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Hemoglobin
Fenestrations of arteries are holes that can let things enter the arteries. CO 2 can
enter the bloodstream and bind to the hemoglobin there.
Hemoglobin can bind to O 2 or CO 2 . It prefers to bind to CO 2 . So, if CO 2 is present,
hemoglobin will bind to CO 2 rather than binding to O 2 . O 2 will, then, be leaving the
bloodstream and be useful to other cells.
Structure
Iron is important. Binding site of the O 2 . 4 iron sites therefore hemoglobin can bind
to 4 O 2 molecules at a time.
Sickle cell: the sickle cell shape will cause clots. Clots the blood.
Blood:
Mutation:
Insulin:
In the spleen, there is the Islet of Langerhans. Insulin is made there and can be
released into the bloodstream. In the bloodstream, if there are fenestration, then the
insulin can exit and bind into other cells outside the bloodstream.
If the wrong type of insulin is made, then an individual may get diabetes.
Diabetes happens because of the wrong shape, bad function, any kind of mutation,
not enough or too much insulin made. Any wrong steps from the mechanism can
cause diabetes. (Why are there so many types of diabetes?)
Epigenetics
Methylation of DNA in CpG Island turns of gene. This allows s to have multiple cell
types.
Cancer can happen via:
- External chemicals, which then cause methylation.
- Proteins that can do methylation. They can be activated by stress.
- Protein can also de-methylate.
If a normal cell divides, the two new cells will keep the same methylation.
If a somatic cell has methylation, the gamete cells will have different genes turned
on and off different methylation.
In epigenetics, one may be born without a disease. However, an external error from
the environment affects the individual and leads to a disease. Now, the disease may
be passed on to the gametes/children.
Methylation (common) can cause epigenetic effects
Protein (new) proteins can affect the genetic material of a cell if they are made
incorrectly. Therefore, the gametes will have an altered genetic material as well.