General English Material

Compiled by:
Langlang Handayani
Amin Suyitno
Stephani Diah Pamelasari
General English Material for

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Students
Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

BASIC GRAMMAR TERMINOLOGY

SUBJECTS, VERBS, AND OBJECTS
Almost all English sentences contain a subject (S) and a verb (V). The verb may or may not be followed by an
object (O).
VERBS
Verbs that are not followed by an object are called intransitive verbs. Common intransitive verbs: agree,
fly, arrive, come, cry, exist, go, happen, live, occur, rise, sleep, stay, walk.
Birds
(noun)
fly
(verb)
The
(noun)
baby cried
(verb)
Verbs that are followed by an object are called transitive verbs. Common transitive verbs: build, cut, find,
like, make, need, send, use, want.
The student
uses
a microscope
(noun)
(verbs)
(noun)
The professor
(noun)
needed
(verb)
some teaching aids

(noun)
Some verbs can be either intransitive or transitive.

Intransitive: A student studies.
Transitive: A student studies books.
SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS

The subjects and objects of verbs are nouns (or pronouns). Examples of nouns: person, place, thing, John,
Asia, pen, information, appearance, amusement, the scientist, heart, bone, tissue, energy, thermometer,
matter, solid, liquid, number, shape, cylinder, sphere.
The Scientist
Bone
Sphere
Thermometer
Liquid
Cylinder

PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

COMMON PREPOSITIONS:
about
before
despite
Of
to
above
behind
down
Off
toward(s)
across
below
during
On
under
after
beneath
for
Out
until
against
beside
from
Over
up
along
besides
in
Since
upon
Among
between
into
Through
with
around
beyond
like
Throughout
within
at
by
near
Till
without
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
An important element of English sentences is the prepositional phrase. It consists of a preposition (PREP)
and its object (O). The object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun.
The student studies in
the library.
S
V PREP
O of PREP
In most English sentences, place comes before time.
We went to the
laboratory in the afternoon.
Sometimes a prepositional phrase comes at the beginning of a sentence.
In the afternoon, we went to the laboratory.
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describe nouns. In grammar, we say that adjectives modify nouns. The word modify means change
a little. Adjectives give a little different meaning to a noun: intelligent student, lazy student, good student.
Examples of adjectives: young, old, rich, poor, beautiful, brown, French, modern.
Andy measured the length of young sprouts.

An adjective is neither singular nor plural. A final s is never added to an adjective.

I saw some beautifuls pictures. INCORRECT
ADVERBS
Adverbs modify verbs. Often they answer the question How?.
How does he walk? Answer: quickly.
Adverbs are often formed by adding ly to an adjective.
Adjective: quick
Adverb: quickly
Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives, i.e., to give information about adjectives.
I am extremely happy.
Adverbs are also used to express time of frequency. Examples: tomorrow, today, yesterday, soon, never,
usually, always, yet.
Ann will come tomorrow.
Some adverbs may occur in the middle of a sentence. Midsentence adverbs have usual position;
they:
(1) come in front of simple present and simple past verbs (except be).
Ann always comes on time.
(2) follow be (simple present and simple past).
Ann is always on time.
(3) come between a helping verb and a main verb.
Ann has always come on time.
In question, a midsentence adverb comes directly after the subject.
Does she always come on time?
COMMON MIDSENTENCE ADVERBS

Ever, always, usually, often, frequently, generally, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever,
never, not ever, already, finally, just, probably.
The word well can be either an adverb or an adjective.
(a) Don writes well. Well = an adverb meaning in a good manner. It describes how Don writes.
(b) Mary was sick, but now she is well. Well = an adjective meaning healthy, not sick. It follows the verb
be and describes the subject she; i.e., Mary is a well person, not sick person.

After the linking verb feel, either good or well may be used. However, well usually refers specifically to
health, whereas good can refer to ones physical and/or emotions condition.
I feel good
I feel well
THE VERB BE
A sentence with be as the main verb has three basic patterns:
1. be + noun
John is a student.
2. be + an adjective
John is intelligent
3. be + a prepositional phrase
John was at the library.
Be is also used as an auxiliary verb in progressive verb tenses and in the passive.
Mary is writing a letter.
is = auxiliary; writing = main verb.
TENSE FORMS OF BE
Singular
Plural
Simple present
I am
You are
He, she, it is
We, you, they are
Simple past
I was
You were
He, she, it was
We, you, they were
Present Perfect
I have been
You have been
He, she, it has been
We, you, they have been
LINKING VERBS
Other verbs like be that may be followed immediately by an adjective are called linking verbs. An adjective
following a linking verb describes the subject of a sentence.
Common verbs that may be followed by an adjective: feel, look, smell, sound, taste, appear, seem, become
(and get, turn, grow when they mean become).
COMPARE:
1. The man looks angry. an adjective (angry) follows look. The adjective describes the subject (the
man). Look has the meaning of appear.
2. The man looked at me angrily. An adverb (angrily) follows look at. The adverb describes the action
of the verb. Look at has the meaning of regard, watch.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
A pronoun is used in place of a noun. It refers to a noun. The noun it refers to is called the antecedent.
I read the book. It was good. (The pronoun it refers to the antecedent noun book.)
Mary said, I drink tea. (The pronoun I refers to the speaker, whose name is Mary.)

SUBJECT PRONOUNS
OBJECT PRONOUNS
POSESIVE PRONOUNS
POSESIVE ADJECTIVES
SINGULAR
PLURAL
We
You
You
He, she, it
They
Me
Us
You
You
Her, him, it
Them
mine
Ours
Your
Yours
Hers, his
Theirs
My name
Our names
Your name
Your names
Her, his, its name
Their names
Possessive nouns require apostrophes; e.g., That book is Marys. Possessive pronouns do NOT
take apostrophes.
That book is hers, and those books are theirs.
CONTRACTIONS
IN SPEAKING: In everyday spoken English, certain forms of be and auxiliary verbs are usually contracted with
pronouns, nouns and question words.
IN WRITING:
(1) In written English, contractions with pronouns are common in informal writing, but not generally
acceptable in formal writing.
(2) Contractions with nouns and question words are, for the most part, rarely used in writing. A few of
these contractions may be found in quoted dialogue in stories or in very informal writing, such as a
chatty letter to a good friend, but most of them are rarely if ever writing.
Im reading a book
with pronouns
Wheres Sally?
with question word
The studentsve finished the test. with noun

QUESTIONS
FORMS OF YES/NO AND INFORMATION QUESTIONS:
A yes/no question: a question that may be answered by yes or no.
Does she live in Semarang? Answer: Yes, she does. OR No, she doesnt.
An information question: a question that asks for information by using a question word.
Where does she live? Answer: In Semarang.
If the verb is in the simple present, use does (with he, she, it) or do (with I, you, we, they) in the question. If
the verb is simple past, use did. Notice: The main verb in the question is in its simple form; there is no final
s or ed.
She lives there.
Does she live there? OR Where does she live?
They lived there.
Did they live there? OR Where did they live?
If the verb has an auxiliary (a helping verb: do, does, did, have, can, will, etc), the same auxiliary is used in
the question. There is no change in the form of the main verb.
They have lived there. Have they lived there? OR Where have they lived?
If the verb has more than one auxiliary, only the first auxiliary precedes the subject.
He will be living there. Where will he be living? OR Will he be living there?
If the question word is the subject, do not change the verb. Do not use does, do or did.
John lives there.
Who lives there?
Be in the simple present (am, is, are) and simple past (were, was) precedes the subject when be is in the
main verb.
They are there.
Are they there? OR Where are they?
QUESTION WORDS
QUESTION WORDS
WHEN
QUESTION
When did you arrive?
ANSWER
Yesterday
WHERE
Where is she?
At home
WHY
Why did he leave early?
Because hes ill
HOW
How does he drive?

How much money does it cost?
Carefully
Ten dollars
When is used to ask questions about

time.
Where is used to ask question about
place
Why is used to ask question about
reason
How generally asks about manner
How is also used with much and many.

WHO
WHOM
WHOSE
WHAT
WHICH
How many people came?

How old are you?
How cold is it?
How soon can you get here?
How fast were you driving?
How long has he been here?
How often do you write home?
How far is it to Bandung from
here?
Who can answer that question?
Who came to visit you?
Who(m) did you see?
Who(m) are you visiting?
Who(m) should I talk to?
To whom should I talk? (formal)
Fifteen
Twelve
Ten below zero
In ten minutes
50 km/h
Two years
Every week
50 km
Whose book did you borrow?

Whose key is this?
(Whose is this?)
What made you angry?
What went wrong?
What do you need?
What did Ali buy?
What did he talk about?
About what did he talk? (formal)
What kind of soup is that?
What kind of shoes did he buy?
What did you do last night?
What is Mary doin?
What countries did you visit?
What time did she come?
What colour is his hair?
What is Ed like?
What is the weather like?
What does Ed look like?
What does her house look like?
Fins
Its mine
I have two pens.

Which pen do you want?
Which one do you want?
Which do you want?
I can
Ann and Tom
I saw Tio
My relatives
The secretary
How is also used with adjectives and

adverbs
How long asks about length of time

How often asks about frequency
How far asks about distance.
Who is used as the subject of a question.
It refers to people.
Whom is used as the object of a verb or
preposition. In spoken English, whom is
rarely used; who is used instead. Whom is
used only in formal questions. Note:
whom, not who is used if preceded by a
preposition.
Whose asks questions about possession?
His rudeness.
Everything.
I need a pencil.
A book.
His vacation.
What is used as the subject of a question.

It refers to things.
What is also used as an object.
Its bean soup.

Sandals.
I studied.
Reading a book.
Italy and Spain.
Seven oclock.
Dark brown.
Hes friendly.
Hot and humid.
Hes tall.
Its a two-story
red brick house.
What kind of asks about the particular

variety or type of something.
What + a form of do is used to ask
questions about activities.
What may accompany a noun.
The blue one
What + be like asks for a general

description of qualities.
What + look like asks for a physical
description.
Which is used instead of what when a
question concerns choosing from a
definite, known quantity or group.

Which book should I buy?

Which countries did he visit?
What countries did he visit?
Which class are you in?
What class are you in?
That one.
Peru and Chile.
This class.
In some cases, there is little difference in

meaning between which and what when
they accompany a noun.
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
In a yes/no question in which the verb is negative, usually a contraction (e.g., does + not = doesnt) is used.
Doesnt she live in the dormitory?
Does she not live in the dormitory? (very formal, usually not used in everyday
speech)
Negative questions are used to indicate the speakers idea (i.e., what s/he believes is or is not true) or
attitude (e.g., surprise, shock, annoyance, anger).
Bob returns to his dorm room after his nine oclock class. Dick, his roommate, is
there. Bob is surprised. Bob says: what are you doing here? Arent you supposed to
be in class now?
Bob believes that Dick is supposed to be in class now. Expected answer: Yes.
The teacher is talking to Jim about a test he failed. The teacher is surprised that Jim
failed the test because he usually does very well. The teacher says: What
happened? Didnt you study?
The teacher believes that Jim did not study. Expected answer: No.
TAG QUESTIONS
A tag question is a question added at the end of a sentence. Speakers use tag question chiefly to make
sure their information is correct or to seek agreement.
Jack can come, cant he?
Fred cant come, can he?
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + NEGATIVE TAG
Mary is here,
You like tes,
They have left,
AFFIRMATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED

isnt she?
Yes, she is.
dont you
Yes, I do.
havent they?
Yes, they have.
NEGATIVE SENTENCE + AFFIRMATIVE TAG NEGATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED

Mary isnt here,
is he?
No, she isnt.
You dont like tea,
do you?
No, I dont.

They havent left,
have they?
No, they havent.
The tag pronoun for this/that = it. The tag pronoun for these/those = they.
This/That is your book, isnt it?
These/Those are yours, arent they?
In sentences with there + be, there is used in the tag.
There is a meeting tonight, isnt there?
Personal pronouns are used to refer to indefinite pronouns. They is usually used in a tag to refer to
everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody.
Everything is okay, isnt it?
Everyone took the test, didnt they?
Sentences with negative words take affirmative tags.
Nothing is wrong, is it?
Nobody called on the phone, did they?
Youve never been there, have you?
Am I not? is formal English. Arent I? is common in spoken English.
I am supposed to be here, am I not?
I am supposed to be here, arent I?
NEGATIVES
USING NOT AND OTHER NEGATIVE WORDS
Not expresses a negative idea.
AFFIRMATIVE The earth is round. NEGATIVE The earth is not flat.
Not immediately follows an auxiliary verb or be. (Note: If there is more than one auxiliary, not comes
immediately after the first auxiliary; I will not be going there).
Do or does is used with not to make a simple present verb (except be) negative.
Did is used with not to make a simple past verb (except be) negative.
AUX + NOT + MAIN VERB
I will not go there
I was not there
I have not gone there
I do not go there
I am not going there
He does not go there
I did not go there

CONTRACTIONS OF AUXILIARY VERBS WITH NOT

are not = arent
do not = dont
must not = mustnt
cannot = cant
has not = hasnt
should not = shouldnt
could not = couldnt
have not = havent
was not = wasnt
did not = didnt
had not = hadnt
were not = werent
does not = doesnt
is not = isnt
would not = wouldnt
In addition to not, the following are negative adverbs:
Never, rarely, seldom, hardly (ever), scarcely (ever), barely (ever).
I never go there.
I have hardly ever gone there.
No also expresses a negative idea.
There is no chalk in the drawer.
COMPARE: NOT vs NO
Not is used to make a verb negative. I do not have any money.
No is used as an adjective in front of a noun. I have no money.
AVOIDING DOUBLE NEGATIVES

Double negative is a confusing and grammatically incorrect sentence that contains two negatives in the
same clause. One clause should contain only one negative.
I dont have no money. INCORRECT
I dont have any money. CORRECT
I have no money. CORRECT
NOTE: Negative in two different clauses in the same sentence cause no problem. For example: I dont
know why he isnt here.
BEGINNING A SENTENCE WITH A NEGATIVE WORD

When a negative word begins a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted (i.e., question word order is
used). Beginning a sentence with a negative word is relatively uncommon in everyday usage, but is used
when the speaker/writer wishes to emphasize the negative element of the sentence.
Never will I do that again.
Rarely have I eaten better food.
Hardly ever does he come to class on time.

ARTICLES
BASIC ARTICLE USAGE
1. USING A or : GENERIC NOUNS
A speaker uses generic nouns to make generalizations. A generic noun represents a whole
class of things; it is not a specific, real, concrete thing but rather a symbol of a whole group.
No article () is used to make generalizations with plural count nouns and uncountable
nouns.
A banana is yellow. SINGULAR COUNT NOUN
Banana are yellow. PLURAL COUNT NOUN
Fruit is good for you. NONCOUNT NOUN
Usually a/an is used with a singular generic count noun.
A window is made of glass. A doctor heals sick people. Parents must give a child love. A
box has six sides. An apple can be red, green, or yellow.
2. USING A or SOME: INDEFINITE NOUNS
Some is often used with indefinite plural count nouns and indefinite uncountable nouns. In addition to
some, a speaker might use two, a few, several, a lot of, etc., with plural non-count nouns, or a little, a
lot of, etc., with non-plural count nouns.
I ate a banana.
SINGULAR COUNT NOUN
I ate some banana. PLURAL COUNT NOUN
I ate some fruit.
NONCOUNT NOUN
3. USING THE: DEFINITE NOUNS
A noun is definite when both the speaker and the listener are thinking about the same specific thing.
The is used with both singular and plural count nouns and with uncountable nouns.
Thank you for the banana. SINGULAR COUNT NOUN. The speaker uses the
because the listener knows which banana the speaker is talking about, i.e., that
particular banana which the listener gave to the speaker.
Thank you for the bananas. PLURAL COUNT NOUN
Thank you for the fruit. NONCOUNT NOUN
The is sometimes used with a singular generic count noun (not a plural generic count noun, not a
generic uncountable noun). Generic the is commonly used with, in particular:
1. Species of animals: The whale is the largest mammal on earth. The elephant is the largest land
mammal.
2. Inventions: Who invented the telephone? the wheel? the refrigerator? the airplane?
The computer will play an increasingly large role in all of our lives.
3. Musical instrument: Id like to learn to play the piano. Do you play the guitar.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ARTICLE USAGE

Use the when you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and thinking about the same specific
thing or person you are talking about.

The sun is bright today.

Please hand this book to the teacher.
Please open the door.
Jack is in the kitchen.
Use the for the second mention of an indefinite noun.
Yesterday I saw some dogs. The dogs were chasing a cat. The cat was chasing a mouse.
The mouse ran into a hole. The hole was very small.
first mention: some dogs, a cat, a mouse, a hole.
second mention: the dogs, the cat, the mouse, the hole.
The is not used for the second mention of a generic noun. COMPARE:
What colour is a banana (generic noun)? A banana (generic noun) is yellow.
Tom offered me a banana (indefinite noun) or an apple. I chose the banana (definite
noun).
Do not use the with a plural count noun (e.g., apples) or an uncountable noun (e.g., gold) when you are
making a generalization.
The apples are my favorite fruit.
incorrect
Apples are my favorite fruit.
correct
The gold is a metal.
incorrect
Gold is a metal.
correct
Do not use a singular count noun (e.g., car) without: 1. an article (a/an or the); OR 2. this/that; OR 3. a
possessive pronoun.
I drove car.
incorrect
I drove a car.
correct
I drove the car.
correct
I drove that car.
correct
I drove his car.
correct

AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH VERB TENSES

THE SIMPLE TENSES
TENSE
EXAMPLES
SIMPLE PRESENT
It snows in Alaska.
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
SIMPLE PAST
I watch television every

day
It snowed yesterday.
I watched television last
night.
SIMPLE FUTURE
It will snow tomorrow.
I will watch television

tonight.
MEANING
In general, the simple
present expresses events
or situations that exist
always, usually,
habitually; they exist now,
have existed in the past,
and probably will exist in
the future.
At one particular time in
the past, this happened. It
began and ended in the
past.
At one particular time in

the future, this will
happen.
THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES

Form: be + ing (present participle).
Meaning: The progressive tenses give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. The
tenses say that an action begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action.
TENSE
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
EXAMPLES
He is sleeping right now.
MEANING
He went to sleep at 10.00
tonight. It is now 11.00
and he is still asleep. His
sleep began in the past, is
in progress at the present
time, and probably will
continue.

PAST PROGRESSIVE
He was sleeping when I

arrived
He went to sleep at 10.00

last night. I arrived at
11.00. He was still asleep.
His sleep began before
and was in progress at a
particular time in the past.
It probably continued.
He will be sleeping when

we arrive.
He will go to sleep at
10.00 tomorrow night. We
will arrive at 11.00. The
action of sleeping will
begin before we arrive
and it will be in progress
at a particular time in the
future. Probably his sleep
will continue.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
THE PERFECT TENSES

Form: have + past participle
Meaning: The perfect tenses all give the idea that one thing happens before another time or event.
TENSE
PRESENT PERFECT
X1
X1 = eat
X1 = eat
MEANING
I have already eaten.
I finished eating sometime

before now. The exact
time is not important.
I had already eaten when

they arrived.
First I finished eating.

Later they arrived. My
eating was completely
finished before another
time in the past.
X2
X2 = now
PAST PERFECT
X1
EXAMPLES
X2
X2 = arrive

FUTURE PERFECT
I will already have eaten

when they arrive.
X1 X 2
X1 = eat
First I will finish eating.

Later they will arrive. My
eating will be completely
finished before another
time in the future.
X2 = arrive
THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES

Form: have + been + -ing (present participle)
Meaning: The perfect progressive tenses give the idea that one event is in progress immediately before, up
to, until another time or event. The tenses are used to express the duration of the first event.
TENSE
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
X1
EXAMPLES
I have been studying for
two hours.
X2
MEANING
Event in progress:
studying. When? Before
now, up to now.
How long? For two hours.
X1 - X2 = 2 hours
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
X1
I had been studying for

two hours before my
friend came.
X2
Event in progress:
another event in the past.
X1 - X2 = 2 hours
FUTURE PERFECT
X1 X 2
I will have been studying

for two hours by the time
you arrive.
Event in progress:
another event in the
future.
X1 - X2 = 2 hours

PASSIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE FOR ALL TENSES RULES
The places of subject and object in sentence are inter-changed in passive voice.
Third form of verb (past participle) will be used only (as main verb) in passive voice.
Auxiliary verbs for each tense are given below in the table.
Present Simple Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am/is/are
Active voice:
He sings a song.
Passive voice:
A song is sung by him.
He does not sing a song.Does he sing a

song?
A song is not sung by him.

Is a song sung by him?
Present Continuous Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: am being/is being/are being
Active voice:
I am writing a letter
I am not writing a letter.
Am I writing a letter?
Passive voice:
A letter is being written by me.
A letter is not being written by me.
Is a letter being written by me?
Present Perfect Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: has been/have been
Active voice:
She has finished his work
Passive voice:
Her work has been finished by her.
She has not finished her work.

Has she finished her work?
Her work has not been finished by her.

Has her work been finished by her?
Past Simple Tense (passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was/were
Active voice:
Passive voice:
I killed a snake
A snake was killed by me.
I did not kill a snake.
A snake was not killed by me.
Did I kill a snake?
Was a snake killed by me?

Past Continuous Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: was being/were being
Active voice:
Passive voice:
He was driving a car.
A car was being driven by him.
He was not driving a car.
A car was not being driven by him.
Was he driving a car?
Was a car being driven by him?

Past Perfect Tense (Passive Voice)
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: had been
Active voice:
Passive voice:
They had completed the assignment.
The assignment had been completed by them.
They had not completed the
The assignment had not been complete by
assignment.
them.
Had they completed the assignment?
Had the assignment been completed by them?
Future Simple Tense (Passive Voice)

Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will be
Active voice:
Passive voice:
She will buy a car.
A car will be bought by her.
She will not buy a car.
A car will not be bought by her.
Will she buy a car?
Will a car be bought by her?

Future Perfect Tense (passive Voice)
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: will have been
Active voice:
Passive voice:
You will have started the job.
The job will have been started by you.
You will have not started the job.
The job will not have been started by you.
Will you have started the job?
Will the job have been started by you?
Note: The following tenses cannot be changed into passive voice.

1. Present perfect continuous tense
2. Past perfect continuous tense
3. Future continuous tense
4. Future perfect continuous tense
5. Sentence having Intransitive verbs

PASSIVE VOICE FOR PRESENT/FUTURE MODALS CAN, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, MUST, OUGHT
TO
Passive voice for Present/Future Modals
CAN, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, MUST, OUGHT TO
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: be
Active voice: CAN
Passive voice: CAN BE

A violin can be played by her.
A violin cannot be played by her.
Can a violin be played by her?
She can play a violin.

She cannot play a violin.
Can she play a violin?
Active voice: MAY
Passive voice: MAY BE
I may buy the computer.
The computer may be bought by me.
I may not buy the computer.
The computer may not be bought by me.
May I buy the computer?
May the computer be bought by me?
Active voice: MIGHT
Passive voice: MIGHT BE
Guests might play chess.
Chess might be played by guests.
Guests might not play chess.
Chess might not be played guests.

Passive voice: SHOULD BE
Active voice: SHOULD
All lessons should be studied by students.
Students should study all lessons.
All lessons should not be studied by
Students should not study all lessons.
students.
Should students study all lessons?
Should all lessons be studied by students?

Passive voice: MUST BE
Active voice: MUST

You must learn the test-taking strategies.
You must not learn the test-taking
strategies.
Active voice: OUGHT TO

They ought to take the examination.
Test-taking strategies must be learnt by

you.
Test-taking strategies must not be learned
by you.
Passive voice: OUGHT TO BE
The examination ought to be taken by
them.

Passive voice for Present/Future Modals

MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, MUST HAVE, OUGHT HAVE TO
Auxiliary verb in passive voice: been
Active voice: MAY HAVE
You may have availed the opportunity.
You may not have availed the opportunity.
Passive voice: MAY HAVE BEEN

The opportunity may have been availed by
you.
The opportunity may not have been availed
by you.
Active voice: MIGHT HAVE
Passive voice: MIGHT HAVE BEEN
He might have eaten meal.
Meal might have been eaten by him.
He might not have eaten meal.
Meal might not have been eaten by him.

Passive voice: SHOULD HAVE BEEN
Active voice: SHOULD HAVE
The book should have been studied by you.
You should have studied the book.
The book should have not been studied by
You should not have studied the book.
you.
Active voice: MUST HAVE
Passive voice: MUST HAVE BEEN
He must have started job.
Job must have been started by you.
He must not have started job.
Job must not have been started by you.
Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE
Passive voice: OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN
You ought to have helped him.
He ought to have been helped by you
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
SUMMARY OF BASIC VERB FORM USAGE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
MEANING OF THE
IF CLAUSE
VERB FORM IN THE

IF CLAUSE
VERB FORM IN THE

RESULT CLAUSE
True in the
present/future
Simple present
Simple Present
If I have enough
time, I write to my
parents every week.
If I have enough
time tomorrow, I
will write to my
parents
Untrue in the
Simple past
Would + simple form
If I had enough time

now, I would write

to my parents. (In
truth, I do not have
enough time, so I
will not write to
them.)
present/future
Untrue in the past
would have + past

participle
Past perfect
If I had enough time,

I would have written
to my parents
yesterday. (In truth, I
did not have enough
time, so I did not
write to them.)
TRUE IN THE PRESENT OR FUTURE

a. If I dont eat breakfast, I always get
hungry during class.
In (a): The simple present is used in the

result clause to express a habitual activity or
situation.
b. Water freezes (will freeze) if the

temperature goes below 32o F.
In (b): Either the simple present or the

simple future is used in the result clause to
express an established, predictable fact.
c. If I dont eat breakfast tomorrow

morning, I will get hungry during class.
d. If the weather is nice tomorrow, we will
go on a picnic.
In (c) and (d): The simple future is used in

the result clause when the sentence
concerns a particular activity or situation in
the future.
Note: The simple present, not the simple
future, is used in the if clause.
UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PRESENT/FUTURE

e. If I taught this class, I wouldnt give tests.
In (e): In truth, I dont teach this class.
f. If he were here right now, he would help
In (f): In truth, he is not here right now.

us.
In (g): In truth, I am not you.
g. If I were you, I would accept their

invitation.
Note: Were is used for both singular and

plural subjects. Was (with I, he, she, it) is
sometimes used in very informal speech but
is not generally considered grammatically
acceptable.
UNTRUE (CONTRARY TO FACT) IN THE PAST

h. If you had told me about the problem, I
would have helped you.
i. If they had studied, they would have past
the exam.
j. If I hadnt slipped on the ice, I wouldnt
have broken my arm.
In (h): In truth, you did not tell me about it.

In (i): In truth, they did not study. They
failed the exam.
In (j): In truth, I slipped on the ice. I broke
my arm.
Note: The auxiliary verbs are almost always
contracted in speech. If youd told me, I
wouldve helped you (or : Idve helped
you).
USING PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS

a. TRUE: It is raining right now, so I will not go for a walk.
CONDITIONAL: If it were not raining right now, I would go for a walk.
b. TRUE: I am not living in Chile, I am not working at a bank.
CONDITIONAL: If I were living in Chile, I would be working at a bank.
c. TRUE: It was raining yesterday afternoon, so I did not go for a walk.
CONDITIONAL: If it had not been raining, I would have gone for a walk.
d. TRUE: I was not living in Chile last year. I was not working at a bank.
CONDITIONAL: If I had been living in Chile last year, I would have been working at a
bank.
Note: Even in conditional sentences, progressive verb forms are used in progressive

situations. (See 3-5 for a discussion of progressive verbs.)
USING MIXED TIME IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

e. TRUE: I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.
CONDITIONAL: If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.
(past)
(present)
f. TRUE: He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.
CONDITIONAL: If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test.
(present)
(past)
Note: Frequently the time in the if clause and the time in the result clause are
different: one clause may be in the present and the other in the past.
USING COULD, MIGHT, AND SHOULD

a. If I were a bird, I could fly home
In (a): could fly = would be able to fly
b. If I could sing as well as you, I would join

the opera.
In (b): could sing = were able to sing
c. If Id had enough money, I could have

gone to Florida for vacation.
In (c): could have gone = would have been

able to go
d. If I dont get a scholarship, I might get a

job instead of going to graduate school next
fall.
In (d): I might get = maybe I will get
e. If you were a better student, you might

get better grades.
In (f): I might have been = maybe I would

have been.
In (e): you might get = maybe you would get
f. If you had told me about your problem, I

might have been able to help you.
g. If John should call, tell him Ill be back
around five.
h. If there should be another world war, the
continued existence of the human race
In (g): If John should call indicates a little

more uncertainty or doubt than If John calls,
but the meaning of the two is basically the
same.

In (h): If there should be indicates more

uncertainty or doubt than If there were.
would be in jeopardy.
OMITTING IF
a. Were I you, I wouldnt do that.
b. Had I known about it, I would have told
you.
With were, had (past perfect), and should,

sometimes if is omitted and the subject and
verb are inverted.
In (a): Were I you = If I were you
c. Should anyone call, please take a

massage.
In (b): Had I known = If I had known

In (c): Should anyone call = If anyone should
call
IMPLIED CONDITIONS
d. I would have gone with you, but I had to
study. (Implied condition: if I hadnt had
to study).
Often the if clause is implied, not stated.

Conditional verbs are still used in the result
clause.
e. I never would have succeeded without

your help. (Implied condition: if you
hadnt helped me).
f. She ran; otherwise, she should have
missed her bus.
Conditional verbs are frequently used

following otherwise. In (f), the implied if
clause is: If she had not run


READING SKILLS
USING DICTIONARY
OWNING TWO GOOD DICTIONARIES
1. A paper back dictionary you can carry with you
2. A desk-sized, hardcover edition which should be kept in the room where you study
FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY
1. Using Guide Words to Find a Word more Quickly: the pair of words at the top of each dictionary page. The
first guide Word tells what the first word is on the page. The second guide word tells what the last word
is on the page. All of the words on the page fall alphabetically between the two guide words
2. Finding a Word You cant spell:
a. Hint 1: If you are not sure about the vowels in a word, you will simply have to experiment. Vowels
often sound the same. So try an i in place of an a, an i in place of an e, and so on.
b. There are groups of letters or letter combinations that often sound alike. If your word isnt spelled with
one of the letters in a pair or group, it might be spelled with another in the same pair or group. See p.
11 (Reff. 4).
LEARNING FROM A DICTIONARY ENTRY
There are six common parts of dictionary word entries:
1. Spelling and syllables
2. Pronunciation Symbols and Accent Marks
3. Parts of speech
4. Irregular spellings
5. Definitions
6. Synonyms
Ad. 1: SPELLING & SYLLABLES

The dictionary first gives the correct spelling and syllable breakdown of a word. Do not separate the words
into syllables. Each syllable is a separate sound, and each sound includes a vowel.
Ad. 2: PRONUNCIATION SYMBOLS AND ACCENT MARKS

The Pronunciation symbols tell the sounds of consonants and vowels in a word. Use the pronunciation key
to know how to pronounce the vowel sounds. See p. 14 (Reff. 4).
Accent mark shows which syllable has the stronger stress. The syllables without an accent mark are
unstresses.

Example: in.sult
Ad. 3: PARTS OF SPEECH

Every word in the dictionary is either a noun, a verb, an adjective, or another part of speech. In dictionary
entries, the part of speech are shown by letters in italics. For example, in the entry for insult, the
abbreviations v and n tell us that insult is both a verb and a noun.
Ad. 4: IRREGULAR SPELLINGS

When other forms of a word are spelled in an irregular way, those forms are shown.
Ad. 5: DEFINITIONS
Words often have more than one meaning. When they do, their definitions may be numbered in the
dictionary. You can tell which definition of a word fits a given sentence by the meaning of the sentence.
Ad. 6: SYNONYMS
A synonym is a word whose meaning is similar to that of another word. For example, two synonyms for the
word fast are quick and speedy.
VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT
THE CONTEXT
The words surrounding the unfamiliar word which provides clues to each words meaning.
Using context clues to understand new words will help you in a few important ways:
1. It will save you time when reading
2. It will improve your understanding of what you read because you will know more of the words
3. It will expand your vocabulary
TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES
There are four common types of context clues:
1. Examples
2. Synonyms
3. Antonyms
4. General Sense of the Sentence or passage
Ad. 1: EXAMPLES
Examples of an unknown word may reveal the words meaning.

Examples may be introduced with such signal words as for example, for instance, including and such as.
Example:
In our house, hangers have various functions. For instance, in addition to holding clothing, they scratch
backs and hold up plants in the garden.
Definition of functions:
a. shapes b. problems
c. uses
Ad. 2: SYNONYMS
Synonyms are words that mean the same, or almost the same, as the unknown word. The synonyms are
often set off by commas, dashes, or parentheses. Also, they may be introduced by the words OR and THAT
IS. A synonym may also appear anywhere in a sentence as a restatement of the meaning of the unknown
word.
Example:
With the temperature so cold this winter, the supply of natural gas for heating could be depleted, or used
up, by spring.
Ad. 3: ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words and phrases that mean the opposite of a word are also useful context clues.
Antonyms are often signaled by words and phrases such as however, but, yet, on the other hand and in
contrast.
Example:
Some teachers are too lenient they have no rules in class and no real goals. Id rather have a strict
teacher who took class seriously.
Definition of lenient:
a. hard
b. easygoing
c. busy
Ad. 4: GENERAL SENSE OF THE SENTENCE OR PASSAGE

Sometimes you can find a new words meaning through the other ideas in a passage. Asking yourself
questions about the passage may help.
Example:
The owners muted the noises in their restaurant by installing special ceiling tiles and dividers between the
booths. (Hint: What would restaurant owners probably want to do about noise?)

MAIN IDEAS
The most helpful reading skill is the ability to find an author's main idea.
UNDERSTANDING THE MAIN IDEA
The main idea is the central point of a passage a general idea
It appears in a sentence called the topic sentence. The rest of the paragraph consists of specific details in
the form of examples, reasons, facts, and other supporting evidence that support and explain the main
idea.
Under the main idea fits all the other material of the paragraph.
READING:
As a rule, most of my dreams at night are pleasant ones. Recently, though, I had a really bad dream. I was in an
alley dressed in light summer clothing. Coming out of the darkness at the end of the alley were hundreds of
large gray rats. They razor-sharp teeth glistened with saliva, and their eyes glowed red with a cold fury. I
turned to run away, but attacking in the other direction were a dozen pit bulls. And these particular pit bulls
were foaming at the mouth; they all had rabies. Just my luck, I muttered, and did my best to wake up as
quickly as possible.
GENERAL VERSUS SPECIFIC IDEAS

To improve your skill at finding main ideas, it will be helpful to practice separating general from
specific ideas.
General ideas are broad and specific ideas are narrower
General ideas include many specific ideas
Example: temperature units is the general idea and Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin are the specific
ideas
Physics is the general idea and mechanics, heat, sound are specific ideas
MOVING FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC

Ideas can be arranged in order of how general or specific they are
Example: meal is more general than lunch (lunch is one kind of meal) and lunch is more general than
sandwich (sandwich is one type of lunch)
. Rock concert .. Performance . Concert (put 1, 2 and 3)
TOPICS
The topic is the subject that a selection (e.g a paragraph) is about. It is a general term that can usually be
expressed in a few words.
Recognizing the topic of a selection can help you find the main idea.

To find the topic of a selection, ask this simple question:

In general, who or what is the selection about?
Does this subject include much more than what the passage is about? (If so, the subject is too broad to
be the topic)
Is there important information in the passage that isnt covered by the subject? (If so, the subject is too
narrow to be the topic)
READING:
Getting rid of garbage is an enormous problem in the United States. We must deal with over a billion pounds
of garbage every day. That number is equal to about six to seven pounds of solid waste per person. A large
amount of garbage is burned, but that creates air pollution. Ravines and swampy areas have been used for
dumping garbage, but such locations near cities are fast being used up.
The topic of the paragraph:
a. The worlds garbage problem
b. Getting rid of garbage in the US
c. US dumping grounds
TOPIC SENTENCES
The topic sentence is the sentence that expresses the main idea of the paragraph.
Once you have found the topic, you should ask yourself the question: What is the authors main point
about the topic?
To become skilled at finding main ideas, it can be helpful to distinguish between a passages topic, main
idea and supporting details.
The topic will be the subject the items are about.
The main idea will be the author's main point about the topic.
The supporting details will be specific ideas that help explain the main idea.
Note that in longer selections made up of many paragraphs, such as articles or text book chapters, there is
an overall main idea called the central point.
CONCLUSION
In order to recognize the main idea of a passage as expressed in its topic sentence, there are two activities can
be done:
1. recognizing general-specific relationships
2. distinguishing the topic of a paragraph from subjects that are too broad or too narrow

LOCATIONS OF MAIN IDEAS

It was already known that most of the main idea is in the first sentence of the paragraph. But, the main idea
may also appear elsewhere in the paragraph as well.
TOPIC SENTENCE FIRST IN A PARAGRAPH

Authors often begin a paragraph with the main idea. The rest of the paragraph then supports the main
idea with details.
Topic sentence
Supporting details
Supporting details
Supporting details
TOPIC SENTENCE WITHIN A PARAGRAPH

The topic sentence often follows one or more introductory sentences. These opening sentences may catch
the readers interest, relate the main idea to a previous paragraph, or give background for the main idea.
Introductory details
Topic sentence
Supporting details
Supporting details
Supporting details
It is fairly common for the topic sentence to appear in the second or third sentence of the paragraph. But
the topic sentence may appear at times anywhere within a paragraph.
TOPIC SENTENCE AT THE END OF A PARAGRAPH

When the topic sentence comes at the end of a paragraph, the previous sentences build up to
the main idea.
Supporting details
Supporting details
Supporting details
Topic sentence

TWO TOPIC SENTENCES: FIRST AND LAST

When there are two topic sentences in a paragraph, they are often at the beginning and the end. In such
cases, the author has chosen to introduce the main idea at the start of the paragraph and then emphasize
it by restating it in other words at the end.
Topic sentence
Supporting details
Supporting details
Supporting details
Topic sentence
TOPIC SENTENCE IMPLIED

Sometimes a paragraph will lack a topic sentence, but that does not mean it lacks a main idea. The author
may have decided to let details of the selection suggest the main idea.
Supporting details
Supporting details
Supporting details
Supporting details
SUPPORTING DETAILS
Supporting details (SD) are reasons, examples, steps, or other kinds of factual evidence that explain main
ideas.
SD usually help to contrast them with details that do not support that main ideas.
SD develop a main idea (tell us more about the main idea) by proving it with reasons, by illustrating it or by
explaining it.
To decide whether a sentence does or does not support a main idea, ask the following questions:
Does this sentence give details that make the main idea clear? If the sentence clarifies the main idea, it is
a supporting detail.
Does it introduce a totally new point? If the sentence introduces a new point, it does not support the
main idea.
Example:
There are several steps to previewing a textbook chapter
a. First of all, note carefully the title-it tells you the topic of the entire chapter.

b. Then read the first and last paragraphs, which often summarize the main ideas of the chapter.
c. Previewing, however, is not the way to read fiction.
In order to clearly understand the main idea in a selection, you need to carefully read the supporting details.
If you read attentively, you are not likely to misinterpret what the author is saying. Your understanding will
also be strengthened by noting the relationship of the main idea and its supporting details.
There are two levels of supporting details: major and minor
Major supporting details: the separate, primary points that support the main idea
Minor supporting details: provide more information about the major details. They clarify the major details by
illustrating them.
Two helpful ways to find major details:
1. Find an opening phrase: several kinds of, a few causes, two advantages, several characteristics, among the
results, four steps, three factors, etc.
2. Find addition words, such as first, second, next, first of all, in addition, finally, moreover, another, also, last
of all, etc.
TRANSITIONS
Transitions are words and phrases that show the connections between ideas.
A transition bridges the gap from one idea to the other. It carries the reader across from one thought to
another.
Two helpful points to keep in mind about transitions:
1. Certain words within a group mean very much about the same thing. Authors often use different
transitions simply for the sake of variety.
For example: also and moreover both mean in addition.
2. In some cases, the same word can serve as two different types of transitions, depending on how it is
used.
For example:
The word first may be an addition word, as in the following sentence:
My brother has some strange kitchen habits. First, he loves to cook with the radio on full blast. Moreover,
First may also be used to signal a time sequence, as in this sentence:

Our English class had several interruptions this morning. First, the radiator began squeaking. Then,

There are a number of ways in which transitions connect ideas and show relationships. The major types of
transitions:
1. Words that show addition
2. Words that show time
3. Words that show contrast
4. Words that show comparison
5. Words that show illustration
6. Words that show cause and effect
WORDS THAT SHOW ADDITION

Addition words tell us that one or more ideas continue in the same line of thought as a previous idea. They
introduce ideas that add to what has already been mentioned.
Example:
1. Paperback books take up less shelf space than hardcover books. They are less expensive.
2. Paperback books take up less shelf space than hardcover books. They are also less expensive.
WORDS THAT SHOW TIME

The transitions showing time indicate time relationships. They tell the reader when something happened
in relation to something else.
Time words: first, next, often, before, during, after, when, then, now
Example:
I begin my Things To Do list by writing down everything I need to do the next day. Then I label each item
A (very important), B (important), or C (not important).
WORDS THAT SHOW CONTRAST

Contrast words show that two things differ in one or more ways.
Some common contrast words: but, however, yet, in contrast, instead, still, on the other hand, even
though, although.
Example:
The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, but the summers are hot and humid.
WORDS THAT SHOW COMPARISON

The comparison words signal that the author is pointing out a similarity between two subjects. The words
tell us that the second subject is like the first one in some way.
Common comparison words: like, as, just like, just as, likewise, similarly, in like manner, in the same way,
as well, as if, equally.
Example: Parents today often dislike the music their children listen to, just as their own parents disliked
the Beatles or the Rolling Stones.

WORDS THAT SHOW ILLUSTRATION

Illustration words point out that one or more examples will be used to explain a given idea. They tell us
that a specific detail is being provided as an example.
Common illustration words:
For example, for instance, to illustrate, once, such as, including
Example:
Uncle Arthur has several annoying habits, such as flicking cigar ashes onto the tablecloth and picking his
teeth with a fork.
WORDS THAT SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT

Cause and effect words show that the author is discussing the reason or reasons why something
happened. One event caused another to happen.
Common cause-and-effect words: because, since, reason, the result was, if then, so, therefore, thus, as a
result.
USING A VARIETY OF TRANSITIONS

COMMON TRANSITIONS AND THEIR MEANINGS
Transition Word
and
also
moreover
furthermore
but
yet
On the other hand
nevertheless
So
Therefore
Thus
Consequently
Meaning
In addition
In addition
In addition
In addition
However
However
However
However
As a result
As a result
As a result
As a result
PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION
To help readers understand their main ideas, authors try to present supporting details in a clearly organized
way. Details might be arranged in any of several common patterns. Sometimes authors may build a paragraph
or longer passage entirely on one pattern; more often, the patterns are mixed. By recognizing the patterns,
you will be better able to make sense of what you read.
Five basic patterns of organizations:
1. Time order

2.
3.
4.
5.
List of Items
Comparisons and/or Contrast
Cause and Effect
Definition and Example
The transitions used by each pattern:

Pattern
Transitions Used
Time order
Words that show time (then, next, after, )
List of items
Words that show addition (also, another, moreover, )
Comparison
and/or Words that show comparison or contrast (like, just as,
contrast
however, in contrast, )
Cause and effect
Words that show cause and effect (because, as a result,
since,)
Definition and example
Words that show illustration (for example, to illustrate, )
TIME ORDER
Time order can be divided into two types: a series of events or stages and a series of steps (directions).
1. Stages in a process are organized in the order in which they happen according to time order. (See p.
170)
2. Directions use time order to explain a series of steps towards a specific goal. (See p. 172)
LIST OF ITEMS
A list of items refers to a series of details, such as reasons or examples that support a point. The items
have no time order, so they are listed in the order the author prefers.
COMPARISONS AND/OR CONTRAST

The comparison and/or contrast pattern shows how two things are alike or how they are different, or
both. When things are compared, their similarities are pointed out; when they are contrasted, their
differences are discussed.
Cause and Effect

Cause-effect paragraphs answer such questions as What are the causes of an event? or What are the
effects of an event?. They dont just tell what happened; they explain why as well.
Example: (See p. 180)
DEFINITION AND EXAMPLE

If a word or term is likely to be new to readers, the author may include a definition. Then, to make sure
that definition is clear, the author may explain it with one or more examples.
Example: (See p. 184)
TOPIC SENTENCES AND PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

A paragraphs topic sentence often suggests its pattern of organization.

For example, the topic sentence of there are four initial stages in the life of a newborn baby kangaroo, called a
joey.
This sentence strongly suggests that the paragraph will go on to list those four stages. Even before reading the
paragraph, you can expect that it will be organized according to time order (a series of steps).
INFERENCES
Making inferences or drawing conclusions is discovering the ideas that are not stated directly.
An inference is a reasonable guess or logical conclusion that we make based on the evidence presented.
Example:
See the passage about an authors bad dream and p. 200.
READING:
As a rule, most of my dreams at night are pleasant ones. Recently, though, I had a really bad dream. I was in an
alley dressed in light summer clothing. Coming out of the darkness at the end of the alley were hundreds of
large gray rats. Their razor-sharp teeth glistened with saliva, and their eyes glowed red with a cold fury. I
turned to run away, but attacking in the other direction were a dozen pit bulls. And these particular pit bulls
were foaming at the mouth; they all had rabies. Just my luck, I muttered, and did my best to wake up as
quickly as possible.
Which one of the following inferences is most soundly supported by the evidence in the passage?
1. This was the worst dream the author ever had.
2. The author did not sleep the rest of the night.
3. The author hates animals.
4. The author had a dramatic dream.
In our everyday reading, we make logical leaps from the information given directly on the page to ideas that
are not stated directly. To draw such inferences, we use all the clues provided:
by the writer,
by our own experience, and
by logic.


LANGUAGE FOR DISCUSSION PRESENTER & AUDIENCE
STARTING
Good morning/afternoon/evening, ladies and gentlemen.
Shall we begin.
Lets get started then.
There are three/several/a number of points Id like to make.
I would like to begin by .
INTRODUCTION OF TOPIC
I intend to talk about X
I would like to tell you what I have learned about X
My paper is concerned with X
The seminar paper that I am presenting is on X
My topic is X
METHOD OF PRESENTATION
I intend to divide this talk into parts: A, B, C and D
The way I am going to present my paper is by grouping A and B together and then giving
several examples.
I propose to present my paper in several stages: firstly, a review of A, then an attack on B, and
finally an analysis of C.
STATING THE CONTENT OF THE PAPER

Well, to start at part A,
OK then, lets go back to start with my first point.
Right then. To begin with .

CONNECTING THE PARTS OF THE PAPER

Well, thats all I want to say about A. Shall we turn now to part B.
Unfortunately because of the shortage of time, I will have to leave part A there and go on to B.
Perhaps we can come back to talk about part A a little more later on, but for now Ill have to
stress on with part B.
CONCLUDING / SUMMARIZING
Finally,
In conclusion,
So, as you can see, my research is about these areas .
The final point I wish to make is .
To sum up then, .
Briefly, the main points that have been made are .
INVITING QUESTIONS
Ill be happy to answer any questions now.
If you have any questions, Ill try my best to answer them.
Please feel free to ask me any questions.
Do you have any questions or comments?
ASKING FOR AN OPINION

Whats your opinion of .
Whats your position / view on .

GIVING AN OPINION
I believe/think/feel that .
In my opinion/view .
BRINGING IN ANOTHER SPEAKER

Id like to call on Mr/Mrs L to present her views on .
Allow me to give the floor to Ms G
AGREEING
I agree entirely/completely.
I think we are in agreement on that.
AGREEING PARTIALLY
I would intend to agree with you on that.
I agree with you on the whole, but
DISAGREEING TACTFULLY
I agree up to a point, but
To a certain extent I agree with you, but .
DISAGREEING
Im sorry, but I really cant agree with you on that.
With all due respect, I must disagree.
INTERRUPTING
If I may just interrupt you for a moment, Id like to .
I dont want to interrupt, but .

TAKING THE FLOOR

I wonder if I might comment on that last point?
Could/may I come in at this point?
CORRECTING MISUNDERSTANDINGS
Im afraid there seems to have been a slight misunderstanding.
Perhaps I should make that clearer by saying .
ASKING FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Could you be a little more specific/precise?
Im sorry, but could you explain in a little more detail?
EVADING THE ISSUE

Thats a very interesting/complex question and .
Im afraid Im not in a position to comment on that just yet.
MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS, PROPOSALS AND SUGGESTIONS

I recommend/propose/suggest that
I wonder if we shouldnt think about .
PERSUADING
Have you taken into account.?
Wouldnt you agree that ?
EMPHASIZING
I particularly want to emphasize/stress/highlight the fact that
We mustnt underestimate/underrate the importance of .
OFFERRING A COMPROMISE
We are prepared to , on condition that .
We would be willing to .., provided that .


Mathematics Vocabulary
Minus
Equal
Length
Same
Curved surface
Pyramid
Edge
Height
Minimum
Even
Subtraction
Greater than (>)
Plus
Scale
Cylinder
Sphere
Rectangular prism
Volume
Median
Odd
Acceleration
Conductor
Equilibrium
Friction
Linear motion
Ohms Law
Reflection
Resonance
Thermal energy
Scalar quantity
Physics Vocabulary
Atomic structure
Energy
Free fall
Impulse
Longitudinal
Period
Refraction
Series circuit
Time-rate
Derived quantity
Attractive force
Electromagnetic
Frequency
Inertia
Magnetic field
Power
Resistance
temperature
Image
Gravitational force
Archaea
Class
Kingdom
Hormone
Nucleus
Vacuole
Mitosis
Photosynthesis
Stomata
Xylem
Biology Vocabulary
Bacteria
Family
Cell wall
Membrane
Ribosome
Gamete
Gene
Root
Excretion
Phloem
Binomial nomenclature
Genus
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
Osmosis
Meiosis
Enzyme
Stem
Neuron
Leaf
Atom
Proton
Neutron
Covalent bond
Orbital
Adhesion
Solvent
Macromolecules
Polymer
Atom
Chemistry Vocabulary
Element
Electron
Compound
Molecule
Polarity
Mixture
Acids
pH scale
Buffers
Element
Nucleus
Isotope
Ion
Valence electrons
Cohesion
Solution
Bases
Monomer
Periodic table
Matter
Addition
Sums
Less than (<)
Quarter
Cone
Prism
Base
Angle
Maximum
Mode

References
Azar, Betty Schrampfer. 1999. Understanding and Using English Grammar. New York: Longman.
Daswani, C.J. dan Daswani, T.C., 1997. A Rapid Course in English Language. Malaysia: Synergy Books
International.
Depdiknas. 2004. Ungkapan-ungkapan Bahasa Inggris untuk Tujuan Pembelajaran
IALF. 1994. Language for Discussion. Bahan Pelatihan EAP.
Langan, John and Bill Broderick. 1993. Ten Steps to Building College Reading Skills (Second Edition). New
Jersey:Townsend Press, Inc.

General English Material

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

General English Material

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Compiled by:

General English Material for

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

BASIC GRAMMAR TERMINOLOGY

some teaching aids

Some verbs can be either intransitive or transitive.

SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

An adjective is neither singular nor plural. A final s is never added to an adjective.

COMMON MIDSENTENCE ADVERBS

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

Her, his, its name

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

Why did he leave early?

Because hes ill

How does he drive?

When is used to ask questions about

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

How many people came?

Whose book did you borrow?

I have two pens.

How is also used with adjectives and

How long asks about length of time

What is used as the subject of a question.

Its bean soup.

What kind of asks about the particular

The blue one

What + be like asks for a general

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

Which book should I buy?

In some cases, there is little difference in

AFFIRMATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED

NEGATIVE SENTENCE + AFFIRMATIVE TAG NEGATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

They havent left,

No, they havent.

I did not go there

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

CONTRACTIONS OF AUXILIARY VERBS WITH NOT

AVOIDING DOUBLE NEGATIVES

BEGINNING A SENTENCE WITH A NEGATIVE WORD

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ARTICLE USAGE

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

The sun is bright today.

Mathematics and Natural Sciences Faculty of Unnes

General English Material for

AN OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH VERB TENSES

I watch television every