Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

School Of E

9.2: Amplifiers
-

Amplifiers are used to amplify low-level signals, to a level which enables them to be further
processed.

9.2.1: The ideal operational amplifier and its applications

-

The operational amplifiers (op-amp) is the basic building block for modern amplifiers.
It is capable of amplifying signals from d.c. up to many kHz.

Figure 9.6: Circuit symbol and simplifiers equivalent circuit for operational amplifier [1]

Table 9.1: Ideal and typical operational amplifier characteristics [1]

The transfer function of an operational amplifier is derived based on the virtual short
concept:
V+ = V

and

i+ = i = 0

005 nts: 1/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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The Basic Op-Amp (adapted from Analog Filter Design, by M.E. Van Valkenburg, Saunders College Publishing)

[van 19]

The negative input terminal is aka the inverting terminal

The positive input terminal is aka the non-inverting terminal

In general, depending on which pin (the ve or +ve terminal) you connect to ground, the
configuration will be either inverting or non-inverting.

Idealized Characteristics:

[van 19]

The op-amp is only linear when | V+ V | <

The ideal characteristics are (assumed to be):

Ri =
Ro = 0
A =

These assumptions will imply that

v+ = v

and

i+ = i = 0

Vcc
A

requires input to be ~ V

* virtual short
005 nts: 2/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Typical Operational Amplifier Circuits

Inverting Amplifier

Figure 9.7(a): Operational amplifier circuit used in measurement systems: Inverting amplifier [1]

This amplifier is mainly used for gain adjustments in devices that are not phase sensitive.

Note that Vin is applied at the inverting terminal (V).

Assuming that R = 0 (hence V = V+ = 0), from KCL at node V ,

ii = iF
Vin V
V Vout
=
R1
RF
V
Vout
in =
R1
RF
V
R
out = F
Vin
R1

005 nts: 3/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Non-inverting Amplifier

Figure 9.7(b): Operational amplifier circuit used in measurement systems: Non-Inverting amplifier [1]

This amplifier can be used for gain adjustments in devices that are not phase sensitive.
However, the gain is always greater than unity.

Note that Vin is applied at the non-inverting terminal (V+).

Assuming the virtual short, (hence V = V+ = 0), from KCL at node V ,

ii = iF
V Vout
0 V

=
R1
RF
V Vout
V
=
R1
RF
V
V Vout
in = in
R1
RF
Vin RF = R1 Vin R1 Vout
Rearranging
R1 Vout = (R1 + RF)Vin
R RF
R
V
out = 1
=1+ F
Vin
R1
R1

005 nts: 4/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Voltage Follower

Figure 9.7(c): Operational amplifier circuit used in measurement systems: Voltage Amplifier [1]

The voltage follower has unity gain and high input impedance like the other amplifiers. The
us of a voltage follower is to act as a buffer circuit.

Assuming the virtual short, (hence V = V+ = 0), from KCL at node V ,

Vin = V+ = V = Vout
V
out = 1
Vin

Differential Amplifier

Figure 9.7(d): Operational amplifier circuit used in measurement systems: Differential amplifier [1]

The differential amplifier boosts the bridge out-of-balance voltage Eth, which is the
difference between the voltages of V2 and V1.

005 nts: 5/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

Applying voltage divider at node V+,

R3
V+ =
V2
R3 R2

Assuming the virtual short, (hence V = V+), from KCL at node V,

V1 V V Vout

R1
RF

Substituting V = V+ =

Multiplying both sizes with R1RF

R R
RR
R F V1 F 3 V2 1 3 V2 R1Vout
R3 R2
R3 R2

Rearranging

School Of E

R3
V2
R3 R2
R3
R3
V1
V2
V2 Vout
R3 R2
R3 R2

R1
RF

R R
RR
R1Vout F 3 1 3 V2 RF V1
R3 R2 R3 R2
R ( R R1 )
R1Vout 3 F
V2 R F V1
R3 R2
R ( R R1 )
R
Vout 3 F
V2 F V1
R1 ( R3 R2 )
R1
Special case of differential amplifier
- If R2 = R1, and R3 = RF

R3 ( RF R1 )
R
R
R
V2 F V1 = 3 V2 F V1
R1 ( RF R1 )
R1
R1
R1
R
Vout = F (V2 V1)
R1
Vout

005 nts: 6/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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A.C Amplifier (lead-lag) (Future! Refer to section 9.3 of Bentley)

Figure 9.7(e): Operational amplifier circuit used in measurement systems: A.C amplifier (lead-lag) [1]

The A.C. amplifier is mainly used in an A.C. carrier system which rejects drift and
interference voltages.

Voltage Summer (Future! Refer to section 10.1 of Bentley)

Figure 9.7(f): Operational amplifier circuit used in measurement systems: Voltage summer [1]

The voltage summer forms the basis of a digital-to-analog converter which is in turn used in
an analogue-to-digital converter.

005 nts: 7/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Instrumentation Amplifiers

Figure 15-1: The Basic Instrumentation Amplifier [Flyod electronic devices]

An instrumentation amplifier is a differential voltage-gain device that amplifies the

difference between the voltages existing at its two input terminals.

The main purpose is to amplify small signals that are riding on large common-mode voltages.

Op-amps 1 & 2 are non-inverting configurations that provide the high Zin and voltage gain.
Op-amp 3 is used as a unity-gain differential amplifier.

Figure 15-2: The Instrumentation Amplifier with the external gain-setting resistor RG.
Differential and common-mode signals are indicated. [Flyod electronic devices]

005 nts: 8/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Applying KCL at node V of op-amp 1

Vout ,1 V,1

V ,1 V, 2

R1

RG

Applying the virtual short

Vout ,1

R1
Vout ,1

Vin ,1

RG
Vin ,1

Vin , 2
RG
Vin , 2

RG
R1
RG
R
R
R
Vout,1 = 1 Vin ,1 + 1 Vin ,1 1 Vin , 2
RG
R1
RG

R1

R1
Vin ,1

Vin ,1

R
R
Vout,1 = 1 1 Vin ,1 1 Vin , 2
RG
RG

R
Note that out ,1 1 1
Vin ,1 RG

Applying KCL at node V of op-amp 2

V,1 V, 2
RG

V , 2 Vout , 2
R2

Applying the virtual short

Vin ,1

RG
Vout , 2
R2

Vin , 2

Vout,2 =

RG
Vin , 2
R2

=
+

R2
Vin , 2
R2

Vin , 2
R2
Vin , 2

Vout , 2
R2
Vin ,1

RG
RG
R
R
+ 2 Vin , 2 2 Vin ,1
RG
RG

R
R
Vout,2 = 1 2 Vin , 2 2 Vin ,1
RG
RG
V

R
Note that out , 2 1 2
Vin , 2 RG

005 nts: 9/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Next we can apply the derived Vout,1 and Vout,2 into differential amplifier of op-amp 3.
The output of the differential amplifier is
Vout

R6 ( R5 R3 )
R
Vout , 2 5 Vout ,1
R3 ( R4 R5 )
R3

Typically, R3 = R4 = R5 = R6, hence

Vout = Vout,2 Vout,1
Vout

R
R
R
R
= 1 2 Vin , 2 2 Vin ,1 1 1 Vin ,1 + 1 Vin , 2
RG
RG
RG
RG

R
R
R
R
= 1 2 1 Vin , 2 1 1 2 Vin ,1
RG RG

RG RG

If we let R1 = R2 = R
Vout

= 1

= 1

R
R
R
R
Vin , 2 1
Vin ,1

RG RG
RG RG
2R
Vin , 2 Vin ,1
RG

It is observed that any common mode voltage embedded within Vin,2 and Vin,1 will be
cancelled out (subtracted out) in the Vout.

The overall (closed-loop_ gain of the instrumentation amplifier is

A =

2R
Vout

= 1
Vin , 2 Vin ,1
RG

005 nts: 10/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Figure 15-3: Illustration of the rejection of large common-mode voltages and the amplification of smaller signal
voltages by an instrumentation amplifier [Flyod electronic devices]

Example:
Determine the value of the external gain-setting for resistor RG for a certain instrumentation
amplifier with R1 = R2 = 25k. The closed-loop voltage gain is to be 500.
Solution:
2R
Vout

= 1
Vin , 2 Vin ,1
RG
2 25k

500 = 1
RG

From A =

RG = 100

005 nts: 11/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Log and Antilog Amplifiers

Log Amplifiers
-

A logarithmic (log) amplifier produces an output that is proportional to the logarithm of the
input.

Log amplifiers are used in applications that require compression of analog input date,
linearization of transducers that have exponential outputs, and analog multiplication and
division.

The output voltage of a log amplifier is given as

Vout = K ln(Vin)
Where the natural logarithm to the base e can be converted to base 10 using
ln x = 2.3 log10 x

The logarithmic characteristic is usually obtained from a semiconductor pn junction in the

form of either a diode or the base-eitter junction of a bipolar transistor placed in the feedback
loop of an op-amp circuit.

005 nts: 12/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Signal Compression with Log Amplifiers

-

In certain applications, a signal may have portions that are too large in magnitude for a
particular system to handle.

If a linear signal compression circuit is used, the lower voltages are reduced by the same
percentage as the higher voltages, resulting in the lower voltages being overwhelmed by
noise.

If a log amplifier is used instead, the higher voltages are reduced by a greater percentage than
the lower voltages, thus keeping the lower voltage signals from being lost in noise.

Figure 15-33: The basic concept of signal compression with a logarithmic amplifier [Flyod electronic devices]

005 nts: 13/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Log Amplifier with a Diode

-

A typical diode has a forward diode current of IF defined as

I F I R e qVF / kT

where q is the charge on an electron

VF is the forward diode voltage
k is Boltzmanns constant
IR is the reverse leakage current
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin
-

The forward diode voltage can be derived as shown

Applying the natural log on both side of the equation

ln I F ln I R e qVF / kT
ln I F ln I R ln e qVF / kT ln I R

qV F
kT

Rearranging
I
qVF
= ln I F ln I R = ln F
kT
IR
kT I
VF = ln F
q IR

005 nts: 14/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

Figure 15-29: A basic log amplifier using a diode as the feedback element

[Flyod electronic devices]

Applying the virtual short

Vout = VF

School Of E

and

IF = Iin =

kT I
Substituting VF = ln F
q IR
kT I
Vout = ln F
q IR

Vin
R1

V
and eventually IF = Iin = in into Vout = VF
R1

kT V
= ln in
q I R R1

At the usual operating temperature of 25C, kT/q 25 mV

V
Vout = (0.025V) ln in
I R R1
Example:
Determine the output voltage for the log amplifier below given IR = 50nA.

Figure 15-29 [Floyd electronic devices]

Solution
V

2
= -0.15V
Vout = (0.025V) ln in = (0.025) ln
9
3
I
R

(
50
10
)(
100
10
)

R 1
005 nts: 15/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Log Amplifier with a BJT

-

A typical bipolar junction transistor, BJT has a collector current of IC defined as

I C I EBO e qVBE / kT
where q is the charge on an electron
IEBO is the emitter-to-base leakage current
k is Boltzmanns constant
VBE is the base-to-emitter (threshold) voltage
T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin

Following the same steps as the diode, the base-to-emitter voltage can be determined

ln I C ln I EBO e qVBE / kT
ln I C ln I EBO ln e qV BE / kT ln I EBO

qVBE
kT

Rearranging
I
qVBE
= ln I C ln I EBO = ln C
kT
I EBO
kT I
VBE = ln C
q I EBO

005 nts: 16/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Vin

Figure 15-30: A basic log amplifier using a transistor as the feedback element [Floyd electronic devices]

Applying the virtual short

Vout = VBE

and

IC = Iin =

Vin
R1

kT I
V
Substituting VBE = ln C and eventually IC = Iin = in into Vout = VBE
R1
q I EBO

kT I
kT V
Vout = ln C = ln in
q I EBO
q I EBO R1
At the usual operating temperature of 25C, kT/q 25 mV
V

Vout = (0.025V) ln in
I EBO R1

Example:
Determine the output voltage for a transistor log amplifier with Vin = 3V, R1 = 68k, and assume
IEBO = 40nA.
Solution
V

3
= -0.175V
Vout = (0.025V) ln in = (0.025) ln
9
3
(40 10 )(68 10 )
I EBO R1

005 nts: 17/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Antilog Amplifier with a BJT

Figure 15-30: A basic antilog amplifier [Floyd electronic devices]

Applying the virtual short

Vout = RF IC

I C I EBO e qVBE / kT

and

Merging the two gives

Vout = RF IC = RF I EBO e qVBE / kT

The exponential term can be expressed as an antilogarithm as follows:

V q
Vout = RF IEBO antilog in
kT
At the usual operating temperature of 25C, kT/q 25 mV
Vin
Vout = RF IEBO antilog

0.025V

in

Vin
Note: antilog
= e 0.025V
0.025V

005 nts: 18/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978

Engineering Experimentation and Measurements (EM312)

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Example:
For the antilog amplifier below, determine the output voltage. Assume IEBO = 40nA.

Figure 15-32 [Floyd electronic devices]

Solution:

175.1 10 3
Vin
3
9
= 3V
Vout = RF IEBO antilog
= (68 10 )(40 10 ) antilog
0.025V
0.025

o. o2. 2
o. o2. 2

005 nts: 19/19

Unless otherwise specified, all materials and diagrams are adapted from the following sources:
1.
Principles of Measurement Systems (3rd Edition), by John P. Bentley, Pearson/Prentice Hall 1995
2. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques (2nd Edition), by William David Cooper, Prentice Hall 1978