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and the wall temperature Tw in a heated channel with boiling heat transfer when a subcooled
liquid with
, where Ts is the saturation temperature, is supplied to the inlet. It also shows the change of the basic flow
regimes along vapor-generation channel.
Figure 1. Regions of heat transfer in forced convective bailing (vertical tube shown horizontally for diagramatic purposes).
Tw is lower than Ts in the zone AB. Therefore, an ordinary convective heat transfer occurs between the wall and the liquid in
this zone. The same is observed at the section BB', where the wall superheat T = Tw Ts is insufficient to activate nucleation
centers. The first vapor bubbles appear on the wall at the point B'. The degree of the wall overheating needed for incipience of
boiling depends on local values of heat flux density
note that despite overheating of the liquid layers near the hot wall, the bulk flow temperature
that Ts. As a result the so-called "surface boiling" or "subcooled boiling" is observed.
. We
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For the most part, the above flow regimes are also observed in the channels of more complex geometry, such as annular and
curvilinear channels and assemblies of fuel rods. Determination of the most probable flow regime can be conveniently done
using the so-called regime charts (see Gas-Liquid Flow). The most commonly encountered ones are the Baker and TaitelDukler diagrams for horizontal flows and the Hewitt-Roberts and Oshinowo-Charles diagrams for upward and downward
vertical flows, respectively. It should be noted that the regime can be appreciably affected by the conditions of mixture injection
to the channel and the presence and intensity of heat input on the wall. Therefore, the diagrams cannot be considered as
universal and can be used only tentatively.
Heat transfer in forced flow boiling is determined by both transfer of heat accumulated by vapor in the bubbles being broken off
and by liquid convection.
Universal design formulas fitting all the regimes are not available for heat transfer. Commonly, individual relations are used for
each region. Thus, for subcooled boiling the heat flux
components, viz., a convective flux
(1)
The component
, where L, the liquid heat transfer coefficient, is calculated by the formulas for single-phase
pm
rather than the total heat flux q. It is commonly assumed that cb = (0.7 0.8)pb, where pb =
In the subcooled boiling region (Tb < Ts) the combined effect of nucleate boiling and forced convection is as illustrated in
Figure 3 The dependence of heat transfer coefficient on the velocity of the liquid UL with a single-phase convection without
boiling = L is plotted as straight line 3. As the heat flux density grows,
heat transfer enhances and the
dependences for a shift upward. It is also obvious that at low mixture velocities UL has only a small effect on heat transfer, and
curves 1 and 2 run horizontally with close to the appropriate heat transfer coefficients in pool boiling pb. Conversely, at high
UL its effect on turns out to be determining and curves 1 and 2 approach straight line 3.
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Figure 3. Variation of heat transfer coefficient with velocity and heat flux in the subcooled boiling region.
Quantitatively the heat transfer coefficient cb in the region of joint effect of nucleate boiling and forced convection is well
described by Kutateladze's formula
(2)
where, as before, cb = (0.7 0.8) pb.
In the developed boiling region use is often made of the approach formulated by Rohsenow and extended by Chen
(3)
where mic = pbSc determines the contribution of microconvection or nucleate boiling and mac = LFc determines the
contribution made by macroconvection or forced convection.
Chen presents the curves for Sc and Fc which best describe experimental data of a great many researchers for water and
some organic liquids. These curves are presented in Figure 4, where Fc is graphed as a function of Martinelli's parameter X
where (dp/dz)L and (dp/dz)G are the frictional pressure gradients for the liquid and gas phases, respectively, flowing alone in
the channel. The Reynolds number ReL, which is needed for the calculation, is determined from the liquid flow rate.
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(4)
where L is calculated from the liquid phase velocity. Alternatively, the value of tp can be calculated from Equation (3) with
mic = 0.
When the film is thin and when heat transfer through the film is governed by conduction rather than by turbulent convection,
tp can be calculated from:
(5)
where L is the thermal conductivity of liquid phase and L the thickness of liquid film (see Annular Flow). This approach
yields good results in estimating heat transfer in boiling of molten metals (high L).
In the dispersed flow regime (zone FG in Figure 1) heat from the heating wall is first transmitted to the vapor and then from the
vapor to the evaporating droplets. Within the framework of this two-stage process, the thermal resistance is mainly
concentrated in transmission of heat to the vapor, and the heat transfer coefficient in pipes and channels is calculated by
Miropolskii's formula
(6)
Here pf is the pressure loss due to friction, pac the component due to the flow acceleration (of liquid and vapor phases)
owing to the change of vapor quality, pressure or change of the flow cross section of the channel, ph the pressure drop
brought about by overcoming the hydrostatic pressure.
Either the homogeneous model or the separated flow model is used most often to describe two-phase flows and calculate
pressure losses. In the first model the two-phase flow is treated as a homogeneous medium with averaged parameters (the
velocity of the gaseous phase uG and of the liquid uL are equal, 1/H = x/G + 1 x/L). The most effective description is
furnished by the homogeneous model for bubbly and dispersed flow regimes which are characterized by a fairly uniform
distribution of the dispersed phase in a carrier medium (the liquid or vapor flow, respectively). This model is also efficient for
high pressures when the densities of liquid and vapor phases approach each other.
The separated flow model allowing for the difference in phase velocities, and their force, and energy interaction are most
efficient in describing flows with extended interface boundaries, viz., stratified (in a horizontal channel), annular, annulardispersed, wave, and other flows.
The components pac and ph for the homogeneous flow model are calculated by integrating the equations:
(7)
and
(8)
where is the angle of inclination of the channel axis to the horizontal. pf is obtained for the homogeneous model by
integrating:
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(9)
References
Butterworth, D., and Hewitt, G. Eds. (1977) Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer, Oxford Univ. Press.
Collier, J. G. and Thome, J. (1994) Forced Convective Boiling and Condensation (3rd edn.) Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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