar with a Mass at the Centre

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21
m0
x= 0
L/2
x= L/2
L/2
Figure 4.2.16
This is a special case of Case 8, where the mass is located at the centre. Let us consider the
symmetrical case first and take the left half of the structure.
At the centre the displacement is zero. Since we assume that the mass is rigid, the displacement
at the right end of the left bar is also zero. This means the system could be treated as a fixedfixed bar with a length of L/2. Using the results for Case 1, we get an expression for the nth
natural frequency in symmetrical vibration as n =
2 n
L
The anti-symmetrical case is not so straightforward. If one were to apply the condition that
u ( L / 2, t ) = 0 as for Case 6, we would get the wrong answer, because this condition only holds
at the centre of the mass, where the displacement form u will not be the same as that for the bar.
Since we are not interested in the straining within the mass (which for the purpose of analysis
has been taken as rigid) one has to resort to the condition associated with the force. That is we
can say the force at the centre of the mass is zero, and then apply Newtons second law of
motion to half the mass to find a boundary condition for the bar. This means treating the
problem as that of Case 4, but with the magnitude of mass changed to m0/2 and the length
changed to L/2.

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4.3 Torsional Vibration of Shafts

The partial differential equation governing the torsional vibration of a circular shaft is of the
same form as the equation of motion for longitudinal vibration of bars. It will be shown that for
many simple boundary conditions the natural frequencies and modes of torsional vibration can
be deduced from the solution for equivalent longitudinal vibration problems. Figure 4.3.1
shows a segment of a shaft having circular cross section with the following properties:
Polar second moment of area J;
Shear modulus G;
Density .
Let (x,t) be the angle of twist at time t, and T(x,t) be the dynamic torque induced at the same
instance. Figure 4.3.1 also shows the sign convention for T and . Let us now derive the
equation of motion following the basic steps.
T(x2,t)
T(x1 ,t)
x1
x2
Figure 4.3.1
Step 1: Sketch the free body diagram of an infinitesimal element:
x
T+T
Figure 4.3.2
Step 2: From Mechanics of Materials, the torque-twist relationship is:
S. Ilanko 2005
23

T
=
x GJ
At any time t,
(4.3.1)
T =
GJ
x
x
x
(4.3.2)
Step 3: The net elastic action is T + T - T = T.

Step 4: Since there are no external dynamic torques, this is the net torque on the
element and is given by equation 4.3.2.
Step 5: Using Newton's second law in the rotational sense:
2
t 2
Substituting equation 4.3.2 into the above gives:
T = J (x)
GJ
= J 2
x
x
t
(4.3.3)
This is the partial differential equation governing the torsional vibration of an elastic shaft of
circular cross section. For a homogeneous, uniform shaft GJ is constant and equation (4.3.3)
reduces to
G 2 2
= 0.
x 2 t 2
(4.3.4)
Again a wave equation is obtained. It may be noted that changing E and u in equation (4.2.7) to
G and results in equation (4.3.4).
General Solution for Uniform Shafts of Finite Length
The general solution takes the form
( x, t ) = [H 1 sin ( ) + H 2 cos( )]sin (t + )
(4.3.5)
where H1 and H2 are undetermined coefficients, is x/L, and the non-dimensional parameter
is defined by
= L

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(4.3.6)
The natural frequencies and modes of torsional vibration may be obtained by using the general
solution and the end conditions as illustrated in the case of longitudinal vibration. The
mathematical similarity between the equations of motion for longitudinal and torsional vibration
may be used to deduce the results for one case if the corresponding results for the other case are
known. This is illustrated in the following example.
Case 1: Both Ends Torsionally Restrained
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.3.3
At x=0, =0 for any t. Hence
(0,t) = 0.
Substituting equation(4.3.5) into this gives:

H1(0.0) + H2(1.0) = 0
Similarly (L,t) = 0 gives:
H1 sin + H2 cos = 0
sin = 0.
(i)
(ii)
This is the frequency equation the roots of which are given by = n where n is any integer.
Using equation (4.3.6) the nth natural frequency is obtained.
n =
n
L
This result could have been deduced from the result for the natural frequency of longitudinal
vibration of a bar having restrained ends, by replacing the elastic modulus E with shear modulus
G. Substituting condition (i) and the expression for the natural frequency into the general
solution results in the expression for the nth mode sin

S. Ilanko 2005
25
n x
.
L
Similarly the results for other simple boundary conditions may be deduced from the
corresponding results for the longitudinal vibration of a bar. It should be noted that for systems
with rigid end masses, the mass terms in the frequency equations for longitudinal systems
should be replaced by polar moment of inertia terms if corresponding results for torsional
systems are required. For example, results from Case 4 of the longitudinal system could be used
to find the natural frequencies of a shaft carrying a mass with polar moment of inertia I0,
provided the ratio is defined as JL/I0. The same roots of the frequency parameter as that for
Case 4 of the longitudinal system could be used to find the natural frequencies of a
corresponding shaft this time using equation (4.3.6). Therefore the torsional vibration systems
for other common boundary conditions will not be discussed here. We will however consider
the torsional oscillations of geared system since we have not dealt with a corresponding
longitudinal vibration problem.
Case 2: A Geared System
x1 = L 1
x1 = 0
I2
Shaft 1
I1
r2
1 ( x1 , t )
Shaft 2
r3
I4
2 ( x2 , t )
I3
x2 = 0
x2 = L 2
Figure 4.3.4
Consider the vibration of the geared system shown in Figure 4.3.4. The polar moments of
inertia of the rotors (which are assumed rigid) are I1, I2, I3 and I4. The properties of the two
shafts are: G1, J1, 1 and L1 for the first shaft, and G2, J2, 2 and L2 for the second shaft. The
radii of gears I2 and I3 are r2 and r3 respectively. The dynamic rotations of the two shafts may
be expressed in the following form:
1 = [H 1 sin (11 ) + H 2 cos(11 )]sin (t + ) ,

where 1 = x1 / L1 and 1 is defined by
S. Ilanko 2005
26
(4.3.7)
1 = L1
1
G1
and
(4.3.8)
2 = [H 3 sin ( 2 2 ) + H 4 cos( 2 2 )]sin (t + ) ,
(4.3.9)
where 2 = x 2 / L2 and 2 is defined by
2 = L2
2
G2
and
(4.3.10)
Differentiating yields:
= 1 [H 1 cos(1 1 ) + H 2 sin (11 )]sin (t + )

x
L1
(4.3.11)
= 2 [H 3 cos( 2 2 ) + H 4 sin (( 2 2 ))]sin (t + )

x
L2
(4.3.11)
As there are four constants H1 ... H4, four conditions are required. First consider the vibration of
the first rotor (see Figure 4.3.5).
T1 (0,t)
I1
1 (0, t )
T1 (0,t)
View from positive x direction
1 (0, t )
Figure 4.3.5
Applying Newton's second law to I1 gives:
2 1
(0, t )
t 2
=-2I11(0,t)
T1 (0, t ) = I 1
Substituting the torque-twist relationship T = GJ

S. Ilanko 2005
27
into the above equation gives:

x
G1J11(0,t) + 2I11(0,t) = 0
Substituting the general solution for 1 and its derivative [equations (4.3.7) and (4.3.11)] into
the above equation yields:
G1 J 11
H 1 + 2 I1H 2 = 0
L1
(i)
At x1=L1 (or x2=0) the gear constraint equation gives:
2 (0, t ) =
r2
1 (L1 , t )
r3
r2
r
H 1 sin 1 + 2 H 2 cos 1 + H 4 = 0
r3
r3
(ii)
The third condition is obtained by applying Newton's second law to the rotors 2 and 3, and
eliminating the contact force between these rotors from the two equations. Figure 4.3.6 gives an
exploded view of these rotors.

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28
I2
T1(L1,t)
1 ( L1 , t )
1 ( L1 , t )
T1(L1,t)
(P)(r2 )
(P)(r2 )
I3
2 (0, t )
T2(0,t)
T2(0,t)
2 (0, t )
View from positive x direction
Figure 4.3.6
Applying Newton's second law to I2 gives:
T1 (L1 , t ) + r2 P = I 2 (L1 , t )
(iiia)
Similarly for I3 we get

T2(0,t) + P r3 = -2I32(0,t)
Eliminating P from equations (iiia) and (iiib) gives:
T1 (L1 , t ) +
(iiib)
r2
r
T2 (0, t ) 2 I 2 1 (L1 , t ) 2 I 3 2 (0, t ) = 0
r3
r3
Substituting the gear constraint condition and the torque-twist relationships gives
G1 J 1 1(L1 , t ) +
r2
r
G 2 J 2 2 (0, t ) 2 I 2 + 2
r3
r3
I 3 1 (L1 , t ) = 0
Substituting equations (4.3.7),(4.3.11) and (4.3.12) into the above yields:

B31 H1 + B32 H2 + B33 H3 + B34 H4= 0
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29
(iii)
where
B31 = G1 J 1
1
L1
B32 = G1 J 1
B33 = G2 J 2
cos 1
1
L1
sin 1 +
2
L2
r
I2 + 2
r3
r
I2 + 2
r3
I 3 sin 1
(iiic)
I3
cos 1
(iiid)
r2
r3
(iiie)
B34 = 0
The last equation may be obtained by applying Newton's second law to I4.
Consider the free body shown in Figure 4.3.7:
I4
2 ( L2 , t )
2 ( L2 , t )
T2(L2,t)
(iiif)
T2(L2,t)
Figure 4.3.7
From Newton's second law,
T2 (L2 , t ) = 2 I 4 2 (L2 , t )
Substituting the torque-twist relationship and equations (4.3.9) and(4.3.12) into the above gives:
B41 H1 + B42 H2 + B43 H3 + B44 H4 = 0
(iv)
where
B41 = 0
(iva)
B42 = 0
(ivb)
B43 = G2 J 2
2
L2
B44 = G2 J 2
cos 2 2 I 4 sin 2
2
L2
sin 2 + 2 I 4 cos 2

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(ivc)
(ivd)
Equations (i),(ii),(iii) and (iv) may be written in matrix form

[B]{H} = {0}.
For the non-trivial solution of {H}, |B| = 0.
This is the frequency equation. The coefficients of [B] in the third and fourth rows are explicitly
given in equations (iiic) ...(ivd). Other coefficients can easily be obtained from equations (i) and
(ii).

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4.4 Lateral Vibration of Strings

Another interesting category of vibration that is governed by the one dimensional wave equation
is the small amplitude lateral vibration of strings. Again the natural frequencies and modes of
strings may be deduced from the corresponding solution for the longitudinal vibration of a bar
or the torsional vibration of a shaft. However, some physical boundary conditions are not
common to all these three systems. There are some similarities between the lateral vibration of
strings and the more complicated lateral vibration of beams (which is more commonly
encountered in engineering). For these reasons some examples of vibration of strings is
discussed following the derivation of the equation of motion.
A string is a structural element that can only sustain axial tensile straining. It has no flexural
rigidity. Figure 4.4.1 shows a segment of a vibrating string subject to a uniform static tension
T0. The elastic restoring action is provided primarily by the component of the tension in the
direction of motion. For small amplitude vibration, the fluctuation in the axial tension F may be
neglected as it is small compared to the static tension T0. Let m be the mass of the string per
unit length, and v(x,t) be the lateral dynamic displacement.
T0+ F2
v
o
T0+ F1
T0
v(x2,t)
v(x1,t)
x1
T0
x2
Figure 4.4.1
Step 1:
Sketch the free body diagram of an infinitesimal element, Figure 4.4.2:

S. Ilanko 2005
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T0 + F+F
T 0+ F
o
v+v
x
Figure 4.4.2
Step 2:
As the change in tension during vibration is small (it would be of the

order of the dynamic strain), this step is not necessary.
Step 3:
The net elastic action in the direction of motion is given be

(T0) sin(+) - (T0) sin
As the amplitude of vibration is small, sin .
Therefore the net elastic action is
T0 () + F () + (F)
which may be written as T0 (v/x),
(4.4.1)
since v/x as 0
Step 4:
Since there are no external dynamic forces, this is the net force on the
element
Step 5:
Using Newton's Second law in the v direction:

T0
i.e.
T0
v
2v
= m(x ) 2
t
t
(v / x)
2v
=m 2
x
t
as x 0, this becomes
T0
m
2v
2v
=0
x 2
t 2
(4.4.2)
For a uniform string (if m is a constant) this may be solved using the same form of general
solution as those used in the previous cases.
S. Ilanko 2005
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General Solution for Uniform Strings of Finite Length

The general solution is
v(x, t ) = [H 1 sin ( ) + H 2 cos( )]sin (t + )
(4.4.3)
where H1 and H2 are undetermined coefficients, x is given by = x / L and is given by:
= L
m
T0
(4.4.4)
Substituting the above equations into the boundary conditions yield frequency equations and
modes as illustrated in the following examples.
Case 1: String Fixed at Both Ends
First Mode
Second Mode
x=0
x=L
Figure 4.4.3
(a) at x=0, v=0.
Substituting this into the general solution gives:
H1 (0.0) + H2 (1.0) = 0.0
i.e.
H2 =0.0
(b) Similarly, v=0 at x=L gives:
H1 sin + H2 cos = 0.
Substituting equation (i) into (ii) gives
H1 sin = 0
For non-trivial solution sin = 0, which means = n
S. Ilanko 2005
34
(i)
(ii)
From this and equation (4.4.4.) the nth natural frequency is obtained as
n =
The corresponding mode is:
sin n
n
L
T0
m
x
L
It is worth noting that the above expressions for the natural frequency and mode was obtained
using only the transverse boundary conditions. The results are valid even for the lateral
vibration of the systems shown in Figure 4.4.4, which have different longitudinal end
conditions. The longitudinal motion of the end masses are secondary for small amplitude lateral
vibration. The effect of the end springs in Figure 4.4.3a is also negligible. The springs and/or
masses in these cases can only cause a dynamic fluctuation in the axial tension which is small
compared to the static tension T0.
k1
k1
x=0
(a)
x=L
T0 m
2
T0
k
x=0
m1
x=L
(b)
Figure 4.4.4

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Case 2: Two Identical Strings Connected to a Solid Sphere

Consider the lateral vibration of the system shown in Figure 4.4.5, which consists of a uniform
solid sphere of radius R and mass m0 connected to two strings symmetrically. The far ends of
the strings are laterally restrained. The tension in the strings is T0.
m0
2R
x=0
x=L
Figure 4.4.5
The discontinuity at the centre means two functions v1 and v2 should be used and four boundary
conditions would be required. However, the symmetrical and anti-symmetrical vibrations can
be analysed separately as shown here.
Taking the left side of the centre line, the boundary condition at x1 = 0 (which is common to
both symmetrical and anti-symmetrical vibrations) is:
(a)
v1(0,t) = 0.
Substituting the general solution in terms of non-dimensional coordinate 1 = x1 / L
v1 = [H 1 sin (11 ) + H 2 cos(11 )]sin (t + )
(i)
gives:
(ii)
H2 = 0
Now consider the symmetrical vibration. A sketch of a symmetrical mode is shown in Figure
4.4.6. The sphere translates laterally without any rotation.

S. Ilanko 2005
36
(L,t)
T0
(L,t)
T0
Free Body Diagram for m0

m0
2R
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.4.6
As can be seen from the free body diagram in the Figure, there is no net moment on the sphere
from the string reactions. The lateral force components from the strings are equal and their sum
is given by
2 T0 sin
v1
x1
at x = L
As v1 is very small this may be written as 2T0 v1(L,t)

Hence, using Newton's second law:
i.e.
-2T0 v1(L,t) = m0 v1 ( L1 , t )
2T0 v1(L,t) - m0 2 v1(L,t)= 0
(iiia)
Substituting the general solution for v1 and equation (ii) into the above yields:
2(1/L)T0 cos 1 - m0 2 sin 1 = 0
i.e.
cot 1 =
m0 2 L
2T0 0
Substituting equation (4.4.4) into the above gives:

m
m0
cot 1 = 0 =
2 2mL (mass of both strings)
S. Ilanko 2005
37
(iv)
This is the frequency equation.

Special Cases:
(1)
(2)
If m0 0, cot 1 0.
(2n 1)
i.e. 1 =
2
This corresponds to the case of a fixed-free string of length L (a
difficult condition to achieve physically) or the symmetrical modes
of a fixed-fixed string of length 2L.
If m0 , cot 1 .
i.e.
1 = n.
This corresponds to the case of a fixed-fixed string of length L or
the anti-symmetrical modes of a fixed-fixed string of length 2L.
The fundamental modes corresponding to the two special cases of symmetrical vibration are
shown in Figure 4.4.7.
m00
2R
x=0
x=L
(a) Negligible Mass
m0
x=0
x=L
(b) Large Mass

Figure 4.4.7
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38
2R
Let us now consider the anti-symmetrical modes. In anti-symmetrical vibration, the sphere
undergoes a pure rotation as shown in Figure 4.4.8.
T0
(L,t)
T0
(L,t)
Free Body Diagram for m0
m0
2R
x=0
x=L
Figure 4.4.8
Let 1(L,t) =
The net moment on the sphere is 2[T0 sin (R cos ) + T0 cos (R sin )]
As and are small, sin , sin , cos = cos 1
Substituting these into equation (v) gives M = 2T0R( +)
M = I0
But from Newton's second law:
2T0R(+ ) = -I0
Therefore
Substituting the compatibility condition, R=v1(L,t) into the above equation gives:
2T0 [Rv (L, t ) + v1 (L, t )] =
Using equations (i) and (ii) this becomes:

S. Ilanko 2005
39
2 I 0 v1 (L, t )
R
(v)
2T0 R
1
L
tan 1
This gives:
2I0
cos 1 + sin 1 2T0
=0
R
I 2L
L 0
2T0 R
(vi)
Special Cases:
(a)
If I0 0, then M = 0 giving = -
tan 1
R
=
1
L
Note that = - means the cable forces on the mass would be acting
radially. This is to be expected since otherwise there will be a net
moment.
(If R=0, that is for a point mass, this would correspond to the
case of a fixed-fixed string of length L)
(b)
If I0 , then tan 1 = 0 corresponding to the vibration of a fixedfixed string of length L.
The modes for these special cases are shown in Figure 4.4.9
I00
2R
x=0
x=L
(a) Negligible Inertia
I0
2R
x=0
x=L
(b) Large Inertia
Figure 4.4.9

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4.5 Lateral Vibration of Beams

Derivation of Equation of Motion
All the systems considered so far had equations of motion in the form of a wave equation. The
lateral vibration of beams is governed by a fourth order partial differential equation. The
derivations presented in this section are based on the following assumptions:
Assumptions:
1. The beam is made of a material having linear, elastic properties;
2. The displacements are small;
3. The stresses induced are within the limit of proportionality;
4. The cross section of the beam has at least one axis of symmetry;
5. The transverse cross sections of the beam remain plane during bending;
6. The cross sectional dimensions of the beam are small compared to the span
so that:
(a). The displacement due to shear strain is small, and
(b). The rotary inertia of the beam is negligible.
A beam satisfying the above assumptions is called an "Euler-Bernoulli Beam", and is often
referred to as a thin beam. It should be noted here that even if the beam is slender (cross
sectional dimensions are small compared to its span) and the amplitude of displacements remain
small, for higher modes of vibration, the slope of the beam could be large and the rotary inertia
may not be negligible. The effect of neglecting rotary inertia will be discussed later.
M(x2,t)
M(x1,t)
v
Sf(x2,t)
v(x2,t)
v(x1,t)
o
Sf(x1,t)
x
x1
x2
Figure 4.5.1
S. Ilanko 2005
41
Figure 4.5.1 shows a segment of a laterally vibrating beam. The induced actions [dynamic
shearing force Sf(x,t) and bending moment M(x,t)] are shown acting in their positive directions.
Sagging moments and anticlockwise shear forces are positive. The properties of the beam are:
Young's modulus E;
Second moment of area about the neutral axis I;
Mass per unit length (density area) m.
Let v(x,t) be the lateral dynamic displacement of the beam. Let us now follow the basic steps in
deriving the equation of motion.
Step 1:
v(x,t)
M
v
v
x
M+
Neutral
Surface
Sf+Sf
v+v
Sf
Figure 4.5.2
It is convenient to replace the transverse shearing force Sf(x,t) with its
components, S(x,t) in the lateral direction and F(x,t) in the longitudinal direction
as shown in Figure 4.5.3.
S+S
v(x,t)
M+M
F+F
vF
o
S
x
Step 2:
Neutral
Surface
v+v
x
Figure 4.5.3
From Mechanics if Materials the moment curvature relationship for a
thin beam is

S. Ilanko 2005
42
M = EI
2v
x 2
(4.5.1)
Neglecting the rotary inertia of the beam, summing the moments on the
infinitesimal element and equating to zero gives:
(M + M) - M + S (x) - F (v) = 0
i.e. M + S (x) - F (v) = 0
But F (v) being a product of two small dynamic terms is negligible
As x is infinitesimal, this gives S = Step 3:
M
x
(4.5.2)
The net elastic action in the positive lateral direction is

-S + (S + S) = S
But from equation (4.5.2) S =
=-
M
x
2M
x
x 2
2
2v
EI
x
x 2
x 2
Step 4:
Since there are no external dynamic forces this is the net lateral force.
Step 5:
Applying Newton's second law in the lateral direction we get
S = (m x)
(4.5.3)
2v
t 2
Using equation (4.5.3) this becomes:
2
2v
2v
EI
x
=
(m
x)
t 2
x 2
x 2
This gives:
2
v
v
EI
+m 2 = 0
2
2
x
x
t
(4.5.4)
This is the partial differential equation governing the lateral vibration of an Euler-Bernoulli
beam. For a homogeneous, uniform beam this reduces to the following form:
S. Ilanko 2005
43
EI
4v
2v
+
m
=0
x 4
t 2

S. Ilanko 2005
44
(4.5.5)
General Solution for Uniform Beams of Finite Length

The general solution to equation (4.5.5) may be written in the following form:
v(x,t) = f(x) g(t),
where, in terms of the non-dimensional axial coordinate = x/L,
(4.5.6)
f ( x ) = H 1 cosh ( ) + H 2 sinh ( ) + H 3 cos( ) + H 4 sin ( )
(4.5.6a)
g(t) = sin(t+)
and,
(4.5.6b)
Substituting equations (4.5.6) into equation (4.5.5) gives
= L4
m 2
EI
(4.5.7)
The above equations are valid for any boundary conditions. The natural frequencies and modes
can be determined as illustrated in the following examples.
Case 1: Simply Supported at Both Ends
n=2
n=1
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.5.4
(a)
(b)
At x=0, v=0.
Substituting the general solution into this equation gives:
H1 (1.0) + H2 (0.0) + H3 (1.0) + H4 (0.0) = 0
At x=0, M=0.
2v
= 0.
x 2
Substituting equation (4.5.6) into this yields:
i.e. at x = 0, EI

S. Ilanko 2005
45
(i)
(c)
(d)
(/L)2 [H1 (1.0) + H2 (0.0) - H3 (1.0) - H4 (0.0)] = 0
(ii)
Similarly, at x = L, v = 0 leads to:

H1 cosh + H2 sinh + H3 cos + H4 sin = 0
(iii)
Also at x = L, M= 0 results in the following equation:
[H 1 cosh( ) + H 2 sinh ( ) H 3 cos( ) H 4 sin ( )] = 0
(iv)
Equations (i) to (iv) may be written in matrix form as

[B] {H} = {0},
1
where [B ] =
sinh
cos
cosh
cosh sinh 2 cos

2
H1
H2
0
and {H } =
H3
sin
2
H4
sin
0
The characteristic equation (frequency equation) is |B| = 0 which gives 4 sinh sin = 0
For this particular case the frequency equation may be obtained as follows:
From equation (i)
H3 = -H1
( / L )2 (H 1 H 3 ) = 0
From equation (ii)
Substituting equation (ia) into the above gives:

either = 0, or H1 = H3 =0
Let us consider the possibility that = 0.
Substituting this into the general solution for v(x,t) gives
v(x,t) = [H1 + 0 + H3 + 0] sin(t+)
= 0 [using equation (ia)]
This is a trivial solution. Therefore, for non-trivial solution
H1 = H3 = 0.
Substituting this into equation (iii) and (iv) gives:
H2 sinh + H4 sin = 0
H2
sinh ( ) H 4
(ia)
sin ( ) = 0
(iia)
(iiia)
(iva)
For non-trivial solution of equations (iiia) and (iva) sin = 0

S. Ilanko 2005
46
n
Hence = n and =
L
EI
m
The nth mode is:

sin (nx/L)
Case 2: Both Ends Clamped
n=1
n=2
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.5.5
(a)
(b)
At x=0, v=0. As for case 1, this gives:

H1 (1.0) + H2 (0.0) + H3 (1.0) + H4 (0.0) = 0
At x=0, v/x=0. Substituting the general solution for v into this equation gives
[H 1 (0.0) + H 2 (1.0) H 3 (0.0) + H 4 (1.0)] = 0
(ii)
At x=L, v=0 yields:

(iii)
L
(c)
(d)
(i)
At x=L, v/x=0 gives:
[H 1 sinh ( ) + H 2 cosh( ) H 3 sin ( ) + H 4 cos( )] = 0
(iv)
This may be written in matrix form as [B]{H}={0}

For non-trivial solution of this equation |B| = 0.
It can be shown that this determinantal equation reduces to the following frequency equation:
2(1-cosh cos ) = 0.

S. Ilanko 2005
47
While =0 satisfies the above equation, substituting =0 into the general solution gives v =
(H1+H3) g(t).
But H1 + H3 = 0 from equation (i). This means =0 is a trivial solution.
The first non-trivial root of this equation is = 4.73... which gives the fundamental frequency
1 =
4.73
L
EI
rad/s
m
The expression for mode is:

cosh
where r =
x
x
x
x
,
(r ) sinh
cos
+ (r ) sin
L
L
L
L
cosh cos
.
sinh sin
Case 3: Free - Free Beam
n=1
Rigid Body Translation

(n=0)
n=2
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.5.6
This is an example of a semi-definite system. The boundary conditions are:

(a)
At x=0,M=0.
2v
= 0.
x 2
Using the general solution we get:
i.e EI
[H 1 (1.0) + H 2 (0.0) H 3 (1.0) + H 4 (0.0)] = 0

S. Ilanko 2005
48
(i)
(b)
Similarly at x =L, M=0 gives
2v
= 0 resulting in the following equation:
x 2
[H 1 cosh( ) + H 2 sinh ( ) H 3 cos( ) H 4 sin ( )] = 0
(i)
These are the same as equations (ii) and (iv) for case 1. The remaining boundary conditions are
obtained by setting the shearing force to zero at both ends.
(c)
At x=0, S=0 gives:
M
=0
x
3v
= 0.
x 3
Again substituting the general solution [equation (4.5.6)] into the above yields:
For a uniform beam this means
L
(d)
[H 1 (0.0) + H 2 (1.0) + H 3 (0.0) H 4 (1.0)] = 0
(iii)
Similarly at x=L, S=0 gives:
[H 1 sinh ( ) + H 2 cosh ( ) + H 3 sin ( ) H 4 cos( )] = 0
(iii)
For non-trivial solution of equations (i)-(iv) the determinantal equation can be shown to be
10(1-cosh cos ) = 0.
(v)
For this case =0 is not a trivial solution as illustrated below:

Substituting =0 into the general solution for v gives:
v = [H1 (1) + H2 (0) + H3 (1) + H4 (0)] sin(0t+)

= (H1+H3) sin() = constant.
This corresponds to a rigid body translation.
[There is another semi-definite mode corresponding to a rigid body rotation.]
The non-zero roots of equation (v) are identical to the roots for the clamped - clamped beam.
This means the non-zero natural frequencies of free-free beams and clamped-clamped beams
are the same. However, the modes are different.
S. Ilanko 2005
49
For free-free beams the expression for the modes is:

cosh
where r =
x
x
x
x
,
(r )sinh
+ cos
(r ) sin
L
L
L
L
cosh cos
.
sinh sin

S. Ilanko 2005
50
Case 4: Beams Carrying Masses

In finding the whirling speed of shafts (see section 4.7) it is often necessary to consider the
flexural vibration of shafts carrying masses. Let us consider the general case of a shaft system
carrying a rotor at x1=L1 and x2 =-L2 as shown in Figure 4.5.7. Both ends are supported on short
bearings, which may be treated as simple supports. Let the mass of the rotor be m0 and its
moment of inertia about its centroidal axis parallel to the neutral axis of the cross section be I0.
Let the centroid G be located at distances e1 and e2 from the ends of the two shaft segments to
which it is connected. Let the flexural rigidity length and mass per unit length of the first shaft
segment be EI1, L1 and m1 respectively, and let the corresponding parameters for the second
shaft be EI2, L2 and m2.
EI1, m1
EI2, m2
L2
L1
e2
e1
Figure 4.5.7
Let the displacements of the two shaft/beam segments be v1(x1,t) and v2(x2,t) where
v1(x1,t) = f1(x1).g(t), and v2(x2,t) = f2(x2).g(t)
(i)
in which, in terms of the non-dimensional axial coordinates 1 (=x1/L1) and 2 (=x2/L2),
f 1 ( x ) = H 1 cosh (1 1 ) + H 2 sinh (11 ) + H 3 cos(11 ) + H 4 sin (11 )
(ii)
g(t) = sin(t+)
and 1 = L1 4
(iii)
m1 2
EI 1
(iv)
Also
f 2 (x ) = H 5 cosh ( 2 2 ) + H 6 sinh ( 2 2 ) + H 7 cos( 2 2 ) + H 8 sin ( 2 2 )
in which 2 = L2 4
m2 2
EI 2
(v)
(vi)

S. Ilanko 2005
51
There are eight constants H18 but in this case by setting the origins of the co-ordinates x1 and
x2 at the supports, we can eliminate four of the constants, simplifying the problem to that of a
four by four matrix equation.
At x1=0, v1=0 and v1 = 0 give:
H1+H3=0 and
(1)2 (H1-H3)=0 giving H1=H3=0 as in case 1.
Similarly at the right hand end x2=0, v2=0 and v 2 = 0 will yield: H5=H7=0
Substituting these into equations (ii) and (v) results in the following simplified expressions for
the functions f1 and f2.
f 1 ( x ) = H 2 sinh (1 1 ) + H 4 sin (1 )
(ii.a)
f 2 (x ) = H 6 sinh ( 2 2 ) + H 8 sin ( 2 2 )
(v.a)
The remaining conditions are found by applying the following conditions at x1 = 0 and x2 = -L2.
Continuity of slope gives: f 1( L1 ) f 2( L 2 ) =0
Continuity of displacement gives: f 1 ( L1 ) + (e1 + e2 ) f 1( L1 ) f 2 ( L2 ) = 0
Applying Newtons second law in the rotational sense gives:
M2(-L2,t)-M1(L1,t)+S2(-L2,t) e2 + S1(L1,t) e1 = I0
And for the translation, S2(-L2,t)- S1(L1,t)=m0
2 v1
t 2 x1
=2I0 v1 ( L1 , t )
L1 ,t
v
2
v1 ( L1 , t ) + e1 1
2
x1
t
L1 ,t
= m0 (v1(L1,t)+ e1 v1 ( L1 , t )
Substituting the reduced general solutions in equations (ii.a) and (v.a) and the expressions for
the bending moments and shear forces into the above equations yields four equations of the
form:
[B]{H}={0}.
For non-trivial solution |B|=0.
An interactive multimedia program modes951.exe (windows95 version) can be used to calculate

the natural frequency parameter for the above problem. In the program all parameters are
input in non-dimensional form as follows:
For the mass m0 use m0/m1L1 where m1 is the mass per unit length of the first beam/shaft
segment.
S. Ilanko 2005
52
For the moment of inertia I0 use I0/m1L13.

All lengths are non-dimensionalised with respect to the length of the first beam segment L1. i.e.
the eccentricities are e1/L1 and e2/L1. The properties of the second beam-segment are also
required as ratios. i.e. m2/m1 and EI2/EI1 are required as inputs. The trial frequency
parameters min, max, d are also for the first segment. The results displayed give the roots
1 for the first beam-segment. Actual frequencies may be calculated using equation (iv).
The program may be used to study the behaviour of the system under various conditions. The
results may be tested against simple known cases. For example, by setting m0 and I0 to zero,
and m2/m1 , L2/L1 and EI2/EI1 to unity, one can calculate the natural frequencies of a simply
supported beam of length 2L1. Putting large values for the mass m0 or inertia I0 would give
results corresponding to constrained cases (with the exception of some low frequency modes
where the system behaves like a discrete system). the program can also be used to calculate the
natural frequencies of stepped beams by setting m0 and I0 to zero, and putting values other than
unity for m2/m1, L2/L1 and EI2/EI1. It can also be used to study symmetrical and antisymmetrical modes, but in some cases some roots may be missed. This is because the program
finds the roots of the frequency equation by searching for a change in the sign of the
determinant, and for some symmetrical cases the determinant takes a stationary value at zero.
By using slightly unsymmetrical properties, the coincident roots may be separated and
delimited.
Symmetrical and Anti-symmetrical Vibration of Beams

The vibration modes of any symmetrical structure will be either symmetrical or antisymmetrical. Applying special conditions for each of these cases, and analysing only half the
structure often results in considerable savings in time. Symmetrical modes are the ones whose
actual displacement form on one side of the centre-line coincides with the image (formed by a
mirror placed along the axis of symmetry) of its displacement on the other side. Antisymmetrical modes are symmetrical but opposite in sign.
Symmetrical modes
In the case of beams, symmetrical vibration modes
will normally have a zero slope at the centre
(exceptions to this are described later) for the
following reason:
S. Ilanko 2005
f((L-s)/2)
L/2
f((L+s)/2)
s/2
s/2
Figure 4.5.8
53
L/2
Consider the displacement of two corresponding points on either side of the centre line,
located at equidistant from the centre.
The amplitude of displacement of these two points are f
Ls
2
and f
L+s
2
respectively.
For symmetry, they must be equal.

This means, f
Ls
L+s
=0
f
2
2
If we take two points that are very close to the centre (i.e. let s = x), if the displacement is
continuous over the centre,
L x
L + x
=0
f
2
2
as x 0,
i.e. x 0,
f
=0
x
i.e.
df
= 0.
dx
Hence the slope of a continuous curve representing the lateral displacement should vanish at
the centre. This may be used as a boundary condition for half of the structure, if only
symmetrical modes are considered. This would be true, even if the beam carries a mass at the
centre, provided the beam is continuous, or the mass is rigidly connected.
However, a notable exception must be mentioned
here. In the case of a connected structure, a
discontinuity may occur, if two beam segments were
hinged together at the centre, thus allowing a
discontinuity in the slope to take place. In such a
case, continuity condition for slope, and moment angular acceleration equation, will be replaced by the
conditions that the bending moment will be zero in
both beams at the hinge. This should not be confused
with a continuous beam on which a mass is
hinged/pinned at the centre.
S. Ilanko 2005
54
free to rotate relatively
Beams hinged to
each other
Figure 4.5.9
In the case of a symmetrical vibration, the shear force at a section through the centre line
would be zero. If the beam has no attached mass, and is not restrained by any other structural
elements including springs, then the shear force in the beam at the centre will also be zero.
However, if the beam carries a mass, or is attached to a spring, then the shear force in the
beam will not be zero, even if it is close to the centre-line of the structure where the shear
force is zero. A sudden jump in the shearing force would occur within the boundaries of the
mass. For example, let us consider a beam carrying a mass at the centre. Making an
imaginary cut through the centre of the mass, and the end of a beam, which is connected to
the mass, we may obtain one of the free-bodies shown in the following diagram:
By applying Newton's second law in the lateral direction, another symmetrical boundary
condition may be obtained.
Taking the origin of co-ordinate axes as the left most point on the beam segment, for the lefthalf beam we get:
L
m
Lb
Lb
S1
, t = 0 v1
,t
2
2
2
b
Alternatively considering the right-half beam
m0
gives:
m
S 2 (0, t ) = 0 v2 (0, t )
2
m0/2
m0/2
If neither a mass nor a spring is attached to the
beam, then the shear force at the centre of the
beam would be zero. The symmetrical boundary
condition of a beam without any attached masses
or springs may be conveniently modeled using a
sliding boundary condition as shown here.
S2(0,t)
S1((L-b)/2),t)
v1 (( L b) / 2, t )
v 2 (0, t )
zero slope &

zero shear force
Figure 4.5.10
Anti-symmetrical modes
Similar arguments may be presented for the antisymmetrical modes.
For anti-symmetrical modes, the
corresponding points on either side of the centre must have
f = 0 at the centre.
equal and opposite displacement. For any finite displacement at
Figure 4.5.11
S. Ilanko 2005
55
the centre would therefore cause a contradiction, which leads to the conclusion that there can
be no displacement at the centre.
It may also be shown that the bending moment distribution will also be ant-symmetrical,
becoming zero exactly at the centre of the ant-symmetric system. Once again, for a beam
carrying a mass with a moment of inertia, the bending moment may change abruptly within
the boundaries of the mass, and will not be zero in the beam where it is rigidly connected to
the mass. In such a case, application of Newton's second law of motion in the rotational
I
sense for half the mass (i.e. Moment = 0 ) will yield a boundary condition for anti2
symmetry.
The problems in Section 4.8 include a number of practical non-standard boundary and
continuity conditions, including partial elastic linear and rotational restraints, cable restraints,
pin connections and rigid connections. The solution manual contains the derivation of the
boundary conditions in terms of displacement functions and its derivatives.

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56
4.6 Lateral Vibration of Statically Axially Loaded Beams

Derivation of Equation of Motion
v
P
M(x2,t)
M(x1,t)
v(x1,t)
Sf(x2,,t)
P
v(x2,t)
Sf(x1,,t)
x1
x2
Figure 4.6.1
Figure 4.6.1 shows a segment of an axially loaded beam that is vibrating laterally. Comparing
this with figure 4.5.1, it can be seen that the only change is the addition of the axial force P. In
many practical problems the induced axial force would remain constant. However, it should be
noted that the axial force can vary in some common applications such as in the case of rotating
beams (the steady state centripetal force varies with distance).
The solution procedure
described in this section is not applicable for such cases.
Let v(x,t) be the lateral dynamic displacement of the beam. Let us now follow the basic steps in
deriving the equation of motion.
Step 1:
v(x,t)
M
v
Neutral
Surface
M+ Sf+Sf
P
v+v
Sf
o
x
x
Figure 4.6.2

S. Ilanko 2005
57
As in section 4.5, let us replace the transverse shearing force Sf(x,t) with its components, S(x,t)
in the lateral direction and F(x,t) in the longitudinal direction as shown in Figure 4.6.3.
Neutral
Surface
S+S
M+M
v(x,t)
M
P+F+F
v+v
v P+F
o
Figure 4.6.3
Step 2:
From Mechanics if Materials[ ] the moment curvature relationship for a

thin beam is
M = EI
2v
x 2
(4.6.1)
Neglecting the rotary inertia of the beam, summing the moments on the
infinitesimal element and equating to zero gives:
(M + M) - M + S (x) - F (v) P (v) = 0
i.e. M + S (x) - F (v) P (v) = 0
But F (v) being a product of two small dynamic terms is negligible
M
v
As x is infinitesimal, this gives S =
+P
x
x
Step 3:
(4.6.2)
The net elastic action in the positive lateral direction is

-S + (S + S) = S
But from equation (4.6.2) S =
=
M
v
+P
x
x
M
v
x =
+P
x
x
x
=
2M
2v
+
P
x
x 2
x 2
2
2v
2v
EI
+
P
x
x 2
x 2
x 2

S. Ilanko 2005
58
(4.6.3)
Step 4:
Step 5:
Since there are no external dynamic forces this is the net lateral force.
Applying Newton's second law in the lateral direction we get
S = (m x)
2v
t 2
Using equation (4.6.3) this becomes:
2v
2
2v
2v
=
(
m
x
)
EI
+
P
x
t 2
x 2
x 2
x 2
This gives:
2
v
v
v
EI
-P 2 +m 2 = 0
2
2
x
x
x
t
(4.6.4)
This is the partial differential equation governing the lateral vibration of an Euler-Bernoulli
beam. For a homogeneous, uniform beam this reduces to the following form:
EI
v
v
v
P 2 +m 2 = 0
4
x
x
t
(4.6.5)
General Solution for Uniform Beams of Finite Length

The general solution to equation (4.6.5) may be written in the following form:
v(x,t) = f(x) g(t),
(4.6.6)
where,
f ( x ) = H 1 cosh
x
x
x
x
+ H 2 sinh
+ H 3 cos
+ H 4 sin
L
L
L
L
g(t) = sin(t+)
and,
(4.6.6a)
(4.6.6b)
Substituting equations (4.6.6) into equation (4.6.5) gives
2
2
4 +
4 2
4
and =
2
2
PL2
m 2
4
,
and
=
L
EI
2 EI
4 +
4 2
4
, in which
(4.6.7a,b)
(4.6.7c,d)

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59
The above equations are valid for any boundary conditions. The natural frequencies and modes
can be determined as illustrated in the following examples.

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60
Case 1: Simply Supported at Both Ends
n=2
n=1
x=L
x=0
Figure 4.6.4
(a)
(b)
At x=0, v=0.
Substituting the general solution into this equation gives:
H1 (1.0) + H2 (0.0) + H3 (1.0) + H4 (0.0) = 0
(i)
At x=0, M=0.
2v
= 0 at x = 0.
x 2
Substituting equation (4.6.6) into this yields:
i.e. EI
L
(c)
[H 1 (1.0) + H 2 (0.0)]
[H 3 (1.0) + H 4 (0.0)] = 0
Similarly, at x=L, v=0 leads to:

(d)
(ii)
(iii)
Also at x=L, M=0 results in the following equation:
[H 1 cosh + H 2 sinh ]
[H 3 cos + H 4 sin ] = 0
Equations (i) to (iv) may be written in matrix form as

[B] {H} = {0},
where
B11 = 1.0, .... B44 = -()2 sin .
The characteristic equation (frequency equation) is |B| = 0.
For this particular case the frequency equation may be obtained as follows:
S. Ilanko 2005
61
(iv)
H3 = -H1
(ia)
2
From equation (ii)
H1 - H3 = 0
Substituting equation (ia) into the above gives:
(iia)
either 2+2 = 0, or H1 = H3 =0
2
2
Let us consider the possibility that + = 0. This would be true only if both and are zero.
Substituting ==0, into the general solution for v(x,t) gives
v(x,t) = [H1 + 0 + H3 + 0] sin(t+)
= 0 [using equation (ia)]
This is a trivial solution. Therefore, for non-trivial solution
H1 = H3 = 0.
Substituting this into equation (iii) and (iv) gives:
H2 sinh + H4 sin = 0
(iiia)
From equation (i)
H2
sinh H 4
sin = 0
(iva)
For non-trivial solution of equations (iiia) and (iva) sin = 0

Hence = n
Substituting equation (4.6.7b) into the above yields:
n=
2
2
4 +
4 2
4
This, together with equations (4.6.7c,d) results in the following equation:
=1+
P
Pcn
(4.6.8)
where n is the nth natural frequency of the axially loaded beam, n is the corresponding
natural frequency of the unloaded beam and Pcn is the nth critical load of the same beam which is
given by EI
n
L
The nth mode is:
. The variation of frequency with load is shown graphically in figure 4.6.5

sin
n x
L

S. Ilanko 2005
62
2
n2
P
-Pcn
Figure 4.6.5

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63
4.7 Whirling Speed of Shafts

Let us now consider the lateral vibration of a shaft that is rotating at a speed of rad/sec. The
lateral motion of an infinitesimal element may be regarded as a radial motion of that element,
since its position will change due to the rotation. Consider the motion of the free-body in Figure
4.7.1. This is similar to the free-body in Figure 4.5.3, but this time the free-body is vibrating as
well as rotating about the original axis of the beam at a speed of rad/sec. Hence its radial
acceleration a consists of two components, acceleration due to vibration v and the acceleration
due to centripetal acceleration 2v.
i.e. a= v - 2v
v(x,t)
S+dS Neutral
Surface
M+dM
F+dF
vF
o
v+dv
Figure 4.7.1
Following the derivations for a non-rotating beam, the net lateral force in the element is given
by:
S =
2
2v
EI
x
x 2
x 2
..........................................................(4.7.1)
Using Newtons 2nd law of motion,
S = ( m . x ) a = m.a . x = m ( v v
) x
For principal vibration, v = 2 v giving S = mv ( 2 +
) x
Equating the rights hand sides of equations (4.7.1) and (4.7.2) we get,

S. Ilanko 2005
64
........(4.7.2)
2
2v
EI
= m2 +
2
2
x
x
)v
......................................(4.7.3)
For a homogeneous, uniform shaft this reduces to the following form:
EI
v
= m( 2 +
4
x
4
)v
............(4.7.4)
For a non-rotating shaft, the natural frequencies S may be found by solving the above equation
for =0. It may be noted here, that the form of the solution will be the same whether or not the
speed of rotation is zero. That is to say that (2+2) and S2 may be interchanged. One can
deduce the flexural natural frequencies of a rotating shaft from the natural frequencies of nonrotating shafts, by using the equation
(2+2) = S2
....................(4.7.5)
If S then, 0.
If the speed of rotation () approaches the natural frequency of the non-rotating shaft (S), then
the natural frequency of the rotating shaft () would approach zero! That is a state of instability,
referred to as whirling. The speeds at which this occurs are called whirling speeds. The
whirling speeds are therefore equal to the flexural natural frequencies of the non-rotating shafts.
In modelling a shaft for calculating whirling speeds, short bearings that permit lateral rotations
may be taken as simple supports, and long-bearings that restrain lateral rotations may be taken
as clamped supports.

S. Ilanko 2005
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4.8 Transverse Vibration of Plates

(I just commenced this section potential for error is high at this stage)
So far we have considered one-dimensional structural elements. Equations of motion for two
and three-dimensional structures can be derived using the same general approach, although
the availability of exact solutions is limited, even for systems with simple geometrical shapes
such as rectangular plates. Exact natural frequencies and modes are available in the literature
for the out-of-plane vibration of rectangular plates, but only for the case where two opposite
edges are simply supported. We will present the equation of motion for a plate subject to
uniform static in-plane loading, without deriving it, and then proceed to solve it for some
specific boundary conditions.
Figure 4.8.1 shows the coordinate system and the notation for the plate properties. The out-ofplane displacement coordinate is w(x,y,t) is a function of x, y and t.
w
y=b
x=a
x
x=0
y=0
Figure 4.8.1
Equation of Motion
The net elastic flexural resisting force in an infinitesimal plate element is expressed in terms
of a parameter D called the plate rigidity. This is given by
D=
Eh 3
,
12(1 2 )
(4.8.1)
in which E and are the elastic modulus and Poissons ratio of the plate material, and h is the
plate thickness. If the plate is subject to in-plane stresses x, y, and xy, then their
components in the out-of-plane direction will affect the equation of motion in the same way
the axial force affects the transverse vibration of beams. Traditionally, the in-plane loading is
expressed as load per unit length Nx, Ny, and Nxy, which are given by

S. Ilanko 2005
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Nx
Ny
N xy
x
=h y
xy
The equation of motion is then:
D 4 w + N x
2w
2w
2w
2w
+
2
N
+
N
+
h
=0
xy
y
xy
x 2
y 2
t 2
Let us consider a general solution of the form

w( x, y, t ) = f ( x) g ( y ) sin(t + )
(4.8.2)
(4.8.3)
This assumes that the mode consists of a product of functions in x and y directions. Such a
form of solution exits for a plate with two opposite edges simply supported in the absence of
any in-plane shear loading (Nxy = 0). Let us assume that the plate we consider is simply
supported at the edges y = 0 and y = b.
This means the boundary conditions are w( x,0, t ) = w( x, b, t ) = 0
It follows from equation (4.8.3) that:
g ( 0) = 0
(4.8.4a)
and g (b) = 0
(4.8.4b)
The bending moment intensity (moment per unit length) along the edge y = 0 is given [Ref]
by:
M y ( x,0, t ) = D
2 w( x,0, t )
2 w( x,0, t )
+
=0
y 2
x 2
Since this is true for all t, it follows from equation (4.8.3) that
g (0) f ( x) + g (0) f ( x) = 0
We have from equation (4.8.4a), g (0) = 0
Therefore g (0) = 0
(4.8.5a)
Similarly we can show that g (b) = 0
(4.8.5b)
The sinusoidal function g ( y ) = sin( ny / b)
(4.8.6)
satisfies boundary conditions (4.8.4a,b) and (4.8.5a,b). By substituting this into the governing
differential equation we can show that it also satisfies the equation of motion as follows.
Equation (4.9.3) now becomes w( x, y, t ) = f ( x) sin( ny / b) sin(t + )
Let f ( x ) = G1 sinh(x / a ) + G 2 cosh(x / a ) + G3 sin(x / a ) + G4 cos(x / a ) (4.8.7)
Substituting equations (4.8.3), (4.8.6) and (4.8.7) into equation (4.8.2) gives:

S. Ilanko 2005
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f1 ( x)
+ f 2 ( x)
b
2
n
+
b
+
2
Nx
n
D
b
2
Nx
n
D
b
Ny
D
2
Ny
D
h 2
D
h 2
D
=0
f ( x ) = G1 sinh(x / a ) + G 2 cosh(x / a ) + G3 sin(x / a ) + G4 cos(x / a )
(4.8.8)
where f 1 ( x) = G1 sinh(x / a ) + G2 cosh(x / a ) and f 2 ( x) = G3 sin(x / a ) + G4 cos(x / a )

Since equation (4.8.8) is true for any x, the terms associated with f1(x) and f2(x) must vanish.
i.e..
----this section has yet to be completed---- solution will be given for two cases only: (a) all
edges simply supported, (b) two opposite edges supported and the other two clamped, and a
brief warning on the limitation of the results for large in-plane loadings ( N x ) etc for
which there may be a need to consider the effect of initial imperfections. Another 8 pages
or so would tidy up this chapter.

S. Ilanko 2005
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4.9 Orthogonality of Principal Modes

In Chapter 3, the following equation was derived showing that the natural modes are
orthogonal with respect to the mass.
n
i =1
mi qi , j qi ,k = 0 for j k
(4.9.1)
For continuous systems we will derive an orthogonality equation of the form:
j k dm for j k
(4.9.2)
where j, kare the jth and kth modes respectively.

For one-dimensional systems the modes would be functions of one spatial coordinate, and the
integral would be a single integral. The integral would be a double integral for 2-D systems
(for example, with respect to x and y in a Cartesian coordinate system), and triple for 3-D
systems (w.r.t x,y and z.)
Proof of Orthogonality:
Consider the vibration of an infinitesimal element of a
continuous system having a mass dm as shown in Figure
4.9.1.
Let the net internal induced restoring action
dFjsin(t+)
dm
th
corresponding to the j mode be dFj sin(jt+). If the

coordinate of dynamic displacement is q(x,y,..,t) then from
Newton's second law of motion,
Figure 4.9.1
dFj sin(jt+) = dm q .
.(4.9.3)
th
If the vibration corresponds to the j mode, the dynamic displacement would be of the form:
q = j(x,y..) sin(jt+), where j(x,y..) is the jth mode of vibration, equation (4.9.3) becomes:
dFj = -j2 j dm
.(4.9.4)
From dAlemberts principle, if this element is subject to a static force dFj then the resulting
displacement would be j(x,y..).

S. Ilanko 2005
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Similarly it may be shown that the net internal action corresponding to the kth mode and the
resulting displacement are dFk and k(x,y..) respectively, where the force dFk is given by:
dFk = -k2 k dm
.(4.9.5)
Here again we can say that a static force dFk would cause a displacement of k(x,y..).
As for the discrete systems, consider the work
done by the internal actions if forces dFj and
dFk are applied on the linear elastic system, in
Force
the order stated. Noting that j is caused by
dFk
dFj, and k is caused by dFk and that during
displacement k, as a pre-existing force, dFj
dFj
would do work to its full potential, the net
Displacement
work done on the element is obtained as:
j
k
dF j . j
dFk . k
Figure 4.9.2
+ dF j . k +
2
2
Figure 4.9.2 illustrates the force-displacement relationship for the infinitesimal element, in
which the two triangular hatched areas represent the work done by the infinitesimal inertial
forces while causing corresponding infinitesimal displacements, and the rectangular shaded
area represents the work done by dFj as it moves by k which is caused by dFk.
The total work done includes the integral of the work done on the element and any work done
on the boundaries by inertia forces corresponding to rigid masses.
i.e. Net work done =
dF j . j
2
+ dF j . k +
dFk . k
+ Wbjk
2
.(4.9.6)
where Wbjk is the work done by any attached masses at the boundaries as a result of forces
corresponding to the jth mode and kth mode, applied in the order stated.
If the order of application of the forces is reversed then the total work done is:
dF j . j
dFk . k
+ dFk . j +
+ Wbkj
2
2
.(4.9.7)
For linear elastic structures the total work done on the system is independent of the path.
Hence equating the r.h.s of equations (4.9.6) and (4.9.7) gives:
S. Ilanko 2005
70
dF j . j
2
+ dF j . k +
dFk . k
+ Wbjk =
2
dF j . j
dFk . k
+ dFk . j +
+ Wbkj
2
2
Canceling the common terms we get,
dFj.k + Wbjk = dFk.j + Wbkj

.(4.9.8)
For beams without any attached masses the terms Wbjk and Wbkj would be zero. In such cases
the above equation reduces to:
dFk.j = dFj.k
Substituting equations (4.9.7) and (4.9.8) into the above equation gives
-k2 k.j dm = -j2 j.k dm

i.e. (j2-k2) k.j dm = 0
If k j, this results in equation (4.9.2), i.e.
This is the orthogonality condition.
k.j dm = 0
For a beam carrying a concentrated mass m0 at x = a, an extra term mo k(a).j(a) should be

included.
That is: i j dm + mo k(a).j(a) = 0 for j k
(4.9.9)
It is possible to include such terms as a part of the integral using the delta functions within the
integral of equation (4.9.2). It should also be noted that mass should be replaced with an
appropriate moment of inertia term, if the displacement coordinate q is a rotational
coordinate. For a one-dimensional structure (bars, beams and shafts) having a constant mass
per unit length m, the orthogonality relationship reduces to:
k.j dx = 0
....(4.9. 10)
The above orthogonality relations hold only between two different modes (for j k) and if
j=k then the integrals will give non-zero values.
i.e. j.j dm = (j)2 dm 0.
The above integral is used in dynamic response calculations, and it is therefore convenient to
normalize the modes such that this integral is unity.
Using such normal modes, (j)2 dm =1.
....(4.9.11)

S. Ilanko 2005
71
Similar orthogonal relationship may also be obtained in terms of stiffness of a structure. This
will be discussed in Chapter 5. It should be noted here that in response calculations, the actual
displacements would be expressed in terms of the modes (whether normalised or not) and
weighting coefficients, which are dependent on initial conditions and/or any applied dynamic
force.
It is also worth noting that the orthogonality relations may be used to check the accuracy of
modes. In the case of approximate methods, calculated values of the integral in equation
(4.9.2) (which would be zero if the modes were exact) would give an estimate of any error in
the mode calculations.

S. Ilanko 2005
72
4.10. Review Problems in Natural Frequencies and Modes of Continuous Systems

P.4.1. A uniform cable of length L and mass per unit length m is under a static tensile force T0.
Its ends are connected to two identical short cantilever beams of negligible mass (see
figure P.4.1). The cantilevers may be modelled by elastic springs of lateral stiffness k
each. Show that the frequency equation for symmetrical lateral vibration of the cable is
given by: tan
kL
m
, where = L
.
T0
T0
T0
T0
Figure P.4.1. Symmetrical Vibration of a

Partially Restrained Cable.
P.4.2. Derive the boundary condition equations for the torsional vibration of the geared system
shown in Figure P.4.2, in terms of the angles of twist 1,2 and their derivatives 1/x1
etc.

S. Ilanko 2005
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x1 = L1
Shaft 1: G,J1,1
I
r
x2 = L2
Shaft 2: G,J2,2
2r
x1 = 0
16I
8I
x2 = 0
Figure P.4.2. Geared System
P.4.3. The drill pipe of an oil well has a length L and polar second moment of area J, and is
made of a material having shear modulus G, and density . The cutting edge has a polar
moment of inertia I0. Obtain the frequency equation for the torsional vibration of this
system. From the above result, deduce the frequency equations for the torsional
vibration of a shaft subject to the following conditions:
(a)
(b)
Both ends torsionally restrained;

One end restrained and the other end free.
P.4.4. A solid shaft, and a tube are rigidly connected to a wall, and a concentrated mass m0 at
the other end as shown in Figure P.4.4. Write down the necessary boundary to
determine the longitudinal natural modes and frequencies in terms of u1, u2, u1, u2
etc. Proceed to obtain a frequency equation, in determinantal form, for the
longitudinal vibration of this system in terms of the parameters shown in FigureP.4.4.

S. Ilanko 2005
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Tube, E1,A1,1
Shaft, E2,A2,2
mass m0
Figure P.4.4.
P.4.5. A shaft carrying three rotors is shown in Figure P.4.5. The end rotors have a polar
moment of inertia I while the central rotor has an inertia of 4I. The shaft is of circular
cross section, radius R, length L, density and shear modulus G.
a) Write down the boundary condition equations for the symmetrical and antisymmetrical torsional vibration of this system and ,
b) Derive the frequency equation for the anti-symmetrical case only.
c) Deduce an expression for the natural frequencies corresponding the antisymmetrical vibration if the polar moment of inertia of the rotors are very large
compared to the polar moment of inertia of the shaft.
d) Can the expression you deduced in part (c) be applied to determine the first nonzero natural frequency, and if not write down an approximate formula for it.
4I
I
L/2
L/2

S. Ilanko 2005
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Figure P.4.5
P.4.6. Write down the boundary conditions in terms of constants H1, H2, H3 etc., for the
vibratory system shown in the following diagram:
E,A,,L
String, Tension T0, length , mass

per unit length m, vibrates laterally
Figure P.4.6.

S. Ilanko 2005
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P.4.7 A 20 mm diameter circular steel rod is clamped at one end and free at the other as
shown in the diagram below. Show that the frequency equation is of the form cosh
cos + 1=0. If 1.875 is the first root of the frequency equation, find the first
flexural natural frequency of the rod in Hz. The material properties are: E = 207 GPa
and = 7800 kg/m3. Second moment of area of a circle about its diameter is given by:
I = ( r4)/4 where r is the radius of the circle.
1.4 m
Figure P.4.7
P.4.8 For the beam shown in Figure P.4.8, write down the boundary conditions for
obtaining the frequency equation for symmetrical flexural modes, in terms of the
deflection function f1 and or its derivatives and the parameters shown in the diagram.
EI,m
mass m0
Spring
stiffness k
L/2
L/2
Figure (P.4.8)

S. Ilanko 2005
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P.4.9. Write down the boundary conditions that are necessary for obtaining the
frequency equations corresponding to the small amplitude lateral vibration of the
beams shown in Figure P.4.9 (a)-1(j), in terms of the lateral dynamic displacement
v and/or its derivatives. Do not substitute the general solution to the equation of
motion.
System (a): This system consists of two beams.
One of the beams is fully restrained against
rotation and partially restrained (stiffness k)
against translation at one end. The other end of
this beam is hinged to the second beam. The joint
also provides partial restraint against relative
rotation (stiffness Kr) of the two beams.
Hinge
E,I,m
E,I,m
Kr
L1
L2
System (a)
Light, Elastic
Cable
System (b): This consists of a uniform beam of

length L and flexural rigidity EI, that is fully
restrained at one end and is connected to a cable
of length d at the other end The tension in the
cable and beam is T. The cable may be assumed
to be massless.
System (c): This consists of a

uniform beam supported on
knife-edges at two points and
carrying a mass m0 at the tip.
The mass m0 is rigidly connected
to the beam. This mass has a
moment of inertia IG about the
neutral axis at its centroid. The
centroid of the mass is at distance
e to the right end of the beam.
E,I,m
L
System (b)
EI ,m
m0
G
x 1= 0
x =L1
x2= 0
System (c)

S. Ilanko 2005
78
x 2= L2
System (d): In this system, a uniform

beam of flexural rigidity EI, length L and
mass per unit length m, is restrained
against rotation at the left end, and
partially restrained against translation at
the right end. It also carries a mass m0
which is pinned to the right end.
System (e): This consists of a stepped

cantilever beam carrying a mass m0 at the
tip. The flexural rigidity, mass per unit
length, and segmental length of each beam
segment are shown in the Figure. The mass
m0 is pinned to the beam at the neutral axis.
EI,m,L
m0
k
System (d)
EI1 ,m1
x1 = 0
EI2 ,m2
x1= L1
x2 = 0
..
m0
x2 = L2
System (e)
System (f): In this system, a uniform beam of flexural rigidity EI and mass per unit
length m, is simply supported at two intermediate points. It also carries a mass m0,
having a moment of inertia I0 about the neutral axis at mid-span. Write down the
m 0,I 0
eight boundary conditions for the
EI,m
symmetrical flexural vibration of this
system. Also write down the two boundary
conditions for the anti-symmetrical
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/4
flexural vibration that are different from
System (f)
the symmetrical case.
System (g): This consists of a beam having flexural m1, I1 ,I1

E,I,m
rigidity EI, mass per unit length m and length L
carrying end masses m1, m2. The moments of
inertia of these masses about the neutral axis of the
L
beam are I1 and I2. The beam is not supported at
any point.
System (g)

S. Ilanko 2005
79
m2, I2 ,I1

S. Ilanko 2005
80
System (h): In this system, the beam is

clamped at one end and elastically
restrained by three light cables having
Young's modulus E and cross-sectional area
A. The two lateral cables have length h and
the longitudinal cable is of length l. All
cables and the beam are under static tension
T0 .
Light, Elastic
Cables E,A
0
E,I,m
System (i): This consists of two beams connected

by a smooth hinge which is partially restrained by a
spring of stiffness k. The other end of the first
beam is permitted to slide transversely but
restrained against rotation. The right end of the
second beam is simply supported.
System (j): The left end of this beam is simply
k
supported and partially restrained against
rotation by a coil spring that has a stiffness k
[moment/unit rotation]. A disc of mass m0 is
pinned to the beam at the right end. Neglect any
friction in the pin.

S. Ilanko 2005
81
T0
T0
T0
L
System (h)
E,I,m
Hinge
E,I,m
L1
L2
System (i)
E,I,m
L
System (j)
m0
3.8.10. The partial differential equation governing the small amplitude flexural vibration of a
thin simply supported beam of flexural rigidity EI, length L and mass per unit length
m, under static tensile axial loading P is given by
4
2
2
v
v
v
EI 4 P 2 + m 2 = 0 .
x
x
t
The general solution of this equation is of the form: v(x,t) = f(x) sin (t+). Function
f(x) is expressed in the following form:
f ( x ) = G1 cosh
x
x
x
x
, where and
+ G2 sinh
+ G3 cos
+ G4 sin
L
L
L
L
are given by: =

which =
2
2
4 +
4 2
4
and =
2
2
4 +
4 2
4
, in
m 2
PL2
4
and
=
L
2 EI
EI
(a).
Using the above, derive an expression for the natural frequencies of

this system. State any assumptions made.
(b).
Calculate the fundamental natural frequency of a 1.2 m long simply supported

steel beam of 50mm x 50 mm square section, subject to a compressive force of
0.2 Pc1 where Pc1 is the first critical load of the beam. The properties of steel
are: elastic modulus E = 207 Gpa and density = 7800 kg/m3.
P.4.11
A 20 mm diameter circular steel shaft is supported on long bearings at both ends. It

carries two rotors very close to the bearings which are located at a distance of 1.5 m
apart as shown in Figure P.4.11. Show that the frequency equation for the flexural
vibration of this beam is of the form (1 - cosh()cos()) = 0. If 4.73 is the first root
(1) of the frequency equation, find the first critical speed of the shaft in r.p.m. The
Material properties are: E = 207 GPa
and = 7800 kg/m3. List all
assumptions that were made in the
theory and in your model, and explain
any practical limitations. Comment
on whether or not any research is
needed to fully understand the
vibrational behaviour of the above or

S. Ilanko 2005
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1.5 m
Figure P.4.11
similar practical systems.

P.4.12 An axially loaded simply supported beam is fully restrained at one end, and is
restrained against translation and partially restrained against rotation at the other end
as shown in Figure P.4.12.
Write down the boundary conditions to form the
frequency equation in determinantal form. Substitute the general solution into the
boundary conditions and set up the elements of this determinant.
Kr
EI,m,L
Figure P.4.12

S. Ilanko 2005
83

Longitudinal Vibration Bars

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Longitudinal Vibration Bars

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4.

An infinitesimal element of the vibrating body is isolated and a free body

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

(b) constitutive (stress - strain) relationship;

Free Vibration Analysis

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

4.2 Longitudinal Vibration of Bars

Sketch the free body diagram of an infinitesimal element:

Using the last three equations, F = EA

The net elastic force is:

Using Newton's second law:

This may be solved using the method of separation of variables.

General Solution for Uniform Bars of Finite Length

where H1 and H2 are undetermined coefficients and is a dimensionless frequency parameter

. The natural frequencies do not depend

Since this is true for any t, f(0) = 0

The nth mode is

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

, the frequency expression would still be n =

This is an eigen value problem, and for non-trivial solution

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

Using the strain - displacement relationship

(H 1 cos( ) + H 2 sin ( )) , where = x/L

Once again, we may write this in the form [B]{H} ={0},

For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii) |B|= 0 gives

This is possible if either = 0, or sin = 0.

From equation (i), for 0, H1 = 0 giving

The nth mode is:

n = 0 (Rigid Body Motion)

For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii),

Therefore for non-trivial solution, cos = 0

Using equation (4.2.11),

Substituting H2 = 0 and the roots for into the general solution,

At x = 0, as for Case 1, f(x) = 0.

[H 1 cos H 2 sin ] m0 2 [H 1 sin + H 2 cos ] = 0

For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii) |B|= 0.

The solution to Case 4 is available as an interactive tutorial modes951.exe. By changing the

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

If a system is structurally symmetrical, its frequencies and modes may be calculated by

Using the first boundary condition, H 2 =

This is possible only if

Equation(a) forms a boundary condition for symmetrical vibration.

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

Equation (b) is a boundary condition applicable for the anti-symmetrical vibration of a

For symmetrical vibration, substituting equation(4.2.8) into equation (a) gives:

For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (ii),

This is the frequency equation for the symmetrical vibration.

For non-trivial solution of equations (i) and (iv),

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

This is the frequency equation for the anti-symmetrical vibration.

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

Case 7: Stepped Bar

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

Equations (i) to (iv) may be expressed in matrix form

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

For 0<x2<L-a, u 2 (x 2 , t ) = H 3 sin 2

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

For non-trivial solution of equations(i)-(iv), |B|= 0

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH

4.3 Torsional Vibration of Shafts

Step 3: The net elastic action is T + T - T = T.

For educational use at Canterbury and TUHH