Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
MUSIC
WITH
INTRODUCTIONS
BY
W.
L.
EMIL
HUBBARD
LIEBLING
AND
W.
J.
HENDERSON
ARTHUR
FOOTE
EDITOR
SQUIRE
IRVING
Toledo
New
York
Chicago
Copyright
1908
by
SQUIRE
IRVING
Entered
Stationers'
LONDON
Hall
CONTENTS
Introduction
Development
of
History
of
Pianoforte
Vocal
Technique
Music
15
Tonality
25
Harmony
53
.
91
Counterpoint
.
133
Fugue
Subject
152
Answer
155
157
Counter-subject
...
159
Episode
Exposition
160
.
Stretto
163
Coda
164
171
Form
Sonata
Pathetique
Sonata
quasi
198
.
una
Fantasie
202
206
Sonata
Waldstein
Sonata
214
Appasionata
229
Appreciation
.
The
Chamber
267
277
Music
280
The
Piano
The
Violin
The
Orchestra
"89
,
A|5
Organ
'
The
Chorus
298
Opera
and
Choral
Music
,
ji
308
,
Solo
Th"
319
Singing
Practical
Value
of
325
Music
...,.,
351
LIST
Theatre
Court
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
Weimar
Frontispiece.
Bizet
Georges
17
Brahams
Johannes
49
.......
Feliz
Bartholdy
Mendelssohn
.81
.
Amadeus
Wolfgang
Mozart
145
.
Puccini
Giacoma
209
.
JRichard
Strauss
241
........
Carl
Von
Marie
Weber
373
.
Fanny
Bloomfield
Zeisler
305
......
INTRODUCTION
L.
W.
of
Encyclopedia
needs
the
of
and
within
here
If
right
felt
that
first
gentleman
is
or
lover
time
no
Wishing,
he
found
although
and
when
consulted
in
by
hoped
contain
will
their
for
ment
state-
and
and
being
of
amount
no
them
nary
prelimi-
favor
and
and
it
is
desire
of
themselves
the
discoverable
and
history,
books
as
search
-the
rule
couched
little
themselves.
penings
hap-
certain
musical
of
and
hand,
was
He,
country,
devote
facts
at
were
after
volumes"
rare
were
as
this
art
concerning
certain
only
to
the
information
instances
very
able
and
learn
to
historical
been
has
points.
of
women
science
the
the
musical
and
but
day
such
several
sometimes
of
certain
men
music,
from
sprang
on
the
of
one
musical
that
work
the
study
however,
he
public
win
stand
must
believed
is
for
then,
will
extended
no
the
to
not,
himself
of
the
to
in
theory,
of
idea
majority
sincere
do
They
inform
to
large
It
making.
wine
will
they
The
like
live*
to
needs
and
Good
necessary,
book
excusing
and
explaining-
scarcely
justification
they
History
"
presented
ample
issuance.
the
its
American
the
good
for
themselves
their
is
so
reason
volumes
the
that
Music
bush/*
no
of
prefacing
lengthy
HUBBAtUX
while
obtainable
"
through
theoretical
in
varied
parts
language
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
In
to him.
virtuallyunintelligible
department
he addressed a letter to the music
his perplexity
that It
technical
so
of the
advice
as
to
as
and
asking my
in English such
to
My inability
gave
Music.
Encyclopediaof
History and
The
need
would
which
serve
creatinga work
instant and satisfactory
reference, in which
at
would be immediately and conveniently
of
realized
of
means
was
could understand."
work,
"
theory that
on
person
to such
American
information
in which
and
book
some
non-musical
refer him
was
was
in
the
that
language
Englishbut
understands
has
not
the time
to
the
hand
be
would
to the
intelligible
was
who
obtained
when
information
as
pressed
ex-
who
man
master
the
enough,
and
musical
facts in terms
technical,and
not
that
if musicians
in
concerningtheir art and sufficiently
command
of the Englishlanguage to write simply and clearly
could be found, the making of the
of what
they knew
Encyclopedia would be possible.These, the endeavor was
well
enough
made
to
from
some
informed
discover,and
half-dozen
writers such
and
whom
began.
time
citiesand
then
This
corps
The
of researchers
securingof
to
men
of material could be
collecting
and
the preparationof the work
the
followed
was
possibleto assemble
was
towns
needed.
were
directingof
the
entrusted
as
graduallyit
than
more
two
years
ago
and
since that
Encyclopedia.
As
was
soon
reached
as
the
to
make
the
range
of national
the
purely American
to
plan began
the decision
shape itself,
American*
representatively
to
work
music
prefaceeach volume
The
were
and
to
be
historywas to
the product of
introductory
essays that
to
be written
by
men
who
were
had
INTRODUCTION
Frederick
Professor
knowledge of
whose
peoplesis wide
of Boston, who
of
significant
with
Starr
the
and
the music
stands
development
Frederick
A.
him
Universityof
of barbaric and
as
one
of
the
Chicago,
semi-civilized
foremost
Chadwick
and
most
and whose
familiarity
composers,
of creative music in the United
States
native composers;
with
Theopositionas leader of the dore
write
to
of
Stock, whose
Orchestra
Thomas
the
with George W.
authoritative;
American
fits
peculiarly
of
of
our
compositions
formation
and
Krehbiel, music
York Tribune, and whose
editor for many
years of the New
criticisms,
annotations,prefatory essays, and books, while
stances
incoveringthe whole range of music, have been in many
devoted solelyto consideration of opera and music
is peculiarly
and who
drama
suited,therefore,to write of
and
its development; with Dn
of
Frank
Damrosch
opera
New
York, whose extended and in certain respects pioneer
work
in connection
E.
with the
him
schools warrants
H.
in
music
York
editor,
J. Henderson, the New
author, and pedagogue, whose long research into the history
him especially
of vocal art qualifies
to discuss that line of
musical art and its history;and with Emil Liebling
of Chicago,
lecturer and littera-*
whose position
as
teacher,pianist,
relative
teur lends weight and positiveness
to his statements
to the evolution of piano techniqueand its application.
with
W.
editors of certain
supervising
volumes, Arthur Foote of Boston, whose compositionsand
valuable as
book on
whose
harmony make htm especially
editor of the volume
which has been preparedon musical
of
theory and harmony; Professor George W. Andrews
Oberlin Conservatory,
who wa$
chosen because of his thorTo
these
were
added,
as
of instruments
ough knowledge
of the volume
also
Dickinson
upon
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
that
to
superintendthe
and
subject;
historyand developmentof
collectingof material for
church
music
writings on
fit him
volume
the
Edward
Professor
of
tion
prepara-
on
the
direct the
to
Oratorios
and
Masses.
In
much
that
been
to
first of all
make
work
with
of reference
that
systematized
arranged and
so
and
any
thing
every-
all facts
will be
has
fair
point he
branch
and
render
of music
the
one
stood
under-
and
facts
fundamental
to
informative
on
the books
bring into
so
course
any
covered
on
of any
exhaustive treatment
is of
subjecthas been impossible,
or
"
to
desire. That
may
secure
that the
matter
may
other works
on
the endeavor
the
has
musical
striking
subject In
natives
not
the two
of
of those countries,
contained in any
volumes
on
Opera
the most
numbers, and give the date and placeof first
are
to
be found
in other volumes
of similar
INTRODUCTION
and
nature,
of
several
given placein
been
Masses
and
the list
is carried out
it is added
to
those
the
on
most
The
have
Oratorios
and
volume
lines
same
consideration
and anthems
principalmasses
now
before attempted. The volume
not
describes
recentlyproduced
six hundred
as
on
and
in
those
Opera,
descriptionof the
are
use
undertaking
an
"
on
Instruments
on
lists and
musical
instruments,their origin,
their use
their appearance.
and
In the volumes
of Biographies,
the live facts have
been
retained,the aim having
been to prepare a work
that would
cerning
consupply information
left their impress
and women
who
not only the men
over
music
upon
in the
active in the
inquiry were
contained
work
the
today.
to
sent
volume
on
American
in the United
obtained
music
In
the
much
of
to be
Much
material
the
autobiographical
been
it has
of the unfoldment
States,
letters of
authoritative.
and
are
wish
the
In
to
and
progress of
of the material has been
papers,
only after long and difficultresearch through newsmagazines and scattered volumes on the subject. It
is believed that
of
and
accurate
Music
thousand
one
will be found
therefore
who
concerningthose
Over
musicians
in the volumes
in character, and
also
past but
so
comprehensiveand
accurate
outlining
accomplished.
Theory an
an
To translate into
undertakingwholly unique has been made.
simple,clear English the many technical words and phrases
employed in music and to perform a similar service for the
various
rules that go
compositionis a task which
musical
theory and
forms
and
to
no
make
up
writer
musical
or
group
heretofore
the
It
has
of writers
has had
courage to attempt.
been undertaken in the present instance,and has involved the
will
Music
faults
is
itself,
but
been
be
the
to
dignified
keener,
editors
It
produce
it
result
appreciation
truer
be
well
content.
in
lies
work
the
is
that
of
music
of
nature
every
reliable,
wider
in
spots
that
given
be
can
weak
certain
possess
assurance
if
and
will
to
unexpected.
not
made
found
Encyclopedia
and
History
American
the
That
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
its
and
even
the
work
effort
has
intelligible
understanding
then
of
promoters
and
and
and
DEVELOPMENT
OF
PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
LIBELING.
EHIL
The
practical
I
playing,
e.,
the
execution
the
Bach,
it
growth
in
and
the
of
1710
which
in
Stein
and
made
and
of
at
quality
tone
of
universal
built
perfection.
and
States.
has
Paris
which
and
Since
found
could
then
its
problem
building,
at
demonstrated*
the
piano
highest
pianos
modern
our
end
the
and
of
the
Strassburg,
of
the
art.
Broadwood
builder,
a
creased
in-
the
produced
Century
Viennese
depended
which
examples
permitted
brought
the
piano
be
Freiberg
excellent
the
gradual
necessarily
and
Nineteenth
and
of
the
Johann
the
represented
of
of
of
art
construction
the
realize
SchrSter
and
Silbermanns
improvements
poetic
skill
which
for
era
through
purposes
Augsburg
firard
London,
United
of
beginning
the
state
form
the
century
same
and
the
ages
digital
Cristofori
intents
all
to
instruments
At
1729
and
the
medium
the
for
instrument
possibilities
In
successive
of
executants
the
in
piano
difficulties
solution
the
connect
of
compositions
fully
to
evolution
all
with
begins
order
to
necessary
corresponding
the
upon
is
exacting
most
technique
of
mastery
properly
entails,
Sebastian
for
the
of
instrument
with
successful
the
of
development
more
Streicher,
musical
mechanism
building
of
to
has
development
and
a
high
become
m
the
Previous
thumb
very
considered
useless; it
rarely;it remained
importance of the thumb
utilized very
or
realize the
and
short
too
was
omitted
the
played at
MUSIC
the
Bach's advent
to
fingersand
OF
THEORY
THE
enormous
either
was
Bach
for
as
to
pivotal
this most
give
point of
of fingersadequateemployment; by passing the
indispensable
under
the
the thumb
fingersover the thumb and vice versa
and to
all pianistic
possibilities
to
of piano playing as
originator
know
it,and graduallyour present hand positionwhich
we
of the thumb
and constant
was
involves curved fingers
use
all major and minor
keys in the
introduced,and by utilizing
epoch in
Well-Tempered Clavichord Bach created a new
Of his contemporariesthe
the historyof piano technique.-
Bach
fingers,
thus
became
Couperins,
Rameau
and
to
cultivate
of
his
Handel's
distant
work
did
rhythmical styleof
much
ance,
perform-
the
the
be termed
Scarlatti may
the
invented difficultiesfor the pleasureof
he
instead of
usingthem
of artistic achievement;thus
purposes
France
Domenico
suites,and
masteringthem,
of
German
severityof
compositionsdevelopedvelocityin many
to
contrast
first virtuoso, as
works
Marchand
gracefuland
quite in
School.
the
as
for
means
higher
find in Scarlatti's
we
Muzio
Clementi
laid the
foundation
for
our
brilliant
modern
fPtagd, followed
in his footettte,
John Field of
series b"
became
Weber
resources
the
wrote
the
prea
of the
PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
and
the
exercises
publishedfive-finger
adjunct
of
which
study, and
have
become
necessary
Moscheles
forms
a
piano
connecting
the purely classical styleand the modern
tic
roman-
link between
period*
By originatingin
in continuous
chromatic
entire series of
in the
the
Gracjus
modulation
exercise
five-finger
Clementi
suggested the
modern
minating
etudes, cultransposing five-finger
Tausig daily exercises,and this feature of
pianisticevolution
has
revolutionized
the
entire
field
of
technique.
Mendelssohn's
piano playing. He
a supplewrist,
requiresperfectscale and arpeggiotechnique,
cantabile touch and mastery of the polyphonicstyle;some
art
did
much
of extended
effects in the way
melody parts between the two
new
of
Henselt;
and
his master,
Hummel,
for
chords
thumbs
also
and
were
the division
added
illustrated
by
purely
in his Concertos,Sonatas
practically
most
digital
possibilities
and the Fantasie Opus 18.
The
in
romantic
individuality
style,demanding more
in
finds leading exponents
technique and interpretation,
The fetudesof the first master
Chopin and Schumann.
give
a
undreamt-of
and
resources
compositionsthe
and
effectivechord
Franz
abound
art of
playingare
phrasing,solid passage
work
cultivated.
who
fifth
the
sixths between
effects. He
new
their
of
material
have
the
the
him
followed
which
even
veloped
de-
stein
Tausig, Rubin-
purely mechanical
hand
appearance.
An
and
improve technique by
to
in 1814; later
England
in
thirds
pianism.
Efforts
means
added
Biilow
double
the
used
giftswonderfully,but
own
Von
and
closed
played trillswith
versa
trills in
great virtuosos
The
commenced.
vice
and
hands
two
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
10
of
own
our
time
attempt to rearrange
was
made
the
ance
contriv-
Montreal
keyboard
Bohrer
on
Virgilsystem
made
its
finds followers.
vented
in-
met
of
with
indifferent success.
The
to
the
of one
impossibilities
kindergartenof the next, and
periodare
technical
we
find in
relegated
the piano
of
of
Brahms
combinations
Gibbons
and
PIANOFORTE
Henry
a
Purcell, contented
chords
few
and
and
Mattheson
school
and
Daquin
and
Buxtehude
cultivated
foreshadowed
German
themselves
arpeggios;the
Couperin, Marchand
Bach
TECHNIQUE
of
same
of
with
Germany.
and
severe
11
The
solid
Handel
and
style'of performance
of the subsequent
the characteristics
period.
dementi
Mozart
and
brilliant execution
delightedtheir
audiences
and
by their
Hummel,
of fate
and
some
Nicholas
Rubinstein.
Thalberg'sdaring virtuosityseemed
audiences
and
that the
in order
benches
performer
to
to
Parisians
convince
playing and
was
confederate
incredulous
assist behind
so
climbed
themselves
suspectedhim
the
fabulous
on
that
of
to
his
chairs
only
one
employing
stage*
we
look upon
Carl Reinecke
as
the
Mozart
the ideal
player par excellence and consider De Pachmann
Chopin interpreter*
confined their repertory
Formerly the great pianists
almost
compositions,but with the
entirelyto their own
of the piano
advent of Liszt's marvelous
art the possibilities
artist is supposed
became unlimited and the modern
concert
Bach to Debussy with
to produce the entire literature from
the analytical
Bach,
consummate
mastery. He must .present
Schumann,
lyric Mozart, dramatic Beethoven, romantic
poetic Field, profound Brahms, sentimental Chopin and
brilliantLiszt with equalauthority.
THE
12
OF
THEORY
MUSIC
of note. Arabella
England has producedbut few pianists
of the
and only of late years some
Goddard
enjoyed renown,
artists like Katherine Goodson, Gertrude Peppercorn
younger
and
Frederick
Lamond
have
come
to the
Beethoven
player. Spain has remained terra
a
as
especially
of de la Motta;
; Portugal boasts
incognita pianistically
France has always excelled in the niceties and finish of piano
playing;that most versatile of musicians, Saint-Saens, plays
that his listeners
scale of such rapidityand smoothness
a
of the jeu
masters
are
despair; Raoul Pugno and Diemer
Risler gives authoritative readings of the
perle, Edward
and Francis Plante and
Beethoven
Sonatas in their entirety,
Ritter
Theodore
ravishingtechnique
presentedthe most
imaginable. Norway, the land of fjordsand mountains, was
reflected in the
art
of
Madam
Backer-Grondahl
and
Erika
pianists.Italyis ably
representedby Sgambati and Martucci,but stilldepends upon
her vocal masters
for musical pre-eminence. It is interesting
the
that at the Imperial Conservatory at Tokio
to
note
and
works
of European masters are findingready recognition
figurelargelyin the curriculum.
Piano
received a powerful impetus
playing in America
by Rubinstein's visit in 1872. He was a colossal but uneven
player,the victim of moods, unapproachablewhen at his
best
His musical
Von
Hans
antithesis,
Biilow, followed
him
shores
and
his deliberate and analyticalperto our
formances
His subjectivity
proved high educational
terbalanced
counthe great Russian's objectiveness.Joseffy's
impeccableart then came
as
a
great revelation to us and
restored piano playingto true and sane
proportions.Essipoff
was
a
charming artist,Carreno has dominated the concert
decades,Fanny Bloomfield-Zeisler occupies a
stage for many
unique eminence both here and abroad, and Ad"le Aus der
Ohe is an artist of sterling
qualities,
I frequently
Hungary gave us Franz Liszt,whom
heard
in 1876,
whie at Weimar
As he originated
the entire structure
Lie
concert
Nissen, both distinguished
of
modem
technics every
detail was,
of course,
at
his
PIANOFORTE
TECHNIQUE
13
Carl
Tausig,born
Poland, died
of his art.
Max
in
Prinner
of
New
York,
was
at the very
unlimited.
threshold
His
pupil,
also
"
last word.
The
ble
cool bravura of the former and the incredi-
new
HISTORY
OF
W.
Artistic
singing
of
method
the
worship
psalms,
second
were
(as
canticles,
described
rhapsodizings,
tongues,"
the
adaptation
of
the
of
honor
Greek
cadences
"Undulating*
sometimes
florid
the
entered
in
now
even
artistic
single
on
vowel
the
of
made
an
sounds
long,
of
such
of
these
gift
vowel
on
phrases
which
element,
**
consisted
tones,
final
the
improvised
certainly
caroling
of
called
In
as
carolings
These
gods.
the
part
and
almost
of
custom
Paul,
since
and
apostle
Christians
early
the
forming
not
themselves.
the
by
the
ritual,
Hannah)
Christians
the
among
by
rhapsodizings
were
Of
St.
Hebrew
and
of
in
used
religion.
new
ancient
Bible
Christian
early
mentioned
songs
the
the
third
the
made
Thus
from
the
best
the
materials
the
of
thanksgiving
the
and
songs
in
from
texts
were
psalter
the
spiritual
taken
the
in
from
followers
after
search
used
chants
and
the
in
developed
first
the
hymns
first
the
the
chants
of
MUSIC
HENDERSON.
J.
originated
delivering
These
church.
VOCAL
as
one
chants.
chtirch
afterward
hears
to
rose
such
height.
Out
general
of
system
the
Roman
the
foundation
elements
these
was
of
singing*
schools
the
unification
(306-337).
Constatitme
in
Rome
No
liturgy.
chanted
till
however,
possible,
under
Church
up
grew
by
Then
Pope
of
carne
Sylvester,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
16
the
entrustingof
church
We
Century
in
long, beautiful
tones
Sixteenth
been
had
The
taught.
systematically
were
the
of
vocal art
and
middle
the
abilityto sing
(legato),the
tone, and
importance of breath control in sustaining
notes in symmetricalphrases,the value of pure vowel
the
of
tained
ascer-
joining
sounds,
and
consonants
the
skill to
elegance and
were
singers excelled
these
matters.
about
Several
the
these contained
in the modern
treatises
beginning of
of the
many
the
and
Seventeenth
These
singing appeared
Century and
of
in
afterward incorporated
principles
Italian method
different kinds
voice
on
agility
chest
were
recognized),emission
contained vocalizes
When
Sixteenth
were
was
differed in
no
of the
essential of technical
Claudio
Monteverde
(1567-1643)the element
of
dramatic
now
while
moment,
beg"a to be significant,
"e. melodic phrase appeared and became th" bridgebetween
recitative and air.
GEORGKS
CESAR
(ALEXANDER
1838-1875
BIZKT,
Born
Paris.
In
LEOPOLD)
Ills
title
chief
fame
to
as
is
Carmen,"
"
his
did
"which,
after
until
death;
his-
the
in
at
the
was
**
of
reception
death.
his
"with
met
*e
by
"
Carmen
afterward
time
short
appointment
dis-
and
overwork
fact,
poser
com-
with
meet
not
opera
success
cause
"
Carmen
London,
in
prodrtced
meeting*
was
tmqualiHed
and
has
since
with
produced
been
all
success,
the
'world
and
over
dramatic
of
all
is
the
considered
the
in
operas
the
most
modern
popular
and
Jprenc'h
ertory.
rep-
HISTORY
The
Cavalli
of
music
finallyand
form
chant
MUSIC
(1599-1676)
fullysuperseded
had
defined
the
The
rested.
17
little later
in it the melodic
and
became
now
VOCAL
true
works
the
OF
basis
literary
dramatic
the
basis of
which
on
character
and
in
of
singing
period
a
upon
essentials
of
Monteverde
known.
of
those
the
had
chant, and
ornate
his
successors
of such
perceive the pleasingpossibilities
they assiduouslycultivated.
In 1637
the first public opera
house,
in Venice, was
Cassiano
and
opened
opera
that
of the
to
general audience.
popular
became
consideration
exclusive
the
of opera
The
taste.
result
operas of the
those of
especially
The
writing,which
the
were
San
transferred
was
in
skill.
short
This
time
it
reduction
High
only low
voices
well
as
as
forms
of
recitative,
all possiblevocal requirements
cantilena
to
the
most
brilliant
almost
used, basses
exclusively
Tenors were
employed sparingly.
female, reigned,while contraltos
were
ones.
various
their consorts.
In
the
and
sustained
and
being the
Sopranos, male
Teatro
matic
deprived singingof its draequipped it with a remarkable
technique.
the
Seventeenth
Century,
closingyears of
Alessandro
Scarlatti (1659-1725) showed
perfect demarcation of
clearlydefined aria forms
colorature.
the
nobilityto
requiredto appeal
now
vocal
slow
cultured
that
was
displayof
broad
was
to
artistic level
low
but
sincerity
from
It
of
not
were
to
from
similar
now
schools
1700
we
find
Fedi
at
These
Pistocchi
Rome, Antonio
Francesco
Redi
Modena,
at
were
the
Bologna,
at
Florence,
Joseph Brevio at
those of Porpora, Leo and
Rome
and
at
Joseph Amadori
ters
taughtby these masEgizzio at Naples. Some of the pupils
Farinelli,
Tesi, Cuzzoni and
Caffarelli,
the famous
were
heard
were
These singersand their contemporaries
BordonL
frequentlyin
the
best
of
works
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
18
of
with
the
of
the
time.
dignityof
dramatic
and
breadth
The
while
surpassed,
singer perfect qualityof tone,
have
arias
his
been
never
his
recitatives
demand
of
the
intonation, great
and
of brilliant floridity,
breath support, command
great
the
beauty of stylein sustained cantilena. They summarize
of the preceding century without
best traits of the music
flawless
decline
for vocal
the
acceptedin
the time
to
was
lieu of
at
hand
when
rapid
period immediately
mere
the element
In
led to
parade ground
make
singing.
Germany,
own.
now
was
the most
of
Feats
show.
are
the
were
labors
of
of nationalism
time
in France
and
developingschools of their
Lully (1633-1687) and
upon
the
grandiosecharacter
of
their music
and
the
agility.The
nature
of the
Parisian
Bernard
in feminine
wg
HISTORY
French
the older
vocal
works
such
of
OF
VOCAL
music
survives
"
Gounod's
as
MUSIC
19
in the
ures
gracefulmeas-
Faust/' while
the
most
phrasingand
result
is the
which
of
by Lully
and
Ranieau.
of singing
Germany, as in France, Italian conceptions
but in the course
of time the temperament
at first prevailed,
the exigenciesof the national language
of the people and
combined
Teutonic.
The
to produce a styleessentially
taste
for musical plays was
of the Germans
largelydeveloped and
in which
alternated with
formed
singspiel,"
by the
song
comic operas
and in Beethoven's
spoken dialogue,as in modern
In
"
"
"
Fidelio,"
the German
"
spiel
demanded
which
forward
hear
musical
The
result
was
word
every
conceptionof the
development
sounds
and
that he
the concomitant
play
recitative
stillexpected to
might follow
led to
the character
a
singgoing
was
that when
publicdemand
what
to take the
began
the
gained
of
perfectunderstanding
stage.
"
with
long familiarity
a
the
on
From
"
the
vation
culti-
of the German
sacrifice of beautiful
beauty of
vocal
tone
to
of drama,
forms
hand
of
forbade
which
of the consonants
from
various
The
nearly harmonized
any
manner
beautyto truth
opposed. The exaggerated
worked
its way
from
recitative
of
thus all lightness
in
prevalent
the German
to be
seemed
treatment
was
the
on
as
ihterpretation
whenever
such
all sacrificeof
the
styleand elegance,
florid school of song, disappeared
of
singing.
in the works
of Mozart
were
more
than in those
of
flowingpassages
and
broadest, smoothest
singerswere
of
manner
the florid
styleof
in the
them
from
exacted
musical
most
He
His
while
of delivery,
great elasticity
have
requiredto
thus
MUSIC
stateliestdramatic utterance.
and
broadest
OF
THEORY
THE
20
the
singing.
the
earlier
"
"
using the
so
latter he broadened and deepenedits dramatic significance
to impose new
as
requirements
upon the singersof his works.
Elvira in '"Don
Donna
and
therefore,Beethoven
When,
of
In
Mozart.
"
"Abscheulicher
monster"
in
prepared for
"
such
and
in such numbers
as
operas
"Ocean, thou
they had in
which
episodesof their
"Fidelio"
in
in
the foundations
and
School, came
German
of the modern
But
Giovanni/'
the
"
all the
Don
as
the
the
mighty
elements
Ottavio,son
morta
of
Don
Giovanni."
in
runs
as
and
dramatic bravura*
view to their
used
the voice in
But
some
of his dramatic
scenes,
this
of the German
practise
composers, developedin
the publicdemand
order, to meet
for sincerity
of expression,
did not affect vocal stylein Italy. Although the
operas of
the Rossinian period showed
advance over
an
.theirpredecessors,
in some
detailsof dramatic expression,
they preserved
HISTORY
or
the
OF
of
significance
of
introduction
VOCAL
the
scene.
the custom
of
At
MUSIC
21
the need
volume
not
of
recognition
become
apparentlythe
more
for
that the
Grisi
and
of
greater
recitatives should
It was,
therefore, in the first
Nineteenth
Century that the school
dramatic
biggertone
combined
works.
of
the
florid and
representativewomen,
and Mario representative
The singersof this school premen.
served
of
the vocal techniqueof the Handelian
much
period,
but
and
the
were
superimposed upon
largenessof
elegantfinish
At
the time
tone
of
when
it
an
which
vigor of accentuation
of
naturallyobliterated some
energy,
its details.
the
theories
revolutionary
of Richard
composer
and
The
result
the
facile
and
music
essential to
Wagner
of
the
of
text.
of the music
At
of the Handelian
of
the
School
German
of
tone
In
singingis the
extremest
music, the
which
after
Florid
tone
prolongedstudy of vocalizes,such
command
abandoned.
been
has
music
forcible declamation
and
tone
neglectedand
is
was
era,
compositionof music
the conditions existing
the
steadilytoward
In Germany the study of beautiful
execution has been superseded by a search
of
volume
as
singingand
plays moved
present day.
for vocal
at
that
was
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
22
was
the art.
In
Rossini
styleof
fluent
the
influence and
school
in the
of
search
the young
Italian school of
expression
produced large quantitiesof music which
composers
demands
has
skill in
execution, but
merely
powerfultone,
long
and heavy phrases,and vigor in declamatoryemphasis. The
radical difference between the contemporaneous Italian style
and that of Germany is that the former
is founded upon
a
musical
The
Italian seeks rather for
purely
conception.
abundance
of
singer no
of rich and
splendorand
The
the
mass
French
to
ability
of tone
than
sustain
the
School,following
of the
trend
given to it by
ment
Lullyand Rameau, continues to cultivate eleganceand refineof diction together with suave
and fluent deliveryof
text.
tone,
modern
in the field
works
combined
melodic
of the moods
grace and
of his texts,
HISTORY
of
style
Weber
the
by
show
songs
able
are
than
singers
opera
obliged
sacrifice
to
It
is
changed
and
they
as
the
were
wholly
the
formation,
the
of
strive
to
of
popularity
declamation
of
the
the
violent
has
of
the
they
his
brated
cele-
of
has
are
the
discouraged
heavily
schools.
not
teachers
great
of
the
same
and
physiology
cultivation
been
tone
the
and
time
by
has
of
knowledge
present
singing,
contemporaneous
theory
this
are
singing
Malibran
taught
the
latter
remain
The
of
volume.
Porpora
practise
the
but
schools
and
of
but
beauty
the
that
voice
of
dramatic
singers,
pure
mere
style
Farinelli.
principles
those
of
and
time
of
Pistocchi,
loud
the
recent
of
Song
The
Pasta
of
of
the
sake
verbal
most
that
years.
known,
better
lines
to
of
of
teachers
test
impart
refinements
the
and
correctness
and
Bernacchi
for
the
the
reason
features
in
as
is
The
1700.
the
days
Caffarelli
organs
disproved
the
then
same
for
conception
in
were
in
the
attention
hundred
past
the
pupils,
vocal
much
so
almost
in
are,
that
and
operas.
more
the
became
song
extent
tone,
German
for
years
an
follow
to
devote
sufficed
later
such
of
in
to
in
to
attempt
fashioned
as
however,
the
idea
23
than
But
beauty
decided
recitative
now
literary
MUSIC
more
songs.
overbalanced
emphasis
tone
these
the
VOCAL
period
of
interpretation
affected
OF
those
who
schools
the
of
higher
by
ated
accentu-
the
TONALITY
All
by
the
of
of
vibrations
No
sounds
possible
and
greatly
and
waterfall
pitch,
of
it
is
does
gathered
in
As
of
The
more
will
it
have
finely
per
number
the
be
of
ability
this
result
some
as
very
music,
not
it
bear
inheritance,
by
developed
by
name
well
is
of
sense
recognition
series
of
of
tq"es
from
the
analogy
and
the
definite
This
Latin
existing
ascending
pitch,
form
word
in
progress
is
called
scala,
between
steps
are
selected
are
tones
series
the
to
which
tones
musical
the
falls
and
relation
The
individual
the
rises
no
as
of
roaring
determined
any
degrees.
the
has
such
nature,
sound
tone
it.
whose
defined
in
the
each
constitute
of
or
although
for
series
derived
trees
succeeding
to
noises
previously
or
definite
all
the
but
waves,
together
a
in
through
preceding
pitch
contained
are
or
neither
The
education
blowing
wind
from
just
36,500
to
capable
pitch.
sound
smell.
or
tones
in
or
clearly
extremes.
more
cords,
membranes,
made
two
the
ear
individuals
in
Sounds
in
these
differences
environment
the
between
the
be
can
occasioned
vocal
16
from
of
rate
the
perceive
can
ear
air
air,
of
statement
trained
distinguishing
varies
at
produced
educated
taste
normal
the
as
columns
The
in
substance
some
occurring
second.
vibrations
of
instruments,
bodies.
sonorous
result
the
vibrations
strings
of
is
sound
the
of
scale.
staircase,
ing
progress-
stairs.
The
THE
26
THEORY
MUSIC
OF
arranging of musical
always been done by all races
This
tones
into
definite series
of
is present in everything. It is within the realm
factor in the problem of this science
aesthetics. A constant
which
it is in
thingsthat
makes
tion
ugly,sublime or ludicrous. The explanauniversal laws of aesthetics
is ever receding
and incomplete,
be established,
for beyond a certain point training
cannot
becomes
each man
and
loses its power
an
authorityunto
different tastes.
individuals having vastly
himself,
The degreesof progression
in the scale are not the same
the various races, but have differed with the epoch,
among
the tastes and the natural surroundings of
the civilization,
the people. There
in existence scales so different
are
now
that much
from our
and familiarity
own
are
sary
necestraining
before the beauties of their intervals can be appreciated
them
beautiful
by
alien
an
or
ear.
in
of the intervals.
There
are
three
agree.
They
TONALITY
natural
by
relationshipbetween
the
interval
the Latin
from
derived
in this connection
refer
word
the
octo,
the
which
tones
as
octave,
an
meaning
interval has
degreesof
separated
are
name
eight and
been
the scale.
used
divided
The
by
intervals
the other
but
The
laws
the
we
because
termed
eight tones,
between
which
to
27
of
acoustics.
When
stringvibrates
the lowest
tone
of which
will
occur
twice
the
first.
in its entire
length it produces
it is
vibrated
instance, if
For
128
fast, producing a
as
tone
string
in
an
its entire
times
lengths would
string be stopped
point one-third of
smaller portionof it will produce a tone with
at
above
octave
length
string in
128.
two
If the
its
length,the
384
vibrations.
containing256
as
middle
and
be explainedlater),
'(to
C, the eighthtone
above
that
the first.
tone
as
half
256
of
is
for 256
2:3
as
other
each
2 does
as
is three
384
and
they produce
the sounds
128
is twice
3, and
to
relation
in the
to
in
as
is
fifths
of
128?
tion
rela-
same
similar
one-
times
the
bear
is
128
be
would
sounds
the
example, as
the above
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
28
manner
of fourths is as 3:4.
the relationship
representing
two
interval existing between
The
magnitude of an
is determined
tones
by counting the interveningtones and
several
Note
includingboth the lower and the higher tones.
tones
two
instances:
The
interval between
having the
any
of
tones
between
two
relation of a third,in other words
the higher is the third above the lower, such as the
which
first and third, the second and fourth, the third and fifth,
tones
having
etc., is a third. The interval between
any two
the ratio
the
relation
of
and
second
fifth,such
two
any
sixth,etc., is
having the
fifth,the second
third and
tones
seventh,is a fifth.
having the relation of
sixth.
The
relation of
and
same.
be
magnitude
The
Music
as
are
the
one
sixth,the
and
two
any
first and
the
of
a
seventh,the second
extremes
upper
octaves
more
or
name
first and
sounded
The
seventh.
removed
and
as
eighth,etc., is
tones
having the
two
any
smallest interval is
interval between
like tones
between
seventh,such
eighth,etc., is
sixth, such
of
relation
interval between
The
The
fourth.
interval
intervals may
the
and
tones
as
fourth, the
first and
the
as
between
interval
fourth, such
the
it is termed
but
interval remains
the
away
can
of itself,
but
duplicate
the
of
the
be
no
if two
unison.
in its most
from
primitiveform probably arose
the very natural tendency to sustain the voice on
tone
one
in shoutingor chanting. This is monotonous
and the easiest
of obtainingvarietywas
by changing the pitch of the
way
sustained tone.
It is not
can
natural that
of music.
man's
be imitated by another
one
individual should
voice
man's
singinga
voice
tain
cer-
givingthe
TONALITY
tone; but if a woman
will find the pitch too
same
she
higherthan
octave
have
ratio of
it is
Thus
establish the
that
seen
the formation
all
of
of the
been
already
agree in
fourth and
there
are
octave.
will
is the most
The
man.
tones
been
to
the
mentioned
and
man
that
the
scales
all
of
contain
two
nations
a
produced by
scales
intervals have
It has
organs
fifth and
octave,
guides in
other
and
to
in the
as
low
1:2, which
appeared
owe
endeavors
nearest
29
much
are
ing
improvscales
whose
in ours,
hearing,for we
found
of
acute
a
more
sense
indicating
the slightdifferences
unable to appreciate
fact
most
between
this
are
of
some
the tones.
octave, which
twelve
scale of
thirteen tones
into
bears
tones.
scale,as it is divided into semi-
which
correspond
those represented
by the black keys of the piano.
scale. In fact,their sysThe Arabs have a complicated
tem
There
to
in
divide
they theoretically
possesses
are
use
of its extraordinary
of which there
with the introduction of the smaller intervals,
to different authorities.
sixteen or seventeen, according
are
The
an
unusual
30
interest for
of
our
in it
because
us
twenty-four intervals,each
half
being equal to
one
tor
ances-
an
have
suggests that
resemblance
This
semitones.
faintlydiscern
can
we
They
system.
own
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
of
into
one
of
our
us
may
where
The
the
in time
the
of
received
new
names.
scale which
hands
tem
sys-
that of the
from
settled and
they
our
greatly obscured
use
we
cian
records concerninga musiChrist, although in the meager
and poet named
Olympus livingabout 1400 B.C., there
is evidence of a regularsystem. The chief elements of the
Greek
been reduced
scale had
to four
tones, which
are
sounded
the tetrachord.
as
stringsof the lyre known
Without
strings
doubt, the interval between the two extreme
remained
the chief element through all
was
a fourth, which
the subsequent changes of the Greek
scale. The
tuning of
the intermediate
strings is very uncertain and doubtless
four
the
upon
several methods
*
Terpander,
of Father
name
which
he
tuning
with
one
from
its
Greek
B.C.
tone
received
the
double tetrachord
a
they formed
the junction. The common
tone
importantof
entire
the
seven
and
was
called Mese
the middle.
system
was
crystallized
by Pythagoras,the
philosopher and
precepts
beliefs and
are
most
practisesare
members
world
at
B.C., has
Music
that
so
positionin
Among
whose
the
seven
670
in the tetrachord
common
The
use.
lived about
of Greek
the most
was
who
wrought
the
in
were
subsisted
interesting
althoughmany
shrouded
invested themselves.
by
in the secrecy
They
of their
with which
believed that
the
the
considered
to
have
been
determined
accordingto
the
TONALITY
laws
relations of musical
and
motion
31
and
harmony
each
body
in its
acter
supposed to create a certain tone whose chardepended upon the distance and the velocityof the
tones
body. The
produced by the various bodies taken
musical
scale and the harmonious
a
music
together formed
either unheard
produced was
by the inhabitants of earth
owing to the great distance of the heavenly bodies,or always
to hearing it they did not perceive
having been accustomed
the sound
with stillness.
it,never
having been able to compare
was
Another
for
their
Music
was
possibility
that
capacity of hearing.
of the
and
Spheres which
the sound
Herein
has
ever
is the
since
too
great
theory
of the
was
figuredin
ture
litera-
song,
He
number.
placed a numerical
three, upon
music
His
in his
have
It has
and
the
been
led
to
or
as^B-
even
his
for
two
numerical
the
art
of
which
which
as
man,
great fondness
and
of nature
music,
of intervals.
treatment
value, such
the Father
and
Science.
of Musical
established
acoustical
facts
stood
only changes
that
have
occurred
have
been
added
all intervals
by him. Previously,
accordingto the dictates of instinct,
of this guide.
and Pythagoras fullyrealized the uncertainty
established the intervals and exTherefore, he scientifically
pressed
the tones, marking them
of numbers
corn
by means
to
respondingwith
the tones.
He
built
of vibrations which
the number
studied the phenomena of sound
produce^
vibrations
by
of the monochord,
means
wooden
long, narrow,
single string. Movable
which
the portion of
a
limited
at
will.
which
upon
bridges were
the string to
by
of
means
vibrated
be
was
stretched
was
used
instrument
body
whose
instrument
an
box
similar
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
32
could
be
is still employed
in
in
the
fourth
and
the
fifth,which
at
turned
his attention
the tetrachord.
to
the interval of
between
ence
tone, which he had found to be the differthe intervals of a fourth and a fifth,
the
as
a
fourth contained
and
which
here
does
we
not
now
two
tones
a
tone
and
that
fraction which
received the
call semitone.
interval of
the
The
name
word
it
as
was
of hemitone
tone
from
resulting
as
used
vibrations
it ordinarily
does, but refers to the interval or step between
two
tones
when
the word
is used to signify
The
sound.
as
TONALITY
division
to be
of the
of
of
Greek
the
the
two
and
differed
from
the Greek
the
the
popular
tone
semi-
that
(marking
the
semitone.
The
different
the
it is believed
the
traditions
Dorian
The
entire
was
interval
of
sidered
con-
of
according to
the
that
the lowest
upward the
tone, tone, semitone, tone
tetrachords),
tone, tone,
two
from
an
first,
dividingthe interval
of
methods
and
intervals
differed
the
with
lesser intervals
in this order:
seven
of
repetition
the arrangement
of
fixed and
not
there
names
them.
and
separationof
which
of
ment
establish-
"
is,counting from
occurred
intervals
was
corresponded
into
divided
arrangement,
after the
even
bearinglike
orthodox
as
the
"
belongingto
most
was
semitone
nations
scales
the
scale
regards this
as
arrangements
the ancient
the
the
three varieties
which
seven
musical
by Pythagoras, but
octave
tones
appeared
octave
and
tones
tetrachord
division
that
came
designatedas
was
the
33
of
an
octave
are
called modes.
After
be
the
been
established the
scale could
and
after a time
it was
greater ease
octaves
by adding a tetrachord both above
with
extended
enlarged to
had
octave
two
and
below
the
lived about
300
B.C.
He
terms
it the "Division
of
the
lengthsof string
gives the proportionate
capable of producingthe various sounds in the scale.
Monochord"
At
names.
and
sound
of the Greek
scale
were
denoted
and
by
those
the two
extremes
were
given a separate name,
designating
Later the names
there being in use
fifteen different names.
of arbitrary
discarded in favor of an equal number
were
scale
carded
they diswith
and
characters
the Greek
the
adopted
Romans
the
When
characters.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
34
the
names
with
credited
that
manner
they
schools
refuse
knowledge
of
his
of
works
nomenclature
to
the
was
united
and
of
education
did
choristers
not
Perhaps
in
manner
of the sounds
apart and
scale
by
For
tones
them
denoted
the
the first
E, F, G, for
He
of the
situated
at
lished
estabwould
sufficient
important
as
which
he
scale.
He
cipal
prin-
and
possess
which
recognize clearlythe relationship
established between
all the
in such
them
easilypreserved.
more
music.
church
gathered together
year
priestwho
improvement
the
were
the
for
ordain
to
have
the church
of
seasons
to
used
melodies
and
hymns
is said
He
music.
of
toward
much
done
having
as
any
the
simplified
first
the
was
Pythagoras
the distance of
an
had
octave
of the
they occurred in the course
Latin letter,
same
only varying its character*
he used the capitalletters A, B, C, D,
octave
the second he used the small letters,
and for
as
Tenth
with
and
the
Eleventh
the invention
lines which
used
d'Arezzo,
are
Italian
an
Centuries,has been
of the staff
so
Benedictine
monk
of
the
falselyaccredited
or
arranged that
when
ihe
signs ,or
notes
tween
represent the musical tones are placedupon or bethe lines,the pitchof the tones mil be indicated by
to
positionof
etymologyof
the
notes
the word
in
respect
refers to
to
the
its ftmctibn
lines*
as
The
.staff or
TONALITY
assistant in
35
determiningpitch. At
represent the
tones
were
very
crude.
The
to
they are
as
neumes,
used
called,were
doubtless derived
irregularin outline and were
from the hieroglyphics
cating
used by the old Jewish rabbis in indipitch in their chants. They possessedvarious shapes,
resembling periods,commas,
lines,and
straightand curved
united
to
of
were
single tones but groups
represent not
rise and
tones.
to
a
They indicated where
melody was
showed
the comparative rather
fall,and their arrangement
than the actual pitch of any
The
character.
neumes
were
to be sung, but it was
placed immediatelyabove the syllables
impossible for them to enable a singer to read a new
piece
of music
Doubtless
at sight.
employed to assist
they were
the singer'smemory
when
attemptingmusic which he had
before.
heard
They were
exceedinglyinadequateand are
to present-daymusicians.
unintelligible
'
About
the year
pitch of one
actual
900
tone.
red line
added
was
line
This
indicate the
to
assumed
was
to
be
F,
it
written at the
dispensedwith and the letters F and G were
lines. They acted as keys to
beginningof their respective
the notation and thus acquiredthe name
of claves or clefs
from
the Latin
word
clavis, meaning key. During the
Eleventh
above
Century two
yellow line
the
black lines
and
abandoned
were
square
in use
in use,
the characters
or
notes
and
staff was
although for
was
added
produced very
long time the
neumes
became
Gradually the
A,
or
The
Guido
and
and
situated
one
situated between
one
E
yellow lines and designating
added,
were
those
either
now
similar to the
number
one
of
now
of lines which
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
36
Century a staff
and the syllables
in use
of lines was
having a large number
the lines at the proper
between
pitch.
written
to be sung
were
denoted
to proceed was
the voice was
interval at which
The
by the letters T and S placed at the beginning of the staff.
the Latin
and
Semitonum,
words,
They designated Tonus
meaning tone and semitone.
five lines could not absolutelyreprethe mere
sent
However,
clefs have
been
the keys or
and
the pitch of a sound
are
now
in use.
Three
employed.
retained
principalones
staff
and
their
the
of
placed at the beginning
They are
it contained
varied.
position
the
on
the
pitch of
spaces
above
is not
used
G,
in
the
by the
piano
One
music
nor
to
notes
middle
C and
voices.
vocal
These
in
is found
in music
and
and
F clefs
are
the
and
music, and
clef indicates
piano
which
and
ten
writ-
are
in music
sung
third
clef indicates F,
piano
and
staff in which
the
tenor
The
in
middle
Another
persons.
in
C and is found
alto voices*
beginning of the
played by the left hand
at
in
the
and
soprano
relativelythe
clef indicates
much
and
name
lines and
the
on
at
fifth below
many
middle
fifth above
notes
it.
below
familiar
music
organ
and
is not
hence
all the
pitches of
and
names
line and
that
standing on
notes
the
staff indicates
the
lines of
early Tenth
the
During
music
organ
written the notes
are
music.
The
or
ordinary staff
added
when
which
lines when
the
or
between
to
notes
are
be too
be sounded
great for
written
and
an
can
These
necessary.
used extends
notes
of
range
be placed on
can
of five lines
octave
be increased
lines
are
beyond
the
be added
by leger
employed
They
above
the number
number
of added
lines
in
the
writing or interpreting
lower than they are
intended to
ease
the invention
below
or
above them
and
are
marked
higher,
was
used
TONALITY
37
almost
the diatonic
seen
scale consists of
series of groups
of
be the extent
of the
what
sounds, for no matter
may
scale it is merely made
of
of
repetitions
up
seven
of
the distance
and
the other
octave
an
six
relations which
of
it
made
are
of the
One
apart.
subservient
seven
sounds
seven
is selected
it
to
at
tain
regardingcer-
middle
tone.
lyre an influence
very frequent use
placein
what
writer
of much
are
ascribes
the
over
in all
the octave
stringof the
stringsand a
positionof
fourth
above
the
lowest,the
more
generalbelief is that it was the lowest,which naturally
would
be the more
one
extremity
important as it designates
of the octave.
It is also believed that every composition
in it. The tonalityof the Greeks eventuallybecame
ended
difficultiesto the
very complicated and has presentedmany
the
tury
EighteenthCenfacts which
there presentedany
were
sidered
might be conauthentic. The eightstringedlyre or double tetrachord, an instrument which has previouslybeen discussed,
in nearly all instances used in accompanying vocal
was
investigator.Not
music.
It
between
the
was
tuned
so
highestand
that
interval of
an
lowest
an
strings.The
had
into
seven
an
octave
octave
existed
diatonic system
should be divided
tones.
five of them tones, and two semilesser intervals,
intervals there were
Given these seven
seven
possible
of
methods
semitone
known
of the
in
as
the Greek
modes.
The
individual characteristics
of each
rested
mode
As
semitones.
time
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
38
the
the
and
productiveof
was
new
lievers
sought expression. Furthermore, the beof
admonished
to sound their praises
by means
sensations which
were
music, but
as
serve
only natural
was
that
the
old music
foundation
borrowed
and
it
from
secular music
should
from
ideas
the
temple
of the Greeks.
the
Century,greatlysimplified
until only four were
retained.
The tones of each mode
were
comprised within the interval
of an
octave
countingupward from the keynote. The four
of Ambrose
modes
are
designatedas the authentic modes
and
served
as
foundation
four
to
new
ones
which
were
called
by Gregory two centuries later. These were
plagalor leaningmodes, because of the relation which they
added
bore
modes
authentic modes.
the
to
only
was
the tones
were
an
octave, as
The
was
of the plagal
compass
that of the authentic,but
the
mode.
the notes
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, Al
was
formed
In both cases'D
by using
was
the
authentic
or
plagalmode
the
varietyof
notes
which
TONALITY
be
might
interval
of
between
and
octave
an
the
to
between
the fourth
or
keynote and the octave
the keynote and the fifth note above it. At times
of the authentic and
was
used, in
plagal modes
the compass
of both modes
was
employed and
mixture
which
the
limited
was
the
below
note
a
used
39
case
of
range
notes
between
was
fourth
the
below
note
the
modes
Tiring of
before.
reformation
Another
was
necessary.
of
plagalmodes
confusingauthentic and
Ambrose
and Gregory, Glareanus,a writer of the Sixteenth
ored
Century and poet laureate to Emperor Maximilian, endeavorder.
He
made
to create
a
diligentresearch among
the
Greek
old
authentic
He
the
modes
modes
and
attempted to give
confused
determined
of six
the use
upon
formed
six plagal modes
them.
upon
but became
them the old Greek names,
and
and
ancient
the correct
names
upon
the
modes.
Nevertheless,his work was
correspondingnew
ignored to a great extent and the church modes remained in
in church music
use
although two of those established by
Glareanus, correspondingto our major and minor modes,
used
were
When
church
in secular music.
harmony began
modes
were
leavingthe
secular
music.
One
and
one
most
modern
growth
it
not
two
of Glareanus
of these
pure-rnindedchurchmen
Troubadours
its
other
found
and
they
which
of
wanton
its incessant
adaptableto harmony
major mode, which has
mode.
use
It
was
However,
and
has
had
such
carded,
dis-
were
survived
had
frivolous musicians.
lascivus,or
that the
abhorred
especially
was
because
was
by
by
in
the
the
even
it
was
developedinto
a
generaluse
been
that it has
all
employed in practically
the music
older
The
centuries.
last two
during the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
40
modes
written
are
times
some-
"
intervals
The
by tonalityand
decided
number
proper
to
theory as
on
Sounds
harmony.
was
the
have
may
be perfectaccording
may
the acoustical laws of Pythagoras,but
sounded
when
been
and
of vibrations
based
modern
the
of
condition which
could
of harmony
not considered
our
to exist.
be allowed
not
they are
pleasant.
It is
alreadyexisted in
for the same
melody where tones are sounded successively,
relations are
mutual
in melody as in harmony.
necessary
With
the laws govthe introduction of harmony in reality
erning
into greater importance until
these relations grew
they formed the basis for fixingthe exact positionsof the
in the scale. Notwithstandingthe importanceof harmony
tones
in solvingthis problem it must not overstep the bounds
true
that
harmony
of its power,
sense
meager
be considered
keynote
in
when
and
reference
had
must
other
determining the
of
tones
seven
an
octave.
The
the
of
of harmony and
application
musicians the magnitude of
changed.
The
intervals of
between G
and
were
to
allow
some
between
tone
intervals
the
was
and
and
of a: semitone between
E and
and between
did not
now
by
exists
man*
and
owes
its
TONALITY
diatonic
The
by
white
the
represent
the
notes
scale with
keys of
which,
chromatic
the
diatonic
piano
when
added
the two
They
desire of musicians
natural
of tones.
natural
as
or
to
Chromatic
to
scale.
the
scale.
semitones, similar
41
which
mark
intervals
of
always existed
added
owing to
in
have
been
increase
to
succession
continuous
represented
The
black keys
organ.
this diatonic scale,form
notes
have
is
keynote
available
the
number
is also
of semitones
the
very
semitones
the two
suggestedby
already
like
have
the
mutual
semitones,
tones, must
with the keynote. They are generally
considered
as
of the diatonic scale changed by having been raised
arrangement,
established.
relations
the tones
The
of the diatonic
by having been lowered half a tone, the name
tone
being retained. Nevertheless,this is by no means
the case, the chromatic
semitones
being entirelyindependent
in this respect and being worthy of independent
of the tones
or
if the
names
from
detracted
semitone
The
when
of the
simplicity
by so doing.
the
of
theory is
distance it
given tone,
say
notation
would
be
A, and
is counted
then
downward
above
flat. This
then
not
will
tones
A, which is B, the new
A sharp, will be a littlebelow
but the first,
tone
not
difference is called
from
be
identical,
the second, B
not
and is
Pythagorean comma
of such minute
magnitude that it is hardly distinguishable
important
by the average ear and, though playinga somewhat
a
of
and
physicists
subject has led
to
as
to
rightand
and
reciprocalconcessions
so
point has been established,
that
now
wrong
the
two
on
this
half-way
tones
are
This
system of dividingthe
scale into almost equal intervals is termed equal temperament
considered
and
its
as
sounding alike.
general use
dates from
the
eenth
earlypart of the Eight-
Century,
",_*-/
According to the tnore complicatedand theo1raEical
chromatic tones between eabh two
correct system having two
-
OF
THEORY
THE
42
MUSIC
the interval is
of the diatonic
notes
semitone, the
consist
of
only a
seventeen
They would be C,
C sharp,D flat,D, D
sharp, E flat,E, F, F sharp, G flat,
It is true
that
G, G sharp,A flat,A, A sharp,B flat, B.
it was
notes
in order to simplify the scale into the twelve
instead
tones
of twelve
as
it
does.
now
equal temperament
inaccuracies in tuning among
that although no
such a way
one
ear.
However,
the
these
twelve
unavoidable
chromatic
of them
is
in
tones
perfectlypure
It
scales.
of the
was
manner
Bach
wonderful
in which
had
and
applied to
opened opportunitiesfor variety
temperament
valuable
most
been
them.
demonstration
be used
The
after equal
new
tuning
in
with
seventeen
keys in
the interval of
an
past
two
were
done
the
centuries.
trained ear
tween
can
Only an exceptionally
distinguishbecorrect
equal tuning and theoretically
tuning. The
tones can
be produced only by the voice or with
TONALITY
flexible
instrument
vocalist and
The
such
43
violin
the
as
the
or
trombone.
the
divisions
because
and
of
dictates
the
Century, when
Sixteenth
tones
Greeks^
diatonic
scale
In
tones.
left to
was
the
chromatic
the
the
of the
the taste
to
or
by
chromatic
called
of the chromatic
use
tradition
noted
were
the
embellishing
in
coloring,and
to
music
church
tones
of their value
likened
were
of half
adopted.
was
Chromatic
notes
be
can
or
used
to
embellish
be introduced
can
melody
in the
out
with-
production
diatonic
of
new
succession
as
tone, semitone.
occur
between
intervals of tones
and
sequence,
is
semitones
and
keyboards of
the
of
ing
arranged in ascendfollows:
Tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone,
When
C is the keynote and in the arrangement
of tones
the intervals
and
the
and
are
and
changed it has
and
The
C.
semitones must
in order
tones
semi-
the
be so when
the
this may
been found necessary to add
that
same
note
keymore
notes
it will be
key
of
found
C, is
out
highermust
scale
so
that F,
of
it appears
as
placeand
be found
to
new
act
as
have
as
tone
a
in the
fourth
situated
seventh
the correct
in the
tone
seminew
magnitude.
The
the
For
proper order.
in a similar manner.
the
of C
key
lower
act
to
the
have
intervals
may
tone
will be B
a semitone
flat,
its substitution
chromatic
which
tones
scale in order
diatonic
intervals,varies
be
may
from
seventh
below
new
scale
magnitude.
and by means
so
The
of
occur
maintain
to
one
in
semitone
must
to
correct
note
key-
semitone
Every
the
in the
fourth
as
flattened
for the
situated
tone
the
that
new
place and
of
is out
as
and
in their
be
upon
it appears
as
occur
must
tones
is determined
that B
be found
must
above
semitone
reason
same
If F
found
it will be
sharp,
been
it has
when
will be
tone
new
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
44
succession
the' proper
seven,
of the
of
it is
easilyperceived
pieceof music would
obviate the otherwise
necessary
is used.
proper
the chromatic
spaces where
upon
notes
should
until a new
serted
or
signatureis induring the entire piece,
denotinga change of key.
The signswhich
indicate chromatic tones came
into existence
which marks the flat is of
at various periods,That
occur
ancient
most
about
use
and
is found
in the books
of
chant
from
form
from
that
now
used.
The
natural
sign which
in
used
has
been
major
mode.
In the minor
wherein
differs,
mode.
The
mode
lies the
minor
original
btit it is now
Gtereatit(s,
not
the
vals
arrangement of inter-
features
distinguishing
mode
used
was
of the
of
The succession
exclusively*
TONALITY
45
4
S^jS 7 8, which
2^3
be compared to the followingsuccession as found in the
may
2
1
5
6
major mode:
3_4
7^8. (The intervals of
tone
and those of the semitone
are
a
signified
by
by^.)
"
is 1
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
It is
the minor
mode
and
mode,
names.
tone
and
the
major
Major.
interval of
is less than
The
the
mode
third, from
same
consists of two
of the
smaller
mode
was
third, and
the
at
major
created
"
interval
an
and
sixth
2^3
changed
was
of
"
of the interval of
the
voice
interval
has
as
natural
no
tone
and
(6
half.
degrees.) This
modern
is termed
marked
tion
rela-
shall expect
interval
the
between
the
thus:
was
tendency
to
and
This
and
7 should
succession
filled
Harmonic, but
is termed
and
this difficultinterval.
The
semitone
of
mode
the seventh
succession
the
and
tone
requirementsof music
all the
the
called
change, however,
semitone
that
The
than other
be separatedmore
and
tone
which
semitone
5^6+7^8.
"
to a
degrees so
seventh
time
one
and
of
or
seen
derive
consists of but
mode
whole
In fact,the minor
3, in
1 to
semitone,hence,
mode
the
the
it is from
their
or
that
seen
observe
it became
such
large
advisable
to
done
by increasing
the interval of a semitone between the fifth and sixth degrees
The change brought about a new
sion
succesto that of a tone.
overcome
of intervals
it
thus:
used
reason
"
1"2^3
follows:
as
"
in music
also found
was
6^5
"
for
"
"
4
"
"
well to
3^2"1.
melodic
was
6"7^8,
change the
This
cession
suc-
scale is generally
construction for
Melodic.
As
which
46
is in music.
which
Rhythm
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Any
succession
similar
is the
rhetorical
pauses
placesin a literarycomposition.
of music, is generally
accepted as an
Metre, the measure
essential feature of musical composition. It probably dates
other voices
back almost to the beginningof music, when
essary
joined that of the leader in the primitivechant. It was necthat all would
that they be guided in some
so
manner
should
at certain
occur
attempt the
guide
tone
same
the duration
was
duration
had
been
The
time,
same
and
of the tones
determined
upon
when
the
evident
most
the
length of
smallest
In poetry the
selected
had been
in music
measure
at the
measured
definite
syllables
form
of
arranged according to a
of varying lengthsbeing
several syllables
description,
of
words
some
are
contained
in each
combined
was
division
with
the
of
poetry
metrical
elaborate system of
which
metre
When
measure.
poetry
music
feature
distinguishing
of
music
made
The
is the
similar
necessary
Greeks
used
most
corresponded closelyto
and
poetry
were
combined
that
the
writers
maintained
it is
matter
music
of the
History of Music
on
shows
the existence 01
have
and
in his
signsof measure
of the Seventh Century. The method
of
regularuniform measure
which rams throughoutis of comparatively
modern
adoption and dates from the beginning
in church
music
TONALITY
of the
of the
use
47
to
placingthe syllables
place
angular periods or
the
in
of
of
instead
of
them.
Greek
letters
by
of the
staff.
method
This
of various
values
Long,
were
the
being equal
The
as
Semibreve
is
and
to
as
However,
for
no
known
length
and
When
of
the
the
the
Large,
the
Semiminim
or
smaller
lesser
value, each
denomination.
Semifusa
had
duration
the sixteenth.
as
been
determined
together the
breves
two
of
the absence
an
They
of
of
againstone
exact
measure
notation
of duration.
extend
may
have
originatedin
the staff
across
similar lines of
certain
lengths which extended across
The
at an
early date indicated rests.
which
incorrectlyapplied to the measure,
between
into measures,
all of
were
were
several
system
lines of the
bars
tionate
propor-
and
lengths and
the
musical
dividingthe
staff found
notes
Semibreve,
Lesser
as
necessary
the present notation and exact
measure
Bars are the vertical lines which
accent
in which
line
the whole
sung
breve or
to
were
of each
duration
duration
observed
one
use
the staff
were
this system
the
be
were
next
be
arranged to
balancing two against one
long was adopted* Owing
or
by
even
Semiminim
exact
notes
the
as
eighth,and
duration*
voices
of
two
now
'
to
staff
the
by
beginning
the
of
some
the
the
of
any
the
followed
Semiminim,
lines of the
the lines of
on
of
system
followed
intervals
placed at
was
the
employed. They
Long, the Breve,
Semiminim
The
in turn
points placed
between
denoted
Double
the
be sung between
older neumes
was
The
the bars.
there being
one
length.
been
necessityfor
Later
has
they
were
it
as
the
given
notes
various
it became
not
no
At
bar
name
varying
staff and
the
changeable,depending
were
short
in which
order
the
upon
the values
However,
metre.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
48
followed
notes
other.
used
at
times
independent melodies
arranged to be sung together.
the notes
complete in
is
colon
is the
is to be
occur
preceded,succeeded, or
bar
double
The
itself.
and
the metre
were
of constant
measurement
music
contain
must
The
number
may
have
need
through
to
bar marks
of it which
ing
with mark-
when
theme
any
reason.
any
brought about
The
parts
is used
and
sign of repetition
repeated for
These
double
entire
an
several
placed in order
keeping together. A
in
first
was
for
the close of
It
verse.
in which
under
written
were
of each
the end
mark
to
been
had
voices
this
overcome
music
in
used
To
known
of beats
certain number
the
remain
Each
metre.
as
or
the system
of
measure
time
units.
throughout an entire
at
piece of music, but must continue through two measures,
is apparent. Each beat or time unit
least,until its regularity
need not be representedby an individual note, but one
note
notes
the
not
the value
of
positionsotherwise
time
values
in the
merely establishes
unite may
indicated
occur
by
Medieval
and
to
same
beats and
Furthermore,
by
notes
manner
,as
and
various
placedabove
writers
three semibreves.
was
The
may
more
or
occupy
possess various
This, however,
the beats
are
or
time
approximately
the staff.
describe two
imperfect.Perfect
may
and
speeds,which
two
rests
do notes.
symmetricalorder
at
words
held
more
or
beat,
one
same
1833-1897
BRAHMS.
JOHANNES
of
native
he
Hamburg-;
of
last
the
the
great
was
German
of
of
masters
in
and
first
the
by
tioned
unques-
His
opment
devel-
success.
line
the
folk-song's
which
writing1
last
at
financial
along-
music
art,
choral
one
was
was
the
life
early
crowned
struggle,
and
poverty
recognition,
of
J3rahms*
music.
development
the
of
dances,
and
brought
Is
polyphony
the
then
its
to
in
highest
form
musical
and.
lastly
the
Rrahms
structure.
of
majesty
culminating"
of
author
the
no
was
but
dramas,
operas,
and
epics
scenes,
tales
in
lie
music
the
was
and
comedies,
dramatic
Joachim.
he
life-long
without
forth
poured
friend
of
Schumann,
number.
Liszt
TONALITY
perfectwas
always appliedto
of its association
because
49
with
the Ever
the number
Blessed
three
Trinity. In
the metre
and
which
generallya fraction,the
the
value
the
result two
the
metre
indicates the
the denominator
and
measure
notes
number
beats
of
is divisible by two
measure
signature. It
the values
duple
of
in
time
pf which
numerator
of beats to be found
number
is called
and
in
which
are
contained
in
the number
triplemetre
is
divisible by three.
About
the Thirteenth
appearance.
perfectof
the
metre
the most
as
signifyperfectmetre the circle,
As the signatureof imperfect
used
was
figures,
semicircle was
fection
employed, by token of its imper-
figure when
retained
time."
common
their
To
as
"
made
Century time signatures
resemblance
that
compared
is used
and
Its form
to
with
the
to indicate what
changed until
has
has
which
led to the
common,
This
circle.
is called
it bears
ing
strik-
too-hastysupposition
although the
each
used
contains half
measure
There
but
explanationof
generalidea of
metre
many
their
beats.
of metrical
methods
innumerable
are
an
as
few
ment,
measure-
signatureswill give
The
significance.
for duple
following
The
fraction 2-2
each
one
denotes
that each
representedby
contains two
measure
half note
or
its value
the
beats,
in other
notes,
by
represented
measure
half note
or
semicircle
The
contains
or
four
beats, each
one
by
represented
that each
by
represented
measure
quarter
note
notes,
that each
6-8 denotes
one
or
in other
its value
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
50
contains
measure
dotted
quarter
note
beats, each
two
three
or
eighth
notes.
one
eighthnotes.
three
12-16
each
one
each
that
denotes
by
represented
eighthnote
dotted
four
contains
measure
its
or
beats,
lent,
equiva-
The
followingare
3-2 denotes
one
that each
by
represented
3-4 denotes
half note
measure
or
that each
by
represented
one
metres:
triple
measure
notes.
each
represented
by
9-16 denotes
that
one
quarter
each
by
represented
measure
note
or
dotted
three beats,
contains
measure
eighthnote
or
three sixteenth
notes.
have
such
metres
attemptedirregular
5-4 and 7-4, 5-4 denotingthat there are five beats in
as
each beat represented
each measure,
by a quarter note, and
7-4 denotingthat there are seven
beats in each measure,
each
beat represented
by a quarter note. A notable instance of the
employment of 5-4 metre is by Arensky in his Basso Ostiing
accordnato," and Debussy has measured his "Nocturne"
Modern
composers
"
to
system of metre
but the
is not
pleasureis increased
changes. The rate at
be
are
At times
pause is demanded
is
TONALITY
first
the
of
note
this
note,
the
of
which
which
have
the
of
with
changing
of
founded
no
buu
rules.,
those
of
aesthetic
and
so
to
since
the
that
have
rhythm
and
metre,
upon
to
took
the
place.
any
dictates
scientific
and
in
none
of
but
discovery
musicians
of
the
This
possess
period
many
has
We
of
the
and
been
ing
accord-
occurred
in
the
laws.
notation
changes
have
and
with
history
tonality,
these
man's
training,
its
and
authentic
period,
upon
of
change
likely
music
mental
funda-
most
beautiful.
training
of
well-developed
basis
the
will
occurring
but
of
of
now
founded
are
changing
of
ployed
em-
peoples
the
system
idea
history
been
use
many
methods
of
environment
Grecian
early
changes
based
his
possess
the
Except
generations
varied
our
the
the
methods
coming
that
of
ning
begin-
determining
primitive
most
the
with
the
We
been
very
of
of
history.
upon
changes
sense
additions
have,
but
properly,
environment
years,
of
governing
nature
more
or
arc
dawn
the
found
growth
has
the
means
observations
by
traces
the
gradual
originated.
upon
before
laws
fancy,
music
constitutes
doubtless
since
no
with
work.
very
races
have
we
music-making
in
existence,
systems
for
first
the
how
the
and
manner
success
completed
which
eral
sev-
cating
indi-
by
emphasis
the
system
ages
world,
conjectures
in
the
the
or
music,
his
of
traced
for
same
The
and
accent
hastily
the
speaking.
success
now
of
system
when
the
the
after
upon
other
some
about
brought
music
in
varies
degree
great
We
the
occurs
composer
parts
emphasis
is
change
of
for
continuing
syncopation,
Another
fall
always
not
indicated
be
may
termed
emphasis
does
accent
but
bar,
system,
measures.
in
The
altogether.
stopped
51
which
they
HARMONY
which
Melody,
basis
of
to
which
is
be
capable
they
as
performed
different
more
musical
heard*
without
In
only
the
and
years
of
nations
to
our
to
still
the
East
have
and
them.
there
interpreted,
among
still
are
The
the
musical
signs
but
researchers
used
or
are
that
grown
duced
pro-
is
melody
melody
for
of
to
many
tuneful
not
the
to
the
was
thousands
known
and
belong
two
unaccompanied
perhaps
scales
ancient
most
aesthetic
music
fulfils
existence
to
concerning
all
the
use,
we
belonging
tones
are
differences
notes
know
we
which
one
melodies
few
the
some
the
to
represent
notwithstanding
whom
people
similar
scale
in
pitches
form
are
they
is
which
melody.
the
are
sole
the
to
that
existence
melodies
whom
to
of
the
as
in
Nevertheless
in
Their
people*
Greeks
used
not
exists
has
exist*
according
but
requirements
.The
impression
composition
it
the
of
sense
the
of
ears,
the
pure
written
generally
compositions
and
it.
instruments,
being
different
melody
is
solo
harmony,
at
and
does
form
in
sounds
fact,
harmony
the
from
time
alone,
the
instrument
an
these
heard
written
by
at
of
any
instruments,
simultaneously,
little
or
is
sounds,
distinct
or
tone
one
rarely
usually
are
occur
voice
but
are
single
essentially
one
voice
other
by
accompanied
they
the
called,
are
by
of
is
it
giving
of
As
melody.
succession
although
harmony,
Music
as
is
it
not
of
is
to
easily
opinion
possible
to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
54
melodies
the
translated
have
notation
our
have
been
was
the melodies
in
used
Grecian
days
preservedin a
and
more
heard
our
There
more
the
consequence
completeform.
a
melodies
in the
have
been
Gregorianmusic
wishes expressed
by Pope Pius X, in 1903.
the renovations
spiteof
when
purpose
earlyChristian Church.
the
Catholic church
with the
as
the
by
at that time
use
musical
and, according to
modern
More
without
and
appear crude
modern
ears.
music
church
which
has
In
undergone
into
each time there has gradually
periods,
grown
lacked the simple,purely religious
music which entirely
use
by that which it is claimed was established
qualities
possessed
Gregorian
by the early church fathers. Even the strictly
tion
music had been completelychanged in character by the addimodern
of harmonies
agreeingwith more
tonalityto
melodies which
the original
had been arranged accordingto
the ancient church modes.
Strippedof the modern changes
to the best ability
of the researchers and arranged in accordance
at various
with
different appearance,
is there evidence of
in the modern
less without
Here
church
few
sense
reason
let
has
us
done
and
the music
is
deficient in metre.
even
presents a totally
Neither
there being no
scale
systematic
tonality,
of the word, although the intervalsare
fragments of pagan
remodeled
modes
and
of the Greeks.
the
realization of what
beginningthere
Hebrew
music
were
which
were
the hymns
and
chants which
and
beginnings
had
had
them
resulted from
eopWi
into
these
a
mentary
frag-
complete
'
HARMONY
book
as
called his
be
to
is said
antiphonywhich
have
formed
The
manifested
fastened
was
ever
to
55
foundation
unchangeable law
itself in music
as
well
as
This
their
developed.
As
their sacred
were
modes
now
music
have
labored
better methods
learned
how
offertories and
other
that notation
was
the Troubadours
confining church
modes
and
known
as
employed.
musicians
cast
inmates
the
striking
examples
more
in the monasteries
was
the greatest
employed.
We
more
It
so
collection in turn
forms.
sacred
the altar
for many
marked
provemen
imof life is progress which
composers
of
to
These
modes
had
major
afforded
had rejectedthe
made
and
in their gay
the
composers
It is
churchmen.
minor
of
and
two
are
more
songs, which, as we
and singers into sad
use
repute among
the
tones
which
compose
scale.
it must
be
selected
from
properly authorized
Throughout they must be subservient to a key-note,and
fulfilthe laws of tonality.
They must be so evidentlymetrical in their construction
that qualityshall be easilyapparent to the hearer.
without
which
The
be
reference
melody
something
at
the
to
.'esthetic
determined
are
of imaginaflights
tion
any
allow
may
hearers at least.
performer
or
with
find favor
likelyto
are
arrived
have
we
explainedby
of
good qualities
only
can
sense.
Again
reason.
MUSIC
OK
THEORY
THE
56
few
is that
melody
in
Inherent
of
in
idea
musical
rest
while
in
melody
can
harmony
only be
The
Not
reasons
which
ever
us
it is
To
him
only
not
their
the
as
these rules
the
They
origincan
are
are
be traced
we
student
the
in
manner
will consider
who
the grammar
in which
manner
that is of interest
and
and
beautiful
govern
harmony
into existence
harmony have come
est
appealedto scientistsas possessinggreat interbeen made
the subjectof innumerable
treatises*
and have
and
of
considered
are
discordant
considered
are
the succession
those
only is harmony
why certain combinations
others
and
in
forming a story.
important,but the
artistically
resemble
more
he likened
may
sentence, while
the succession of sentences
make
which
words
hold
that
of
in
to
they
desires to
of
write
music, but
to
into existence
came
nearly every
none
harmony
case
artificial
of the fundamental
laws of nature.
There
is
music
as
the
languageof
say
fact music
Jn which
HARMONY
57
it differs in its
appreciation
by nations and individuals. Both
laws which
are
are
governed by man-made
equally without
scientific explanation. Just as
different nations
have
guages
lanentire unintelligible
nations
to the people of other
until an
ence
acquaintancehas been formed, so there is in existbe appreciated
music which cannot
,by any but the people
it belongs. The
to whom
English without suitable training
neither understand
the music
the language of the
can
nor
Chinese.
Language
Words
notes.
is constructed
be
can
be
told,but even
combining of notes.
can
Man's
that he
form
to
of
We
our
ever
turn
to
music, for
Of
their
There
are
to
music
wonderful
of
tales
be told
can
perpetualdesire
the
beauties, and
new
be obtained
which
simultaneously,was
"
creates
for
succession.
tales
wonderful
sense
"
sounds
and
by
the
perceivedcould
of musical
words
joined togetherthat
so
more
aesthetic
is beautiful
which
of
from
for that
first
beauty
the unbounded
mass
in combining them
was
possible,
Harmony, or the sounding of notes
much
later development.
are
the Greeks
them
when
seekingthe beginning
and
knowledge
foundation
the
owe
we
of
our
have
melody we
substantial evidence in a few hymns to the gods which have
been preserved through the ages. It is positively
proved that
mony.
they understood the relations which are recognized in har-
system.
consonance
others
which
is the combination
togetherhas
itselfand
intervals which
certain
and
consonances,
not
effect upon
an
of
use
termed
are
of sounds
the hearer
needinganything to
of
completion. On
the other
hand
when
when
as
sounded
being complete in
as an
ending. It is
of
follow
It alone
statement.
to
dissonances.
which
referred
are
is
givesus
only associated
the impression
dissonance
is the
bination
com-
occurringtogetherproduce
an
impression of incompleteness.It is felt that something
is needed, just as when
more
a
speakeris interruptedhis
is to follow.
The
voice is at a pitchwhich tells that more
of the
Greeks
possessed a realization of the consonance
of sounds
which
of
intervals
octave,
an
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
58
fifth and
there
Greeks.
is
by
no
is
first reference
of
worthy
writer
named
He
Christ.
in
serious
to
by the
it
and
carries
taneously,
simul-
sounded
system of
voices
of
singing
apart. This primitivepractise
octave
an
harmony
means
The
the
two
ever,
How-
mentioned
have
an
This
compound.
of
of
considered.
now
more
the distance
mixing
use
form
likelyappliedto
unison, that is,givingthe
it
singing in
in
means
used
practiseof harmony
writers
their
of
None
of the
record
no
fourth, and
our
same
tones,
or
of the word.
sense
anythingresemblingharmony
consideration
made
was
Colonius, livingabout
by
that
Roman
the
Ages. Isidore,who
600,
was
rather
an
The
next
importantrecord of
of harmonious
use
octave.
our
was
Bishop
Seville about
of
extensive writer
of the Middle
on
the
miscellaneous
as
year
well
ecclesiastical
themselves to
practise.
in Flanders
about
the
Hucbald, a Benedictine monk
Tenth Century, wrote extensively
of thingsmusical and with
details showed
many
that
of
which
were
below, the
two
taneous
simul-
diaphony,althoughit
or
was
to make
permissible
use
accompaniment
HARMONY
59
of tones
the
composed of the same
as
was
sequence
interval from the
melody, each tone at a distance of the same
correspondingone of the melody. The intervals which were
considered
above or below, fifths above,
octaves
proper were
fourths above, fifths above or fourths below, or fourths above
fifths below.
and
panied
Formerly melody had only been accomwas
in the
and
octave
practicaluse
for
variety. However,
modern
this
even
familiar
ears
be remembered
must
with
system appears
new
elaborate
more
that this
crude
harmony,
but
to
it
was
"
"
"
centuries of its
Hucbald,
did
being
for
much
did much
who
instrumental
in
the
use.
to
the
establishing
of the intervals of
use
figured extensively in
the developmentof counterpoint.Throughout the historyof
harmony it has been a very difficultmatter to keep the two
distinct,harmony being the outgrowth of counterpoint
forms
and
having
even
in
the
in
counterpoint
romantic
forsook
familyand
study
care
it is
his
vows
in
of
was
born
married.
and
centuries,but
usuallydiscussed
However,
forms.
to
impossible
history. He
and
is
musical
the discussion of
de la Hale, who
character
many
intricate and
more
but
much
harmony
to
subsidiaryto it for
been
counterpointis
after
likewise
He
thirds.
and
seconds
harmony.
he
forsook
his
he died after
Italy,where
deformity.
performed
at
in the
was
to
may
and
be
of cliscant,Ihe
use
without
"
first
the
been
have
Marion
"
His
the
as
I Le
lime.
although he seems
Jeu de Robin el de
Arras,
of
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
60
name
given
at
sidered
con-
was
first
later
prominent
period
was
the
to
accompanying part which had been added
importance and at an
melody. The system began to assume
early date in the Fourteenth Century it acquiredrules all its
to
the
"wn.
become
musicians
As
counterpointappeared. The
in
the
and
in
venturesome
more
Troubadours
were
discant
mental
largelyinstru-
joyed
development, They rather enheld by the churchmen,
disreputein which they were
of
in an effort to further irritate formed a custom
creatingthis
new
often
combining a hymn or chant with some
song
merry
sadly lackingin purity. The melodies of each, changed a
trifle to
fit them
the other in
form
rude
for their
form
of
nothing more
together. It was,
certain qualities
in
was
sounded
possess
sense,
new
use,
were
placed one
above
so
that
they
would
not
completely.
This marks
the opening of a long era
in music termed
the polyphonicfrom
the system of combining independent
of combining two
parts. Following the custom
parts the
next
the combination of three parts. Compositions
step was
of this character appear in a crude and nebulous state early
in the Twelfth
Century, but had acquired a comparative
perfectionby the middle of the Thirteenth Century. Progress
brought about the addition of new parts to be sounded
together,and with each addition the increased multiplicity
of sounds
delicate handlingand presented
required more
themselves more
monic
forciblyfor attention regardingtheir harnot
agree
thus layiijg
the foundation for independent
relations,
harmony.
HARMONY
Harmony as we know
Century. Composers
the
writing and
61
it did
not
devoted
until the
appear
teenth
Six-
Each
was
related, for it is
on
intervals
of dissonant
of this extensive
account
by
writers
and
necessary
counterpointthat they
play such an important part in harmony.
Dissonances
in strictness be employed only when
may
that their
so
they are followed by the proper consonances
How
them acceptable
to make
incompletenessis not evident.
and beautiful to the ear occupiedmuch
of the attention of the
for, as we have seen, dissonances to them were
contrapuntists,
afforded full play in arrangevil. Ingenuitywas
a necessary
ing
them
when
counterpointbecame
properly,and, naturally,
superseded by harmony, this opportunity for ornamentation
of the intricacies
thrown
not
aside; but the secret of many
was
in
and beauties of harmony lies in the cunning-manner
use
these intervals
which
During
octave,
and
handled.
early half of
the
scale
chromatic
are
the
increased
Sixteenth
the
appeared complete
with
of
with
number
twelve
of
Century
notes
notes
the
to
an
opened
from
for more
dissonances,and, as a consequence
possibility
arranging the dissonant chords, greater varietyin composing.
life. Greater
Music
ingenuity
immediately acquired more
the music of the church lost its
into play and even
came
reserved
dignityand the Gloria,the Kyrie, the Credo and
the
Agnus
frolicsome
were
for
ballad and
dance
propriety.Musicians
lost
sung
to
music
far
sight of
too
good
to
and
of
At
"
tunes
their secular
instance; the
mass
absurd
most
lent
even
artistic combining of
the
The
considerations to be subservient
all other
allowed
entirelyand
taste
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
62
of
mass
became
in
sacred
Armor"
"
More
and
was
precipitated.
along this
as
well
as
sonances
dis-
masses
use,
for
and
the
in existence.
were
so
in the
use
was
reformation
and
Faces
Two
With
the
to
Man
"The
used
were
names
and
consonances
many
to
which
to
continue
other
it
lines
Palestrina
(1524his birthplace,
from
trina,
Pales1594) who was given his name
Palestrina's musical ability
Rome.
gained recognear
nition
1550 and 1555 Pope JuliusIII. appointed
and between
him as one of the twenty-four
collegiate
singersin the Pope's
greatlyin violation of
privatechapel,althoughthe act was
the rules governing this selection, Pakstrina
was
trebly
the
of
for
father
he
a
a layman, was
was
family,
ineligible
The
bad voice.
had
not
and
a
particularly
positionwas
The
foremost
musician
of the time
was
for
in about
IV, ascended
adhere
to
the
jealousclergywho
him
to
the
years
the
Papal chair.
Prompted by
because of his
displacedhim
two
desire
influenced by the
liked
dis-
the Pope
superiormusical qualities,
his
left to
and Palestrina was
position
face most
severe
poverty and hardship for a brief time.
However, his greatesttriumph was before him. The Council
of Trent when
consideringthe abuses so prevalent in the
church music were
at a loss to discover a remedy and even
contemplated discardingmusic entirelyfrom the service.
Fearingthis to be a too extreme measure
they modified it by
which
should
orderingPalestrina to compose three masses
of trulyreligious
music. In 1565 the
possess the qualities
from
tnasses
were
HARMONY
wonderful
more
been
IV.
Pius
Pope
the
and
qualities
completelyentranced
"
that
of such
the hearers.
nature
have
must
new
Jerusalem."
trina had
declared
63
established
now
standard
is still followed, in
which
matic
which, however, the use of chroforbidden.
whose
notes
was
Palestrina, upon
strictly
is the inscription Prince of Music," left nearly one
tomb
and
hundred
and
masses
hymns, besides about sixty motets
"
compositions.He
other
combine
the
The
example
chromatic
notes
for
drawback
to
which
first to
the
the
did
cut
shown
of
mony,
har-
music, the
secular branch
The
off.
brief
alid
possibilities
scale had
with
away
development of
stillheld out
chromatic
of the
by Palestrina
affordingvarietywas
of the art
been
have
to
set
was
in the
of
means
with
art
is said
use
might
be
great desire
to
what
composers
done.
This
was
epoch-making period.
an
emulate
the
example
have
had
the most
to
their
little store
until
they
have
been.
to
was
use
most
many
but
as
the
imitate
failed to
music
and
Grecian
the
might
dissonances,
music
had
greatest of musical
of the
composer
combinations
of notes.
created
forms.
to
music
new
what
has
Monteverde
periodand
He
resort
difficultthe
more
they instead
increase
to
suppositions
many
bearable composers
audacious
unusual
musicians
intensified the
ingeniousmethods,
strivingto
then considered
were
facts with
idea of what
more
lived
since
no
them
make
to
of
In
be.
historical
of
and
They multiplied
all manner
task the
Greeks, who
perfectmusic, led
littleor
had
for in order
to
of the
created
dared
to
readily,
t
polishand
the
specimensof
his
compositions'
duced
written. However, he introincorrectly
could
music
chords
without which
and progressions
is now
have
attained the dramatic grandeur which
never
possible. In 1600 he and a few associates produced what
of the Grecian style,but
they hoped was an exact duplicate
which
remain
are
instead
which
the
was
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
64
first opera
Eurydice."
long periodwas occupiedwhile harmony
"
name
and
Orpheus
was
Its
written.
ever
As
counterpoint
separatedfrom
consisted of
been
has
founded
several melodies
ing
becom-
was
point
counter-
seen,
simultaneously
of
sounded
groups
together,although these groups did not occupy the interest
of composers
as
groups, but only in a dissected condition,
and
of the others of the group
each note being independent
made
consequentlyis
and
up
of
notes
gained a
into
existence
to the
interest of musicians
of
realization
and
beauties
the
there
that
came
could
be
were
occurring. Church
change that was
music had been arranged as counterpoint,
accompanied by the
sound
The
tones
can
simultaneously
organ
many
organ.
not
conscious
and
it
was
the
have
of
In order
effect
music
written
was
The
bass
chord
alone
the
these
continuo
It
and
and
enable the
what
written
was
fulfilthe contrapuntal
out
and
notes
of the
by figures
placedabove the notes, representing
intervals,counting from the bass upwards, at
notes
should stand.
This
bass
was
called basso
(continuousbass),
and
e.
with
to
of the voices to
indicated
were
which
the
to
songs.
g,, it is to be
later.
Its
found
use
survived
in the
for
of Bach
scores
and
Handel,
It is
no
practically
longer employed in
this .way.
Until this pointit has been difficultto not encroach
when describing
the rise of harmony, but
upon counterpoint
this difficulty
now
is past and harmony beginsto assume
the
even
it
-importance
now
holds.
First it
was
an
accidental effect
HARMONY
65
later
produced by part-writing,
it insinuated
its
importance
counterpoint,of which
importance and
into
grow
musical.
The
alone
stood
its
and
independent in
rightfulposition in the scheme
its true
readiness
of
to
things
Frenchman,
the first
Jean Philippe Rameau, was
well-known
writer who
treated independent harmony theoretically
and attempted to explain the reasons
for it and the
rules governing it. Rameau
indeed a musical
was
genius.
His gifts early manifested
themselves
and as he was
of a
musical
for their cultivation.
He
family his trainingwas
exceedinglyversatile
was
theorist,organ
and
and
excellent
was
clavichord
virtuoso
and
thorough study
progressionsof
manner
the
as
language
desires
of the
chords
good
create
forms
which
reason
differs from
the
last two
and
lies not
sought
on
the
the art
for
the
makes
music
in
composers
chords
what
and
effects in much
the
same
the
of his
grammar
the classics of literature for
discover
good
creates
in the
beyond
other
that which
is best is
qualities. Music
productions themselves
in that
which
hand, possesses
itself must
These
and
grasped
as
art
arts
and
and
proper
the
of
studies
and
pleasingstyle.
Still more
to
interesting
composer,
teacher; to him
standard
combinations
aspiringauthor
for correct
write
to
"
production of
learn what
effort to
an
who
student
as
be found
has
been
the
have
In
ence,
existthese
must
be
copied. Music,
and
in
explanation.
have littlebasis
explanations
theoretical writers
but
an
created
on
any
natural laws,
hypotheses,many
of
selves
artificial
They
of the
the
are
the two
between
born
been
have
degree
same
to
arts
as
the
are
again
Mere
how
harmony.
foundations
is
striking
music.
of literature and
of the
use
shown
systems of
the
governing grammar.
rules
analogy
foundations of
artificialin the
are
who
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
66
English language
We
read
the unnatural
and
at
unconsciouslywonder
flowing
awkward
phraseology. We consider how much more
in the
is the language used
and
easy of comprehension
us
Twentieth
Century until our better judgment reminds
that it is entirely
beyond our power to decide what is correct
beautiful in anything that is so absolutelygoverned by
or
the musical composiIn the same
manner
tions
arbitrarylaws.
plicity
to us childish in simof the Elizabethan period appear
Chaucer
and
Even
the
appallingin awkwardness.
simple melodies and harmonies that occupied the attention
of amateurs
duringthe first half of the Nineteenth Century
of the
amateurs
ridiculed by the more
sophisticated
are
and
times
at
have
present who
tasted of
posers.
knowledge of the classical com-
the
There
two
are
hearing which
and
One
of
an
the
example of
public may
in
determining that
of
is the physicalsense
act
has
fundamental
which
differs in individuals
they establish
Hence
it must
in the future
The
most
only be
and
exceptionsto
and
to make
tfendfag
of
rightand
and
wrong.
will
change
in the past.
rules than
its dictates*
to
environment
in grammar
and
artificialstandard
it has done
as
is
by the physicaleffect
both senses
progressions,
to
prone
as
other
laid down
Beyond
are
tastes
which
senses
is beautiful in music:
which
witnessed
The
there
and,
be
as
more
HARMONY
plicatedand
confusing.
As
67
been
has
harmony is the
sounded
or
more
tones
together. These groups
chords may
each carry a sense
of completion as each word
or
in a literary
productionmay express an idea. However, the
must
not
only aspire for beauty and perfectionin
composer
chords but he must
consider with equal care
the progressions
formed
by combining chords, and both subjectsare included
in the study of harmony.
The most
simple form by which the effect of harmony is
tions
produced is in two sounds taken together. These combinaare
comprised
possess a great importance,for in them
of all harmony
the elementary germs
the more
as
complex
combinations
found
be
and
these
to rely upon
can
analyzed
these combinations
which
some
are
Among
please
germs.
and
which
less agreeable. They
others
the ear
are
are
known
and dissonances,respectively.
as
consonances
A scientific explanationof this phenomenon involves the
All tones
are
explanation of the formation of singletones.
and
a
compound affairs. They consist of a fundamental
number
of harmonies
or
partials.An absolutely
pure tone is
dation
founor
only found in theory,for it is only the fundamental
of the tone that is regarded and which gives a name
seen,
effect of two
to
the
casual
does
ear
not
is a
simple tone
and
It is the
tone.
group
be
to
appears
and
tone
the
pure,
of the
one
mass
composed
strong fundamental
harmonies.
of weaker, less noticeable,
There is
consequently no
fulfilsthe
which
tone
requirements of
an
are
seem
are
to
even
to
the
blend
fundamental
best
harmonies
which
always present some
relation to the fundamental, and it is
in evidence
much
too
of
and
nearest
are
be
an
that
homogeneous
whole
insufficient tone
less
complete tones,
disagreeablenoise.
hear
we
but
tone
bear
to
when
which
appears
with
does
be
it.
agreeable
dis-
they
not
posed
com-
the
Instrument
and
in making
silencingthe unpleasant harmonies
of
although some
sound as pure as possible,
fundamental
to the tone.
harmonies are retained as they add a charm
ning
the
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
68
in
Just
as
those
harmonies
situated
the
to
nearest
mental
funda-
away,
fourths
greater
possess
for
consonance,
these
the
are
monies
har-
it is
1 is to
as
only logicalthat
those tones
read thus
dissonances
and
CONSONANCES
_
Perfect.,
Ratio
fOctave
..J
1:2
,..,...,..,..
Fifth
2:3
3:4
Fourth
te
"
Major third
Imperfect,J
Minor
I Major
Minor
third
4:5
5:6
3:5
sixth
sixth
S;8
DISSONANCES,
Major
second
Minor
second
Major
seventh.
seventh
Minor
"
which
quality
8:9
*,...,.
,....,.,.,..,,.
,.15:16
8:15
9:16
.
being rough
or
tit tfafcsottti4occurringat
intervals. We
regtflar
have
HARMONY
that difference
learned
in the number
to
air ab6ut
the
water
is made
will
the
irregularities,
water
longitudinal.The
of
them.
cause
transmits
which
waves
If
the water.
difference
to
its motion
travel
is thrown
stone
just as
immediatelyappear
seeming
motion
the
However,
which
vibrate
to
through
there
pool
is due
tones
second
per
it in the form
travel
waves
into
pitch in
of vibrations
string which
of
69
in the
to
is not
water
of
entrance
the surface
upon
rise and
fall in waves.
the
horizontal
into
stone
but
the
is
water
and
become
to
the
force
Just
water.
or
of waves,
motion reaches
which
Each
air
the
other
waves
allow
to
will,in
two
an
vibrations
do
men
hour.
an
occur
less until
to
the water
until the
waves
of 256
per second
sounded
are
second,
more
rapidlymust
vibrations
pass each
walk
around
other.
to
hour, and
The
one
circle,
the other
by
the
together
the
gain on
similar
at
at the rate
manner
the
of
The
rate
of
forty-six
rapid rate
of
air
going
man
In
in
and
during a second.
sense,
at
the
more
ten times
of
rate
per
of ten
tinues,
con-
transmitted
as
the
of 246
the amount
times
fifty-six
times
of motion
the
rate
whose
one
of
are
travel
occurringat
the
at
relax
vibrations
other
to
wave
less and
growing
form
of the
all disturbance
and
out
adjoining
next
transmission
contact
vibratingsubstances
any
the
of the
the
to
the crest
The
trough.
been
had
causingwhat
atoms
is transmitted
compression
the
turn
what
representsthe
crest
of
one
of silence which
constitute what
are
70
called
beats,will
causing them
to
of beats per
number
The
dissonant.
as
regularintervals,breaking the
pulsationsand
into
tones
at
occur
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
be
tinuous
con-
nized
recogwill be
second
above
octave
middle
dissonance,as
perceptible
reinforcements
such meager
that there are no appreciable
intensity
united tones
The
of strength in the sound.
appear
of
the pulsacontinuous,there seeming to be an entire absence
tions.
no
The
the loudness
In
the
the
names
must
which
of the notes
In
have
tonalitywe
been spoken of
the
as
proportionto
to understand
necessary
the scale are known
to
learned
in
them.
cause
study of harmony it is
by which the degreesof
musicians.
bear
of
intensity
which
first,
has
degrees
heretofore
as
The
tonic
which
Next
next
and
to
Dominant,
rule
Importancecomes
preserve
the fourth
Mediant,
is situated
the
above
because
dominant.
lower
called
it appears
in
most
is
which
to
of the scale.
The
mediant.
that of the
over
because
the other
the
fifth below
sixth
It derives its
or
lower
in
nant,
domi-
inverted
degrees it becomes
degree is called the
tonic and
the
Submediant
or
the
is called the
name
in
manner
midway between
degree
the
Subdommant,
succession of
upper
the tonic.
The third
it is
of
the
manner
similar to
between
HARMONY
the tonic and
subdominant.
Supertonic,as
degree receives
rise
lead
or
it is the
the
The
second
just above
one
degree
the tonic,which
In their successive
from
the
the
order
is called the
Leading Tone
name
to
up
71
the
seventh
tendency to
demands
ear
that it
of the
degrees
Tonic, Supertonic, Mediant, Subdominant, Dominant,
possess.
are
Submediant
and
point we have
only. These, however,
tones
the
acceptance of the
true
effect of
French
a
of
constitute
not
In
term.
order
to
of two
harmony
produce
in
the
it is necessary to combine
three or more
is called a Chord, a name
derived from the
When
third
between.
notes
it is termed
the root
as
other
second
triad.
chord
member
is
chord
can
it is from
be
is at
of
composed
lowest
The
and
and
the root
the
of the chord
of the
notes
The
thirds.
from
do
combinations
three
the
dealt with
harmony
into what
notes
of
Leading Tone.
this
Until
names
is
note
but
nated
desig-
this note
that
built up in
interval of a third
spelledor
the
at the interval of
fifth.
tone
the
on
interval is
is
other
a
diminished
diminished
When
Their
all the
page
chords
are
of music
contains
it
third.
it is indeed hard
merely superposed
to
"
thirds.
second
inversions.
of
triad takes
chord,
the
changed
members
the
perfectfifth
glancingover
realize that
fifth and
or
lowest tone
member
member
of
the
in the words
of
second
of
72
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
The
first inversion
member
second
interval of
triad
the
member
Chord
of
root
which
sixth with
is at the bottom
adoption of
with
may
chord
the
tones
best
generally the
seeking
satisfactory,
recognizedin the
most
fact is
every
find
doubled
are
an
that
the custom
of
and
When
member.
This
It is worthy of note
interval of an octave
does not
the tones
it is
and
the root
with
the
practise,
in
of the chord-
chord in which
of
fourth
the second
and,
position,
natural
is in the bass
and
inversion
an
from
it is necessary to find that tone
be spelled
Therefore, its
up in thirds.
chord
the others
most
Sixth
the
the interval of
forms
interval of
of
is
chord
the
second
The
the root.
when
occurs
called
the
sixth from
of
bass
the
occurring as
place,but
that
when
any of
of their
the introduction
by
considered
are
tone
one.
The
root
doubled, although,
be
can
as
a
necessary in order to bring about
gression
proof the other tones may
sounds
be
well, one
it is found
when
that
doubled.
The
1"2"
thus:
is
intervals of the
5"6"
3^4"
designatedby
It will be
major diatonic
7_8.
; that of a
"
that if each
The
scale
are
arranged
interval of
semitone
by
tone
^.
degrees
be taken as a root a triad may
be formed, although not all
of them will contain intervals of like magnitude. Beginning
with the first degree as a root, the triad will contain the
degrees 1,
and
root
between
seen
and
5.
the second
the root
one
interval of
The
is
member
third between
the
chord
and
the second
member
is
minor
root
interval between
third instead of
tain
con-
the root
a
major
HARMONY
73
the root
and
triad makes
minor
triad.
be
minor
triad.
to
on
Hitherto
chord.
new
change,
the
and
seventh
degree,the
been
remained
third
the
only interval
perfect. In the triad
is minor
and
fifth is
the
triad.
a diminished
diminished; hence, the chord is known
as
By this method we find that the triads formed on the
on
first,fourth and fifth degrees are major, those formed
sixth degrees are
the second, third and
minor, and that
In the key of
formed
the seventh degree is diminished.
on
C the tones
First
degree as
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
degree as
degree as
root
root
degree as
degree
as
be named
root
root
Sixth
degree as root
Seventh degree as root
We
learned
in the
precedingchapter that
for the
as
follows
as
in order
major
it is found
to
mode
in the
'
key
of
G.
between
and
forming
degree as root
Second degree as root
Third
degree as root
Fourth
degree as root
Fifth degree as root
Sixth degree as root
Seventh
degree as root
matter
mere
to
strikingsimilarity
it will be
of
those found
that in the
seen
names
most
in the
key of C,
the
way
tones
followingmanner
in the
be named
First
In the
half
the introduction of F
and
C,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
74
I) V
sharp A
sharp
sharp
key of C,
occurs
Ilowevcr,
the second
on
with
formed
as
is
root
F sharp,occurs
substitute,
triad of
which
it is the
major, but
on
root
in the
the seventh
key of G its
degree and the
is diminished
In
similar
there
manner
here named
more
even
tonics tones
which
introduction
necessitate the
of
several
tones
in order
to
preserve
of triads may
be formed on the degrees
form of which the interscale in the harmonic
vals
like number
of the minor
in the followingorder: 1
2^J5 4
the interval of a tone and a half being indicated
occur
"
Following the
of the
built
major
mode
"
"
5^6+^8,
by +"
same
method
HARMONY
between
semitone
is built
triad
If
the
the sixth
the
on
tonic
third
in
similar
a
appear
did in the major
key
each
triad
number
is
of
number
scale.
seventh
root
effect
in
the
chord.
chord
of
the
seventh
which
has
as
root
it received
in both
its
major
third
the
on
triads
is
there
triads
and
large
to
prove
triad the
is the
in
since
very
analyzation
top of
will
as
diatonic
there
tone
new
there
combined,
upon
The
chord
interval
of
and
dissonant
a
consequently creates
Although it is possible to build up a
on
degree of the scale, that one
every
the fifth degree or
is the
the dominant
frequently.
most
Dominant
minor
and
modes
which
of
name
in the
inversions
two
is used
and
important
most
augmented
an
changed
fourteen
are
major
and
is formed.
the
is
mode
There
combinations
from
degrees
differences
of
subject to
seventh
the
seventh
minor
and
degree.
the
in the minor
each
75
modes.
From
Seventh
and
In
modes
both
its root
is the
same
the
chord
of the
contains
chord
minor
is much
seventh;
used
in the
being secured
half-stepby the
chord
seventh
the
When
or
stated.
be
are
why
to
of
such
of
the
raising the
or
of
seventh
other
the
chords
to
seventh
suppose
of
because
that
they recommended
seventh
were
as
invented
were
seeking
for
not
can-
their
selves
themof
means
dissonance
lution,
requiringresoIn the early history
that is, a following consonance.
it was
music
considered
imperative that, by way of preparation,
the
the
The
form
used.
of the
composers
obtaining variety. The chord
of
interval.
same
It is safe
interval
dissonant
diminished
less often
chords
the
but
interval
root
of
the
on
which
of the chords
case
of
tones
chord
created
was
the
appear
as
in
ber
mem-
as
close of
early as the
found
using
This
pointsto
and
world
in its
the
of
cars
the
allow
to
of the seventh
other chords
centuries later,when
until two
manner
use
the
have
must
to acquire
composers
to disregard the positiverule of
time
enough
familiar to
become
it to
enough assurance
preparation. The
in this
any
dissonances
new
allow
elapsed to
attempt at preparation.
duction
of the chords, for after the intro-
earlyuse
an
the
of
of the
without
sevenths
diminished
Century Montevercle is
dominant,
leadingtone, and
Sixteenth
the
the chords
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
76
not
were
used
introduced
Bach
custom.
So
far
intervals conform
major
or
minor
and
roots
can
built up systematically
for it is possible
after
the test of analysis,
They
mode.
stand
can
only
have
been
have
have
proved
been
so
altered, which
chromatically
effective and
and
individuality
acquiredan
that
useful
the
the
fifth.
tonic
dia-
tions
combina-
they have
used
as
generallyas
are
alteration of which
we
speak must
not
are
This
chromatic
be confused
certain
the chromatic
with
key-notes,such
as
that
tones
sharp in
the
necessitated
are
key of G.
by
There
the
triad D
lowered
tone
to
would
sharp A
F, F would
be
formed
were
and
sharp
were
be
foreignto
has
been
used
tones
the
a
tendency is
semitone
above
to
or
progress
below
to
chord
those which
taining
con-
have
HARMONY
between
the
and
the tone
established
altered
tone
classifywhen
altered
chromatically
to
which
chords
reasons
times
puzzles the
in
theorist.
tone
tion),
(beforeits altera-
some
undergoingthe
brought about
which
process
their
They
are
The
difficult to
are
of
analysisand
peculiar alterations
most
used
in the
the
at
cented
unac-
and are
often preceded by the real
part of a measure,
of the chord, allowing the hearer to perceivein advance
the chord would
be in its normal
condition.
less,
Neverthe-
tone
what
some
very
chord
a
a
77
chord
may
raised and
strikingeffects
are
ducing
produced by directlyintro-
be altered
the
same
More
way,
than
and
one
some
tone
of
may
be
lowered.
some
assortment
which
of
one
will be acceptable. He
chord to another and
successions
and
should
should
an
and
musician
in chords
think
chord
at
means
by
as
certain
instead of in words,
of notes.
To
is a
as
intelligible
glancehe can determine
is
a
the relations
recordinghis impressionsby
informed
understand
the
word
well
to
its root
formation.
First
the
then musicians
established,
buildingchords was
by experimentsfound that certain chords were
system
of
certain others,
following1
effective when
more
began to
progressionsfrom
take
which
progressions
were
the
on
chord
to
character
their
use
their discoveries
governing
naturallythose
pleasingand
most
established.
became
based
progressionsare
and
rules
of
considered
repeateduntil
were
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
78
mutual
upon
fying
satis-
damentall
Fun-
relations
unity is
existingbetween the chords, and, as a consequence,
preservedby grouping the chords accordingto keys.
simile the ever-ready supply of
By introducinga new
be likened to the pigments which the artist has
chords may
limited by
are
upon his palette.Both artists and composers
certain customs,
how
to
the artist
which
but each
combine
possess
his material
sees
this facultythat
upon
must
facultyof
the
to
as
so
depictbeauties
mentallyhears.
geniusrests.
is made
use
practical
of the
as
it is
It is
phenomenon which
in music.
are
It is
fact that
the
this
standing
under-
It is true
integralparts of
the chords
of the
with which
seventh, and
deemed
are
of every
chord
of
chord
do not
progress
simul-
HARMONY
taneously,allowing
while
the others
delayed members
By
this
chords
dissonance
parts of
component
forming a
linger in
to
more
or
become
the
means
one
79
link between
the
places
chord,
next
the two
because
is created
their
chords.
parts of two
momentarily
are
curved
sounded
line.
the
on
accented
beat
of
measure.
harshness
is
resolution,the
satisfactory
suspension
resolve
inserted
the
may
between
Suspension
unessential
down
and
to
the
notes
The
may
be
the resolution.
first method
dissonances.
effect.
discovered
for
ducing
introwhich
harmony had
course,
such as chords of the seventh,
the so-called essential discords,
had
been the outgrowth of man's
ingenuityin the same
degree as were
suspensions,but all thingsthrough extensive
are
natural
or
up
suspensionand
the
was
agreeableis the
more
to be
grow
excite interest.
use
considered
Such
was
natural and
true
of
lose their
so-called
to
power
essential cords
dis-
unnatural
and consequently
was
something new
sought,the search leadingto the introduction of suspension.
With
his
Monteverde
did much
to develop this device.
daring and ingenuityhe used much harsher suspensionsthan
Their first steps
his predecessors
had deemed
permissible.
and
departurehad
in the
pleasingeffects
in which
that is
to
foreign to
the
motion
be
distance
between
They
The
melody
but
be
may
harmonic
the chord
it sounds
which
with
and
which
passing tones
more.
been
now
approachedand
of
MUSIC
OF
will
We
be
THEORY
THE
80
harmony
two
notes
and
be the consequence
may
be of an
in this case
may
accompaniedby
tone,
semi-
number
is
occur
may
must
of
be one
or
may
melodic
motion.
elaborate character,
extremelysimple harmony,
an
slower
intervals of progression being much
the
the harmony may
than those of the melody. For instance,
be written in whole notes and the melody in quarter or
The necessary changes in pitch due to the
eighth notes.
of the melody bring into use tones
more
rapid progression
which are dissonant with the harmony, but their dissonance
and is immediatelyremedied by a following
is only momentary
The use of passingtones dates from
the
consonance.
Sixteenth Century.
is what is variously
Similar to the passing
termed
tone
tone, and broderie. It differs
auxiliary
returningdissonance,
polated
passingtone in that the dissonance is not interduring the passage from one tone to another, but
from
the
returns
occupy
the
to
a
the
consonance
stronger or
harmony
note
from
weaker
to which
beat in the
it
which
it
than does
measure
belongsand
a
It may
came.
tween
the distance be-
semitone above
or
below*
MENDELSSOHN
BARTHOLDY
1809-1847*
The
JtJorn
in
soliil
Mendels-
world
iriamDurg*.
doubly
to
owes
debt
gratitude,
o.f
composing
besides
for,
of
the
finest
w^ritteii
music
founding-
and
^ver
some
musical
great
Sebastian.
John
of
works
Leipsic,
at
conservatory
Rach
and
the
revised
'he
taught
to
us
ciate
appre-
then.lv
?,
"
'
Iix
lie
Mendfelssohni
18?9
most
was
hifrhlv
first
anoreclated.
ipvent
tfo
England,
where
HARMONY
side of
other
Appoggiaturas
it is
of resolution
note
81
be
may
used
double
in two
taneously.
parts simul-
more
or
one
the
in the next
tones
Pedal
chord
tones
fact that
the
from
and
scores,
called
also
are
Pedal
tones
They
such
are
the
assists
points
by one
tone
more
or
these
of
in
more
this
conclusion.
voices
through
tonic
or
part of
of
some
generallyfound
is
The
always be the case.
dominant, the latter being
appearingmore
often
near
movement.
indeed
is
not
the tonic
and
common
the end
It
usuallythe
name
appear
forming a consonant
It
but entirelyforeignto the rest.
pedal
their
derived
succession of harmonies
them
introducing
extensivelyin organ
pedals. -The fact that they
notes
organ
sustained
of
method
probably
played upon
are
in advance
still another
are
artificial dissonances.
the
appoggiatura.
to
striking
of man's
served
ingenuityat
have
rules
from
entirely
resulting
as
in
by
but
are
rules
the
comparativelyrecent
nucleus
They
hedged
themselves
effects which
oramental
how
note
which
around
what
musicians
growth
out-
date.
gathered
have
have
are
considered
beautiful.
Not
alone
does
sounding
from
chord
be committed
to
of
chord
if any
in
tones
are
chord
to
chord
deal with
but
the
of any
key
composer
must
follow
taneous
simul-
the
progressions
vitallyimportant. No
have
harmony
wrong
chord
will
entirely
is.te41ing
a
story
arrange
the
or
progressions
an
uphold
to
reason
and
custom
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
82
upon
shall be
man's
upon
itself rests
reason
seen
later.
In
mind
order
in the
act
must
thoroughly appreciateand
to
music
when
it docs
as
manner
same
enjoy
the
listening
Unless
hook.
break
a
reading a
of a
which is recognizedas intentional and significant
occurs
change of thought no abrupt transition is countenanced.
of ideas along a similar vein
be a continuance
There
must
another
until a new
family of
subjectis introduced, when
thoughts may be ushered in.
of harmony have gleaned through observation
Students
of music which has been accepted and is still deemed
proper
to
oration
an
when
or
relations have
rules
governing them
have
and
satisfactory,
most
and
repeated time
been
these
found
been
rules
into the
grown
until the
again
governing
harmony.
There
exist
may
That
form
which
the tones
which
the chords
is that
the
various
are
the passage
ear
as
realize
from
having one
There
or
relation to
notes
more
are
device
also
and
are
them.
When
its natural
harmonics
it
octave
to both
was
the
upon
sonant
dis-
not
arc
appeals
to
the
is made
car
chords
is by
chords.
which
considered
allowed
are
discussingthe fundamental
learned
that
the
octave
simplestrelation
to
interval of
the next
fifth from
considered in
harmony. The
fundamental
and
to
relations
proper
bears the
is not
the
possessinga
as
exist between
physicalreasons
exist between
chords
of
key
same
formed
by which
common
figurein determiningwhat
to
if these
ous
obvi-
most
tonality,that
to another
group
and to the mind
one
Another
proper
and
the
to
be
can
relationships
chord
belong
Chords
being entirelyproper
logicalsequence.
to
should
them
various
which
simple
appears most
should have the same
diatonic scale,
same
in
ways
harmonic
is the
the next
the
as
mental,
fundaan
bearing
interval of
simplestrelation
HARMONY
exists between
the
separatedby the
place of dominant
the
fourth
are
that
of
in existence
been
that 'the
harmonics
interval of
among
the
fourth.
subdominant.
the chords
the fundamental
and
The
degrees of
As long as
the dominant
on
fifth
the
which
assumes
scale and
harmony
and
has
nant
subdomi-
been
have
the chord
83
that
these
the
scale.
three
chords
contain
Throughout
between
them
composition they
every
of
note
every
used
are
in preserving
frequentlythan any others and thus serve
unity and in firmly impressingthe key upon the mind of the
more
hearer.
A
at the
found
is the
cadence
close of
and
that
the chord
the
is termed
the authentic
cadence
importance
shows
in what
of
the
is used
and
chord
laws
degree the
more
the subdominant
on
dominant
much
subdominant
and
that the
In
available*
second
a
Musicians
major
fifth.
chords
major
of each
member
third and
In order
must
to
bear
chords
three
scales
under
they
discussion
all
are
produce
these
manded
deinstinctively
an
should
major triads,the
root
an
interval of
interval of
perfect
relations, and
be
it
was
found
of the
that
the scale to
be
arranged
in the proper
seekinga
when
the intervals of
with
the
obtainingvarietythat
of
minor
and
descended
has
as
in the
could be arranged
important chords
thus
perfectfifth,
strikingcontrast to those
preservinga strong degree
mode
^Eolian
doubtless discovered
was
of
most
still
and
It
manner.
means
these three
uiEolian mode
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
84
of
one
major scale,
the
of
ing
form-
similarity.The
modern
our
minor
scales.
These
relations which
must
considered
been
have
chords
them
exist between
all dissonances
word
cannot
old
preparedand resolved
grew
by
This
dissonance*
be inserted
in
the
way
the
very
appearing with
The
into existence
follow
must
intervals.
dissonant
be
must
brought
custom
of
introduction
in
are
of harmony
fundamental, the complications
the
and
consonant
rule
that
of
out
nance
feelingthat a consois perfectly
for
logical,
sentence
where
it has
no
meaning
thus
very
without
learn this
as
one
in
writingmusic,
and broader
a broader
composers have assumed
of the rule until they overlook it in so far as
interpretation
but modern
the
preparationis concerned
and
discord upon
a
precipitate
the ear of the hearer without havingestablished any previous
also often disregarding
natural relation,
the old custom
of
followingdissonances by consonances.
Even an untrained ear can observe the incomplete
effect
of a dissonant chord,and unconsciously
expects the following
but it is seldom that the reason
tion
consonance,
why the resoluof a dissonance has become customary is investigated.
that the reason
is purely
comes
Immediately the answer
for the phenomena of
as are
sesthetical,
nearlyall the reasons
music.
The physical
reason
why certain combinations of two
tones
are
consonant
and
others
are
dissonant in
no
sense
reason
HARMONY
dwelling upon
agreeableimpressions,although it temporarily
which
are
disagreeablebecause it is the latter
tolerates those
which
85
it embodies
more
or
less
or
the able
agreedrama
esting
interas
accentuate
a
exciting situations,
'involvinganxiety
to
we
are
prone
which
does not
disparage one
carry these situations to a
settled close, in other words, to a proper
happy or more
resolution.
Our aesthetic sense
in nearlyall cases
requiresan
events.'
In like manner
the mind agrees
agreeablesequence of
and
to
dwell
how
momentarily
dissonant intervals,
but the unsettled
upon
which
thus arises must
last but must
not
condition
give place
are
distress,but
the
to
introduced
of the
for the
story
unconscious
or
demand
Dissonances
soothing consonance.
more
reasons
same
of
as
tions
situa-
the tense
are
the
present.
The
writer
of music
be followed
must
manner
particular
Counterpoint was
the
this branch
of the
must
by
not
realize that
but he must
consonance
in which
only
nance
disso-
understand
the
progressiontakes place.
the birthplace
of dissonances.
Strictly
with
and
deals
it
art
voice,
was
necessary
required for
was
considered
was
voice
to
tone
new
one,
and
the
to
the discordant
chord.
It
tone
of
retain
entirely
to
duce
intro-
it in the ceding
prelaborious
likewise considered especially
tone
was
custom
far easier to
of
especial
an
properlypass
voice
was
that
be
was
allowed
to
have
itself as
that resolution is
more
is
THE
86
higher
ones.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
in
tones, which is not the case
the voice may
In the latter case
descending to lower
be
allowed
relax
to
somewhat.
chord
places
in
the
that dissonant
next
philosophycannot
the
should
one
ceding
pre-
should
notes
by the
assist in determining
chord
the
progression of
be
must
plished
accomchords, but the resolution of dissonances
There
are
by applyingthe most expedient means.
be applied in all cases, and it is the
various rules that may
composer's right to select that one best fitted to his purpose.
when
There
only one
was
a time in the historyof harmony
for
each
considered
resolution was
discord, but now
proper
allow his own
the composer
fancy to dictate the method
may
is being trained to accept the
he will employ and the world
unusual resolutions as satisfactory.
most
Modulation, the passing from one key to another, is one
of the most
important departments of music and to be
handled well requiresthorough musical education on the part
of the composer.
If a musical
but one
key there would result
material
written
in
effect,for the
monotonous
at
afford
compositionwere
would
be too
limited
than one
refreshingvariety. Therefore, more
than a
key is used in compositionshaving a length of more
few measures
and the methods of passing from key to key
and eventually
returningto the first key in order that the
music may
end with the original
tonic,comprisesmuch that
is intricate and much
that requiresboth art and technique,
Certain
keys are more
closelyrelated than are others.
Hence, it is most natural to pass from one key to a nearly
related one.
Related major keys are those whose tonics are
the closer the
consonant; the more
perfectthe consonance
relationship.
Any major key is most
closelyrelated to its
to
dominant
and
subdominant
and
and
subdominant
to
the
key is most
and
relative minors
of
closelyrelated to
the relative majors of
HARMONY
There
three methods
are
only
keys concerned
chords
situated
called
chords
of modulation
and
the
which
are
employed.
are
87
common
enharmonic.
use
It has
been
In diatonic
entirelydiatonic
in the
noticed that
tain
cer-
in tAvo
occur
keys although they will be
may
different degrees of the scale. Such chords are
on
chords
common
and
employed
are
this
in
chord
in diatonic modulation.
and
the triad
be
at
seen
key
on
once
the
that
of
C, hence,
although only chords in the key of C have been used previous
to this chord, after its introduction chords of either the key
of C or the key of G may
follow,and in the case chords in
has taken place. It is only
the key of G are used modulation
to establish the new
key,which is done by observing
necessary
its tonalitythrough a progressionof several chords.
Passage
well as to related keys may be made by common
to remote
as
chords, although the process is less simple. It is done by
same
of
means
occurs
transition
be
on
intermediate
or
reached
modulations.
by passing through
The
new
other
keys which
more
are
closelyrelated to each other. The keys through
do not need to be stronglymarked,
which transition is made
of reaching
for they are of no importanceexcept as a means
the new
key.
key
must
modulation
Chromatic
does
as
does
chords
requirecommon
to the key of C it
diatonic,but by again referring
not
found
of the
the dominant
from
to
sharpingF
it
were
new
the chord
the chord
similar is D
most
key.
D
of
of the
desirable to pass to
sharp A
on
Were
it desired to modulate
could be used
and
by
new
a
any
manner.
tempered scale
It is evident that
a
key
in which
owing
to
the
use
of
the
sharps
equivalentof
the
be
may
flats,because
For
used in both cases.
flat
chromatic
same
other
tones
grees
debe
must
enharmonic
are
certain
key in which
the
are
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
88
the
to modulate
the other
to
one
originalflats
seventh, which
dominant
is the
modulation
in
also
notes
modulation
the
of
chord
the
possess
but
note,
smooth
originalkey
note
one
and
modulation
the
to
common
may
from
In
originalkey
in
However,
claord.
common
the
that
serve
may
in modulation.
ease
it is necessary
have
key
new
afford
of
chord
each, and
the
is
any
tonic
diaand
the
case
key
pivot
new
termed
be effected.
of a
Modulation, well developed,enchances the charm
all the beauties
piece of music without limit* By its means
while
if
of every key are
at the disposalof a composer,
restricted to
to but
one
one-thirtieth of them.
have
should
composer
but
not
access
change
as
key to key without any reason,
departments of music he must be governed by as clear logic
into
as
though he were
writing a treatise. Modulation
related keys is expressive
of candid and simple feelings,
but
the passage
is to remote
when
keys the effect is slightly
and should occur
this
abrupt and surprising,
only when
from
in all other
effect is desired.
At times
composer
wishes to remain
he
occupiesthe mind
with
strong
contrast
between
two
in
create
a
one
an
key for
unpleasant
modulation
an
Or
entire
an
to
some
change of
he may
keys which
desire to
he
will
modulation
alternately
employ for long periods. Ordinarily
at
occurs
frequentintervals duringany pieceof music.
HARMONY
Its
through
until
is
use
many
Sixteenth
the
conceptions
would
been
have
recognized.
of
However,
of
modes,
notes
which
until the
extent
call
we
accidental
by
an
to
use
another
older
the
from
artistic
of
use
establish
musical
acute
another
use
to
was
of
chords
the
there
the
remains
an
of
tribution
the dis-
be
to
did
realized.
musicians
appear
the
the
until
been
to
and
measure
handling
was
him
and
to
have
by
the
so
notes
heed
no
and
wandered
another.
composers
was
tion,
modula-
aimlessly
Nevertheless, this
of modulation.
led them
to
The
for
search
last there
appeared groups of
the present day tonality. By
*
fine
very
decide
tonic.
foundation
at
introduced
likelyto
very
next
to
tial
essen-
in chords,
Nevertheless, there
was
He
very
perceptionof keys
corresponds to
accidentals
of
use
scale, were
accidentals
after it had
key
key.
composers
sense
the
Century
of
the composer
accidental
in the
accidentals
the systematic
or
method
modulation.
one
the
harmony
no
trained
ears
which
his
the
introduced
key began
and
introduce
doing
of
used
were
such
method
a
possibilities
comprehension of single keys there
the
to
attempt
no
modes
of
tones
Seventeenth
grasp
a
be
the
importance
is in fact chromatic
which
was
the
course
church
understand
to
without
Without
presented.
could
Greek
Then
great
any
Glareanus
the
intervals between
not
development extending
Only
Century when
the
of
successions
of
outgrowth
centuries.
of
to
the
89
effects
were
produced,
when
impressionof irregularity
but
judged by
moderns.
In
came
the
into
and
one
was
was
use.
most
early part
thorough
for
some
of the
realization of what
time
remained
content
to
continue
in
key
for
90
THE
designseemed
to
back
wavered
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
This
originalkey.
with the bold
is very
method
in which
manner
evident
modern
the composers
far from
the
when
compared
strike out
composers
one
key to another without regard to their
pass from
be made
if the passage
smoothly
may
degree of relationship
and gracefully.
They are upheld by a perfectconfidence in
and
in safety.
go where they will and to return
of the EighteenthCentury
say that all the composers
is too
in their employment of modulation
faltering
abilityto
their
To
were
for
comprehensive,
of
his time,
there
was
so
the wonderful
who
one
was
far in advance
contemporariescould
devices which
he
not
prehend
com-
introduced
The
so
prehension
beyond the comJohann Sebastian Bach were
of the periodthat other musicians failed to grasp
in their
he extended them, but continued
the suggestions
of a
puerilefashion,allowingit to remain for the composers
of
methods
hundred
others
had
attained and
distributionwas
worked
After
him.
to
definite and
the
Bach
came
height which
he
clear system of
key
out,
part in
as
manner
every
more
did chords*
is
This
is
branch
of the art
which
day
effects.
COUNTERPOINT
It
is
the
vocal.
originally
allowed
was
Later
the
relation
its
fourth,
probable
of
two
tones
of
Greeks
could
voices
were
established
allowed
made
to
sing
of
and
prominence
explained
themselves
music
more
not
and
whose
voices
apart.
entirely
giving
the
only
the
first
step
point.
counter-
or
idea
fourths
regard
which
had
consonance
that
which
tones
even
the
was
the
simultaneously
and
than
of
parts
entertained
fifths
fifth,
more
hand
many
did
rests
octave
constitutes
They
consonances
great
and
time
the
an
other
in
no
different
related
into
at
its
combination
and
is, music
allowed
be
obviously
closely
Greeks
tonality
combination
the
This
which
which
custom
of
the
on
tone.
that
polyphony,
interval
time.
on
octave,
the
pitches
others
upon
as
of
and
contrast,
the
chapter
considered
similar
one
by
be
the
at
very
but
the
its
to
introduction
the
of
recognized
The
which
are
effect
any
toward
came
for
tone
may
simultaneously
impression
one
law
this
and
by
law
voice
one
present
joined
In
was
various
the
at
physiological
the
fundamental
reason
singing
lacks
of
made
people
tone.
same
of
tones
doubtless
music
beginning-
very
succession
was
the
on
the
uncivilized
voice
it
is
mention
in
of
one
accompanied
The
sustain
manner
the
in
all
that
supposition
Probably
to
the
after
well-founded
the
later
been
by
Pythagoras,
The
Greeks,
ever,
how-
to
be
by
arbitrary
laws
of
hampered
science
than
an
art
and
dis-
do not
that
their
erectlyrefrained
to
have
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
92
from
It is true
expressionof emotions.
chanted
long tales of love
the
and
appear
vehicle for
tales whose
war,
singers
beauties
consisted of
not
words
consideration,
whereas,
it is not
music
exquisite
where
now
accompany
mediocre
words.
Christianity
broughtwith
it
new
impetus. Believers
of their
expression
realized the
The
to
abstract
the
in the art
likewise
but was
spirit,
theory which was encouragedby
toward
directed
music
not
Bible
conducive
be
attributed
the
outgrowth
tirely
en-
of
arranging the
ritual.
The
church
exerted
cal
musiinfluenceover
striking
after the death
of
beginning,
the converts possessed
consisted
most
development. In the
Christ,all the music which
of fragments borrowed from
music.
cannot
Christian
churchmen
church
made
advance
in the
Christ
and
Hebrew
his
Christ
COUNTERPOINT
simultaneous
The
93
chantingof
the entire
congregationis
been superseded by antiphonal or
said to have
responsive
about
350.
A
more
chanting
legendary explanationof its
adoptionrelates to St. Ignatius,who is supposed to have lived
during the period from 49 to 107, and who died at Rome
as
a
martyr after having spent his life as a discipleto the
apostle,St. John. The story goes that St. Ignatiushad a
vision in which
the heavens
were
opened to him and within
the celestial choirs praisingthe Holy Trinity in
he heard
The vision so impressed him that he introalternate chants.
duced
this method
of chanting into the church
at Antioch.
it was
In reality,
undoubtedly the resurrection of an Hebraic
custom.
Many
they
died
are
the
continued
stories of
to
the
Christian
martyrs
their
sing praises to
who
God, the
as
domitab
in-
music.
records
also
are
of the custom
what
be
may
observed
considered
authentic
the
necessityof
Christ
on
brought
catholic church
about
and
realization of
common
service.
the
All
efforts to
have
seen
cross
and to have
received
an
intimation
that
this
94
magnificentchurches
formal
more
Hitherto
edifices.
but
the
be in
keeping
chantinghad
choirs of trained
now
by
although hymns
the
only such
reached
that
sing in
Christian
the
as
had
the
been
entirelycongregational
more
splendid
instituted and
singers were
not
immediately
the decision
of Laodocea,
been
on
with
congregationwere
at the Council
excluded, in 367
About
to
aspect
and
erected
were
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
was
properlyappointedshould
churches.
beginning of
the Fourth
new
They
from
mark
and
of the Greeks
the mother
music
the
overcome
ished
bindingtheory of the Greeks. A periodof productionflouruntil the beginningof the next century, when originality
threatened with suppression
claring
was
by a part of the clergydemusic
into the
against the introduction of new
their opinionwas
ritual,but fortunately
church
overruled,
the pagan
forms of worship and his
the pure religious
music that had been
return
to
influence threatened
the
outgrowth
of
When
Christianity,
all of which
of
and studious
philosophic
nature
hesitation.
and
But
later as
he
he became
the
between
he
surrounded
Homer
complied without
familiar with
contrast
was
he
youth, Julianwas
faith and practisethen prevalent,
a
and
and
other
the admiration
he
and
poets,the veneration for antiquity
of
the
vested,
poeticatmosphere with which the Olympic writers stood inhe became
believer in the
theologyof Homer
and
COUNTERFOIL
Hesiod.
With
beautiful
ys
another
intricate
the
it with
prevailed for
metaphysics and
time
in the church.
his
According to
which
abjectsuperstition
he
account
own
Christian
was
until his
twentieth
votary
known
become
the
prelatesand
clergy whom
banished, he attempted
tius had
directed
as
the
Christian
the
development of
Of
Church.
church
the
introduce
to
this meant
course,
music.
The
as
the
heretofore,
their churches
Arian
pagan
Constanritual into
retardingof
Greek philosophyof
a
his
So
elements.
purer
reign was
of
pagan
of
the
brief
them
would
much
that
for
allowed
eventuallythe
lost its control
church
that
his
degrading songs
in
strictly
religious
not
the
not
were
or
have
was
well
was
and
one
worship
church
it
character
crept into
In
assumed
374
the
task
Ambrose
of
once
posed
pro-
of
Arian
OF
THEORY
THE
96
MUSIC
for two
There
of St.
are
Augustine when
the Ambrosian
He
years.
in existence
system, but
Ambrosian
chant
affirms that he
we
he
standard
melodies
no
may
the
speaks of
which
based
quote from
exclaimed, "O
upon
impressionmade
When
God!
my
lasted
the
the Confessions
it in the church
he heard
as
of music
at
by
Milan,
the sweet
of the
worshipas
pure
established
by
Ambrose
and
as
part of it the
music.
religious
The
progress
and
of the
retarded because of misinterpretation
Gregory was
meaning of Greek treatiseson musical construction. Boetitts,
and
not a
musician,had about the year 500
a statesman
attempted to compilea work on the theoryof music as set
forth by the Greeks, but treated it simply in the lightof
mathematical
science and
not
as
an
art.
Students
seem
to
tative
acceptedhis work, De Institutione Musica, as authoriand blindlyfollowed it for years, and their music consequently
in beauty
formal, unreal and failed entirely
was
and when Gregorybecame Pope
from the aestheticstandpoint,
have
deterioratedcondition.
COUNTERPOINT
Few
pontiffshave
equaled and
97
hardly one
surpassed him as
of the concerns
of the vast Papal charge. He
student of life and realized the
ment
necessityfor advance-
administrator
a
was
knew
the
awaken
is indebted
publicservice
visible
highestand
for the
and
and
details of
systematizationof
order
in the service he
which
was
that
was
in
He
saw
anywhere in
unseemly or worthless.
and
arranged
copiedinto
the
church
the music
discard any
and
which
ing
grow-
gather togetherall
must
the chants
the church
satisfied the
entirely
not
use
caused
zeal and
him
consistent
there had
place.
To
man.
organizationof its
its ritual,and for the regulation
its sacred chants.
The severely
had
and
of
entirelyout
were
best in
complete and
chants of Ambrose
formal
of
society.
symbols of the spiritual
teachings
Catholic religion,
be
must
such as to appealto
that the
of the Roman
and
the demands
to meet
he had
untiring
decided upon
compact form
to
the
of
and
chained
be
to
it
was
the
abolished
had
greatlyresembled
recited than
more
more
the
upon
accompanied,and the new
melodies
was
the
termed
chant,
been
the ancient
regarded
largelydisGreek
form
Gregory,however,
sung,
value of whose
notes
planus,
cantus
the
The
being used.
now
had
ancient
rested
notes
the music
but
varied
literal
slightly.It
translation,plain
referred
name
of
succession
to
the
even
movement
of the
Gregory, in order
established
school
to
propagate his
of music
and
imposing proportions
at
became
Rome.
very
system of song,
new
The
school
was
popular, its
of
fame
98
all lands.
spreadingto
conducted
classes in
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Gregory personally
that
It is said
hand
at
lash
be used
upon
in the
at
Rome,
in 757
and
him
Emperor Constantine,requesting
France, which
he
sent
to
send
similar to
schools
numerous
spreadin France
Beginningwith the
and
an
more
system of music.
Previous to this there had
to
or^an
St
those
of
Gregory;
Germany.
in
deputationto
Corneille at
enthusiastic and
of
with
Century the
been
no
the subjectand
for our
concerning
largelydependentupon the historyof
theoretical
information
writings
we
are
was
the
Only
one
of his works
De Harmonica
Institut tone, in which he
preserved,
describes under the name
form of part
Symphonia the primitive
writing.Of this Symphonia he mentions three kinds,Diatessaron, Diapente and Diapason Symphonia, in other words,
So it is
Harmony in the fourth,the fifth and the octave.
has been
evident
at
this
that
time
introduction
the
intervals of
the
fourth
and
fifth were
recognizedin part
of
tones
before had
the
were
not
COUNTERPOINT
enjoyed
amount
Instrumental
develop
begun
crude
so
that it
improvement
vocal
music
had
the organ
than
in church
used
was
assist it.
hundred
two
to
of the instruments
services
It
is known
666
earlyas
as
begun
seems
rather
certain
intricateform.
more
as
displaya
to
at
was
retard
well
as
99
not
that
A.
D.,
that it
are
was
earlier in Spain.
years
The
ment
undoubtedlyselected as the church instruorgan was
because of the volume
of sound to be obtained from it.
Size,bigness,in anythingcreates
of the
with
spectator and
When
began by
man
the
of
created
which
admiration
and
feelingof
unknown
the wonder
indeed
wonder
and
makes
evolution
The
it
way
seldom
of
of
men
and
himself
and
of music
be about
to
a
of more
compass
several inches in breadth and
was
alone
have
him
he
held
the
always
the
with
comes
the
and
construction
volume
and
of sound
accomplished,so
was
than
ings
question-
confronted
importance is small
worships.
all that
detriment
the
own
slow
was
reverence.
extremely crude
was
was
size
feel his
man
and
express
which
their
by
power
he humbles
and
life
of
to
in the mind
awe
wonder
comes
architecture
meaning
structures
it
feelingof
an
There
were
absence
of the
harmony
such
notes
the
organist for
as
the
choir
an
sang.
be
could
discovered that certain tones
Gradually it was
tions
and such combinasounded togetherwith a pleasanteffect,
were
employed at the conclusion of musical sentences.
tones
Later the singersbegan to imitate the simultaneous
and
it
was
very
natural
for
the
name
of the instrument
THE
100
THEORY
OF
the custom
to
which
had
introduced
music
thus
developed and
which
intervals
The
diaphony
it
as
be at
could
one
The
time
method
of
its
beautiful
it
as
appears
effects
the
or
fifth and
recognized the
from
equidistant
these
of
the
from
intervals
the
or
and
principal,
unspeakablyharsh, but at
considered
produced were
for music
possible
was
of
interval.
now
use
either
acceptedinterval
one
at another
the other
of
organum,
octave,
were
be either
could
the extent
to
the
voices
the form
organum.
recognized by
were
was
accompanying voices
principalvoice
appliedto
be
the term
rose
fourth.
two
so
MUSIC
on
Hucbald
to be,
commends
the
as
based
the system
"
If two
He says :
or
more
only proper one,
sing accordingto my system, the blending
persons fervently
of the voices will be most
agreeable/'Although modern
opinionsdo not coincide with Hucbald '$,his words give us a
most
comprehensiveidea of the contrast between the element
the
as
in music
years
which
and
ago
of six hundred
not
afforded
law
of the church
an
sense
severelybound
them
established rules.
Hucbald
was
in the church.
to the rule which
fifth and
use
of organizing
Ecclesiasticalmusicians strictly
adhered
allowed only the use of the intervals of a
changes. The
been
one
extended
limits governing
the
until the intervals of
sacred
a
had
organum
third and a second
termed
recognized. However, the latter system was
artisticin effect,
profaneby the churchmen and though more
was
severelydecried.
were
Not
until another
musical
growth of
this time,
we
come
to
anythingdefinitein regard
Guido
of Arezzo, an Italian
the first half of the
Benedictine monk
lived during
who
Eleventh Century,considered consecutive fifthstoo harsh for
COUNTERPOINT
in
the
way
be
He
in
originality
of
in the
lightof
upon
the subsequentadvance
large degree.
of fourths.
use
music
science and
101
has
been
methods
one
was
rather
art
an
doubtless is due
credited
of
He
with
to
in
much
teachingwhich
cannot
to
language,
and
his
and
rapidly
was
years
which
partlybecause
of his
world
he
at
after
lived most
large
his
had
to his contributions
ambiguous
of his life in
little knowledge of
death
his
almost
fame
discoveryduring
every
To the form
attributed to him.
of
Hucbald
phonia or
the
However,
work.
regard
partly because
and
monastery
science
the truth in
spread
next
fifty
part writing
the
called
Symphonia
he
the
gave
of dia-
name
organum.
Benedict
the
bring
the
he induced
Papal throne
with
him
system
new
Guido
Antiphonarium
an
of
So
although
inventor of
the
been
time
we
credited
to
he is
and
to
with
him,
now
had
know
Guido
now
could
we
have
not
terpoint
coun-
nor
Rome
in accordance
diaphonia,discant,organum
of the four
nor
written
to
to return
credited
with
the music
the invention
of his
of the
ciple
prinand
diaphony for
or
chantingorganum
ing
that is,both ascendin parallel
directions,
the voices to move
the ease with which
both descending,therebyincreasing
or
During the Twelfth
all the musicians could keep in tune.
Century a change occurred and a systenj termed discantus
It
began
was
the custom
in
in France
prominently
appear most
extreme
other
The
began to be
to
and
lands.
the Nether-
sought
and
the
of the
notes
highestpart
The
voice the
church
had
the
firmus
cantus
"
the Latin
from
this
in
sometimes
turbulent
and
in
spirits
which
the
tenore,"
laws
their songs.
to
second
hold.
to
which
in
were
free
were
more
voice
pave
established canonical
manner
ments.
orna-
be
hampered
we
of
of tenor
name
The
not
carrying
many
much
lower
or
with
acquireda
it carried
than
rapid movement
embellished
were
melody which
The
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
102
could
wise
no
their
express
it is to
So
them
turn
for
legends,stories
been
had
of
serenades
whose
music
arranged with
regard to
the
music
also advanced
had
ballads and
war,
were
the progress
the lute and the
no
and
of vocal
had
flute,
served
effort.
no
as
for increasing
means
instruments, such
The
connection
as
but
were
handled
On
them.
understood, and
the organ
helpfulimprovements
was
rested
not
erally
gen-
entirely
knowledge of music
was
very
largelytransmitted
was
notes
and
of
as
very
manner
precarious
the words
consequence
between
the Sixth "nd
period
in which
of many
of notation,
to
preserve
secular songs
those contained
in the
Locicheimer
song-book,a
collection
of Volkslieder which dates from a period not later than the
Fifteenth Century. The
preceding unrecorded period is
great, but an estimate of the lengthof time consumed
by
are
COUNTERPOINT
103
the
them.
They
be able to compose
which
verses
petent
subject,and they must be com-
must
would
and
the
and
women
singersor
dancers.
or
took
companies containing
These
from
and
civil,
bred
customs
who
in
by such
the
assisting
life.
Nevertheless,
they accomplished
'
in
Century
and
of music.
of the
to the mass
progress
OF
THEORY
THE
104
MUSIC
wit and
over
did not
so
the
societyor
have
off from
exerted
with
them
imbue
might
church
cut
reverence
any too much
allusions which,
humorous
in the south
Minstrels
in
and the
increase their
To
them.
upon
means
knowledge of it
and
masters
in
They were
performingthe
giftedthan their
music composed by the latter
made
often
more
it much
more
the music
of
leadingthe
The
as
masses
to
which
qualities
appealed to them.
gained was largelyinstrumental in
adopt the art and thus perpetuate it,
they performed
traditions and
dignitywhich
would
gave
have
to
the jongleurs,
absorbed It as
assistants,
art*
Three
forces
The
severe,
were
at
work
in the
profession.
developmentof
unprogressive
system of
the
COUNTERPOINT
refinement
and
and
delicacyof
the
'would
have
been
the
lost.
The
church
The
The
touches
Crusaders
had
East.
the
carried
were
from
brought
new
country
until
as
marked
very
returning Crusaders
from
beautiful music
they traveled
many-sided beauty.
intricate and
an
times
singers,
Minne-
equallynecessary for
either an essential quality
preservedits pure, dignified
Without
new
country, receiving
assumed
at
and
three forces
Troubadours
of the
its
105
influence upon
musical
they
music.
knowledge
The
of
surge
these movements
added
which
religiousenthusiasm
effect as did the
a refining
prompted
improved morality of the times, and secular music assumed
it is seen
that the folka
song
greater artistic perfection. Thus
birth to artistic music, but during the Middle
gave
music
Ages church
assumed
the character
of
whose
art
an
continued
progress
noticed that this was
be
freely and uninterruptedly.It may
in all the
a
period of increased activity
developed form at the same
Paintingacquired a more
arts.
time
reached
into
polyphony
that
western
the
point where
sudden
Europe
acquiredthe
come
and
arts
into existence.
came
preparationof
the
The
centuries
development. The
astonishing
had
of
become
civilized and
for
civilization,
world
culture is
merged
nations
of the
Fifteenth.
purely national
school
Here
the Twelfth
was
of music
gradually
always last to
Century to
the foundation
and
was
of
had
had
ing
learn-
the middle
of
followed by
the first
ous
numer-
English. About
this time
there
appeared among
the
THIS
106
and
thus
arose
Thirteenth
subject
of music
form
new
MUSIC
called
chant.
measured
of
Franco
OF
THRORY
In
C'antus
Mensnmhilis,
double
long
he
tions
men-
large, the
Of the large,l"m";,
breve and
the breve and semibreve.
long-,
two
semibrcvc
kinds, the perfect so named
there were
by
and
the
Blessed
Ever
in honor
of the
Franco
Trinity,
fect.
imperthree
of
the next
notes
Every perfectnote was equal to
iM'om
this
lesser denomination; every imperfect to but two,
called perfect and
the rhythmic forms
arrangement
sprang
modern
Perfect time corresponds with our
imperfect time.
to the common
or
tripletime, while the imperfect answers
music.
duple or quadrupletime of modern
dealt with ligatures and
The other chaptersof his work
his system
in instituting
of
Franco
succeeded
and
rests
the observance of which occupiedmusicians for
measurement,
aid in
It was
an
a
by no means
comparativelyshort time.
the production of beauty, but rules which
were
complicated
kinds
four
in the
bears
extreme
no
of
are
relation to
notes,
found
the
the
in all treatises of
advance
of
nr
the
time,
counterpoint,but
to
It
a
system of
measurement
Several
new
musical
COUNTERPOINT
theorists
into existence
came
An
107
effected
and
complete
lution.
revo-
ars
farther
them
radical
change
The
which
nova
was
writers
from
away
composing
bring about
to
necessary
of measured
difficultand
were
their desire.
discant
advance.
an
employed
in the extreme.
unusual
firmus
originalcantus
an
had
Consequentlya
and
Instead of
upper
of
or
adopted
for
others
more
upper
generallywritten in
were
rhythms,
stronglymarked
the triple
measure
was
then
the
the
and
methods
part
or
combining
firmus
and
parts. The
songs
totallydissimilar
so
but
istic
characteronly common
all music was
practically
in which
written.
One
of
of
significant
changes
reaction
the
which
measure
first
the
had
to
was
be
the
introduced
return
graduallyceased
to
to
be
which
was
of
use
duple
employed, triple
measure
and
monotonous
brought
about
important innovation
Another
time.
thus
was
revival of
the
duple
introduction
than
of
our
whole
divided into
smallest,but this was
of minim.
In
smaller notes which were
given the name
the crotchet was
equal to
introduced,two of which were
been
note, had
The
minim.
movement
more
and
notes
notes
even
the
smaller notes
made
of
nine
of other
the
semibreves
values
were
had
two
turn
one
accelerated
possiblemore
part might contain many
instances four,six,seven
againstone
set
being used in
similar
breve, the
manner.
This
THE
accommodated
the combination
would
which
employing
have
not
notes
of
been
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
108
of different
of songs
with
possible
but
lengths
of
syllableto
note.
especialnote
of
composer
musical
and
mathematical
lived
theorist, has
by
his
historical
into
writinggiven a clear and valuable insight
He
has
called
conditions existing during his time.
and theoretical
the
attention
to
several
attempted tasks
instances in which
of extreme
the
have
composers
in combining songs
difficulty
of
firmus consisted
the cantus
very dissimilar lengths. In one
of eighteenbreves, the discantus accompanied nine syllables
of text
and
the discantus
was
nished
fur-
with
necessary
allot the
to
write
melodies and
the two
to the
syllables
notes
resembles the
to
fully
success-
solvingof
scarcelyone in a hundred
givingpleasure you cause
gross barbarism I"
to revelers who, *'
and
ill-humor*
instead of
Oh, what
tant
extremelyimporof various portions
settings
to one
of the
new
era, one
COUNTERPOINT
that
were
been
put aside
frivolous in the
and
new
ones
rhythm, measure
for a period in
musical
greatest advances
in
comprises.
where
The
musical
noted
were
assumed
of
and
The
extreme.
accustomingthemselves
were
109
methods
were
to
of
changes
activity seemed
which
had
been
to
and
in the
the
earliest
actual
to
of the
one
period
France,
Paris,
occurringin
around
center
appealedto
use
the
newer
exhibit
an
inclination
is evident
duple measure
Italian composers
early mastered
rhythms, and syncopation. They were
The
free of movement
was
syncopationwas
employed this
method
more
such
to
the French
effective
the
hear.
the
music
Their
French
that combined
extent
of
use
able to create
sparing than
an
the Italians
triplemeasure.
pleasantto
and
return
strongly
schools during
while
older
the
clingto
to
now
them
toward
of
one
imperfectmeasure
use
ideals had
with
an
which
older
who
with
The
monotonous
measure.
Italians
instrumental
were
important device,the
but
without
the
The
canon.
which
success
in
developing a very
French
had employed it,
school
newer
written in only
was
Italycanon
nearly all compositions.Three parts were
In
parts
were
indeed
rare.
however, and
four
the
the efforts of
attended
The
two
knowledge
and
not
of
parts, as
usual and
canon
was
were
four
versal,
uni-
English wrote
Century.
in
In
one
out
composition. All of
the
OF
MUSIC
the
parts
THEORY
THE
110
voice
that
received
canon
be used
would
cross
to
was
to
take it up.
The
its name.
be notated
in
indicate the
It
point where
during this period
was
firstreferred to the
term
rules
always
not
were
to
mean
itself.
the device
this time
About
there
were
of intervals which
five species
"
"
considered
were
progressions
perfectto imperfectintervals and vice versa.
third,the
from
The
natural
most
music
changes which
the
degree by
had
been
an
introduced
to
be
extreme
in
posing.
com-
The
furnished with
were
equallycharacteristic
movements.
This
the church's
drawing
away
from
graduallyit found
The
variations to be introduced.
unusual
music
the
provise
allowed to imin the books of
to
The
character of the
singer.If he
COUNTERPOINT
and
would
ornaments
were
who
every
attention
the
he
111
which
of
the
authorities
were
chants
the
to
remark
strikingresemblance
choristers and
of the
drawn
was
writer
declared
became
between
the
to
likened
that music
so
abuses
the
defiled
sarcastic
as
to
the
in
the
more
general had
qualitywas
music
and
was
service
may
choir,
Gregory had
as
this rule
for the
was
assumed
an
considered
for the
should
use
found
of
in the
decreed
be allowed
adhered
to
to
of smaller
value
Another
in the extreme.
wanton
introduction
of notes
regarded as
reason
be
extensive
music
inappropriate
admittance
that
none
sing in
abuses
of
laymen
but
those
the church
were
not
and
into the
into the
duly appointed
as
long
liable to occur,
lifetime and the
for the
that
again should
never
with
that
discants, nor
voices
upper
music
the
He
fourth, which
any
office for
forego the
to
intervals
consonant
case
in the solemn
on
such
its
new
in
during
from
feast claysor
it would be correct
as
eightdays. Occasionally,
the
thai
diseant
suspended
culpritbe
the
depraved
described
demanded
be
counterpointbe stuffed in
secular songs.
with
MUSIC
of the church
the music
and
as
any one
church
OF
THEORY
THE
112
the
as
Pope acknowledged as
heighteningthe beauty of melody. Voices might sing at
in such a way
these intervals above the plainchant, but never
eighth,fifth
as
and
to
the
the cantus
firmus itself.
It is also interesting
to note that at this time the church
of
authorities with great freedom
expressedtheir disapproval
the
Ionian mode
mode
and
whose
tended to the
use
strikingresemblance
more
which
this mode
fact,they stigmati2ed
to
as
major
ing
bear-
music
present ideal. Tn
lascivious together with
our
florid diseant
was
disappearduring the
entirely
The
effects of the
Fourteenth
tury.
Cen-
in
no
wise
an
easy matter
to
and
it
freer music.
in two
Accordingto
doubled
one
the
Pope'sedict
an
additional
the
others.
or
have
else sung
in
COUNTERPOINT
unison
with
of them
one
irregularin
was
singers to
three
whom
highest voice
as
its
the extreme.
in their
matters
and
as
113
of
interpretation
the notes.
firmus
cantus
of the three
of
that
effect
The
thirds.
was
composed
was
flowingand
carried
left
was
reading the
singthem transposed to an
singingvoices did not follow
the organum
the
tenor, possessedthe
or
instead
and
written he would
Consequently the
but
parallelfifths,
Of
much
notes
above.
octave
the
prescribed
of sixths and
artisticthan
more
produced by
the
very
desirous
of
that
meager
with
do
exterminating,their
they did not realize
musical
that
in such
knowledge was
so
the singerswere
juggling
manner
to
as
pletely
com-
the
the falsity
of
signified
which
name
with
away
proper
as
device is stillused
music
in the
for
its
use
became
renderingand
in
church, under
the
the
The
services.
of
name
falso-
of chantingthe psalms
bordone, in the polyphonicmethod
have
it in
used
The
and
greatest composers
responses.
thirds
obtaining certain effects. For example, progressive
chorus
sixths are
and
employed by Mozart in the priests'
in his grand Mass
in his Magic Flute and by Beethoven
inC.
it to
and
common
is of
voices
were
of
name
They
sorbed
ab-
much
originatorsand
A
the
English
enough
method
interest to
of
typical
this
was
warrant
discant supra
librum
attention.
Three
our
contratenor
114
THE
and
the supranus.
before a book
sounded
the tenor
with
the
beat
the
the tone
plain-song.The
time
while
plain-song.The
of the
By this
the octave.
from
varied, gathered
singers,whose number
containingthe requiredcantiis linnus and
The
repliedwith
tratenor
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
and
fifth above
the supranus
established his distance
each
means
tenor
eon-
the
led with
plain-songand
accompanied him, note
the contratonor
supranus
fourth above
he
was
and
end
accompany
watch
it note
the
which
plain-songbut
for note.
On
which
to
he would
have
sung
had
The
not
was
the other
was
fifth below
all freedom
allowed
desired*the
supposedto
was
requiredto
to
range,
hand,
as
he
begin
not
he
The
followingthe rules of the ancient plainorganum.
also see to it that all the principal
of
notes
must
supranus
This styleof
each measure
concordant with the tenor.
were
is hard to appreciateat this age.
Any
extempore music
been
such
was
of
the
case*
Thomas
case.
An
account
of discant supra
librurn
given by Simon
measurable
Century pointsto
COUNTERPOINT
Tunstide
thirds
as
insisted upon
and
the
sixths,and
115
of
use
advised
such
imperfectintervals,
the
three
voices
that two
allowed
were
of them
discant
allotted the
were
this time
By
in the
avoid
to
supranus
of
duty
far
as
than
more
it is
and
as
probable
mental
ornaintroducing
Therefore, it would
freelymoving
sixths
with
bourdon.
singing
have
voices to
the
was
avoid
to
observe
all in
However,
firmus
cantus
indeed
been
in accordance
dangerous,
of
some
with
the
for it
of
two
and
the
faux
extempore
practically
impossible
was
things which
deemed
were
as
of
that
may
That
each
they
groups.
group
produce
of voices
the
desired
of
member
every
sing in unison,
must
effect with
some
groups
the
could
The
were
The
innovations
steadily increasingthe
originalintervals of
longeroccupiedthe
have
limits
of
octave, a
of musicians
an
minds
consideration.
claimed
which
Thirds
had
been
so
other
freely
almost
have
tieth
Twen-
remarked
good counterpoint.
fifth and
fourth
no
sixths
prominence
that a device called gymel had appeared,although it
of
attained any great importance. This was
a method
never
writing for two parts so that they remained an interval of a
had
obtained
the relation of
form
omitted.
of
faux
positionbelow
third.
it became
rather
by allowingthe parts
the upper
the
Gymel
bourdon, with
parent, and
means
such
voice would
to
porarily
tem-
ing
lower, although retain-
was
the
meager
the ambition of
doubtless
an
ated
abbrevi-
116
the
defect.
faux
This
bourdon
tenor, but
or
by adding
new
thirds.
in fifths and
tenor
thirds
sixths
and
the
older
above
the
by introducingsomething entirely
bassus, descendingbelow
contratenor
by returning to
not
conservative
of
firmus
cantus
they did,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
of the Fourteenth
at the end
Thus
the
firm foundation
upon which
to build their art.
They had invented a system of polyphony
which
recognized a varietyof intervals. They had broken
Century
musicians
from
away
the
had
created
with
of the church
canons
such
of
assurance
rules established
Gregory
Seventh
by
had
those who
done
he
Century
to
untold
again
ever
without
were
things for
established
schools
be
musical
music
for
governed by
the
when
edge.
knowlin the
trainingof
in
Fifteenth
methods, and
musicians
out
world's
by
the
beginning of
progress
demanded
to
the
new
institution of
of
chapels or organizations
adjuncts to the principalcourts of
as
necessary
the
Europe
necessary effect. These institutions formed
to which
a part of the household
they belonged,be it king's,
of the lesser nobility.
The members
ient
subservor
were
prince's,
had
the
Not
only
was
of honor
but
On
the
and
were
to it
Secular music
wonderful
impetus.
under
beingrequiredto
between
caused
received
the most
strict church
instances
rules,in many
be ecclesiastics. Naturallythe strong comparison
the
old and
the
new
institutions of music
and gifted
musicians to seek admittance
energetic
into the chapels,and here they competed with one
another to produce original
and artistic compositions.Special
obtain
to
knowledge or inclinations were
necessary
COUNTERPOINT
and
admittance
to insure
117
perfectionwas
required
position.
The
composition was
past and the
age of extempore
had
rules which
governed that rather haphazard method
serious composition,
transferred to the more
which was
were
which
notated
had
throughout. Successive faux bourdon
previouslybeen so very popular found littlefavor under the
the outgrowth of a childish
conditions. It was
more
^new
beginningthan a proper implement with which to advance an
At
first the church
modes
adhered
art.
were
strictly
to,
thereby greatly limitingthe range of available notes, and,
although during the first part of the Fifteenth Century,there
remarkable
in the beauty and flow of melody,
advance
a
was
the
permanent
had
composers
not
rules
arbitrary
and
gracefulmusic
all progress
retarded
aimless discords
so
that
instead of
which
by
all the
of
fining
con-
in writing
assisting
led composers
combiningthe melodies their
and
into
good
were
sadly weakened.
qualities
During the first half of the Fifteenth Century England
who served greatlyin advancing the
possesseda contrapuntist
This was
art.
John of Dunstable, who died in 1453. He
life and
vigor to the science of counterpointand
gave
cords
possessedenough geniusto sever the bonds of arbitrarydis-
similar unnatural
and
stable's music
may
secular, which
or
be
are
judged by
and
scored.
The
features. Dununnecessary
several compositions,
sacred
However,
extant.
of Dunstable's
few
and
have
compositions
obscurityof his
personalcharacteristics which
allowed
the world only a meager
only
as
comparatively
ciphered
yet been de-
notation
and
the
many
he allowed
it
some
time.
His
music
excelled
He
understood
in
to
creep
into
the art of
followingan
effective
plan
of
with
proceedingsof
Duncomposers.
reflected in the compositions of
aimless
hitherto
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
118
were
good qualities
that there grew
his contemporaries and followers
so
up a
placed
disstyleof counterpointin which the older plain-songwas
neously
occurring simultaby a system of different metres
and
inexpressive
by which the otherwise monotonous
duced,
introand canon
material was
was
effectively
presentedmore
extensivelyin the lighted
although it figured more
the
alone in inaugurating
music.
Dunstable was
not entirely
lands
and the Nethermethods
which
he did, but both in France
there existed contemporaneouslythose who
displayed
ideas, thus indicatingthat the time had
equally advanced
stable's
indeed
was
allotted to
typicalcomposers
Dunstable
is dear
He
of music.
of the
as
from
English historian
of the
obscure
an
boy, distinctly
for whom
man
but
composer
false honor
at the hands
only
the heart
to
raised himself
people,to
and
for advancement
come
as
have
acceptablecertain
that
even
who
composers
With
the
successors,
as
were
late
as
not
passingof
the musical
firm
So
the Sixteenth
Century
hold
qualityof music;
did
it
there
existed
less
worthy
rid of it.
Dunstable
and
and
to
the Low
few
The
old
and
Countries.
made
concords.
is directed to France
1435
of
of
harshness
impressivenessof
tone
tion
atten-
About
composition
became
grew
less
to
be
COUNTERPOINT
the French
Among
time.
the
Venice
and
were
in
remained
his
to
the notable
with
to
so
to show
soon
choir
learn
the
denote
from
of the
of the School
each
other
the
While
themselves.
his
of the
composers
of France
and
the musicians
enabled
characteristics which
was
twenty-eightyears of
Pope's choir,an organization
Papal
the
When
of the
mingled
were
ideals which
1474.
to
majority of
there
was
which
stands for
a
name
composers
achievement
is that of Guillaume Dufay,
member
Countries
Low
119
of
the
new
Dufay
compositions possess
powers
of
few
writer.
It
whole.
He
devoted
differed
and
his
from
canon
employed it freelyand
of the leading device.
use
of
and
measure.
as
purpose
Dufay
even
sweet
use
hands
it was,
employing the
ornamented
point
counter-
choosing a definite
compositionsand the music,
did not
and
thought.
came
and
canon
and
in
fell short in
for his
though
insistently
express some
Following Dufay
in whose
bourdon
faux
framework
flowingand
equallysuccessful
was
originallysimple
However,
even
imitation
received
effective treatment
the term
should
Now
means.
it
the
repeat entirely
after another.
be termed
The
older
for
imitation,
requiresthat one
progressionof the
device
to modern
would
now
or
more
voices
it was
conceptions
properly
nothing
120
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
OF
tation
prolonged imitation. Musicians had treated imiOnly casually did they seize
ineffectively.
very
voice a progression
of repeatingin one
opportunities
upon
The theme with
which had previouslyappeared in another.
three times during
its imitation would
or
appear only two
Often
be abandoned.
several
then
the composition and
There now
themes were
treated in this manner.
appeared in
the last of the Fifteenth Century a growing realization of the
possiblebeauties which could be derived from methodical
than
more
of imitation.
treatment
Imitation
and
canon
to
belongingstrictly
devices
are
for
methods
which
but valuable in
to
expend
Dufay
was
furnished
of
devices,some
and
progress
ideas had
worthless
having served
efforts which
considered
well fillsthe
them
with
them
as
positionof
in
aiding
foundation
in truth led to
the most
various
upon
valuable discoveries
prominent composer
leader of what
of
is known
the
the
King
of
France,
to
the head
It Is
that
rather,
surprising
in
country
foEiefgn
and
who
man
of which
who
he had
attained.
so
long
positionwhich
COUNTERPOINT
he did should
the
have
musicians
doubt,
of them
many
such
his mother
of
attention
their
exerted
remarkable
his associates
were
him
to
influence upon
However,
country.
drawn
was
121
without
in the
because
of
chapel and
the
bond
of
brotherhood.
Okeghem, great
his music
styleand
He
superfluities.
imitation
encumbered
continued
of the device
possessed a
was,
was
it descended
as
use
he
as
the
him
somewhat
demic
aca-
with
tic
inartis-
many
development of
canonic
from
quent
freDufay and made
metres
simultaneouslyintroducing
to
of
of musicians
condition
fundamental
the
and
to
remained
be deemed
may
conception which he had of
unchanged
he
of
monument
as
which
inartistic touches
which
his
unfortunatelyadded
classical
canon
has
ability.The
were
readily
and it may
be asserted that
even
dropped by his successors
stands for perfectionin
Johann Sebastian Bach, whose name
counterpoint,merely employed Okeghem's style of canon.
Furthermore, his shortcomingsas to artistic developmentare
than
overshadowed
in other
more
by his achievements
respects. His
he
proper
had
overcame
Okeghem,
a
more
in
and
regard to
that it is to
value
very
step
most
easily
that Glareanus,renowned
the
of the composer.
whose
use
Okeghem
devices
the many
augmentation and diminution.
canon
was
complete knowledge
Among
in
one
of their master.
of interest to note
It is indeed
were
the
advanced
which
for
imitators
and
successors
By
ipeans
mastered
of diminution
at
more
122
THE
THEORY
MUSIC
OF
would
sound
the
note
same
in which
the
imitation
take away
to
having time
as
occurred.
to
forgetthe original
written
The
notes
not
were
Another
one
was
termed
inversion
In
canon.
this the
and
the work
mars
of
and
sweet
canon
which
the
his music
is without
that awkwardness
of many
of his contemporaries. The
forms
have been mentioned
have proved themselves
worthy
which
One
with
of the
soon
assumed
demanded
the second
which
the
the
character
of
musical
viewed
by
be raised to
other forms
curiosities.
COUNTERPOINT
had
been
firmus
in the cantus
the shortest
In another
omitted.
were
of
notes
the
in
of
but
riddle
which
manner
The
canons.
the
has since
various
not
Middle
parts
escape
Ages;
the
spirit
were
the
name
written
not
were
the
canons
for them
won
all
ignored in
were
did
music
contained
in still another
And
firmus
cantus
repetition.
During Okeghem's time
of mystery which
permeated
written
123
out,
the entire
the
is the
that
specialdevice
considerable
in which
manner
point
be
to
was
where
of
mannerisms
the
be
to
were
the
worthless
usual
the
canon
from
master
his
1521.
Music"
His
and
upon
He
as
was
was
written
one
unnecessary
but
were
into
use
Depres
apparent,
1450
and
music
died
at
him
the
in
was
touches
born
his native
the
"
greatly honored
them.
among
in the manner
shown
in
place
Prince
part
pre-eminentis that
the most
giftedof
whose
contemporariestermed
he
"
una
ex
in relation to the
specialwork
is looked
most
are
the
seemingly
Century composers
that always comes
Plures
These
of
of
"
movement.
and
which
name
that
material
Okeghem
After
an
marked
Fifteenth
tate;
imi-
to
were
was
evolved.
parts
imitation
the
observed.
the other
of
His
in
for
prehensive
com-
It was
positionof singer in the Papal chapel at Rome.
during this course that he studied under Okeghem. In Rome,
and the people became
Depres displayedhis superiorqualities
he
and genius* Later
enthusiastic over
his learnfegf
most
124
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
the head
of the
part himself.
himself
Depres devoted
the Ordinary of
for
deemed
was
the
of
use
the
as
did
for
fitting
various
devices.
the words
While
it
the
This
Mass.
very
perceptiblestrain of
It attempted to
music.
largely to
displayingskill
in
the
somewhat
the
same
sentiment
accompanied.
Netherlands, the
in
use
was
arranging settings
a
subject which
schools
of composers
on
with creatingand
and
the Continent
were
of
counterpointand they
felt convinced
adornment
a
could
composition.
attention
of
the
they
were
the work
the
new
to
confronted
which
church
with
the
unpleasant realization
"was
that all
worthless
for
forms.
COUNTERPOINT
125
of the
Queen
Elizabeth
in 1585.
He
of imitations.
was
service of
strict in his
very
simultaneous
notes
of
of
use
various
He
tion
displayedhis skill in this direcin his settingof the new
Litany of the English church
directions that absolutely
in 1544, done according to explicit
be observed.
Tye did not observe as strict
plain treatment
rules in his counterpointas did Tallis,but the sternness
was
relieved by its dissolution toward
the close of every composition
or
running
into
left
Tallis has
in
motet
ornamental
effects.
of his abilities in
strikingmonument
most
It consists of
eightindividual trebles,
eight contratenors, eight tenors and
forty parts.
eight mezzosopranos,
eight basses. Each
various
and
notes
of the
and
The
attention
of the church
English church
at
Rome
well
as
as
that of
to
such
an
that all
extent
the
was
of
attention
was
sense
lost
church
the
during the
bore
pauses.
fruit in many
appeared. The
However,
examples of plainercompositionswhich now
collection
psalms received an entirelynew
treatment, one
"The
Psalmes
of David
in English
bearingthe inscription,
Meter, with Notes of four parts set unto them by Gulielmo
Damon, for John Bull, to the use of the godly Christians
fore recreating
themselves
lades."
instede of fond and unseemly balIn
born
1520
at
Orlandus
Netherlands
the
town
Lassus
School
in
assumed
Mons
of
whose
a
in
hands
Holland, there
the
work
of
was
the
that
by
attained
had
this
change
life. His
and
Delattre
Roland
of
when
father
incident
the
which
he
brought
the
made
and was
to walk three times around
money
into a collar
made
scaffold with the spuriousmoney
The
his neck.
about
as
began a
about
in Mons
reached
only
name
admitted
was
St. Nicholas
of
Church
in the
chorister
Lassus
English School.
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
126
young
his name
son
was
mortified
so
public
worn
that
he
intimate
an
after the
remorse
feverish
to
King
talent
for
purpose
made
did not
even
it
wide
did
about
at
in
directed Lassus
for
possible
which
no
knowledge of
From
he
him
music
to
found
creation
time
same
he served
His
successors.
littleor
sttfficehim.
the
unusual and
more
the materials
he
and
eve
who
His
judgment
severe
composer
was
his emotion
overcome
Palestrina,born
was
seized with
was
Paris.
stayingin
of St. Bartholomew's
massacre
effort to
write music
The
had
The
of
Lassus.
as
as
period
model
superiortaste
use
to
ready
of
the very
for him.
and
best
though
Al-
devices,Palestrina
COUNTERPOINT
he
127
loath to gather
way
utilized in his best efforts.
in
was
found
no
Palestrina
parallelmovement
changing the value
intervals
of
of
contrary
close and
been
closes had
We
have
purity of
to be
are
old
of all the
expressiveand
toward
the
favored
suggestionswhich
very
learned
the
His
movement.
he discovered
more
were
cially
espe-
pleasingapproach
more
awkward
in the
Palestrina
melodies
was
affairs.
precedingchapterhow
instrumental
in
the artistic
saving
church
threatened
extinction,a fate with which it was
form it had assumed.
because of the non-religious
Palestrina
discovered
the secret of writing music which was
both simple
construction
and
and
to
as
expressive of religious
pure
and Gregory and later in
thought In the days of Ambrose
the Fourteenth
Century, at the time of the edict of Pope
hands
John XXIL, when the church held matters in its own
iron-clad
its music
with
surrounded
and
rules, it was
by a conviction that the church should have
prompted more
absolute sway
over
everything connected with it than by any
knowledge of the artistic fitness of that which it enforced.
Palestrina,however, established a standard which has since
music
of church
cause
been observed
not
only beby composers
the church
approved of it but because it perfectly
fulfilledall requirementsby being strictly
religious.
music
from
Bach
stands
at the
head
of
No
contrapuntists.
one
has
128
THEORY
THE
OF
MUSIC
that
tion
Johann Christopherhad in his possessiona collecof organ
which
he himself
compositionsby the masters
copied. Prompted by his jealousy he refused to allow
them.
brother
to
However, Johann
younger
copy
secured
Sebastian, nothing daunted, surreptitiously
and, it is said,copied them by moonlight.
Bach
musical
of
was
sixth
the
instincts had
first
them,
generation of a familywhose
found
expression in the zither
the
Johann Sebastian was
originalBach.
culmination, and succeedinghim the glory of the family
playing of
declined.
the
He
exhibited
evinced
any
of
need
elementary teachings of
His powers
he
often
himself
The
allowed
unusual
musical
but advanced
never
only
not
an
his
of concentration
instructor
In
capacities
music
he
supplementthe
brother, Johann Christopher.
marked
were
to
in the extreme
and
him
the
all
through
the
munificent remuneration
of
dollars
fifty-seven
he
was
able to afford
an
extended
journey and
tary
mone-
indigentcousin.
Bach's artistic ability
was
trulypeculiarto himself. He
delightedin allowing himself to be entirelyinfluenced by
the spiritof the words which
he was
accompanying and to
sensations produced. He
attempt to carry out the particular
beautiful effects when
was
reproducing
capableof especially
assistance to
ideas of
an
visions,and
a* choral, From
"
Heaven
came
the
COUNTERPOINT
impressionof
is clear to
One
the hearer.
of
The
his work
vocal
almost
freer
stylewas
Bach's
genius so that
his careful study of Italian
which this exerted imparted
accomplished.
Bach's
compositionswhich were
designedfor choir work
totallyignored during his lifetime and remained
the
time
some
"
Passion
Matthew
realization
marked
at
last discovered
for
vainly groping
"
it is called.
as
acter
char-
considered
be
seventy-five
beginning of
"
his
the
accustomed
a
and
The
he
what
his
St.
world's
opened
predecessorshad
to the new
sea
new
bearings. They
and
it was
new
in this
of composers
first work
They
necessary
for them
an
not
were
conditions.
enthusiastic with
were
"
of
era
an
not
in
gotten
for-
of their excellence.
had
field was
the
were
unusual
after the
He
Their
of performance must
difficulty
for this neglect,
but in 1829, over
reason
years
their
and
music
unlocked
for
been
which
keys
broadeninginfluence
the heavier
as
the
accomplished a
music.
to
the
to the shepherds on
angels coming down
first Christmas
morning and then soaring upward again,
the
he
129
as
were
to
tirely
en-
gators
navi-
get their
enthusiasm
which
knew
no
wrong.
methods
by
realize,but they
They did
not
and
which
forms
which
began
Century was
this branch
future
in time
were
creatingnew
to become
were
compositionswould
be
the standard
judged.
mony
Har-
to
of the art
the
beginningof the EighteenthCentury came
His effect
opening of the era of Johann Sebastian Bach.
left
He
polyphonicmusic was
great in the extreme.
upon
it changed in every particular
from the condition in which
into life during
he found
it. The
music which came
new
freer character. Contrapuntists
of a much
this period was
With
the
OF
THEORY
THE
130
MUSIC
the simultaneous
but
gracefully,
and
had
the
become
the melodies
only must
Not
intricate.
more
melodic
or
standpoint.Counterpoint
harmonic
or
horizontal
the
from
it both
tones
must
The
growth
of
harmony as well.
counterpointhas proved itself to have
been
very
serves
as
such
that
manner
when
be
shall
harmony
correct
foundation
the composer
must
their relations to
they
above
it in
sounded
are
In
produced.
simultaneously
writing harmony
the construction
deal with
below
or
of chords
and
harmonic
simple
On
the chords.
of
the
other
hand, although
is by no means
ficient.
suf-
purityis absolutelynecessary it
Each part of melody must
progress
the others
We
another, and
one
and
possess
of
under
melody which
the counterpointis termed
double.
and
of its
distinctive features
treated
counterpoint
find
foundation
must
independentof
The
generalheads,
two
constitute the
is to
the
own.
subject. If
one
that it
melody is added to the subjectin such a manner
be used only in its original
above or below, it is
can
position,
called a simple counterpoint. If instead it is constructed so
that the two
parts or melodies can be inverted with regard to
other
one
another
it is called double
the word
counterpoint,
the
most
be at any
beingthat of the octave and the
common
fifth
inversion it becomes
double
twelfth.
may
In double
counterpoint
requiresspecialtreatment,
fourth,an
for
upon
COUNTERPOINT
in
131
counterpointunless approached
left
and
by
step. The
for double
any
be of
of parts from two
and may
up to twelve or more,
of five speciesaccording to the number
and arrangement
pared
accompanying melody or melodies as comwith those of the given subject.
The
first speciesrequiresnote .againstnote, that is,one
of the accompanying melodies
is caused to sound with a
note
of similar value in the subjector principal
note
melody.
In the second specieseach note of the subjectmust
be
accompanied by two notes of equal value in each of the
of the notes
other
of the
melodies.
In
the
third
accompanied by
of the other
The
specieseach
than
more
note
two
of
notes
the
subject must
equal value in
of
be
each
melodies.
fourth
accompanied by two
syncopations. This
unaccented
b^at of
beat of the flext
of each
speciesconsists
means
measure
of
notes
more
or
that
the
note
is tied
of the
subject
equal length with
occurring on an
note
over
to
the
accented
measure.
be differentiated
as
strict and
free.
When
repeti-
132
tion
beginning
and
the
in
progression
repeated
the
or
which
first
can
be
worthy
of
is
ancient
writers,
full
is
Counterpoint
the
theory
advanced
in
of
itself
information,
and
even
affected
his
is
humorous,
counterpoint
does
that
growth
appeal
there
and
the
great
or
have
been
the
at
to
is
much
interests
affected
ough
thor-
more
student
when
well
advise
the
time.
same
seeker
the
ments
embellish-
the
subject
the
the
rules.
theorists
some
of
its
and
this
counterpoint
will
its
requiring
with
in
scandalize
arbitrary
harmony
although
and
in
write,
to
grapples
course,
little
but
than
music
of
harmony
there
difficult
to
allowed
sense
all
many
is
which
upon
indeed
which
rules
laxity
underneath
observes
education
musical
would
play
edge
knowl-
that
or
artistic
the
most
as
study.
built
modern
which
nevertheless,
but
counterpoint
good
in
that
or
allowed
from
stringent
be
The
devices.
parts
progression
itself
less
may
The
the
counterpoint
structure
should
interval
any
of
or
though
notes.
purpose
more
mately
approxi-
Even
part.
only
the
strict
of
proper
counterpoint
composer
the
to
ornamental
the
for
least
parts
recommends
counterpoint
repeated
noticeable
other
at
that
necessarily
not
subservient
a
be
evident
is
at
first
the
may
be
voices.
the
of
occurs
peculiarities
that
that
to
it
be
repeated
not
useful
most
entirely
study
is
plain
the
necessary
of
other
and
repeated
and
free
in
hence,
part;
Perfectly
place
imitated
repetition
the
the
is
melody,
one
imitation,
need
especially
some
should
the
the
termed
is
idea
which
similar
effect
an
it
free
musical
after
measures
possesses
progression
exact
produce
in
part
the
is
of
MUSIC
two
canon
beginning
the
when
except
the
When
only
than
later
not
preceding.
OF
THEORY
THE
after
is
that
of
the
by
it.
In
general
romantic
ages
have
FUGUE
is
Fugue
in
of
art
centuries,
musical
among
For
this
only
and
delve
of
deeply
so
judges
in
subject
What
minds
The
much
hold
listener
who
to
holding
rule
fails
music
to
enjoy
really
is
to
readers
the
present
larger
any
chapter
our
to
measure
creative
great
intelligent
the
only
share
his
be
rather
plan
of
fragmentary
of
of
such
greatest
comprehension,
difficulty
of
the
with
the
throughout
mind
previous
the
grasp
difficult
education,
or
in
Without
to
not
the
nature
essentials
composition.
the
is
presents
by
gifted,
the
and
fugue
heard
as
it
and
us,
is
to
fugue.
as
fugue
those
of
allotted
purpose
our
this
gain
may
of
appropriate
Theoretically,
but
each
is
of
desire
masterworks
for
can
composition
they
that
way
appreciation.
of
do
we
not
make
to
standing
under-
than
make
to
as
nor
composer,
young
such
intricacies
is
or
of
space
devices
it
place
art.
difficulty
larger
fugal
and
of
the
However,
its
critics.
or
of
puntal
contra-
historically
product
many,
music.
into
the
for
text
the
fugue
of
form
one
finished
the
important
most
considered
because
to
presents
treatment
other
of
all
of
whether
reason,
it
the
to
culmination
holds
and
forms,
standpoint
the
from
the
sense
study,
construction,
or
except
course
and
disjointed
the
of
listener
the
of
power
as
often
and
feels
even
134
THEORY
THE
lackingin melody.
highest example
the
of
of
will
we
The
contrapuntal composition,so
classes of
clear the
make
again explainthem
themselves
terms
polyphonic,many
sense,
polyphonicmusic, and
general
two
monophonic, will
work
is
Fugue
MUSIC
know
we
OF
ing
understand-
an
as
It is the
later
development of
this
briefly.
their
convey
in
use
general
which
to
ancillary
found
chords
in the
it.
This
and
song
accompaniment is
consists
otherwise.
or
figuration
in
of
that
monly
com-
succession of
canonic
form
In the
melody
same
canon
is
laid down.
after
enters
exactlyone
They
measure
must
also
melody
in that interval.
in which
the
Another
fugue differs
from
pointsof
canon
struction
con-
is in the
principal
part is imitated
in a fugue,
by all the other parts throughoutthe composition;
of the
or
more
while the subjectis imitated,and often one
to the various imitations of the
accompanying counterpoints
matter
of imitation.
In
canon
the
of the
FUGUE
subject are
themselves
and
imitated, the continuous
part by another throughout the whole
of one
repetition
is rarely found.
As
we
proceed
certain
features
only
to
In
135
in
with
the
study
with
common
of
the
fugue
canon
work
shall find
we
but
exact
worked
out
brief extent.
few
will now
paragraphs as possiblewe
try to
give a conception of the meaning of fugue as applied to
musical
composition,with a general idea of its construction.
Fugue is a French word derived from the Latin, fugare,
and that from the Greek, fugere,meaning to
to put to flight,
flee. The
of the title becomes
clear to us as we
significance
of a fugal composition.
follow the construction
It is a flightof melodies, one
part entering,a second
takingup the theme, another and another followinguntil all
have entered.
Through the skilful handling of the subject
by
as
the
composer
you
hold
in mind
You
Any
follow
or
subjectto
treatment
voice
pursue
part may
one
begin a fugue
another
the
character
certain
at
and
of
are
the
and
the
other
parts
distances;they are
dependent for their
subject or principal
theme.
The
the second
part is givingthe
answer
the
original
becomes
which
subjectproceedswith a counterpoint
the
the counter-subject,
does every successive part upon
as
The third part follows with
completion of the fugue theme.
the subjectagain in the principal
key but an octave higher or
part
or
THEORY
THE
136
lower
the firstpart.
than
called
The
MUSIC
of the
announcement
subject,
or
counter-subject,
and
answer
OF
expositionof
the
the
development
One
is said to be
of
method
An
episodes.
varying
episode
consists
the
work
is in
generallyof
the
use
number
of
of
measures,
which
in form
of the principal
theme
repetition
might
No
rigidrules place any limit upon the
incessant
the
otherwise
like
cause.
construction
of
his art
these
episodes and
in
them
the
composer
One
individuality.
follow
episode may
the use of short episodesmay
be employed
another, and even
between
the different parts of the fugue as well as between
the developed sections,so there is every
opportunity in a
fugal work for originalemployment of the several musical
devices and
for the making of an
otherwise
position
pedantic comtake its place as a
into one
of beauty,that it may
truly artistic creation.
shows
and
takes up
section;the part which gave the subjectnow
the answer,
the subjectbeing given to the part which
before
of course
and the counter-subject
is formed
gave the answer
continued and in some
as before explained. All the parts are
the original
counterpointappears either simply or inverted,
the subject and
answer
forming the predominating idea
lowed
throughoutthe whole fugue. This expositionis again folby an episode. The greater the number of parts the
and episodes.
greater will be the number of expositions
FUGUE
137
An
Finally comes
unifying of parts,
the
gether
bringingto-
the
This
originalthemes for the grand climax.
is accomplishedby a stretto,a hurryingtogetherof the subject
and answer
of a shortened
distance between
them.
by means
Usually at least one stretto is found and there may be several
in the course
of a fugue. This interruption
strettos
lapping
overor
of
of parts heightens
the interest and the listener feels the
has graduallyincreased in power
work
through the successive
flightsand he is now
ready for the point of greatest interest,
the
culmination,or climax.
Often
is added
coda
The
and
finish we
find the
very
double pedal point. A cadence
The
strengthenthe tonalityat
employment of a pedal or
either perfector plagalcompletes
to
the
the
way
fugue.
and
name
fame
of
Johann Sebastian
Bach
are
so
art
reaches
such
climax
without
showing
traces
of all
before
came
as
well
as
knowledge of
ever-increasing
of the various
the basic principles,
through the application
devices,has brought polyphonic compositionto the point
We
have
seen
how
the
138
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
where
us, not
Bach
that
was
genius; but
shall
we
the
new
but
highest intellect.
trace
now
little more
interval between
in the
forms
in its
in
Gregorian guise is
It
is
the
merely
is
Guillaume
fugue as we
find
Sixteenth Century we
form
call canon,
today
we
form
contrasted
fugue accordingto
To
that the
canon
During the
fuga for the
it grew.
the term
truth
from
was
the older.
much
of
"
fuga
per
now
the
know
use
of
which
in
canonem,"
rule.
Dufay,
usually given
Belgian of
the
the Fourteenth
invention
tury,
Cenof
the
canon.
The
canon
as
it
was
then
written
was
of musical
study of
of melodies
known, and
upon
which
knowledge
more
modern
were
made
composers
FUGUE
139
master
of the
teacher
be
must
to
the
art was
It
that
the
received
had
Okeghem,
whose
Between
Papal
second
or
Netherlands
the
School, and
historyof music.
as
He
known,
He
new
court
of
new
Netherlands
instruction
successor
and
art
carried to
was
inspirationfrom
the
Italy.
great
he became
was
then
called the
most
world
musician, the greatest composer, the modern
had
the title given
was
yet produced. Prince of Music
him by his contemporariesand for a period of sixtyyears he
could claim this title undisputed. Then
came
a
period with
and
tastes
understood.
not
new
stylesand his works were
still jealouslypreserved in the Sistine
are
Depres' masses
chapel.
the first of the contrapuntists
Depres was
accordingto
brilliant
Luther
become
to
master
of notes
instead
of
being mastered
of
by them, as had been his predecessorsand as were
many
realized that mere
his contemporaries.He
technique is not
that "music," quoting his own
art and
words, "has a speech
and a capacityfor the expression of the pain and pleasure
of the human
heart."
and
of
manner
that
the
140
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
O
psalm :
gratitude,another part of the same
Lord
thou hast dealt graciouslywith thy servant."
made
an
sary,
appeal necesAgain when royal procrastination
friend
his
at court
to use
influence
Depres appliedto a
but never
friend was
The
in his behalf.
seemed
to
willing,
find a favorable opportunity,
quently.
though Depres urged him freBeing annoyed by Depres' persistencyhe finally
"
replied
At
took
"
of
hymn
business,let me alone."
length Depres, tired of this vain, fruitless pledge,
words of his friend, laissez moi iaire
oft-repeated
I shall take
of this
care
"
the
by
which
(lais-se-fai-re-moi)
the
he
did
We
the
That
know
to
and
from
we
the
so
made
may
is indeed
Bach
for
an
he
master.
been
was
to
as
his musical
purpose
his finest.
he
his
the
he
their
was
fills in the
of
works
came
beset
that
prove
inspiration.
but
we
could teach
Okeghem
apparent from
study of
conclude
place
of the Netherlands
had
Rome
a
mi, and
re,
accomplishedhis
among
learned all
had
went
Palestrina
Like
for
compositionranks
Depres
before he
music
upon
that he
admirable
so
was
words
depend
not
do not
know
result
The
to music.
them
slightfacetious alteration
the
syllablesto
"
do
him
positions,
early com-
Lassus
and
immediate
growth
of
predecessor,
polyphonic
importantone.
the way
lived in a periodwhen
had been
Dufay had already carried the learning
School to Rome
written*
In
where
masses
with
terpoint
coun-
had
same
positionin
the
FUGUE
skill,and
mechanical
them
He
and
used
into
the devices
wove
to be classed among
deserves
the
knowledge stored by
reallyartistic compositions.
the greatest musical geniuses
period.
of any
We
in the
read
School
of
Depres
141
his
sacred
grand
works
for
were
choruses
two
four
of
To
chorus
one
Willaert's chorus
Gabrieli
choir
alternate
added
singing with
combinations
In truth
of all parts in
Giovanni Gabrieli ranks
founders
of modern
and
instrumental
third choir
the
massing
freer and
and
voices
of
grander
manner.
of the
the foremost
among
ployed
em-
art.
the
taken
was
style,and
in
written
in which
or
more
more
voices.
and
because
for
of
time
poem
from
the stricter
to
vocal
set to music
were
name
Italian
were
works
for
one
the
sponded
folk-songand correit held possibilities
Because
polyphonicmusic
of its time,
was
appeal to the emotions, the canzona
popular style of composition. In the vocal
the
that
and
imitation,
It sprang
Lied.
the German
than
the
of its
stanzas
the
the melodies
short.
of such
the words
order
less strict
or
with
canzonas
direct
forerunner
fugue. The
from a particular
varietyof lyricpoetry in
applied to instrumental compositionswhich
was
music
were
usually consisted
should
to
answer
sharplydefined
and
rhyme positions
developedperiods
the
the
in
142
THEORY
THE
In
the Venetian
present form
our
the
growth
then
School
fugue, but
of
its further
owes
OF
of
name
Orlandus
find the
we
In
beginningsof
Netherlands
the
to
development.
MUSIC
the
Lassus
School
historyof
rather
it
musical
overshadows
which
form
holds
now
keep
attention
our
for him
Sweelinck's work
place in
the
mind
of
the student.
We
find
can
early education
of Zarlino
though
influenced
his
music
there
proud
Dutch
of
of organ
of his time and
world
have
wonderful
known,
"When
him.
of
wrote
of
concourse
seen,
instrumental
compositionshardlybear
interest.
He
piece in which
but
school
he
every
heard
played the
day;
was
a
out
music,
the man,"
Vondel,
real part
was
known
thusiasts
enwas
but
this claim
the firstone
one
every
founder
the
was
to
pupil
only
felt especially
through Germany.
was
contemporary
organ
probablyis
organistat Amsterdam,
was
as
his influence
organistand as a founder
spread throughout the musical
his fame
the
This
was
his
statement; it was
rather than their instruction which
He
own.
concerning his
has it that he
verifysuch
not
close
was
tradition
record
of Gabrieli in Venice.
and
tradition,for dates do
so
authoritative
no
to
compose
an
organ
intrusted to the pedal,and it
it is
music
to
on
him
is
works
of sacred
hailed
was
as
the
geniusduring his life,the musical world and especially
students of polyphonic
compositionrecognizedthe fact that
of a styleof music for
the perfection
he had brought nearer
which
of
so
many
had striven.
He
stood
peer among
we
come
composers
to
Bach,
FUGUE
His
pupilscarried
musical
143
his methods
another
and
and
his
learningfrom
one
in the
generationwhich succeeded
him nearly all of the leadingorganistswere
either his
influenced by a study of his works.
pupilsor were
Scheidemann
a
was
pupil of Sweelinck's and handed
down
center
to
learningof
the
Reinicke, who
was
one
his master
to
of the chief
of
representatives
the
great Reinken
of
After
no
the art
often
went
organ
formances
per-
exhaustive
it is believed
composers
or
really lastingway
in Bach.
consummation
of
Another
Sweelinck's
Samuel
pupils was
Scheidt, a
some
very
from
excellent
The
toccata
derives
its
a touch
signifies
performer and in
in 1620,
this is much
like the preludeor fantasia. Prsetorius,
free prelude or introduction,
in fact defines the toccata
a
as
this was
oldest
and
doubtless the originalmeaning. The
examples are found in the works of Gabrieli and Merulo, and
in them
full harmonies, but
the toccata
begins with some
to
exhibit
toccatas.
the
touch
and
execution
interspersedwith
small
of the
is more
passages
and
more
of imitation.
introduced
ally
Occasion-
one
part is found
Coming
and.
chaconnes
very
helm
chorales
MUSIC
of Bach
the time
to
now
OF
THEORY
THE
144
Johann
of
we
Pachelbel
approaching
(Wil-
stride
perfectedform.
read of
In each biography of Johann Sebastian Bach we
to Liibeck, a distance
foot from Arnstadt
his pilgrimage on
he forgot to
of fiftymiles, to hear Buxtehude, and of how
of the leave of absence
at the end
return
granted him.
Dietrich Buxtehude
celebrated as
a native of Denmark,
was
for the inspiration
and
an
organistand today remembered
the
toward
In 1673 Buxtehude
to Bach.
established
gave
the Abendmusiken, a series of grand sacred concerts
insighthe
in Liibeck
following the
His
Christmas.
before
afternoon
of
'excellent organ
the
and
his
fame
and
attracted
the
five
Sundays
compositionsfor
splendidperformance of
these concerts
abroad
services
them
attention and
him
won
admiration
of
contrapuntalcomposition.
strength of his work lay chieflyin his free organ
chorals as had
not founded
on
compositions. These were
but were
been most
of those of his predecessors,
remarkable
students
of
The
of pure instrumental
principle
music
later so fully developed by Bach.
which
His
was
famous
Abendmusiken, for 1678-1687, is included in the
volumes
of his organ works edited by Spitta.
two
At
Weimar
who
Bach
had
met
Kuhnau,
acquired
for his compositions
of fugue and double fugue,and
celebrity
as
cioubtless the
with which
success
these works
them
artist to
glean
from
best and
to
study
of
the
was
experienceof
had
met
and
great enough
others
all that
a
an
was
the mistakes
and
AMADEUS
WOLFGANG
^JS
of
or
and
struggle
did
very
four
not
death.
Of
and
''The
Magic
his
of
are
he
buried
was
is
unknown.
was
lived
he
masses,
His
unfinished
left
was
the
that
fifteen
"Don
"Figaro,"
operas,
He
compositions.
vocal
sacred
Flute"
which
time
one
ciation
appre-
death.
them
"Requiem/'
his
death
short
was
thorough
his
among-
the
his
location
the
in
other
and
mass,
At
after
compositions,
litanies
greatest
the
come
life
for
until
and
many
Mozart's
disappointment,
industrious
\vrote
Austria.
Salzburg*,
at
11*
1756-1791
MOZART.
at
Giovanni"
important.
most
in
pattper*s
grave,
FUGUE
appeared
In
it
in
1725
and
145
was
polyphoniccompositionwas
placed on
in 1742.
Bach
took
though in a very simple form.
1
this book, applie to it the new
key system of tempered
and
unlimited possibilities
of modulation, and
us
gave
highest development of this form of music.
We
the
how
see
Handel, for
fugues are among
and
Handel's
not
Bach
exert
done.
but
the
influence
He
founded
as
vocal
the
made
was
way
it must
scale
time.
of
no
and
to
seems
perfection,but
the
over
He
unapproached
school
above
have
he
has
composers
did his great
as
modern
as
all
choral
temporary,
con-
writer
he
supreme.
His
for
opportunities
many
services.
For this reason
and
composers
experimentin
of organ
we
have
solo
work
considered the
in church
organists
was
146
their imitation
through
known
fugue
as
We
find
in
method
of choral
the
definite than
more
weave
works
choral
of
fugue.
was
MUSIC
where
movements,
one
the real source
at different pitches,
construction
of
OF
into existence.
came
after another
enters
to
THEORY
THE
music
in the
so
When
the
same
voice
of the
process
the
came
principaltheme bechoral, and composers
began
that
this theme
became
the
Further
side of
a
means
the
nothing except as it is
compositionmeans
ever,
howof expressingsomethinghigher. Fortunately,
of fugal work attracted
almost unlimited capabilities
a
of the greatestcomposers
and, as we have
were
adapted for toccatas, movements
passages
many
and choruses
even
before the
noted,fugal
fullydeveloped fugue
of
sonatas
came
into
existence.
tbat
form
one
scarcely
became
in accor4anc#
of ths finestfuguesis strictly
FUGUE
147
other
any
intellect of
both
this
on
form
of music
composer
and
does
subject.More than
fugue appeal to the
audience
these
and
theorists
invented
failed to
reduce
enable
to
at
Rules
art.
the
of
nameless
And
which
methods
and
remained
resembles
Are
graces,
which
master's
hand
there
for Bach
to
in each
poetry:
alone
can
without
were
make
method
no
them
teach
reach.
number,
but
it
of a freer handling of
largerpossibilities
laws of compositionin polyphonicstyle,
and his mastery
his wonderful
and apparentlyunto
bounded
technique added
for him
imagination for melody and harmony won
He
saw
title of
the
world
very
Pedantic
the
"Father
of
definite musical
had
Venetian
passages
with
with
to
gave
had
masters
form
it
to
the
fugue.
beauty
endeavored
scale passages,
to bring out
brilliancy,
instrument.
in
gave
been
Music," and
Modern
contrast
the
and
expressiveness.
by contrast of chord
of dignityand majesty
power
and
variety of
the
succeeded
in
of
an
law of
His
intellectwhich
and
unity,
was
of the
148
THE
There
is
THEORY
perhaps no
OF
man
one
MUSIC
who
has left
so
deep a
in the
who
study.
have
not
In them
there
are
few notable
made
his compositionsobjectsof
is found the germ of almost everything
in the freer
the
polyphonicforms and especially
itselfmost confugue that Bach's technical mastery displays
vincingly.
musical
form the most
Fugue representsas a
which
highlyorganizeddevelopmentof the generalprinciples
and it was
in the fugue
underlie all of Bach's compositions,
that they found their highest
expression.For these reasons
and a study of
fugue is considered characteristicof his style,
than any other of his compositions
his fugues more
givesus
and as artist and
an
insightinto the nature of the man
was
musician.
His collectionof
musicians,and
men
$nd
know
them
the
inspiration,
stood
more
the test
theyturn
so
to them
for
knowledge
FUGUE
Bach
in his time
not
was
He
popular composer.
highest creative powers
and
to
rarest
satisfaction
is he
nor
reverenced
of
and
man
the
masses
but
of his
own
refined
classed
today
his art,
his innermost
manner
appeal to
149
true
was
expressed in
emotions.
voiced
his
the
to
the choicest
He
did
not
try
feelingsto
own
the
cal
keenlycritical musi-
and
taste
as
sensibilities.
works
His
give
and
make
great demand
of
intelligent
interpretation
an
in the minds
create
to
of the
his
for
time
some
and
reputationwent
Modern
are
fugues
of Bach
in their
Bach
and
working
seemed
and
he
so
some
the
he used
his
but rather
and
catered
of
school
Only a
Fugue,
was
few
not
with
the
of
than
genius
forceful.
his natural
greatest of freedom.
pliablethat
so
formal
convincing and
as
it was
polyphonically,
it could
be
guage
lanHe
molded
to the taste
conventional
him
and
given
was
fugal compositions. His son
sincerest composer
of the generationafter Bach,
in working up the details
father's artistic manner
formulas
superficial.However,
after
popularity
masterful
very
perhaps
seemed
Bach
They
are
material
who
and
resources
Handel's
constrained
more
created
the composers
underlying
in hand.
and
think
to
their
technical
figurewhile
Handel.
out
musical
rendered
us
isolated
an
To
difficult works
explanationof why
one
hand
those
by
is
performer.
more
audience
requiresunlimited
spiritualmeaning
artistic ability. This
the
upon
which
Bach's
composers
who
his work
made
influence
came
included
upon
a
empty
somewhat
trian
the great Aus-
generation or
two
directlythrough
works
were
and
Fugues and a few
Forty-eight Preludes
and carefullystudied,
works
were
fairlywell known
organ
in the
but until Mendelssohn's
not
were
day his works
possession of the musical world at large, Haydn, Mozart
it is true, stronglyinfluenced by Bach's
and Beethoven
were,
of this
Beethoven's
work.
work
traces
especiallyshows
influence. He had a largeropportunityto study Bach's comthe
150
THE
positionsthan
his
to
great composer
the master's
works
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
contemporariesand was
delve deep enough into
to
be able to draw
from
in truth
the
them
the
first
meaning of
something
passion.
Near
the end
but often
works
those best
fugue
few
completefugues,
he had
and
in the
used
to
the
the
we
since Bach.
greatest instrumental composer
In one
of Mozart's
fugues with a fantasia as a prelude
find the Bach
we
styleand in fact in all of his best piano
for his polyphonic
fugues. He had laid the foundation
and by his
writingby the study of Fux's Gradus Parnassum
then he was
led to Bach whose
early practisein technique,
works in Leipsic
It is,of course,
treasure.
a new-found
were
honor
the
Mozart's
sonatas
his other
forms
Mendelssohn, to whom
we
closelyfollowingthem came
must
give the glory of having
FUGUE
the real Bach.
revived
he
had
that
works
brought
out
before
He
first edited
been
accessible
Bach's Passion
since Bach's
151
some
only
accordingto
death.
of Bach's organ
to the few; and
St. Matthew
for
This
understandingof
of Mendelssohn's
his
hearers
classical composers
greatness and his works
own
they
as
did
half
presented to Goethe
when
today
century ago.
asked to
evidence
was
play a
enchant
Mendelssohn
Bach
fugue.
He
failed him.
Without
the slightest
complied but memory
hesitation,however, he extemporized the forgottendevelopment
and his audience
was
delightedwith his performance.
he thought in counterpointand his quick wit and
Like Bach
thorough understanding of musical terms made him famous
for his extemporizing.
His study of and devotion to Bach influenced his works
and like most
tive
great musicians he found the fugue an attracand has left us some
excellent preludesand fugues
form
them
for piano; of interest are his fugues for strings,
among
well-known
one
in
one
was
flat, and
number
of
organ
fugues.
Among
recent
first.
stands
His
worthy of
Rheinberger perhaps
his organ
fugal work-in
sonatas
is especially
mention.
of merit who
is scarcelyan instrumental composer
shall
but we
tried his skill in fugal compositions,
has not
it would be
carry the historyof fugue no farther,for in fact
There
but
of
the
modern
narrative
greater
world
of the
masters
has
successes
we
evolved
and
have
already considered.
nothing farther
in the
way
The
of
taste.
152
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
With
into
specifically
inquiremore
We
its construction.
has
has
made
knowledge
of
perforce use
must
in
study of
the
the
the
musical
following
explanations.
SUBJECT
the essential parts of the fugue
considering
separately
shall begin with the all important subjector theme. On
we
this the entire composition
ing
depends;it is the central or leadIn
subservient to it.
part
Except in the
it.
enunciate
clearly
by
or
of
by parts
which
accompanied
than one
the subject is
fugue, or fugue with more
subject,
entirelyunaccompanied though the melody is capable of
case
an
to
and
eight parts
where
two, three
the subjector the
there
are
four
or
answer
beginseither with
and the subjectis often then described as double, triple
or
authorities refuse to consider
quadruple. However, most
parts, each
these
of
more
one
terms
the
as
than
one
one, two
to better preserve
Owing
fugue forms
to
of
fugue
does
permit
not
such
fugues,fugues with
seems
nature
very
the
use
lacked
or
which
three counter-subjects,
the idea of
of
clearness
in the
modes
subjectand
the
early
left
one
belonged. In its
is clear, it complies
perfectedform, however, the tonality
with the laws of musical phrasingand the impliedharmony
rather in doubt
as
to
the
unity.
key
in which
it
FUGUE
is at
felt.
The
153
harmonic
progressionsthroughout the
of the composition elaborate,explain,and never
course
allow
the listener to lose the distinct feelingof the key of the
from
the subject
subject. Though there are modulations
key the relation to it is close; when, for instance,we find
the subject in a minor key the modulation
is to the dominant
minor
not
to the major key. The
subjectgenerallyremains
in the originalkey but it may
begin in the tonic,modulate
and
once
in the
end
in the
key
tonic.
to
of
Aside
in the
the tonic.
in the
the
dominant
from
these
rare
tonic
ends
of
fugue
key of
in the
cited
key
others
where
the dominant
in E
beginning
minor
of
are
and
the
not
subject
returns
begins the
ject
sub-
in the
in
the subdominant.
explanation is
the
definite rule
the
imagination and
in the
above
the
study
can
nature
purpose
of his
technical but
of the character
be laid down
No
shown
be
to
Of
ending
can
of Bach
and
find it
we
modulations
two
cases
fugue
often
and
tonic,modulates
examples
gives us
Less
the
though
common,
begins
dominant
sary
neces-
of the theme.
of
the
and
clearly
subject. Generallyspeaking,a
a
complete musical phrase,that
composer
are
It is not
phrase though
one
be
recognizesuch
be a long drawn
in its entirety.On
easier to
would
hold
an
one
out
one
when
which
the other
hand
it reappears than it
the mind
might not
the very
short
one,
154
THEORY
THE
unless
of
would
not
OF
peculiarlydistinct
the attention
hold
is necessary
MUSIC
remarkable
and
make
nor
and
appreciation
for the
character,
impression that
enjoyment of a fugal
the
composition.
In
least
at
obvious
of
needs
further
no
considered
course,
either
cover
complete member
and
is,of
text
subjectis designed to
the
or
subjectsthe
vocal
the
entire
sentence,
the
and
sentence
is
reason
comment.
of
than
more
work
It
keys.
where
not
liable to pass or
less clear. Bach
to
necessary
finest
numbers
Fugues,
numbers
subjectdoes
For
not
the
subjectswe
are
make
the
has
exceed
shown
such
that
us
large compass
perfectfugue,
for in two
is
of his
well-known
the
Forty-eightPiano
and thirty-three,
the compass
of the
a
who
and
will here
appliedto
each
cross
among
four
reader
using a great
produce
andarnentos
terms
fugue would
it is carried into
through modulation
is true there are
fugues,and good fugues,
is used.
of even
The difficulty
in
a tenth
a
compass
instrumental
fugue in
are
vocal
difficultwhen
too
other
for
octave
an
fourth.
time
some
may
chance
soggettos in connection
explaintheir
as
subjects
are
upon
with
the
fugue
Andamentos
significance.
in themselves
complete and
very
the
and
developedin
the
subjectsusually consist of
characteristic interval,and
soggettos.
short
to
them
with
perhaps a
applied the term
passage
is
Such
Before
answer,
for in
of the movement.
course
FUGUE
155
for the
of
to
distinctness
and
various
of
form, and
as
follow
it
through the
beauty as a whole
we
be
ANSWER.
all other
As
subject we
reply or answer.
the
that the
dominant.
the
elaboration
an
We
have
the
answer;
in
its treatment
to
or
outgrowth of
consideringthe
which
of
When
there
of
the
subject,but
real
are
look
must
character
have
parts
two
pure
which
classic types
and
determines
in turn
a
fugue belongs.
a
mere
transposition,
copy of
given a fifth higher or a fourth lower, then
is a
and the fugue in which it occurs
answer
is
an
to
exact
the
we
real
fugue.
If the
does
and
subjectbegins and
modulate
not
possible. Again
skips to any note
the
when
other
the dominant,
to
to
or
ends
the
in the
dominant
key
the real
subjectbegins on
than
when
the dominant
it
of the
the
without
skipsthrough
tonic
is
answer
tonic and
tion
modula-
the second
or
is possiblebut
tonic to dominant, the real answer
the
It is usually real when
be used.
answer
may
sixth from
a
tonal
subjectbegins on
There
be
must
By impliedmodulation we mean
the leadingnote of the key is not reallypresent,
show
its last notes
of the melody and especially
requirea
that though
to
the
form
no
real
answer.
156
THE
with greater
OF
THEORY
or
notes
are
transpositionof
the
altered in order
to
tonic and
dominant
and
in
of
tonal
answer.
modulate
from
both
as
the
to
the due
preserve
keep
so
both
or
more
relation of the
subject and
answer
scale.
back
to
and
tonic
point,usuallyat
same
subjectand
We
rather than
Themes
dominant
the
at
modified
the effect
produce
far
as
made
is
as
the
begins
medium
answer
looked upon
are
dominant, and
the
MUSIC
which
which
lates
modu-
modulation
the
is
of the theme, in
the end
answer.
find
occasionally
subjectanswered
semitone, though as a rule the
semitone
in the
by a tone, or a tone by a
transpositionto a fourth or fifth is
inversion is employed it is not always
the tonic and dominant
respond to one
Again
exact.
when
strict inversion
another
and
so
but
serve
pre-
of
fugue
and
at the
seldom
beginningof
Everywhere
rules
the
as
reader
answer.
in
here
answers
answer
an
are
character
the tonal
subject, that
tonic and
determines
is like the
the nature
is a real,while
transposition
In
the
will find
one
stated
The
melodic
oftenest used in
are
fugue
then
we
of the
an
the
dominant
fugue,and that
altered
find that
one
of the
nature
is a tonal
an
exact
answer.
FUGUE
lies in
the
altered
self, as
journeyingsback
at
answer
157
and
forth
distance of
of
a
subject and
fifth from
its
each
other.
COUNTER-SUBJECT.
In
consideringthe episodes in
the
early part
of
this
accompanying
answer,
fugue as an accompaniment
and
beginning
is
developmentsnecessary
to
use
it above
or
below
the
subject.
One
and
between
ject
effectingthe variance between the subis in the employment of an episode
counter-subject
does not enter with
that the counter-subject
them
so
method
but
of
of the
a
answer
part of
it.
and
hence
acts
as
an
ment
accompani-
158
THEORY
THE
in the
OF
is
phrases sometimes
slightest
degree divergingfrom the
Again the ear is sometimes
key*of the counter-subject,
though
two
MUSIC
effective
without
real character
as
it must
know
the
of the subject.
left in doubt
we
in
to
the
be
the
as
In
studying the
modulation
occurred
tonal
in the
answer
found
that
subject,a modification
to make
we
answer
when
was
sary
neces-
; this modification
in the
is frequentlymade
because of the
counter-subject
unnecessary
of its entry, that is,it does
freedom employed in the matter
not
necessarilyhave to enter until after the modulation has
place,thus preventingtoo
taken
great
complexityat
the
start.
In
the
of
greater number
fugues we
Again
find that
we
troduce
be incounter-subject
may
togetherwith the subjectin
second
and
then
another
Bach
even
to
the
rare.
that
regular counterpointis
not
fugues,for
essential to all
devices
is very
shows
us
he has
strettos.
We
the term
to
have
been concerned
but
counter-subject,
subjectsin
with the
must
a
at the
Almost together
more
common
remember
double
fugue
of
beginning
use
of
it is also used
where
the
they are
exposition.
FUGUE
159
the
subjectand
we
will consider
counter-subject
later in this
chapter.
EPISODE.
The
purpose
of the
episode,or
previouslystated, is
called,as
the
relief to
essential
digressionas
for the
parts of
sake
it is often
of contrast
and
fugue. It is frequently
of a fugue are made.
through its use that the modulations
The
the subject and
the answer,
or
episode between
the re-entry of the subject,is by some
and
termed
answer
the codetta, and a close study often reveals it to be the later
It is very short, seldom
real episode in embryo.
exceeding
but
than
the
two
more
by retarding
measures,
reappearance
of the subjectand the entry of the counter-subject
causes
an
to the part
interestingdigression,gives greater individuality
retarded, and leaves the part it follows clearlydefined.
real episode follows the expositionand in it neithei
The
In this way
it makes
the subjectnor
need be found.
answer
a
complete diversion,and yet an episode usuallyoriginates
from a previousmotive found in some
part of the exposition,
The return
of the principalparts makes
a greater impression
because of their absence during this digressioa
motive
The
suggested,all the composer'sart is brought
vals,
to play upon
it,he employs canonic imitation in strict interor
freelyimitates it in any interval,he prolongs it by
repeatingit in
and
sequence,
treats it in any
then
it appears
of course,
augments
diminishes
or
it,or
is
possibleto
material, but
Occasionallyin
from
inverts
motive
It is ^ometim^
it is
one
form
always suited
fugue some
alreadyused
to
of the
while
others
ma"le consistentby
the
from
entirelynew
all that preceded it
are
developed
episodes
episode
an
and
are
of
new
into
weaviiig'
material.
it the
160
cipaltheme
with
OF
THEORY
THE
the
MUSIC
new
contrapuntaldevice.
Freedom
is also employed in
episodes;usually they are short, of
or
that
tion
fugal imita-
any
any
the
mind
extend
length
two
carried too
be
not
may
the
of
three
or
far
away
the
real
measures,
from
the
fourteen
again they
great lengths,
and even
more
according to the composer's feeling
measures,
of proportionand balance.- While
fugues without even
one
of merely
episode are possiblethey are, in consequence,
to
technical
interest and
We
have
their entrances
another
and
at
second
in the
entries at other
as
distance of
distances
of modulation
means
the distances
which
fourth
so
keys, except
subject and
the
how
seen
lack charm
to
to
continue
answer
or
fifth from
exposition of
and
one
dominant
the
fugue, where
made.
The use of an episode
are
prevents the necessityof varying
would
cause
change
in the
form
of the
subject itself.
EXPOSITION.
After
counterpointand
three-partfugue
highestor
the alto
other
announces
we
or
now
order
may
been
ready
of the
expect in
counter-subject
the exposition is completed. In the
part may begin with the subject.If the
begins,the alto generallytakes up the
tenor
last. The
the
the
proceeds with
two
soprano
enters
any
soprano
and the tenor
answer
The
are
of the parts we
have
ing.
considertwo-part fugue this is a simplematter, either part
with the subject and the other follow with the
while
answer,
or
lead
may
we
of sequence
the matter
In
our
the
leads and
answer*
In
rare
When
of the
instances the
part which
enters
FUGUE
subjectwhile
when
then
the second
161
enteringpart
with
is
givingthe
answer,
the
To
this
"
"
"
"
"
the first
positionbelow
the
will occupy
above
or
the
third
part.
of
alreadyspoken of the episodeas the means
of the subject and
the individuality
counterestablishing
-ve
again mention it
subject,and as a part of the exposition
We
here
have
explainits
and
further
use.
subjectand answer
entry of the subject. If
first entry of
the second
tonic
the
on
will
answer
and
It may
between
come
the answer
between
or
as
come
the
of the
below
fourth
does
and
subjectbeginsin the
and ends in the tonic,
the
measure
in order
not
the
to
begin on
with
harmonize
the dominant,
the tonic
Again, if
near
the
subjectbegins on
measure
and
aids
an
on
unaccented
an
note
accented note
162
at
the
OF
THEORY
THE
beginning of
the feelingof
measure
an
unfinished
an
MUSIC
episode is
melody.
used
and
vents
pre-
If the
third
as
or
of the
of which
been
have
of
instances
answer
the
tonic
is
be
cited
might
like nature
stated to show
the
uses
or
a
fifth of the
dissonance.
but
enough
episode.
parts is,of course, possible
of the
rule
for
these
others
the
When
one
When
entries.
in
usually appear
of
middle
the
highestor
ascending or
parts
announces
lowest
parts lead
descending order.
the subject it is
best.
Examples
of
fugue
be
found
the parts do
where
not
and
fifth before
twice
enter
the
close of the
In succession
counter
or
dominant
keys
in the second
be used
or
fugue. Again,
before
second
first expositioneither at
and
can
the
answer
the
is
expositionsometimes
once
or
after
an
subjectmay
given,
follows
episode* The
the
tonic
and answer
lead or subject
gives the answer,
may
follow subject,or answer
follow answer,
there is not
so
of the order of replynor
of
necessarily
any rigidobservance
tween
the relationof subjectand answer.
Another
difference be-
subjectnow
is that as a rule in
followingexpositions
the leadingpart is at once
accompanied
exposition
by
free
counterpoint.
FUGUE
as
The
use
of
it is
not
an
for
in the matter
of modification
of
entries and
there
is
room
of inversion,
by means
it affords varietyand is frequentlyemployed.
This formulation
of the expositionis in accordance
with
older authorities on theory. The modern
ever,
tendency,howis to take great liberties with this part of the fugue.
use
the
So
greater freedom
163
much
in fact that
so
of the
some
authorities,
recent
more
particularlyin
in the
newer
STRETTO.
We
in the
close,and
is to
in
fugue
each
heighten
listener.
and
is derived
follow
answer
find
of
sense
word
The
in many
increasingthe time or
the
Stretto
forms
stretto
from
it
the
Italian verb
the part
signifies
other
at
shortened
is not
hurrying of parts.
to draw
stringere,
which subjectand
the
Its purpose
attention of the
in
universal
fugue but as a
and in an elaborate compositionat least two
one
is possible.
a
larger number
The
intends
who
composer
to
used
intervals.
hold
interest and
in
of music
use
stretto
rule
we
strettos,
for
prepares
theme
which
the
various
in the imitation.
the closest and
the
of
devices
interest may
augmentation,diminution
When
most
several
elaborate
increase
and
strettos
are
is reserved
the
used
inversion
or
in
fugue
highestpitch be
reached
164
in the final one.
in this
tempered Clavichord.
find
material
the
subjectas well
originaltheme
for
as
may
MUSIC
An
in
As
the
from
fugue
episode,we
the
drawn
stretto
be found
and
in the
Well-
occasionally
from
subject;again,but
the
of strettos
use
first
in Bach's
is found
manner
OF
THEORY
THE
the
a
counter-
part of the
the continuation
be of
new
material.
A
to
close
stretto,or
maestrale, as
stretto
it is
times
some-
is here
and
permissible
When, as we find
the entries
necessarily
regular.
it in rare instances,the firstexposition
is in stretto the answer
enteringbefore the completion of
the subject and often immediatelyafter it begins,and the
third and fourth entering
parts followingthe firstand second
with subjectand answer
distance and
usuallyat the same
interval of time, the fugue is called a close fugue.
It is not here possible
in which
to cite the many
ways
their ingenuity
use
composers
upon this part of fugue, but in
generalwe may expect the followingin a stretto: a gathering
togetheror hurrying togetherof principal
parts with either
tory
satisfacmost
subject or answer
leading;all parts entering,
when
interval of fourth or fifth,though any
at an
interval may be used; replies
made
tion
by augmentation,diminuif necessary a slightalteration
or
contrary movement;
in the subjectand a pedalor double pedal point employed
are
not
CODA,
Often
climax
for
independent
passage
the purpose of givinga
an
close.
-
sometimes
It sometimes
also
on
contains
the tonic.
or
coda is added
more
determined
after the
or
orate
elab-
elaborate cadenza.
FUGUE
We
tonal
real
and
the
that
these
reader
referred to
our
them
the
others
meaning
of
as
limited
real
the form
was
concerns
with
we
The
here.
us
It started
call
now
unlimited
very
short
and
canon
was
for
note
subject which,
became
short
distance and
free.
No
so
always
The
necessarilyadapted to the verbal text.
began before the end of the subjectwhich was
for
with
the
terms.
The
and
in
have
165
then
the
further
no
vocal
of
fugue.
course,
was
always
repeatednote
part giving the
answer
was
counter-subject
used, so a new
musical phrase, which
verbal text required a new
used
was
second
a
as
subject. Unlike our present form the opening
subject did not always reappear during a later development
which
the school of Palestrina perfected.
the form
This was
answer
When
church
The
and
modes
answer
as
soon
transformed
with
the
modern
there
had
as
came
scale
the first
substituted
be
fugue.
As
answer
before
for
departurefrom
adapted to conform
this* took place then the
to
it the tonal
was
came
to
old
this form.
the
whole
the
new
fugue
into existence
stated,the tonal
answer
law,
was
and
is
166
episode and
one
final entries.
even
The
followed
expositionis
the
term
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
regularlydeveloped fugues
some
by
once
the
rather
been
has
at
been
have
called
are
in the firstand
them
used
and
very
effective.
last movements
Beethoven
of the Eroica
"
of the
subject,but
or
shall
double
The
subjects. In
writers
the
double and
applying the
used
the
counterpointis
It is wiser
to
in which
the
announced
in the
two
subject has
two
are
As
do
brieflydescribe
now
fugue,that with
one
founded
two
those
on
rule
find them
the melodic
terms
to
name
the
term
counter-subjecteven
used
throughout to
restrict the
name
We
fugues themselves.
where
the
the
accompany
double fugue to the
same
subject.
fugues
heard
a
contains two
indicates,
the chapter we
spoke of the
subjectsand we find some
triple
fugue, as its
early part of
of the terms
have
of
subjects.
more
use
kind
common
more
two
in combination.
a
double
fugue
contains
There
is usuallya contrast
we
in
of the two
rhythmic treatment
subjectsso
their individuality
is recognizedwhenever
The
they appear.
entry of the subjects,the second as accompaniment to the
the form
of expositiondifferent from
first,makes
that in
FUGUE
the
simplefugue.
pairs,two
the
give
answers,
their relative
This
where
is
of
one
and
answer
necessitates
When
there
167
are
four
in
the
part
enters
for the
other
answer.
This
elaborate
expositionand it is complete
only when each part has appeared as subjectand answer.
As
heard
a
rule, both subjects are
together in each
of the middle entries. The development of one
of the
group
subjectswithout the other frequentlytakes the place of the
strettos are
episode as used in the simple fugue. When
ployed
emwe
rarely find both subjects,and this development
be found
in place of a regularepisode.
may
When, as in the other rare varieties of double fugue, the
ent
expositionsthere is a differseparate subjectshave their own
in general is quitethe
The
treatment
followed.
course
of the
in the other, except that the combination
as
same
themes
more
is reserved
for
the
climax.
We
sometimes
find
only a partialone
and the two
for the second
separatedby an episode. Or,
there may
after the expositionof the first subjectand answer
with
entries in reverse
follow
order,
a
counter-exposition
at once
and this followed
by the expositionof the second
subject and answer.
of expositions,counter-expositions,
The
use
episodes,
strettos and isolated entries depends upon the taste and design
find examples of double fugue in -as
of the composer,
we
so
much
subject. However
great a varietyas in fugue in one
be developed the general rule of
the separate subjectsmay
treatingfirst one then the other and the combining of both
is carried
out
in all.
168
fourth
other
or
free part.
and when
answers
the
answer
to
answer
of the
two
the first subject,
two
while
answers,
the
fourth
Then
each
The
is complete.
exposition
in succession in the
twice
heard
not
the
may
and
with
enters
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
subjects
subject
subject is
same
part.
same
The
fugue
other
on
Of
two
choral
of this form
variants
and
of music
the
are
accompanied fugue.
the
kinds.
One
where
the
fugue
in during
while the choral is woven
its usual course
pursues
its development as a kind of cantus firmus,or as an episode.
An
independentsubjectis used, in no way suggested by the
itself and
choral
this
as
strict.
The
two
cantus
are
number
firmus.
The
choral
order
of modulations
are
of
introduced
entries
is somewhat
with
is seldom
limited
as
of the
for variations.
The
other
in the other
of entries.
there is much
In the
freedom
allowed
in the matter
find the
we
counter-expositions
frequently
first voice enteringalone,but it may be accompanied as in the
double
fugue. In the longer compositions there will be
of the different lines
greater variety because the harmonies
be varied, and in fact the manner
of development of the
may
of modulation
of the choral
fugue depends upon the course
itself. There is comparatively
littlemodulation in the simple
chorals and that only to nearly related keys.
We
have
an
besides the
accompanied fugue when
regular ftigalexpositionsand developmentsthere are inde-
FUGUE
pendent parts
form
for
other
voices
is that in which
169
instruments.
or
The
most
the
the
other.
We
frequentlyfind parts of
new
the
orchestra
givingfree
the
may
the voice parts.
It has been
"
said of Bach's
part is
finished from
so
an
artisticand
technical
end.
without
the theme
prophesies and contains all the steps that follow, while the
for the beginning,it presuplast development is the reason
poses,
all
before.
that
went
Every
comprehends and justifies
is
of which
it
variation belongs to the whole
a
part, not
simply followingin succession one after another as separate
parts but as a process of development, one growing out of
"To
element
know
another.
one
explore another and the
second
appears
in the first"
Fugue perhaps
music
it
lends
itself to
exemplifiesthe
than any
perfectly
comparison with other
more
laws
of
other
'arts.
growth, of development,as
philosophy.
form
In
we
of
truth
find
170
We
have
MUSIC
THE
THEORY
traced
the evolution of
OF
fugue
have
the scheme
of
growth.
at the time
reached
passed after
years
shows
crudest
the
how
seen
us
efforts of
this form
Bach's
that he
was
his music
before
death
was
was
appreciated
beyond his
far advanced
man
to
perfectedand
was
crisis
musical
and
belong
musicians
that
know
We
early
works
in Bach's
the
from
age.
sake
and
characterization.
is sometimes
sapped by
art
unwholesome
rather than
of
and
nourished
mere
There
beauty
that human
by
seems
to
for its
vail
preown
energiesare
it
delight in
tendency to lead away from mere
design and abstract beauty of form we are apt for a time to
lose sightof much
that is trulygreat in art.
Popular opinion
form, of interest only
Jong classed fugue as an unintelligible
of technique. As we
this
have earlier shown
to a student
of the polyphonicmusic duringthose necestrue of much
was
sary
stages of growth before Bach's time, but though a fugal
compositionrequiresstudy on the part of the listener as well
as
have
performer, fugue as Bach and his successors
given
it to us contains not only beauty of designbut holds as great
interest as any of the more
a human
popular forms of music ;
With
and
long
they
have
this
after others
led to
have
ceased
something more
to
be
of value
except
as
perfect,the splendidfugal
will hold their place; in them
the
writingsof the masters
of
is
found and though seeminglyintricate
art
very essence
and complex compositionsthey are
complex only as we fail
lack imaginationto think
t^ grasp the plan of the whole
or
m
t"e
FORM
As
increase
to
of any branch
of human
tends
endeavor
interest and
underpleasure in life, so an standing
knowledge
our
music
aid
the
the
subject, to
larger
simply hear
pleasures,how
of
the
is
To
more
will
proportion to
chapter;
and
but
come
for
such
give
such
is
no
the
of
of
returns
wide
in any way,
the
music-lover,
in
which
distinction
to
he
is
study
is there
of
than
any
profit,in
outlined
of
greatest
whose
range
keener
of
the pleasure
nor
that
will
enjoyment
pleasure and
it, as
a
to
music
form,
in
the
be
is added
sense
study
to
of the
one
must
branch
spent upon
is
composition
of the
stimulates
study
develops
the
great
time
the
music
intense
pleasure
There
more
good
more
fascinatingthan
which
to
the
intellect.
the
and
understands
who
one
listening.
of
much
composition
technical knowledge
thorough enjoyment
is without
of
musical
principlesof
lover, who
If to
music.
basic
the
of
in this
tion
observais
likely
deeper study ;
the
student
or
without
unusual
is
no
way
mental
to
effort.
is
All art
a
subjectto
genius arises
and
we
closer
is
he
say
so
grounded
certain
upon
governed by
laws
that
the
laws
into the
reach
to
the
of
Goethe
art-forms
write
all laws
himself,but
unto
product of his
principles.While
composer
compositionwithout a
his
own
future, he is
Speaking of the
"genius,natural talent,
would
intellect is
past.
says, it is
is the first to understand
them, and
of
readiest obedience."
to
the
basic
force him
individuality
may
ever
that
law
then
and
apparentlybeyond
are
great that he is
scrutiny shows
Now
of the past.
laws
works
whose
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
172
plan or
them
that pays
undertake
more
no
the
design to
which
he
is either
The
restraint than
he is in
composer
the
composer*
music
of either vocal
wise
forms
no
of instrumental
is freer from
mixed
music,
hampered by
or
by the necessityof adapting the music to
In this chapter we
treat largelyof
sung.
as
or
or
music.
The
the words
the
to be
monophonic
phonic
poly-
difference between
and
harmony,
the
same
or
instruments
melody actingas
accompaniment
even
three, four and sometimes
wfa3e in monophonic compositionsone
melody
itselfin two,
to carry
more
on
to
parts,
is introduced
FORM
at
173
come
forms
The
melody.
any
of
agreeing on
nearer
music
critics and
than
analystsof
but
not
music
sarily
neces-
have
not
of the
names
Under
writers have
ent
pointedout many differdivisions
such
the
as
classical,romantic, operatic,
dance, popular and sacred forms, but it can be shown
that
the first three of these can
be reasonablyand logically
said
include
all
forms
of
to
monophonic music, and as a consequence
shall here consider the first three only. While
we
all monophonic yet in all of them
these forms
short
are
be contrapuntal,
polyphonicor fugal in style,
passages
may
these
but
are
predominant, or
not
of
sufficient
length to
their
make
form
ture
conspicuous,in proportionto the strucof the entire composition. We
will first consider the
then the romantic
and operaticforms, giving definitions
classical,
and explanationsas we take them up.
in music
in a general way
Form
stands for clearness,
attractiveness or order, order being as necessary and ever
present in good music as in good architecture. In fact,order
ing
of good music, as every thinkform is the prime requisite
or
by disorder. The
being is attracted by order and repelled
unsubstantial and transient,
in music are
a
tones
singletone
the pleasantsounds
chord cannot
or
give a lastingimpression,
appeal only to the sense, but adherence to a definite form
gives stability.Truly artistic music appeals,because of its
and through the intellect to the emotions.
form, to the intellect,
even
that every
And
should
analyze form, as it
intellectual appeal.
present necessityof
gain
are
extent
some
form
of
by
In
keeping constantlyin
form
in
music
the
at
mind
reader
least to
makes
music
is
means
music-lover
the
should
its
ever
not
of good form
are
unityand variety,both of which
when evenly balnecessary to insure interest and which
174
anced
together,the
details,in the
the
of the
oneness
MUSIC
Unity
form.
good
assure
OF
THEORY
THE
differences
various
in
and
key, tempo
structure
and
all critics in
by
branch
every
of
art.
In
painting
on
be
rhythm
beats, measures,
visible to
are
and
the
melody.
music
reader
The
and
beats and
of
ures
meas-
performer,the
The
beat.
in
used
same
gatheringmeasures
will be
and
by
control
and
the
is
cession
regularsuc-
of accents
which
into groups
measures
or
importantone,
in fact it may
be said to
From
the melody the form
melody.
is defined and recognized. The notes of the principal
melody
are
usuallyplaced above the other notes and rendered by the
instruments
voices of the highest pitch, as
these notes
or
with
strike the ear
the greatest emphasis. The melody is
God-given. While, as has already been stated in a previous
certain rules governing the writingof
chapter,there are
the composer's heart.
from
The rules for
melody it comes
harmony and form may be learned and followed absolutely;
the
be inspired
than will
compositionwill no more
of the English grammar-school boy, which
verses
resultant
the Latin
conform
to
all the
rules of Latin
poet and
and prosody^ be
grammar
the musician must
both be born
FORM
the
with
which
form
in his
song
he can
his art
that
correct
175
appeal.
motive
The
or
musical
be
not
confounded
with
motive, and
translated
often
musical
from
thought,and ultimately
of the composition. The
use
structure
should
is the smallest
the
which
German
is
word
motive
"motif,"
word
appliedto
passages
of
few
thematic
the
the
lyricmusic
theme
melody
musical
or
several
to
notes
Here
measures.
we
music
in
distinction from
flows
on,
while
expressionis
used
are
lyric.In
in thematic
again
music
extent
We
our
are
the
ready
now
consider
to
process, the
idea to
musical
and
complete
as
and
to
The
extra
the hearer
is
reallyan
sion
exten-
cover
sense.
all the
phrase
in
veying
language, con-
of the
ning
begin-
musical
musician
which
the
form
despitethe
classical music
measures
intact.
the
course
precisionmay
remain
usual
an
generallyfour measures,
sections,making it a fragment of
length,the
analyzationby
upon
in
it extend
definite part of
more
phrase,which
musical
measures.
buildingup
of
one
again in the
considering
and
of the
course
sidering
con-
they
are
not
to
and
be
be
ceived
per-
modifications.
frequentlybe omitted
However,
can
its mathematical
the
melody
regarded as
THEORY
THE
176
OF
MUSIC
phrases in literature to
idea of the writer require words
the
taining
conexact
express
other
letters or syllablesthan
plete
equally commore
musical phrases to exactly express
the
phrases,so some
than
contain
other
more
notes
composer's thought must
composition. In like manner
phrases which appear in the same
they may be smaller than required by the particularform
To
in use.
distinguishthe length of phrases the terms
simple and composite are frequentlyemployed. The simple
posite
rhythm, while the comphrase is one consistingof but one
of the
two
or
more
rhythms. None
phrase covers
has held himself
absolutelybound
by rules
great masters
This is exemplifiedfor instance in one
sohn's
of Mendelsof form.
compositionswhere is to be found a phrase twenty-two
the other hand
in length. On
measures
general acceptance
be given to the statement, that the compositions which
may
been the most
which
have
lastingand 'the ones
today are
embellishments, but
looked
as
upon
the
just
as
some
greatest,are
those
which
have
made
been
to
usual
most
introduction
of the
cadence, which
is the
end
of
the
the
phrase or
ioB
a
cadence
; when
the
cord
cadence.
fejfo$ imperfect
e
is that
The
of
the
fifth it indicates
of
significance
same
chapter.
The
FORM
is
cadence
to
commonly
knowledge of
the
of
the
177
cadence
so,
what
which
used
the
known
are
those who
music
here
combined
are
as
sentences,
it is the
as
to
periods,
or
modern
more
make
and
are
nomenclature
with
connected
growth
uneven
musical
of
students
These
in
authorities
musical
to
will be used
term
Musical
and
phrases
have
men
not
the art
and
been
has
evolution.
form
have
used
entire
their works
in
subjectto
and
irregular
an
The
greatest and
the
past been
unanimity in
translated
thing
every-
deepest
Germans.
their nomenclature
into
English by
their English speaking followers,there resulted an
annoying
lack of uniformity in terminology, different translators using
different meanings, and
to convey
the same
English words
different words
for the same
if possible,
worse
things.
still,
and
Some
own
when
writers
and
The
words.
words
or
where
into general acceptance and
grown
difference in terminology it is indicated;but not
have
gradually
there
is
critics have
were
until musical
agree
upon
some
fixed
misunderstandings.
The
simple period is the outgrowth of the phrase, and
is made
by the addition of what is called a subsequentphrase
antecedent
the first or
to
phrase, the two being separated
progression
usuallyby a half-cadence which always signifies
nomenclature
can
we
hope
to avoid
the
and
entire
OF
THEORY
THE
178
MUSIC
period generallyterminating
in
perfect
keys. As a rule
tonic, dominant, or mediant
both in
the subsequent phrase is related to the antecedent
melody and in key, the melody in the subsequentphrase being
and intervals,
much
like that of the antecedent in movement
its key being one
and
easilyderived from the key of the
in
cadence
antecedent
alternate
divisions
of
and
accented
of
full measures,
unaccented
musical
no
form
in what
matter
must
always
be
made
beat must
ent
differ-
The
measures.
be omitted
an
up
ure
meascented
unac-
the last
from
measure.
The
statements
two-part form
seems
to
have
been
the natural
cal
musi-
of. periods
or
rather
wioji of them
SQ
that
one
con-
FORM
stitutes the theme
and
with
synonymous
them.
use
the other
and is almost
counter-theme,
melody and tune as we commonly
the terms
German
The
179
Volkslieder
written
were
in
this form;
theorists
Lied-form
but we
give it the name
the
use
embraces so many
song-form. It now
English translation,
different kinds of musical composition,
both vocal and instrumental,
that the name
primary form is considered more
priate.
appro-
some
If the reader
form
in
synonymous,
and
presentingof
one
are
the
which
second
in the tonic
key, and
by
as
found
musical
the
then
but
in various
that
and
song
underlyingprinciple
rests
musical thought followed
by a
it and
closes with
half-cadence
to the
for a conoriginal
clusion,
little difficulty
in distinguishing
the
a
return
compositions,nor
it is later
terminologyas
forms
primary
that the
with
contrasts
he will have
forms
will remember
the
will be confused
appliedto special
primary
form
the
tinction
binary is frequentlyapplied to make a readier disThe binaryform more
from the ternary form.
fully
exemplifiesthe idea of progressivegrowth than anything
previouslyconsidered,as the second part serves as a balance
and
complement to the first The firstpart consists of a
musical
period and usually closes with a perfectcadence.
name
The
second
part contains,
that
forms
one.
There
contrast
is usuallya
and
least at
at
affords
slightchange
the
the
start, material
balance to part
in the
in part
extended than
melody
elaborate and
frequentlyis more
the first period and closes with a half-cadence in the tonic
the return
to part one.
Simple compositions
key; then comes
written in the small two-part primary forms and
are
in the first period,four
find eight measures
in them
you
of four
material and a repetition
of contrasting
measures
and
two
it
'
while
of the first,
measures
under
of
the
more
elaborate works
come
ber
large two-part primary form in which the numlowed
doubled,sixteen for the first period,folare
measures
and a return to eigbtpf the firstpart
by eight,
the
OF
THEORY
THE
180
MUSIC
there
form
the
are
the
final
coda.
or
is
This
by
a
combination
expositionof
or
or
of
of the
introduction,
principalidea or
the
the
of
repetition
of the
second
the
first part
or
by adding
total of
make
in each
measures
second
period,which
the
of
melody;
the
first,
number
same
form
five-part
group
three-partform,
in it each
form.
of
First
parts followed
and
is
the three
comes
by
a
a
on
refinement
unnecessary
directlybased upon the
larger and broader scale,as
parts consists of
principalsong
second
form
distinct primary
in two
or
three
subordinate
in some
song form
key of the subdominant,
FORM
dances
written
many
of
most
and
the
such
old
polonaise,gavotte,
as
dances.
modifications
or
181
All
later
either
of
forms
binary
or
minuet
are
tensions
ex-
ternary
forms.
be too
It cannot
that
of the rules
none
above
were
rules
The
all
arts
hope
who
for future
could look
we
development in
be dead.
would
will make
not
were
stronglyemphasized
compositionare inflexible
appeared composers who
for form
in composition.
too
general usage of
logicalto suppose
in the future
ones
it
the
it is but
past, and
of
and
are
forms
or
or
In
unbreakable.
or
often stated
With
an
music
only to
as
of
understanding
are
ready to consider
ternary forms we
forms and will begin with dance music.
and
the
primary
specialclassical
The
"Tanzweisen," and in them we find the contrasted periodsof our present primary,or song form.
slow walkingdances,
The dances of the nobles,dignified,
forded
and the merry, wild, hilarious dances of the peasantry afcians
the contrast necessary to good musical form, and musidance-songs
soon
symmetry
"
or
began
to
combine
the two.
but concluded
by
return
to
Then
the two
to preserve
the
dances
contrasting
the firstmovement,
and gave
rise
OF
THEORY
THE
182
MUSIC
classical
largelyused by modern
and Spanish dances lent their
French, German
composers.
find Italian composers
influence and in the Sixteenth Century we
combining three or four different dances and making
means
simplya set or
a compositionin the cycleform, which
in turn
called the partita,which
succession of movements
ten
writprogressedto the suite. The dance music is of course
and
to correspond to the regular steps of the dancer
hence the rhythm ns very regular,making this perhaps the
Much
of the
simplestand clearest of all musical forms.
to
form
tripartite
the
form, however, is
in dance
written
music
so
intended
not
as
an
regular
accompaniment to dancing and in it we commonly find irand can employ
rhythms,for the composer is not restricted,
when
variations impossible
obligedto consider the steps
of
the
As
dancer.
idealized
Mozart,
forms, such
dance
importance in
which
we
find
in
have
the
the
works
of
We
as
we
of
many
that
our
they
were
modern
Four
movements
suite
of
dances
those
which
are
parts of the
old
instrumental
were
Weber.
and
of
special
suite, from
forms
usuallyconsidered
were
veloped.
de-
necessary
every
and
but
the upper
without
part "r
is of
iiefody
uniform
regular
occa-
FORM
183
dancing
music
been
master
dance
fairlylively
allemande
German
suite it is
It is
the
name
Italian courante, or
meaning of the
staccato
rather
the
while
the
as
music
last bar
it underwent
it ceased
a
one
form
first movement
to
change, and
original
courir,to
run,
to the
more
and
logical
etymo-
chieflyof running
is characterized
by
with
part you
the
it consists
form
was
it to have
time.
answers
dance
movement
there
of each
signature. As
as
is the
the
more
the French
name
us
corrente,
French
rapid running
measure
from
French
The
notes.
and
fashionable
derived
was
passages,
of
slower
was
shows
days, though
figuredances, very
The
in those
XIV., left
marked
find 6-4
short note
at the end
of the
suite.
In
in that
peculiarity
time in spiteof th
rliythmsare
was
of
Moorish
and England
as
it
Later
saraband, and
the
nally performed
OF
THEORY
THE
184
into
transformed
was
voice
a
a
MUSIC
accompanied
dance
is the
which
in
same
him.
several
the courante,
as
in
merry
the
should
final movement
that
mood
of
be such
leave
to
as
and
the
the
listener
purpose
gigue, a
originated
it
in
and
known
in
no
one
no
one
was
people
country as
lands
the same
in slightlyvarying forms
time.
It
at
many
ture.
was
a
rollicking,rapid dance, very regular in rhythmic structime signaturesare
Various
used, as 3-8, 6-8, 3-4, 6-4
and
12-8, and in the more
even
pretentious suites the gigue
assumes
great complexity, owing to the rapid, continuous
Bach
movement.
occasionallytreated the gigue in free fugal
style.
than
with
The
It
of
Gap,
where
France,
rustic
dance
introduced
of
in the
It
is
after
in
form.
Often
first,and
the
tlte first.
There
when
in
of
the
and
second
it
in the
gavottes,
first contained
at
in
like
of
many
difficult steps
of
city
were
minuet
are
livelier nature.
the
minuet
is
in
immediately
performer repeated
gavotte followed
played
was
always
was
was
two, if one
the tonic major
the
and
figures used
time
duple
like
was,
ments.
move-
in the
called
It
name.
romp
all kinds
the
dance
written
ternary
many
last two
were
good-natured
later
found
women
its
the
mountaineer's
the
received
dances,
between
used
originallya
was
the
whence
the
is often
gavotte
the
in character
contrast
between
minor
follow
key the other would
relative major key.
This
or
combining
two
a
really makes
con-ternary form, though each
separately is a binary foim
'Other
at
dances
often
branje,
the
introduced
into
passepfed and
the
the
suite
minuet.
are
the
The
FORM
bourree
185
branle, the
The
passepied and the minuet.
nated in Auvergne, though some
authorities call it a Spanish
dance of Biscay,where
it is stillsaid to be performed. It is
binary in form, livelytempo, in duple time, is similar in
or
character
to the
used
when
as
begins on the
begins with
the
there
is
of
repetition
usuallyfollows
the
first,
making
It differs from
form.
ternary
with
as
then
with
gavotte, and
fourth
the
third.
The
rigadoon
in musical
bourree
form
is almost
identical
is characterized
but
by
time.
or
common
peculiarjumping step.
The
passepiedwhich, according to tradition,originated
in Brittanyis an old round dance which was
famous
in France
introduced
into
during the time of Louis XIV., when it was
the ballet. This dance was
used not only between
the last two
of the suite but by some
movements
was
placed
composers
It is written in 3-4 or 3-8 time,begins
before the saraband.
It is in 2-4
on
of the
usually ternary
Of
has
in
suite but
is of
lively
nature,
and
in form.
found
large
earlier mentioned
forms
It sprang
important.
and
name
and
measure
is the most
in
from
instrumental
of the
dance
the minuet
only
classical works.
same
in the old
Its
origin
has
or
3-8
In
XIV.
for Louis
3-8
signature,as
the
old
minuet
In
tempo
the
first
gives
more
makes
it
on
outgrowth
the
Handel
and
With
their works.
third beat
delicate
less
minuets
of the
became
touch
are
measure
|o
instead
of
less
the
of
the
older
heavy,tl^tfce
minttet is the
the
Haydn
quitemerry;
innovation introduced by Haydn
modern
the
the whole
of
by
1662
in 3-4
is written
some
fact,many
is faster and
composed by Lully in
was
it is ternary and
preferred the former
is shown
lost
beginning on
form
Bach
time.
solemn.
music
minuet
earliest known
the
^ffefeo,
form.
name
An
derived
OF
THEORY
THE
186
MUSIC
from
historic
The
that unlike
ancient
other
but stillholds
importanceof
its placeas
first introduced
Haydn
dances
the
lies in the
minuet
it has
not
become
obsolete
it into the
symphony
and
fact
works.
Beethoven
monotonous.
it into
Mendelssohn
Symphony and
flat Symphony,
minuet
ended
the
Schumann
but
used
in the second
in his Italian
of the
movement
historyof
E
the
with Beethoven.
Another
dance
form
in
favor
with
both
is the Polish
instrumental
it was
tfa?at?
evolved
from
ancient Christmas
carols
such
as
aajb^eclay
sting in Poland, and it is true there is a likeness
f the dance music and, in the lines of the
FORM
old
was
187
now
is purely instrumental.
in existence
The
Henry
Anjou
more
court
generally
dance
or
Polish throne
Polish
many
Today,
in
festivities.
dance
as
gave,
the
it still consists
of
part, moving
^everal times
the
around
room
in
solemn
Since
with
no
it has been
then
composers
and
parts of
Italian
is of march
has
even
operas.
favorite form
with
many
been
used
It is
usually written
by
tempo,, generallybegins on
vocal
instrumental
composers
in 3-4
in
time,
of the
and
OF
THEORY
THE
188
MUSIC
of the dance
(saltare,to
something of the nature
jump). It was danced by one or two persons, with a quick
hopping step, time increasingas the dance proceeded. The
music is written in 3-4 or 6-8 time, is generallyin a minor
key, notes are staccato, and the hopping step is apparent in
the rhythm. In an idealized form the saltarello is found in
symphoniesand other instrumental classical works.
in his Italian Symphony
used in the finale
Mendelssohn
tells
the
both
The
tarantella.
the
saltarello and
tarantella
is
and
the extended
rhythm, as
modern
derived
bite
was
bit of
cityof
and
marked
elaborate
by
use
from
form
composers
There
works.
its
dance
this dance
is
very
tradition
Many
in instrumental
effectively
that
the
tarantella
the tarantula,the
of
the
tarantism
which
was
in the sition
suppothe
name
by
in
prevalent for many
years
epidemic was at its worst during
of strolling
musicians went
from
the
Italy. When
the Sixteenth Century bands
the dance music for those afflicted,
town
to town
furnishing
If forgettingone's illsand tiringone
is efficacious
physically
in the treatment
of hystericalsubjects,the tarantella as
at the present time
danced by the Italians even
certainly
should prove a cure.
Although it begins mildlyand gently
dancers seem
enough, in a few minutes the two, four or more
with
the music, and
to be entirelycarried away
heads,
and
used
in the wild gestures, the
body are
legs
afi",
stai33|)ijig,
dappii^,bodilycontortions,
hoppingand,
runmng,
eaches its height,even
the voices of the
io the gaiety. Different forms of taranftsslst
southern
FORM
tism
required different
cure, and
music
189
and
different tarantellas.
sprang up several slightly
Among the modern
societydances the waltz is one of
the most
important. The originsof many of the dances are
rather
so
obscure, but
that
from
of
the
dances
waltz
is
perhaps the
determine.
to
The
most
at
name
waltzen,to
have
turn, and the Germans
claimed
it
of their productions. They trace
one
as
generally
it back
to the old Drehtanz
or
turning dance which was
danced
been
from
and
Provence
the
introduced
then
name
old
volta
into Paris
Century it was
changed
to
to
face
or
as
was
same
French
which
done
claim
it to
have
in
Louis
VIL, and
Germany and
carried to
Then
in the
invented
was
under
Walzer.
holding one
when
they,the
stilldanced
rhythms
slow
festivals
village
at
in Austria
Mozart, Beethoven
which
and
Bavaria
and
Schubert
to
the
used
in their waltzes.
1675
About
to
which
it has
the modern
waltz
been
have
must
an
outgrowth
with
date
which
,ofthe
spite
There
usually given
dance.
become
familiar "Ach
now
and
into existence
came
tune
the
It reached
popularenough
it met
an
is
no
older dance
proof of
the first
was
danced,and
was
of
said this
Augustin"
therefore
to
be
this and
it
temporary
con-
1780
of the
first appearance
England in 1797, though it did
for
to
the
severe
criticism
until the
Attacksmade
been
du lieber
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
190
propriety/'and of Lord
called'
of the subjectin his poem
Byron'ssavage treatment
all dancing
The Waltz, it continued to gain in favor and soon
waltz.
England became devotees to the wiles of the fascinating
other
the waltz is entirelydifferent from
In musical form
dances and is not as capableof high development, but works
have been written in waltz form.
of lastingcharm
the works
of Mozart
and
In its early form and among
of simple binary form, and seldom
the waltz was
Beethoven
it was
if so
modulation
occurred
or
always into a
any
nearly related key. Schubert enlarged this form, and the
delicacyand
"destitute of grace,
waltzes
modern
more
often
are
always in
be
in
drawn
There
of waltzes.
which
four
are
sixteen
the third is
follow
the
or
measure,
material
five short
numbered
measure
the first.
as
waltzes
rule
These
sisting
con-
which
three,in
short waltzes
one
is
waltz
of
repetition
whose
frequentlyrepeatedin
are
of two
case
from
in
note
introduction
It
form.
and
not
proper
time, leadingdirectlyto the waltz or set
no
way
in
waltz
necessarily
may
accented
one
first;there is usuallyan
the
in
ternary
voices
tain
sus-
the dance
form
bring
and
waltzes
will be found
Viennese
the
first composers
it into the list of
in his "Invitation
forms, as is shown
the
of
one
was
which
followed
in the works
tecribed;
absolute
to the Dance."
Among
the
best
of
we
short
now
have
the
members
Gungl
became
the
fixed
"
of
the
form
of
that
several waltzes
introduction,
of the be?t
repeating
parts?
the
musical
dancing. It was
titles to waltzes
under
and
specific
Strauss family and
Tabitzky and
for
music
idealize
The
Chopin and Rubinstein.
excelled in the writing of waltz music
the elder Johann Strauss who first gave
composers
etenee waltz
to
is the
follow-
FORM
Other
modern
step with
measure
phrase
with
written
number
even
This
largelybased
are
of
the
galop, of
but
one
has
beat
two
in
measures
each
is necessary to conform
Among them are the polka,
form
same
the
to
the
and
on
number
even
time:
which
an
period.
or
the
2-4
dances
191
but
of
quicker tempo
whereas
measure,
in
the
polka
three-part
three-part
galop may
composed in a
primary form: and the polka mazurka, usuallyin
from the waltz in
primary form in quick 3-4 time, differing
beats of the measure
that the weak
are
usuallyaccentuated.
The
polka, in spiteof its lack of real beauty, became
has
two,
it
popular wherever
of
much
later
be
be
date
the
supposed
to
countryman
fellow
and
music
Prague
of
invention
an
modern
waltz
and
is
girl of Bohemia.
Neruda
composed the
peasant
of
as
it
descriptionof the
was
of
was
danced.
polka which
It
is
name
in
was
supposed
Czech
be
creation
It
the
even
by the name
known
originally
was
from
than
song to which
that it received the name
taken
was
it
introduced.
was
it reached
later
dance
so
London,
and
for many
years
in every
included.
was
of many
countries, otir own
program
forms
As
the dance
were
developed from
the march
forms
from
grew
the
dances
march
designed to accompany
always written in duple or quadruple time, the rhythm
constructed on 'the simple binary
strongly marked, and was
repeated.
form, divided into two parts, each of which was
march
was
When,
followed
as
in
the
case
of
the
minuet,
became
or
one
ternary
or
more
rondo.
trios
The
the
ternary,havinga second
It consists
OF
THEORY
THE
192
MUSIC
the
H.
series of
C. Bunner's
verses
lines
the
were
same.
One
of
perfectlyillustratesthe form:
pitcherof mignonette
tenement's highest casement;
a
Queer sort of flower-pot yet
That
pitcher of mignonette
Is a garden in heaven set,
A
In
"
To
The
In
The
an
['
pitcherof
mignonette
highest
the tenement's
musical
the
rondo
"
casement.
old French
Wrottgfctas
very
rondeau
a
it should be
ringwith
no
break In its
FORM
all the movements
Here
theme
principal
key
that
elaboration
determines
will
we
will
there
parts
always returningto
of which
and
or
are
subservient to
of the rondo,
and
193
be
the
of
at
the
beginning
the character
one
of the entire
style
position,
com-
always rightfully
expect in this form
return
to
the first subject and
in
form
reiteration of
it
throughoutthe
composition.
first rondo
The
form
is
the simplestand
naturally
sists
con-
of the first
only
subjectand the repetition
of the first
subject in the same
ferent
key separatedby a passage in a difknown
key, technically
as
a
transition,
an
digression,
episode or intermezzo, an Italian word derived from the
Latin intermedius,meaning coming between, the same
word
being used for selections played between the acts in early
Italian tragedies;it is also at the present time given to independe
that
compositionof the same
generalcharacter,
so
the word
transition,
signifyingbeing in transit,
givesperhaps
unmistakable
the clearest,most
meaning.
second rondo
form
The
consists of a first subject,a
and a return
transition,a second subject,another transition,
to the first subject.
third rondo
consists of the first subject,a
The
form
the first subject,
transition,the second subject,a transition,
the third subject,
and a return
to the
a transition,
a transition,
first subject.In this long form the intermediate subjectsand
transitions
the
condensed
are
bounds
length.
of the entire
Some
episode instead
of
contains
more
rondo
reason
form
and
or
of
those
than
one
in order
writers
a
who
to
not
compositionbeyond
transition make
used
tend
ex-
able
reason-
the
term
that is,a
distinction,
and
episode,
the
name
mezzo
inter-
to find any
is applied
to the passages, but it is impossible
there is no difference in the
for this distinction,
as
of the
many
the subjects
different connecting links between
the words
writers use
episodeor intermezzo
interchangeablyin connection
word
shortened
transition
seems
to
with
the
be the most
rondo
so
'distinctand
that
the
definite.
THE
194
OF
THEORY
MUSIC
In
all of the
"sound"
is derived
word
The
sonata.
and
from
in
first used
was
classical form
the
of
culmination
The
and
the
used
now
as
compositioncomprisingtwo
there
are
upon
came
to
meaning
toccata, a
all composers
it has been the
of instrumental
music of the
stands
for
definite musical
Most
movements.
more
monly
com-
into
the
makers.
musician
the
the
word
in the
three
more.
even
Latin
distinction
name
or
is found
there
as
is
so
little mechanism
between
made
it was
so
perfect
player and instrument, that when
of the musician, he began to
to respond to every mood
as
experiment and to overcome,
by skill in stoppingand bowing,
the mechanical
difficulties which
had before prevented him
from
and
obtaining the finest,purest tone
fluency of
motion.
The
violin is
devices which
were
composers
made
to find a
the
correct
not
more
solo
had
been
instrument
occupying
handling
simple harmonies,
of
rather
form
melodic
than
which
the
and
the
and
puntal
contra-
attention
an
effort
of
was
would
passages
interwoven
depend upon
accompanied by
melodies
which
accompaniment. As we have
had already been grouped and
tunes
seen, the purely dance
into one composition,
musicians felt the
several woven
but now
unified form, something that would
need of a more
admit of
melodic
expression,give an impression of definite tonality
and retain the rhythmic vitality
necessary to all instrumental
of form adopted in the dance
tipa$ie. They used the method
of the suites,but improved ttpon it by making
the divisions,
the subjectsused, by elaborating
key and making the parts balance each other
depend
upon
themselves
for
FORM
The
form
sonata
in
been
principalparts.
agreed upon, the name
best
It determines
three
of
one.
is indeed
and
is
it
specialname
such
the
the
whom
to
man
following
diversityof
their
passage.
one
is
As
reallyconveys
development
the
free
every
and
novel
and
or
the
of
German
instances
another, and
as
term
clear idea of
of
here
what
of
in
were
first introduced.
the
upon
the
themes
are
call
free
next
by
here
it the
fantazie;
is the
workingconflictingterms,
each
of
the
terms
and
drama
which
sonata
position
com-
is conferred
this
for:
portionof
the
possibleway in displayingtechnical
passion. Like the development of
placed
the
as
theorists
toward
works
composer
fantazie,because here he is free to
which
from
in
American
in other
correct
as
there
the
translation
out
being
as
unless
Some
terms.
development;
sonata
recognized
sonata,
form
grand division of the sonata
are
exposition we
again confronted
the
the
the
naming
the
title to
while
character
the
Pastoral
as
in
first movement,
key
a
expositionbeing perhaps
the whole
used
commonly
the
of
195
treated
his
genius
skill,imagination
the
as
plot
in
characters
all
and
relationships
possiblenew
ments
entanglethe
in no wise suspectedwhen
subjectswere
The
composer
here
uses
his utmost
fancy
whole.
The
before
exposition is
explained,each
being somewhat
modified
development
of
the
from
of
parts of
the
the
binary
form
sonata
form
MUSIC
The
form.
OF
THEORY
THE
196
known
as
a rule
as the subject.This first subject
exposition
comprisessome
phraseformation and often closes with a halfcadence, being very much like the antecedent phrase of a
period. A second subjectfollows the first after a short
transition which, in major keys, leads to and modulates
erally
geninto the dominant
key, the usual key of the second
which is variable in lengthand has no definite form.
subject,
in styleand is therefore
This second theme is frequently
lyrical
often called the song group;
dominant
key and is followed by
to
comes
codetta
close in the
varying in length
There
is often
composer.
'double bar with repetition
marks at the end of the codetta
accordingto
a
it
the
design of
is
and
all of
the
development or
part
one
the
part two,
comes
The
working-outpassage.
motives
of
second
movements
many
compositionmay
found
always
The
sonata
as
description
where
there
the added
of
more
the sonata
ihdfcate the
as
or
simple
here noted
are
three
has been
movements
typicaland
most
movements
added
chosen
form, and
common
they are
for
all subservient
which
regarded as interpolations
the symmetry of the composition. The forms
usuallyhave Italian,titlesgiven them, which
tenspo with which they are to be played,and
movements
detract foom
it is the
are
elaborate
this type
to
as
added, how
are
are
these
into
fc^tikff
i0tei^|iij^
t^tidency
a
the;tt;tte'Somta
is
FORM
disjointedcollection
correct, and
this
we
have
be
written
noted,
chamber
music
music
the
for
with
away
is not
the
tirely
en-
danger
is demanded
limited
the
the
of
is
of each
was
movements
form
composition. In
instrument
the
secular
in
which,
as
old
sonata
one
or
more
in
somewhat
choral
written
as
these
three
the
solo
rivalrywith
forms
all music
of
the modern
group
sonata
described
not
now
works
were
other
but
of
in the
suite.
this stage,
and for wind
at
which
really
was
In it
symphony.
the violin in
with
of instruments.
was
dance
merely as
by playing
but
were
in connection
sonata
four
chamber
constituted
the concerto
polyphonicmusic,
for the
which
to
or
fugato or
prominence
other bowed,
contrastingparts,
ber
(cham-
three
into
for
de
serious in character
seen,
accompanying
or
"sonata
have
we
were
appeared
in
perfectly
camera"
there
the precursor
other instruments
now
them
developments
the
da
da camera,
of the stringquartet and the
accompaniment
the
composer
be
earliest
the "sonata
brought
being
instruments, such
unison,
the
and
either
as
styleand
was
The
known
were
from
also
was
and
to
violin
the
While
in this form
derived
sonata
composition
other pieces of
in material
sonata
paniment
accom-
authorities considered
many
of musical
(church sonata), or
sonata). In the church
movements
quick and slow,
contrapuntalstyle,which were
music
by
the
may
this
trios,quartets and
chiesa"
and
If
orchestra
bring each
subordinatingthe others.
one
instrument,but
instruments
any
the
solo
instruments.
for
intellectual form
much
for
more
or
string quartets
most
so
two
concerto;
adjusted,and
of
sections,which
do
to
evolved
written
becomes
the
in order
was
for
be
is
of unrelated
have
misunderstanding, later composers
indicated that
be played without
sonata
interruption.The sonata, as
the
so
197
bass
in
now
From
evolved.
Except
previouschapters,
words
produced in
this
standing,
for undernew
form
THEORY
THE
198
MUSIC
OF
strumental
tions
emonever
done.
In all
cycleforms,
that
combined
to
movements
are
in which
is,works
form
two
or
more
whole, the
homogeneous
The composer
the same.
distribution of parts is very much
realizes that in order to convey his meaning to you he must
make
feel
aspects, he must
you
present his subjectin many
the
it
make
by making clear
he must
appeal to
of his work
wholeness
ring true
and
to
and
in other
intellectual sensibilities,
the
laws
balanced
and
words, it
must
abide
by
make
all art
of
hold
for
moment
for what
measure
its many
parts,
both emotional
is
follow; and
to
then
in a
prepare you
while the mind
is
made
either by
ready-the appeal to the intellect is at once
an
elaborate,even
heavy movement, or a slow, patheticone,
but is immediatelyfollowed by somethingpiquant,at least a
appealingto the emotions ; and
lighterand livelier movement
then, that
there
be
may
frivolous vein, there comes
serious part
in the finale
We
overabundance
no
as
contrast
of
and
the
more
rest, a slow,
follow
this
rather
brief
SONATA
PATHETIQUE,
This sonata
is in
cfcfflberatemovement,
minor
of
ten
OP.
13
(BEETHOVEN).
key (C minor)
measures,
with
,
"Grave,"
kind, almost
remindingone
in its
very
as
slow,
Beet-
deep,sorrhythm of some
FORM
funeral
march;
from
199
and
of
movement
then
number
same
all
in the
middle, made
in
that is, the octave
or
notes,
shake
trill.
Its second
the
scale, or
flat
major,
is divided
into three
parts
or
also is
200
THEORY
THE
OF
MUSIC
uses
development Beethoven
four measures
of the first mood, plaintive,
pathetic,
harking
back, then again its double time, but this time in an unusual
key, E minor, the major third step of the scale. The same
accompaniment is used as in its principaltheme; the theme
occurring in its upper part, then in the bass with the same
accompaniment on top, then dropping to the lower regions
of the instrument, with the vibrato accompaniment on
an
section,with a fraction
point,a weird four measure
organ
both separated,closing
of first theme
of also four measures,
with a running downward
figure. This part, without even a
to
a
close, and at the same
suggested ritardando, comes
The
time begins the return
of the first theme.
movement
second theme, this time, is not, as usual,in the originalkey,
but in that of the fourth step, F minor, but its second part
back to its right key, C minor, otherwise
following
comes
its exact
but at the end suddenly swerving aside with
course,
two
crashingdiminished chords, with a long wait on the last
chord, again producing that firstmentioned effect of impending
built on
this
of the introduction
crisis,then four measures
diminished
same
chord-harmony, after which the coda, of
twelve
crashes, as it were, therebybringing this
measures,
Before
stormy
The
plunging
movement
second
to
into this
full close.
part is
adagio cantabile,
very slow and
in the major key of the third below, or
A
flat major,
in the twofour-four
time, in singingstyle,a movement
A
deeply felt and tender melody of
part binary form.
with
a
eight measures
simple accompaniment is its first
theme.
This
is repeated with
double accompaniment an
octave
called
higher, after which enters what is sometimes
its second theme, and is often defined as the second part or
continuation
of the first theme.
However, it is so distinctly
like a free fantasia-like figureon a violin,
more
contrasting,
that it may
its second
be termed
subject,although not
theme now
referredto again. The first eightmeasure
occurs
in the original
A
flat
but
the next two
key,
major,
short theme .in -fee same
briiaga new
key in minor,
an
FORM
201
with
minor, which now
tripletsadded, is used
flat
staccato
fourteen
of
theme
latory changes
new
as
with
measures
and
great
accompaniment in
of working-out
sort
moduvery sudden
leading back to its first
some
climax,
with
but
changed accompaniment
of eight measures
coda
is a sort
The
moving downward, coming to a very serene
theme,
The
in
third movement
allegro, of
breve,
double
or
regular
third
minor.
in double
and
rapid tempo
Its
theme
in
key
same
as
Although
time, its
as
of
triplets.
recedingfigure
and
quietclose.
the
first movement,
in
being, first theme, second
arrangement
themes
is
of
and
third
are
this is indicated
character
does
and
as
not
fast movement,
demand
any such
a
amateurs
often make
stroying
taking this at a too rapid pace, thereby deits simplebeauty.
is so closelyconnected
first theme
with the second
mistake
the
time, the
The
form.
first and
of C
tempo,
theme,
the
fast
of the sonata
in broken
of
it appears
as
continuation
of
of
the
second
second
theme, like
theme, then
measures
to
of
more,
in the
treatment
of
the
of
divisions,
eight measures
this part of theme, eight
sort of variation on
with added variation and closingmodulations
first movement
the
into three
this theme
Beethoven
theme.
running
parts
The
up
or
down
is made
up
variation of
figures,the
of simple chords, with
the
while the second part is
triplets,
variation again returning.
triplet
After the now
recurringfirst theme in C minor, comes
in the major key of the sixth step of its
its third theme
withal simple
originalkey, or A flat major, a quiet,stately,
in the working-outstyleof the first
theme, written somewhat
sion
treatingit in contrapuntalstyle,both by invermovement,
of the theme and its part% and by adding a contrapuntal
in
more
older writers.
fifth step or G
chord
which
on
any
it
to
other
of the
long
pause.
for the third time
comes
It follows the
C major.
but
triplets,
modulation
back
time in its
After
the
without
first
episode
the second
reappears
of the first step of this
the
to
and
entirety,
divisions
same
before
which
were
as
before,
variation
of
lingering,
languid
first theme, recurringfor the fourth
this time
of the second
variation
last movement,
suggestionof change,
styleof
the dominant
recurringnow
movement,
or
major,
the strict
stylethan
free
part, although
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
202
to
are
sort
its second
half is added
theme, coming
to
the
triplet
false close in A
the
only eight measures,
first four measures
of which
an
are
entirelynew
thought.
it closes with the rapid downward
scale run, by which
Then
theme
closes the first time, modulating to its
the second
firsttheme, but this time ending in its own
key, C minor.
flat
major, adding
"SONATA
short coda
QUASI
UNA
of
FANTASIE,"
OP.
NO.
(BEETHOVEN).
This
form,
as
movement
omitted
is sometimes
called the
Moonlight
Sonata.
Its
entirely. Instead
it
in C
song-likemovement,
which, imaginativeminds have
deduced
Sonata.
Beethoven
of
this
without
e"
in the
superscription
suggests the character
"With
movement,
great sonority,delicacy,and
of damper pedal." (This superscriptionis
use
in later editions.) This
of course
is not
to
with our
too literally
very sensitive and sonorous
FORM
intended
on
harp
the
was
The
has
same
of
means
no
as
203
when
accompaniment played
an
damping
its tone
of this firstmovement
form
prolongation.
is the
binary,
two-part
openingtheme, on
theme,
the fifth step, recurringopening theme, and
on
the same
second
The
theme, with closingcoda.
movement
begins
with
four measures
of harp-like
broken
chords modulatory
or
introductoryin character,after which the principal
songlike first theme
begins with its harp-likecharacter of the
accompaniment continued through this entire movement.
form;
song
This
two
the
an
which
at
measures,
key
it is sometimes
as
song,
of the fifth
in the nature
of
step, or
short
first in upper
point
G
is carried
called,
a
second
division
sharp minor.
twenty-
on
begins
This
is rather
phrase of three-quarter
notes,
part then
in
literally
repeated one
duced
introoctave
Then
are
again both measures,
repeatedin imitation,
four steps higher,leadingto a passage
of broken
arpeggioin upward movement,
like chords
continuingduring four
then
with
following downward, two measures,
measures,
distinct melodic underground, and closing
modulation,of four
lower.
more
and
measures,
it returns
theme
to its firstrecurring
in the
Now,
Beethoven, instead of repeatingthe
verbatim, as in the previously
analyzed adagio,
originalkey.
entire theme
also in the
op. 13, writes the closing thirteen measures
key of the first step, but this time in C sharp major, not as
of
expositionin
of the second
The
more
as
of
movement
this sonata
is
in character,a
time, sprightly
character
Not
theme.
second
in three-four
the
than
large as
the
of the older
movement
in the
sonatas
from
sort
and
which
previousop. 27,
an
No.
allegretto,
of scherzo,
stilldeeper in
it
developed.
1, distinct in
THEORY
THE
204
MUSIC
OF
in thematic
Its
division.
tion
key relais not regular,but only changed enharto first movement
in the major
monicallyfrom C sharp minor to D flat,but now
key. Its relation of parts is irregularand with the exception
of the second section all parts are in key of the first step. Its
Its
form is classed under the ternary or three-part
song form.
in the key
measures
first theme
continues through sixteen
the continuation
second
or
flat major, after which
of D
theme
follows in the minor key of the sixth step of its scale,
returns
to its first
B flat minor, but after eight measures
theme, closingwith full close in D flat major. The third
theme, or division,is also in the key of its first step, D flat
after which
follows eight
major, continuingeight measures,
of modulation
to the key of the fourth step, G flat
measures
of closingin the firstkey.
major, and eightmeasures
Beethoven, as will have been observed, still being in
down
the fantastic mood
does not
hold himself strictly
to
form
sharplyoutlined
and
the former
The
sonata,
four
third
and
this
of
last movement
time, is in the
freely written
agitated),in
four-
others
as
sonata
great emotional
describe
it
as
outbreak
thunderstorm.
of the composer,
Either
tion
descrip-
fits this
mentioned
This
with
six
part and
part all
two
measures
is
theme
measure
more
of
figurein
the
upper
the
lower
accompanyingparallel
part, not broken,in
QO
the organ
point,of
sharp major.
FORM
After
three
more
205
of
repetitions
the two
phrase,
measure
this
of twenty
exposition of the first theme
measures,
without
in
the
episode,
immediatelybegins
any
key of G
the
fifth
of
the
first key. Its melody is
sharp minor,
step
song-like character, although the accompaniment reminds
of the turbulent
undercurrent
one
of feeling. The
theme
consists of two
proper
making
measure,
octaves
measures
four
and
two
phrase, which
measure
notes
in the
second
theme
in the
in doubled
of
slow
half
running figure
leadingto
the
key. This is a
one
measure
short, staccato-like,
phrase,repeated five tones
higher. This two measure
phrase is literally
repeated,and
added.
This six measure
two
closing measures
phrase is
doubled, above
now
in
octaves
and
same
bass
reversed by breaking
corresponding, the closing measures,
its figureup instead of downward, and doubling its number.
After
these
six
measures
of
the
second
half
of
the
but
section is reproduced in
entire second
The
sharp minor.
regular order,
C
end
the
at
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
206
added
are
two
phrase
measure
and then, twice,the two
expositiontheme, closing with two diminshed
chords
vibrato
through the
making what
more
is termed
four
the
uses
treatingit
in the
below, with
the
with
phrase
measure
Beethoven
kind
now
second
theme
once
theme,
above, then
accompaniment, working
of
sweeping
the
of
first,the
manner,
same
of the
chords, swept
on
long pause
either,
false close.
same
of wide
climax
keyboard
entire
of
measures
chords
broken
and
up
into
down
the
culminatingin
keyboard, in the upper part of eightmeasures,
an
upward chromatic scale run with a long trill on top and a
cadenza, closingwith two
long sustained
receding downward
slow for these two
bass notes, the tempo being marked
very
critics consider this already as the coda, but
some
measures;
it
short
The
imitative
chords
to
coda, of
of second
fragment
of
like
more
seems
theme
made
measures,
and
of six measures,
brings this
beautiful sonata
listeners,suggests
lover's story
temperaments
up
three
added
some
parts.
of
measures
two
short
to
its close,which,
or
are
thunderstorm,
attuned
at
the
time.
WALDSTEIN
Known
Count
form
under
three
of
Waldstein.
von
53
OR
SONATA,
movements,
of its
noble sonata
the
(BEETHOVEN).
in
second
being dedicated to
C major in a large
of
these
movements
be
only
to
theme
chord
of
four
the
measures.
The
first and
second
measure
is
on
FORM
fourth
207
but
the
three
actual
ending
of
with
tones
reversed
an
turn.
of refrain
enlargesthese last
three
notes
to five an
octave
higher, a short and pointed
little grace note before a quarter, then in regularsuccession
four
Then
rapid notes downward.
a
repetitionof these
four measures
whole
one
step lower, in B flat major, after
which
these five notes
downward,
spoken of before, are
then without
ruption
interrepeated twice in successive measures,
are
repeated up and down, almost like a five-finger
downward
of one
exercise,and with a closing run
octave,
in short
C, continuing from this note downward
stop on
in the chord
of C minor, the expositionor
staccato
notes
presentingof the opening theme, closingon a long note with
of its key or
the fifth tone
G.
on
Now, as far as
pause
number
of measures
go, there are just thirteen of these,but
the rhythmical balance is in no
wise disturbed by this apparently
measure
number
uneven
The
the
of
first nine
repeated; but
of
as
is
measures.
of
measures
instead
orchestra
sort
of
staccato
used
now
the
and
or
exposition are
vibrato
now
the imitation
in the hands
of
skilful
this is
measures
apparent than
more
of
slow
real
The
effect
of
repetition
on
is but
the first
THE
208
four
one
measures
octave
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
lower
but with
the fourth
measure
soon.
to
comes
key
and
climax
on
trill of
of E
an
two
in first theme
in
measures
as
on
the
it were,
is too
the five notes
with
to
it
same
great,
tioned
men-
closing
is added. This is repeated literally
an
figure in last measure
octave
lower, after which this new
closingfigureis woven
into a
of returning modulatory episode,leading
sort
out
the
back
to
repetitionof all this first part of the first
This
movement.
repetitionconsisted of again
customary
as
described,but as this so lengthened
playing both themes
the time of a performance it is beginning to be omitted
as
reallybeing superfluous.
The
working-out part begins on the fourth tone of its
of the first
key or F major, using the first four measures
think
would
theme, but here Beethoven
drops what most
a
the
most
last two
measures.
promising theme, discarding
The
already mentioned, five apparently unimportant closing
notes of the opening theme
are
again introduced and from this
material sixteen
section
of four
measures
formed.
measures,
The
new
brilliant middle
formed
are
thirtymeasures
from tli4
second half of the second theme, making use of only
its first feprmeasures,
buildingup this section in these triplets
of broken' "fcords,
treatingit first in contrapuntal style,then
oti tinderl'
*t"ut outwardly, broken
""jnpeI0"lic
lines,
triplet
of many
All
of
this
chords, the*|di|*a"y
"young pianists.
section i$ in kej$
y$ ""except the firstfour measures.
.are
next
GIACOMA
Born
Italian
living"
and
Lucca,
at
writer.
La
"
Tosca
**
is
by
In
his
the
far
power
he
of
and
Ivric
stvle
great
all
"
33oheme
"
his
but
success
greatest
the
over
dame
Ma-
world
popular.
the
Italian
him
and
old
with,
opera
coloringmakes
La
ing"
lead-
the
the
''
presented
combines
orchestral
is
probably
Lescaut,"
been
most
music
characteristics
lip-lit
has
Puccini
and
Manon
with
met
1858,
in
today
of
"
Butterfly
and
Italy,
composer
opera
"
PLJCCINi
and
verv
truly
dramatic
modern
his
popular
national
mastery
today.
of
the
FORM
209
After
stop
on
measures
to
the
from
inverted
third
of
the
opening
first and
.measure
theme
and
Instead
section.
of
repeating
first theme
this
surprise by
broken
of
staccato
first
the
as
G,
on
the
same
and
introduces a
before, Beethoven
modulation; instead of following its
part
false
chord
as
downward
time, he
makes
to
false close
then
After
chord, in
digression,unusual
at
flat instead
most
manner
After
before.
trill,it recedes
mentioned
before, not
with
double
its
logicalkey,
of
the
exposition in D
forces
set
same
at
thematic
new
modulating
in motion
the
its climax
as
short grace
closingmeasure,
sort of harkening back
to
a
and
reaches
expected,returningto what
the
major, but now
introducing
be
measures,
it
cannot
figure in syncopated
notes
figure
would
theme
the
note
the
sanis
notes,
the working-outJP"*"In
back
as
of
yet
to
come
its
to
origp^JtetV
The
two
'
the
on
lower
top is
treated,
always
running figure,then the IPS* gajeMfflfe!
one
%"re I" Jboth tipper
st% feigher,
finally
stotp^
until its
and
1o"ier;|fiucte
a
THEORY
THE
210
receding part
cadenza-like
choral
second
is
theme
by
once
three
and
MUSIC
two
long
touched
more
times
OF
held
repeating them,
the
on
lingering
upon,
chords,
slower
and
finally
plunges
showy
run
brilliant movement
to a
motion, bringsthis most
close.
and dashing
in key of F major, the fourth step
Its second movement
of first key, can
hardly be classed under any of the different
without its orderlyprocedure. A
forms, yet it is not entirely
in six-eight
time headed
"Introduction,"
very slow movement
meaning an introduction to the coming rondo.
(Introduzione)
In character dreamy, modulatory, its main theme being made
and closing chords.
of a small fragment with its repetition
Then
This, repeated,makes the first eight measures.
begins
of
this
the second half
If it
theme, eight measures
more.
in a new
were
key it would be classed as its second theme,
but, beginning tonallylike the first and in the same
key, it
It proceeds,unlike
be hardly classifiedas second theme.
can
the first theme, as it adds a new
figure,through eight measures,
first thought or theme of eight measafter the recurring
ures,
in contrary
very decided
the
and
musicallynot
number
same
finished
or
modulatory measures,
of
closed
on
its dominant:
halting,
like
ductor
con-
with raised
The
in
00
of these
twenty-two measures
aii" apparently
take the lead,
Ttie effect is
tipwaitt.
'
FORM
one
of suspense
211
and
theme
in
The theme
larger manner.
in octaves, the accompaniment is the same
for sixteen
then the above-mentioned
of the last
measures,
repetition
is changed to a trill,
note, through four measures,
but the
same
is doubled
imposed
is continued
downward,
over
a
through
scale run,
two
seven
more
theme.
same
octaves
upward
measures,
As
and
an
companimen
ac-
return
is
song-liketheme.
Its second
now
repeated four
measures
after these
Added
more.
'
twenty-
is
a total of forty-four
originalkey, forming a second section,
measures,
"
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
212
out
repeatedin its entiretyand withsecond's hesitation plunges into its third theme, in the
a
minor.
This, like the
minor
key of its first step, C
second
theme, is introduced in unison,double staccato, broken
then these eight measures
continued
octaves
eight measures,
the theme
with
point
treated contrapuntally
above, counterare
below, counterpoint
below, then inverted, the theme
is continued, coming to a close on its
This treatment
above.
keynote C in octaves in unison repeated four times, making
measures.
a section of forty-four
class as a conNow
tinuation,
theme, which some
appears a new
differs that it can
but it so radically
hardly be so
it as new,
Its key, while near
considered.
related,marks
of the key the third theme
is
being the third step downward
its character,broad, rich,
written in, or A flat major, and
mellow chords,classes it as opposite.
The
first theme
But
whether
built of
four
or
as
flow
of
first movement,
established
order,
in the
all form
break
to
Beethoven's
new,
bounds, and
no
and
This
order.
new
now
continuation
thought stops at
while appearing
creates
is
measure
Then
is to the ear
what
lot of
a
forty measures.
appears,
broken chord, figurework, but the underlyingthought is the
chord ground work, only elaborated in the upper part,
same
and usuallymistaken for a useless prolongation. After thirtyof this variation,
four measures
and while this stillcontinues,
a
hint, as it were, is given of the recurringfirst theme by
three singlenotes repeatedfour times,in two measure
groups ;
then
instead
long
and
of three notes
short
then
these
are
reduced
to
two
notes,
by modulating
ita fk$t key
m
IP its
the
back
to
of C
major.
of
one
hundred
first theme
This
closes
measures
of the
rondo, again
entirety,
addingthe eightmeasures
is
peated
re-
of after-
FORM
before,but this
thought mentioned
this eight measure
of
213
theme
wave-like
and
time
builds
character
Beethoven
on
colossal part
new
enlarges
of
thirty-five
measures.
with
Then
in force
chords,graduallydiminishing
and
to the softest pianissimo,with
duration, down
a
long
the
last
its
coda.
for
chord, prepares
pause on
Now
follows in its originalkey, C major, a remarkable
Its tempo is marked
"Prestissimo"
coda.
(the most
rapid
stormy,
large,broad
The
possible)
time
mark
double
theme
values,
of
two
rondo
the
is used
into
measures
contracted
four
one,
but
ing
open-
in its time
into
measures
theme
new
The
of two
two,
measure
two
comes
to
glissando,first
in the
then
in the
lower
two
or
upper
part,
two
part,
downward,
upward, both repeated
two
octaves
octaves
from
ending of a run in contrary motion
the middle
outward, continuing with a trill in upper part
back
the lower
part continuing this run
eight measures,
first
to
of the piano preparatory to return
the middle
to
twice, with
its
theme.
Now,
certainlymust
Beethoven
the
have
had
other
ments
instru-
ure
followingthirtymeasdistinct parts, or
yokes. The trill
section into three
the middle
all through this part as
continues
mentioned
or
on
voice, the first,short contracted theme is used over
in
top of this;the lower part playsa chord figurein triplets,
in his
mind,
as
he
divides
six-four to the
rhythm,
an
make
From
more
now
measures,
most
effective double
MUSIC
These
measure.
a
OF
THEORY
THE
214
trill.
built
the
to
on
on
elaboration
overthrown
all former
By comparing
stein Sonata, with
this material
of
in this work
he
has
rules.
Sonata
op.
53, of
Pathetique,the
the
utter
Wald-
freedom
modulation, and
SONATA
APPASIONATA,
;A, sonata
in three
OR
movements.
57
(BEETHOVEN).
The
Andante
first one,
con
moto,
Assai
slowly
FORM
motion; third
with
but
on
beats
four
first downward
half with
followed
so.
to
closingin
octaves,
two
non
Beginningwith
the triad.
upward
Allegroma
in the
the
to
last movement,
much
too
first movement
The
time,
not
and
215
trill,
and, as it were,
by another
ending
constitute
above.
They
on
second
ending
These
four
repeated, in
the fourth step of scale,or B flat minor,
double unison
on
with trill and peculiarending is
This time its last measure
repeated,followed by four singlenotes in the lower bass,like
measures
imitation
the
these
one
and
last
of
the
measures
kettledrums
in
repeated,two
are
the
are
orchestra.
steps higher,prolonged
of this refrain
by repetition
rhythmicallyimitated in the higher notes, much
more
measure
with
then
chord
broken
downward
close with
Both
for
of
drums,
retarded,
two
measures,
comes
abrupt
an
of the firsttheme.
trills each
run
of
one
four
measure
measures
This
ends
two
after ten
measures,
long, followed by
ajbsdnow
in triplets,
with
downward
enters
three
scale
a
positively
theme,
second
new
four
the third
on
step
It is
duration.
measures
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
216
or
exactly repeated,one
of this theme
flat minor, of
used
are
just
octave
as
basis
eight measure
phrase two
follows the remaining afterthought,
Then
more.
measures
ing
closingwith the triad theme moving downward, and diminishA
to a pianissimo. Here changing the key enharmonically,
is
G
to
"flat minor
sharp minor, the opening first theme
and trill are
used,
given in its entirety. Its closingmeasure
lead
the
to
to
In a sort of episodalway,
working-out part,
which
now
begins on the seventh step of its scale, in E
of
added
the
tion
innova-
marking
not
and
in this movement
has
Beethoven
minor.
four
any
part.
and
bass
produced by
as
the
the
measures
accompaniment above,
an
stringson
Then
measures.
opening
two
vibrato
orchestra,but only
the
inversion
of
parts takes
for
place,
as
two
but
first theme
the
is
for the
first described
the
with
eleven
now
broken
heavy
worked
chords
on
in the
Then
measures.
all built
measures,
out
as
a
same
manner
fourteen
before
are
diminished
as
measures
added, with
seventh
chord.
three
same
manner
upper
part
tripletin
measures
it were,
as
as
the
kettledrums
by
flutes.
bass
in the
Continued
orchestra,answered
three-four
measures
in thq
this
half tone.
Two
suddenly drops one
of this singletone
repetitionfollow, preparing as
of the firsttheme, which now
for the re-entrance
in its
feeyof F minor is reproduced exactly,but this time
the fifth tone of the scale,or on C, leading to
"a
FORM
the
not
remaining ten
as
before
The
second
for
three
with
begins
with
major, ending
measures,
its second
minor, but
major.
theme
now
of this section in F
measures
in the
217
half
in the
its
and
in
same
the
its
heavy tripletchord
closingdownward
run,
paniment
accomor
in F
each,
leading
its minor
for
key. Thenceforward
this part is carried out as before,but before
twenty measures
more
closing the second theme once
enters, but in a higher
region of tone, making, what appeared before like a heavy
chord accompaniment, now
an
airy and lightsection of eight
Then
follows
measures.
a
closing section of the same
the closing part at the end of the working-out
nature
as
section, intended as an intense passionateclimax, terminating
with
but not
full close, with four measures
of this same
of the opening theme, retarding
part as the closingmeasure
slow
and diminishing to
a
adagio, repeating these
very
to
first described
three
in
notes
chord
slowlythree
very
coda based on twenty-
The
times,then three crashingchords.
four measures
begins on the first theme with tripletchord
accompaniment in the first half,beginning softlyand leading
the last half, all in full syncopated chords
with great
to
passion.
In the last four measures
by giving the full opening
theme
with
the
string vibrating accompaniment, dying
difficultboth
this passionatemovement,
to a pianissimo,
away
its almost
to
to
as
interpretationand execution, comes
whispered
close.
Its second
movement,
an
Andante
con
moto
(slow, but
some
motion),
in
the
first variation is
The
syncopated.
the
with
same,
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
bass
theme
The
in upper
half beat
followinga
fourteen
the
same
scale
downward,
and
repeatingthe
in its originalsetting,
first theme, once
more
modifying only
of the closing
the pitchposition
Its last
measures.
slightly
instead
chord
the instruction
and
run
sustained
chord
of
to
twice
its time
value.
The
same
ished
dimin-
is
movement
This
minor,
an
in two-four
repeated,one
octave
is attacked.
third movement
Allegro,ma
time,in
in the
non
sonata
key
fifteen
firsttheme
of the
of this
section the
introductory
expositionbegins,made up of two meas-
measures
After eightmeasures
ypt |"hjrases.
$ffc"bttt almost
like
these
second theme
reidentically
another thought is
are
'
ti:3j1ii$
;rwttmer
of
working
with
two
continuallyjrotn
"QW
on
themes
to the
at
end.
the
FORM
219
After
main
as
in
first theme
the
treatment
below.
first two
After
fourteen
of
measures
of
measures
the thematic
this
figureare
measures
first struck
then given
forcibly,
of the
board,
key-
down
first up
During
is used, with
then
rather
simpleaccompaniment.
introduces an entirelynew
At this juncture Beethoven
four measure
phrase in the same
key, B flat minor, doubling
in octaves
in the upper part. All
this in its first repetition
are
identically
repeatedin C major, dosing
eight measures
Again, the first
fullyin the key of the first step or F minor.
into command, treated in imitative fashion;after
theme comes
theme follows leadingto a
beginning in upper part the same
climax
of
syncopatedoctaves.
these
measures
at
leaves this
once
and
one
measure
is
re-
OF
THEORY
THE
220
MUSIC
When
the sonata
is written
called
is derived
in another
from
the
sounds."
of
it is
Italian
As
plained
ex-
sinfonia
name
was
placeof
the minuet.
The
introduced by
then
out
by
symphony
slow
a
a
a
consists of
movement,
scherzo and
finale
brilliant
followed
by
the
usuallyin allegroand
an
com-
was
FORM
the
however,
can
The
stated
instruments
of
order
with
the
of
movements,
orchestra
have
posers.
com-
given
broader
effects
instrument.
The
the
of
instruments
various
orchestra
divisions
used
were
and
in
and
on
individual
the
varying
in alternate
rhythm,
less
handling of the melody and in numberthat the compositionfor the orchestra has
so
time the
greatest opportunityand at the same
other
ways,
to be the
come
No
varied
composers
elaborate
single
be
221
supreme
The
It
masters.
composer.
that preferredby the great classic
was
cal
produced "in the golden age of pure musi-
form
sonata
was
beauty," their
marked
the
metes
new
era
bounds
until the
of
present acceptance
technical
tinct
meaning of the term classical music is a disand
of
logicalarrangement of parts and a symmetry
form, which most
nearly approaches correspondencewith the
acceptedrules derived from the work of the great masters.
from
and
Aside
this narrow
somewhat
exacting use of
the word
and the
classic,as appliedto music by composers
majority of the critics,is another which has no regard for
consideration
and which is appliedto all works, without
form
the
have
stood
of
because
their
this
understanding
we
and
operaticforms
which
are
classical because
illusive and
live.
ancient
and
there
are
times
somequalities
impossibleof analysiswhich
have
them
to
in them
This
Rome,
another
where
one
man
was
man
regard
from
but the
worldly possessions,
made
of tie
being based
upon
his
higheststandingwas
spoken
From
of and
the
The
as
a
classical,
adoption of
romantic
term
hence
classics,
,-
ranked
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
the
man
came
criticism.
from
borrowed
way
same
in musical
name
is in the
class apart.
to be known
as
in
which
During
served
clung to
the term
to
the Middle
from
distinguishthem
models
was
writers
the
who
of classic
appliedto
antiquity.Very soon
music, and it characterized
in
and the manner
subjectsof certain compositions
is especially
which
treated.
they were
Today the term
them
since Beethoven, among
Weber,
applied to composers
Schubert, Schumann,
They accepted
Chopin and Liszt.
the suggestionsfound
for a largerfield
work
in Beethoven's
of musical
originalresources
expression and by their own
attained rich results.
Musicians
had been tending toward
and
formal
and we
of music
exact
treatment
are
grateful
both
the
to the Romantic
with
rules and
School
for
savingit when
have
it
was
made
threatened
it
dead
formality. They
of
some
it greater freedom
of form, revived
gave
the finest works
of the early composers,
developed
the
contain
modern
scenes
and
characters
legendsand folklore.
found
in
medieval
and
FORM
As
be
can
and
romantic
musical
any
of
223
these
terms
made
not
was
until
later.
This
is
the
centuries
graduallyassumed
protector of music
and
conservator
which
had
that
form
permitted it to express no
those of religionand worship. The
dours
Troubaemotions
save
and adventure, and went
developed songs of love,war
that they even
far in their effort to express themselves
so
devised musical modes
to their times and
new
entirelynew
for their accompaniments. At the same
time
instruments
in the
the Troubadours
were
working these innovations
countries
Latin
in
were
Meistersingers
doing the same
they gained such prominence and power
the
which
regulations,
down
in the
same
innovator
every
yearningfor
music.
his
some
out
productionsagree
in
to
came
new
This
lished
estab-
on
be
the
condition
"
tersingers
Meisopera, the
conditions confronting
Wagner's
visual
The
romanticist
way
is
to express
ever
the innovator,
his emotions
in
refuses to be bound
He
comes
precedingthem.
is made
in which
in time
way
of those
conventions
situation and
the
by
Under
these conditions
off secbnd
majorityof cases comes
best, as the critics who have gained their knowledge and
position by a mastery and understandingof productions
with those
already in existence do not as a rule deal lightly
the innovator
who
past.
have
Nor
in the vast
the
musical
already firmly,sometimes it
From this it will be
accept the new.
seen
that the
meaning
224
of both
as
to
become
form
to
today
aside
necessityvague and
fixed, for the tendency is
emotion
be
emotion
subservient
improvement
warring between
classical forms
can
these
two
music,
ing
entirelyeliminat-
in
succeeded
repeat what
of
It is because
the art.
be traced
of
first
the
tomorrow,
of
the
constant
setting
that
and the latter insisting
to
form, and both working
classic of
express
must
together for
the
the
possiblybe
cannot
is of
terms
considered
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
said
was
at
the
kind is an
beginning of this chapter,form or plan of some
absolute requirement of all art.
considered
the most
The
is by many
symphonic poem
it is a
direct and logicaloutgrowth of the symphony and
form
commonly used in orchestral compositions.There are
three pointsof agreement in all symphonic poems,
they are
always programmatic, that is,the clew to the meaning which
intended to convey is given in a title or literary
the composer
phrase which accompanies it; in this point they will be seen
to
resemble
titles
by
of the sonatas
some
the mental
hinting at
its
performance.
It
attitude
supposed
reduced
was
the
which
to
in
writers
to
form
gave
induced
be
to
single
and
interruption,
in the
of the sonata
movements
movements
climaxes
being followed
foundation
principleof
in the romantic
seen
from
gradual
forms
this short
was
the
symphonic
traceable in
are
changes
new
and
in
key,
is the classical.
as
analysisof
change
from
the
the
It
unusual
way
can
symphonic
readilybe
poem
fbr Swie
ent
the differ-
poem
for him
to
fact that
how
and
the
the individual
express
his
own
FORM
emotions;
225
the
the
in
overture
symphonic
true
sonata
form
sonata
in order
poem
is the
consists
of least
ture
depar-
classical overture.
of
two
or
The
three
themes
tion
differingin character, preceded by a short, slow introducafter a development section
of pathetic nature, and
of the principal
there is a repetition
subjects.It differs from
form
in that here is no repetition
of the entire
the true sonata
less strictly
in
or
exposition. This form is adhered to more
and in the majority of operaticoverthe concert
overtures
tures
based
not
the
from
themes
on
the opera
from
ouverture,
appliedto an instrumental
originally
The
played
the
the
"
the
opening
and
toccata
Seventeenth
Century
in
movement
dance
an
"
it
one
or
usuallypassed
not
were
until the
there
more
oratorio.
or
opera
was
under
time
more
of
than
considered
overtures
of
piece of
introductions
and
sinfonia
names
Lully
at
instrumental
early
name,
signifies
"opening,"and
French
movements
itself. The
forms
of
inventor
the
fugal style,and
then
in
use.
We
frequentlyone
hear
much
of
the
of the French
many
and
to
use
touch
operaticoverture
as
cert
compositions intended merely for conis today most
this way
used.
A
frequently
orchestral
and
of the
in
romantic
sometimes
at once
enters
into them
and
they
illustratesome
poeticallegendary subject,and again they
for their appeal.
depend upon their own artisticIfcauty
to
OF
THEORY
THE
226
MUSIC
professed to actually
give by snatches of
the opera to follow, is
overture, which
the listener to the drama, to
The
styleof
old
introduce
used
and
The
cantatas.
or
classical
ture
over-
There
least
the
attempt
few
are
which
through
whose
titles
explain in part
at
of
nature
to
forms
many
give
have
some
marked
characteristics and
have
lived
changes.
ment
Immediatelypreceding the sonata in matter of developthe fantasia,which
of the first titles
one
was
was
given to a composition intended expressly for instruments
to have been an
alone, which in turn, seems
outgrowth of the
madrigal, described in another chapter. As the name
gests,
sugit is a free creation abidingby no
strict laws of composition,
many
and
time
hence
find
we
having no
many
musical
definite form.
At
effusions called
the present
fantasias,and
and
movements
no
other
in fact whenever
as
indefinite is the
title ballad.
quite
claim
name.
Almost
meant
can
as
aiKt
indefinite
place and
as
is its
and
poetical,
was
It
originally
derived
Its musical
has
varied
from
form
with
FORM
is
narrative
accompaniment,
orchestra
purelyinstrumental
and
with
piano or
employed for
is also
name
today
have
we
orchestral
and
clasical
Among
since
favorite form
set
music,
the
voice
one
solo ballads.
instrumental
has been
piano pieces the nocturne
Chopin'stime,and though adheringto
it is like the
form
for
composed
poem
227
and
true
other
its name,
It is written
to
cycle
forms
of
several
a
no
ments
move-
of
nature.
modern
serenades
originallyused
piece as
the
derived
was
expressionthroughout. The name
Italian Sera (eveningsong),and though now
criminately
indis-
the
used
combined
search
for
methods
new
few
intended to
open
an
are
one
of
expression.Conditions
at
never
form
rest
ends
nor
and
fixed and
another
of
we
any
can
begins,but,
with
conditions,
some
art
where
scarcelysay
our
was
living,growing
use
of music,
or
The
to
be sung
such as
be
in
sensuous
from
conform
do
not
countries
types of
centuries and
and
structure
it is to them
with
that
individual taste
have
stood
the
there
test
are
of
un-
228
consciously
of
musical
and
seeking'
for
as
the
whole,
and
though
always
find
they
could
be
no
his
artistic
in
variety
unity.
of
intimate
composition
title
typical
and
creation
parts
student
may
relation,
ing
accord-
parts
many
lead,
mis-
forms.
analyze
we
the
the
may
classifications
general
unite
the
so
how
matter
no
which
some
work;
developed
every
artistic
every
the
his
of
developed
elements
have
in
own
perfectly
more
musical
base
forth,
set
make
can
the
to
every
here
as
find,
will
form
principles
the
for
turns
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
seem
otherwise
endless
In
it
by
into
we
there
APPRECIATION
beginnings of all things are full of interest as is
evident
of inquiry now
made
devoted
to the
by the 'amount
institutions and ideas, and of all the various
origin of human
of life. And
forms
surely most
interestingof all, because
embracing all, are the beginnings of the human
mind, the
first dim stages in the development of man's
God-like reason.
affair of the psychologist or
The
scientist is to explain the
of the simple,to trace
back the
seemingly complex in terms
first dim stages in the development of man's God-like reason.
makes
He
a careful
study of the earlyphases of mental life,
in so doing has found
it possibleto connect
the individand
ual
The
life with
of
the
on
some
If
one
the
life of
the
race;
and
careful
observation
first years
much
of the child have
thrown
light
of the gravest questionsrelatingto man's
nature.
believes
in
the
doctrine
of
evolution
he
views
the
intelligence
today as conditioned and
unfolding of a human
experience. The civilized
prepared by long ages of human
condensed record of
individual is,in a sense, a memento,
or
work
of organizing or buildingup living,conscious
Nature's
and the psychology
The psychology of the race
structures.
have obvious points of contact; the first
of the infant mind
of human
close
scrutinyof
Because
the events
we
enabled
are
to
through
and
by observation,by introspection,
study mind
the medium
The
research.
anthropological
ethnologicaland
help from
of childhood.
is universal
mind
much
derived
institutions have
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
230
of
historian's
give us as
some
true
symbolic
a
pictureof an
such as poetry, decoration,painting,sculpture,
representation,
the
music, or romance.
History fails to show the essentials,
typicalfacts,as for instance do Shakespeare'shistorical plays
of the development and
in which
he gives us an
account
dependency of
growth of the English nation from a mere
France and Rome
to a mighty nation with a national church
novel may
In the same
and government.
a
give us the
way
the motives of the
true pictureof a period by seizing
upon
The
student in search of knowledge finds in the
actors.
than their chronologicalsuccession
of history more
events
account,
record
mere
does
of facts,in itself,
historic epoch as does
not
back of the
or
causes
relation,he seeks for the cause
stand
great crises recorded, and then,above all,in order to underthe stage of mental
and spiritual
development of the
and
race
or
and
to
people,he
people has
over
left
us
creation
any
intellect
or
wherein
will,we
know
feelinghas predominated
they were, however
which
g^t
of his
Ire ""te to
seems
as
experiencesas
understand
though he
a
whole
its nature
essential from
and
were
tryingto
in order that he
discriminate its
vanishing
APPRECIATION
is,in fact,a
It
elements.
to
to
find himself
by
search
for
the unreal
truth,and
in which
one
231
in the effort
it is
form,
immeshed,
he is making
will bind
him,
the
The one
created life is the
God, the creator.
in all things. Dimly at first man
realized there was
same
a
than
his
and he attempted to portray the
own
higher
power
The very foundation
of all art lay in
infinite in finite form.
dissatisfaction
with
the
material
man's
and
imperfect.
the
memorials
which
survive it would
Through the help of
that primitiveman
had a real althoughdim and rudimentary
seem
As soon
appreciationof the beautiful.
as
he, unconsciously
the
essential from the superperhaps,separated
ficial,
the qualityof objects was
soon
as
as
perceived as
the quantityor bulk, the aesthetic side was
distinct from
noted.
Primitive
is the infant,was
as
concerned
so
man,
that he had
efforts of bodily maintenance
with
no
great
but
of
he
had
to
in a
as
soon
as
variety
feelings express,
himself of sustenance
assured
he was
and protection,
measure
creature,
with
with
concerned
dawn
the
to
enter
intellect and
of
into life
our
and
is but
an
faculties came
so
outward
the
early man
impulse.
expressionof
the inner
man;
the
of the creator.
emotions
That
the
true, but
they
understand
the
far from
beingbeautiful
are
it is
desire
in
arose
the art
With
from
to
universal,and
existence.
mere
emotional
with it evolved
than
something more
savagery
barbaric
art.
civilizedand
or
barbarism
A
high
high
art.
could
state
The
produced. A
give
forth
is
to
in
know
low
only savage
Art
state
or
crudest
imitation
experience and
something nearer
OF
THEORY
THE
232
MUSIC
in
of any familiar object,but as he grows
observes
accuratelyhe will demand
more
perfection.He passes out of the state of
finallyreaches
life as a whole, truth
he wants
the point where, as a man,
in some
form, to speak to him from a product of art; he
and returns
understandinglyto his
seeks unity in diversity,
the art
of seeing things in their entirety;and
first power
been
it not
has
quite the same?
history of the race
that
believe the art earliest to be expressed was
Whether
we
of music, includingdance and song, or decoration,drawing
such
in imitation,or what, it is true the beginnings were
of the
the mind
to satisfytoday for a very brief time
as
infant
Then
the child in its many
as
stages of development
ideas to something more
of these vague
out
definite,
grows
he beginsto find likenesses in seeminglyunlike objects,so
as
the
in each
the race
succeeding generationbuilded upon
mental and spiritual
outlook,
knowledge gained,increased its own
and larger
felt more,
to express
and hence had more
wherewith
to do it
means
Nothing can so truly record the
of the people or a country'scivilization as its art, for
nature
Ruskin
be triumphant
The
acts of a nation may
as
says :
by its good fortune; and its words mighty by the genius of
few of its children; but its art only by the general gifts
a
and common
sympathies of the race."
The most
art is probably
originalform of representative
not
independent drawing or sculpture,but ornamentation,
and undoubtedly bodily decoration was
its earliest application.
Not satisfied,
with
however,
bodilyornamentation,the
earliest tribes decorated
their implementsand weapons,
and
followed
then
the primitive works
of free painting and
had
sculpture,which
an
independentsignificance,
serving
wholeness
or
as
oneness
he
"
"
other purposes
than
That there was
that of decoration.
as
was
syirhols,property marks
and
;,iaiqt
sKgfat,
emblems
APPRECIATION
233
The
or
pictorial
representative
tribes were
arts of primitive
quite naturally,with a few exceptions,
a
picturingof subjectstaken from the usual round
of experiencesof the aborigines figures of men,
animals,
and
in savage
life. They had
scenes
not
birds, weapons
formed
ing
merely strivingfor an understandany ideals,were
about them
of the things they saw
and recordingtheir
The
for various reasons.
observations
ings
carvings and drawof these early tribes are
works
usuallyclassed among
there
is
of art, but
some
question as to their claim
surely
self-evident that the picmeans
to this title,for it is by no
torial
works can trace their originto an aesthetic need.
There
have decided that they have had their rise
students who
are
but although they may
of religion,
have had
the servant
as
has been able to discover the
no
one
significance
some
religious
mysterious meanings of many of the earliest drawings. As
long as all symbolic meaning remains hidden we have no
right to suppose the figuresare intended for anything else
than that which
they appear to be.
Undoubtedly skill in
was
carving,drawing and sculpturing
practisedpurely from
for representing
things. As we have before said,
a fondness
until feelingwas
aroused
there could be nothingto express,
the
"
so
it sounds
rather
unreasonable
to
state
that
the
earliest
were
of civilization.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
234
practicaland useful
the question,
of reason
comes
the dawn
with
then
sense,
is sought. In seizingfact, everything
why, and the cause
is
large a part of its entire compass
depends upon how
fact is only a partialtruth,
a
reached.
As usually observed
it is a symbolic object of
little glimpse of the true reality,
a
it is seen
knowledge. Such a fact becomes truth only when
of which
the whole
see
we
in its scientific principle.Then
with more
We
see
the fact is only a partialmanifestation.
first,fact is
At
than
the animal
remains
the
law
of
the
fact, which
The
all circumstances.
under
same
its
find the
and
senses
in
only
seen
fact
itself
mean
than
we
ascribe
conscious
action
to
the
experienceof
enabled
study of the
ages, and
deduce
certain facts concerning the
to
intellect.
of the
divine within
were
all
the
infant,but from
human
mind, we
Man
simply sought
him, and
the wonderful
symbolic; he only
theoretical
and
used
the
moral
phenomena
he
means
truths.
Is
are
development
to
means
the
express
about
had
there
the
him
to
represent
then
not
truth in the
more
of child
or
creature
made
It is reasonable
ic arts
i
such
have
as
no
to
is found
records
in
primitivedances, though of
except
a$
they
are
pictured, and
APPRECIATION
this does
tell
the
235
order
the
of
development. The
is of social importance in the history of civilization,
dance
for it meant
a
gathering togetherof people for either religious,
festival
warlike or
occasions,and, as in the lower stage
not
us
is
always associated
with
song, we
it
to
are
poetry.
It is difficult today to realize the social power
which the
the most
dance
once
possessed. It was
perfectand most
led from
We
which
artistic act
other
excites
all
men
as
that
know
language
he
does
the
express
dance.
himself
in
yet developed
even
Its most
movements.
of the
of the
music, so
dancers
we
in the order
important property,
is found
all art.
in their
The
most
that
of
tive
primi-
dances, and
the
coincide
find the
those
which
mark
off
measure
or
sound.
What
sound, proportionor
visible rhythm is to architecture,sculptureand
painting.
first to'
of
the
This
is
of
universal
one
impulse
rhythm
child. Man
is a rhythmic being, born
awaken
in a race
or
be strange indeed if
into a rhythmic universe, and it would
he gave
always
no
early signs of this impulse. Motion
rhythm
attracts,and
in time
bringsabout
and
the
questionof
power,
the
which
in nature
invisible power
beats
Nature
rounds
And
Whether
she
Or
hides
which
music, and
rhythm
We
might
productof culture
life
and
itself,
"The
is
all culture,
There
is
father
of poetry
and
rhythm,
insert another
Orphic
an
the father
and
phrase
is
of
say,
is life,and
rhythm
the
this element.
of music
the father
the father of
then
follows:
as
is God."
sea,
alchemy."
her
is not
rune,
every
or
in the emotional
contain
runs
her
underground
perfecttune,
in land
works
planets,
rhythmic swing.
in
move
rhyme
rhythmic element
This
saying
in
with
causes
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
236
life,rest, absolute,means
to
of
music
tends
excitement
of
the
Is
body."
others,just as
when
speak
we
It
it not
deep
to
seems
sky, and
largely
of motion, of
of the universe, we
of the heavens, of
itself
to express
best
it is the soul
said:
Spencer has
as
movements
sense
and
movements,
our
"
and
true
include all
think
earth,and
of
sea,
of
We
arts.
as
musical
frozen
speak
music.
in
terms
of
trying to
define
The
phases of
define architecture
its
development has
to
verifythe
them
so
great
aEL
it must
take
ages
to
other
developor
even
state-
possibilities
recognize
APPRECIATION
In
and
hand
art, this
as
Until
art?
that
products of
classify
to
attempt
an
questionarises:
in
can
satisfaction of the
the
we
that
we
of art
in
nor
innate
our
in connection
used
to
questions have
while
art
in
it with
another
to
the
many
with
synonymous
synonymous,
to
all art
of
mind
one
it is but
does
of
may
one
But
exist
truth
and
it is not
meaning
of the terms
It is that
art, the
names
fail
we
of
abstract
Goodness
beauty, while
all from
no
and
the essentials
element, and
elements.
is
or
consider
manner
truth
seems
the next
narrow
a
a
covers
to
one
to
course
dis-
moral
ness.
part of good-
the
thoughtof the symbol representing
would seem
logicalto say, that truth is the
contain
not
as
all the
back
phases of the law or principle
the mere
act, but truth which bringswith it mental recognition
of the principle.
It is impossible
to formulate a theorythat will explain
not
one
basis,for art is what its age
upon
it. We
make
make a set of laws
cannot
all art
and
each
and
art,
theory.
one
other
Truth
of art.
of
to our
return
typicalfact,it
aim
we
contains
the subject.views
upon
aspect and declares beauty is in
To
or
of
their solution.
what
language
qualities.Beauty
sole aim
idea of the
with
the
upon
agree
is the aim
are
the
beauty
What
mind
be answered, at least to
there can
be no
definite
individual,
Are
truth?
the human
measure
Is
classification made.
237
try all
arts
product
must
be
or
by
age
them
of
judged by
except in
very
and
nor
ment
environstandards
general way,
for
own
methods
of
its conception.
are
about
the
sensuous
ask that he
we
us,
if it had
his
were,
not
capabilities
true
its beginning,
had
art
would
than
more
stillbe in the
dimly
long before he realizes even
through imitation he finds himself,as it
imitates
child
but
power,
and
in time knows
own
we
with
see
which
scenes
state of culture.
primitive,
savage
The
to
it is
continued
so
represent
help us
imitation
In
eye.
but
imitation
in exact
and
faithfully
he
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
238
he
is
separate individual
So
another.
depending upon
passed to reason.
through
with
tion
imita-
The
for
of
our
the
man
of
race
beauties
and
this
of
an
the
unlike this
and
beyond
to
of
show
that the
Nature
is necessary
it is
to the scientist,
not
the
that
us
to
objectof
art
Taine
is to contribute
in his
of
"art must
accept truth
sin against it,but art must
to
one
science
who
nor
has
with
art is
tions
crea-
artist,but
to
our
pleasure,
Philosophyof Art
aim
felt.
"The
the
and
never
that his
us
laws
to inculcate truth.
not
above
have
we
Facts
than truthfulness
claims
which
us
truths
interest and
knowledge
try to
must
genius is
the
found
artist has
as
make
never
pleasurefor us.
the skeleton
of art, they merely form
of the work,
edge
framework
we
commonly call technique. The knowl-
hold
work
man
realities about
in the
It is because
the
lives unless
of art; and
condition and
says :
but to
truth
further
sayT
offensively
not be made
to play the lackey
be distorted from
its proper
purpose." No
agree
given the subjectany serious thought, will dis-
the above
in
generallyconceded.
as
not
not
APPRECIATION
239
and even
attract
fascinate,but this is the worst
may
far from
of realism and
being art; but when we say
of art,
aim
is the
truth
mean
we
of fact
which
is
phase
truth
reallyopposed
to
doctrine
fails
us
by
seen
as
art.
The
and
symbol represents
take the fact and
us
as
the
to
it to
of the
anatomy
the
to
please
typicalfact
something higher.
us
tear
alone
not
He
does
the purpose of
structure, but rather he adds
piecesfor
or
not
showing
fact to
fact, selects the real from the unreal, the eternal from the
transient,calls out the very seed of the truth,and, because
records for us what he with his deeper,more
he is an artist,
When
of his work
look
spiritual
insightsees.
we, by means
through his eyes, we see not merely detail,not just the line,
the form, the color, the subject,not only bare fact, all is
changed, we look below the surface to the soul of things.
He
imaginationand
that underlies
spirit
stimulates
till we
our
the
see
arouses
sympathies
our
an
sculpture becomes
nearly the artist is in
thoughts and deeds, and the more
criminat
touch with the human
pulse the more
capableis he of disthe truth and
that which
between
presses
merely ex-
or
mood.
fleeting
is
"Truth
fact.'*
If
accept this
we
truth
is the
facts
of
emotional
an
aim
nature
of
the
imaginative realization of
then surelywe
definition,
may say,
or
artist.
subservient
to
He
makes
nature
to
and
the
his artistic
conception.
It is at this
the
to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
240
of misstatement, but
extent
neither
that
of these
neither
is the
them
truth
nor
objectsis
element
the
artist seeks.
in
accept this theory then art exists, whether
tual
for the promotion of intellecor
painting,
music, literature,
If
we
a
hardly seems
satisfactory
explanationunless we understand by pleasure, happiness,
of the beautiful leads to harmony in life.
unless appreciation
and
pleasure. This
moral
so, then
If this is not
of life to
interpretation
which
in
arouses
his fellow
to
clearer when
declare
fact and
not
we
are
The
man?
man
art
to
be
the
the song,
poem,
nature, to God,
through its harmonies,
to
man,
say, that
devoted to the
we
ture,
piction
rela-
contains
truth,
beauty.
tions
Beauty is a qualityor attribute,it appealsto the emothrough the intellect and is perceivedby the senses.
here
into the old-time
We
shall not
enter
question of
whether
beauty exists only in the mind or in the external
with it as an
in both as we
world
are
or
only concerned
The recognition
element of art.
of the beautiful is a matter
of education and culture;the child for instance is pleasedby
a
but fails
picturesimply because it is pretty or agreeable,
to see
any .real beauty in it; is not capable of recognizing
and through the intellect
beauty,that is a matter of intellect,
the emotions
are
touched, and upon how
deeply and truly
This power is peculiar
depends one's power of appreciation.
to man
and raises him above the beast that has the physical
universal
truth, an4
eye
and
ear
to
scenes
objects,
feear
as
can
beautymakes
cmr
1
and
man,
and
to
hear
sounds, which
but
he
all about
while
he
lacks the
can
him
are
sensuouslysee
and
statement
awakened
see
no
This carries
art
us
back
desire to express
We
aroused.
see
beautyand truth only in proporter intelligence.
The poet, the artist,
the musician,
as
it has
STRAUSS
RICHARD
Born
prominent
the
Munich,
In
figure
greatest
Strauss
of
marvels
-what
fifty
11,
1864.
-world
musical
ago
today.
of
which
He
generation.
is
who
compositions
years
Strauss
orchestration
of
written
his
the
in
master
has
June
"Wagner
is
has
are
doing'
did
for
lor
the
most
He
ever
the
the
lived.
musical
tra
orches-
is
APPRECIATION
241
about
as
the
open
usual
That
that
who
man
make
even
has
within
beauty,
of
long accepted it
effort to
has
or
or
merely
with
see
in art, whether
the
beautiful,
he creates
to enjoy them;
power
he views the gloriesof
the
sunset, whose
see
something and
kin).
he
not
as
has
And
in
with
it
tell what
in
sees
to
his.abilityto interpret
admire
thing but
by the man
the
conceived
back
the creator
In
beats
pulsequickenswhen
whose
man
the
him
whether
things
not
so
not
heart.
and
mind
do
and
intellects are
the
plainway"
the world
name
of artist;we
idea,the portrayalof
who
created
the
the
(Rusbeauty
the
we
picture,
do
truth,
seek
of the created.
the technical
part of any
compositionwe
find the
in
beautiful
truth, else
and
not
we
admire
because it is
highestand best
and
embraces
in
us.
skill it exhibits
beauty* We
are,
of course, considering
the
these higherand nobler conceptions,
superlative
purpose of art, from
the prodto which
only the greatest artists attain,
ucts,
classed under art, descend to lower standards
generally
dependingupon the ideas or thoughts
expressedin them.
Before
that
clearlyunderstood
that
art
do
we
wish
always
be art must
to
not
in art, let it be
truth
subjectof
this
leave
we
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
242
give
to
tell
the
The
story.
sion
impresidea
tell a tale of
joy,
passion,and
of struggle,of hope, of despair,of any
but again there
tell it in a literalbut artistic manner,
it may
ideas not so tangible. There are thoughts and emotions
are
which
the artist describes by picturing the scene
which
It is true that his exact thought may
aroused them in him.
makes
which
create
man
any
productmay
human
one
not
the
work
the
of
us
spectators,but
power
aroused
the emotion
nor
feel in
we
it awakens
viewing
sense
of
in
It is
man.
artist is greatestwho
best reach
of life and who can
the principles
That
to both.
Schiller tells
him
given
was
or
in his
Song
that he
creatingby
he is
what
us
poet
the soul of
might
his
best understands
own
feeHn
man.
intelligence
his "innermost
heart"
hand.
We
to
common
their
on
else
all men,
reason
and
no
sufficient hold
passionsto
maintain
could
the
be
made
respondence
ordinarycor-
of life.
It is difficult to define
a
term
as
taste, which
is
"$ the
words
clearlyand concisely
so figurative
used synonymously
quitefrequently
surelyis a distinction between the
themselves
The
APPRECIATION
the
between
relation
243
emotional
physicaland
is
close,and
has
man
his
of
minds
the
language
probably
more
derived from
of
most
If
men.
significanceof
its physical
meaning, we consider
nearly
exact
receivingpleasure;an
preferment
of
one
obviouslycall
not
Can
there
the
cause
the
taste
term
a
as
faculty
intuitive choice
or
act
into
It is the
then
does
discrimination.
be
instinctive and
and
narrower
material
of immediate
power
accept the
we
tastes
manner
of affection
good
any
are
or
bad
in which
the
same
men
in and
are
affected,
for different
in a singlequality.
or
entirety,
object or class of
Again, the close study of a particular
objectsis the cause of various degreesof taste,but the principle
the same.
still remains
which
Any object
suggests
pleasurableconceptionsto the mind is pleasing,pretty or
and just so far as he alone is
beautiful to that individual,
concerned
his taste is correct.
If he calls a thing beautiful
and means
simply that it givesto him pleasureby suggesting
to him some
some
emotion, by revealing
truth,then to him it
is beautiful just as all other conceptions
pleasethose to whom
they appear beautiful. When, however, he tries to set a
standard by his own
he insists because of a
taste, when
for consideringthe
peculiarqualitywhich to him is cause
of
art
work
or
or
scene
in others the
same
or
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
244
defect
individual
Tastes
can
equallyjust and
are
of his
in
correct
individual
others
then, we
would
this
do not
we
In
decide.
may
own
to
answer
our
own
each
as
what
emotions, and
speaks only
one
art.
far
so
individual
of what
no
an
regardless
question
but from
say there is no good and bad taste,
infer that all tastes are equallydesirable. The
and
allow
not
trulygreatestand
what
is
bad
let
us
use
in taste.
aroused
uncultivated
an
else has
or
man
been
to
hinder
and
us
Rather
best in art.
much
the terms
The
taste
little to
in declaring
good
than
describe degrees
whose
imaginationhas never
improperlynourished, whose
been
vations
obser-
been
tive
unorganized,and, hence, who is not sensiabout him, can
and alive to the world
discern beauty
with difficulty,
and often we
regard his taste a peculiarone,
as
accordingto our standards his conceptionsof beauty are
peculiar.
have
The
the
imaginationand
the
as
light to
appears
touch is rough or
smooth, what
sotjr^what
ear
ag^edto
,,
senses,
no
to
the
another.
is
agree
to
harmony
upon
the
or
taste
the
to
is sweet
discord.
;i(^gctte.
what
We
things;
vmegar
or
have
there
sour,
is
or
APPRECIATION
sentiments, and
apply
or
We
emotions.
do
in
callingsweetness
far there is
understand
we
in
these terms
245
no
another
one
metaphoricalsense
know, however,
pleasant,
disagreementin
to
that
when
we
objects,persons
a
natural
taste
may
be
fails to
another
mental
the
creative
see
Is it not
it?
The
power?
primarilythe
the
senses
him
at once
are
combines
in
since it is the
he possesses
greater
he receives through
with all men,
but to
sensations
same
as
in proper
new
Imaginationis the
order.
and
them
because
order
or
or
relation,
he
ent
accordingto a differfacultycapableof doing this,
manner
of
representation
the senses,
and
can
be
their
senses.
Without
going
stoppingat
discuss
holds true
just how far our statement
in general say, that art is in a way
with all arts, we
may
imitation,(not literal imitation,
for,as we have stated before,
realism is not art,)and that a pleasureis perceivedby the
imagination from the resemblance which the imitation has to
the original Judgment deals with differences,
but imagination
this
point to
with
m
likenesses.
Pleasure is derived in
gree
far greater de-
because
differences,
tracing likenesses than in finding
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
246
we
are
are
uniting qualities,
by making resemblances we
images, enlargingour store of mental food, we
making new
are
creating,whereas the task of making distinctions does
so
such
afford
not
play to
pleasurewe
that what
So
nature.
far, men
perceptionand
differ in their
this difference
When
are
of resemblances
in
the
knowledge
first view
we
equal in the
about
work
more
it is of
from
derive
do
knowledge of
is
imaginationand
the
matter
severe
indirect
an
of
sense
pleasingthe imagination,but
and from
things represented,
difference in taste
the
of art
one
or
so
arises.
called,if it is
conception or
of imitation unless
the uneducated
manner
same
they
are
very
sees
man
resemblance
ever
how-
mistakes
of art, from
about
in
judgment
come
from
lack of knowledge
of the
privileges
of
and
from
want
a
masterpieces,
Our
knowledge of nature and of man.
theory is then, that
critical taste does not depend upon the superiorprinciple
in
but upon
their largerknowledge of life. Taste, natural
men
of a faculty
to all,but taste in the sense
taste, is common
that embraces
both imagination and judgment is a quality
with which
human
is sparinglygifted. It means
nature
a
perfectblendingof imaginationand judgment, and but few
all have
the
possess this talent in any
great degree. We
seed of taste in our
vated
mind, and as imaginationcan be cultiand knowledge gained, there is every reason
why we
should strive toward
its highestconsummation
and
though
we
never
hope to reach it,we will in the effort acquire
may
at
us
least
term.
to
some
study
the
degree of
Perhaps,the
taste
as
we
are
can
now
be
the
considering
given one is to
APPRECIATION
avoid all that is
good;
not
247
we
we
that of
giving pleasurethrough
believe it should
bringing him
men,
for
its mission
then
art's sake
semi-artistic
false
creations
is
one
That
one.
and
do
not
the
have
there
doubt.
We
by
man
his fellow
theoryof
art
been
are
the
for
produced purely
beautiful,
of the
means
relation with
truer
social
mission
another
understandingof
the
further
has
art
and
relief and
found
it in
often ignoringthe, to
him, he pictures,
characteristics. He
that his art
forms
us
chief
grown-ups,
is
his emotion.
from
the external
world
receives
by
excites in him
call emotion
^mental processes which we
form
to be liberated in one
^which demand
or
or
means
of the
physicaland
passion, and
another.
The
mentally
normal.
The
man
sensitive to
his external
sur-
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
248
some
part of all
received; and
has
he
find
they;will
be
his emotions
in
form
outlet
an
artistic creation,
which, therefore,is the solution
some
if
of
child
the
or
conscious
ideas manifest
in
than
convincingways
more
the
into
meaning
of
make
his
greater abilityto
his
of
things and
external
insight
keener
of
artist becomes
civilization the
with
advances
race
the
can
age
aver-
man.
does
Hfe
more
not
alone
Viewing
sense
Nature
all
of
oneness
best
of
and
life; he
by
of man,
works
not
for
himself
utilitarian.
By
word
to
of
means
of
in this way
aesthetic means
leads
it
as
only
riteminghis music,
tft"t
but
of art
laws
mission
the
;not
her
us
to the
speaks
away
English, he
was
it he
it fills an
the
society.
in the
aesthetic
viting
great truths of life,in-
universal
an
from
replied that
speak
men
to
language.
all artists
London
language all
could
but
of
becomes
art
remain
and
the
as
his
when,
he
knew
language,
understood
and
people of
any
APPRECIATION
then
Here
find
we
The
artistic creations.
test of
our
249
art, of the greatest,highest
individual
lack
imagination,
perfectedor
ment
judgmay
faulty and his knowledge of things,of emotions, of
him we
laws, scant, to him we will not turn for criticism,
will not ask for an opinion. Rather let us turn to the greatest
who
have been least bound
of all ages, the men
men
by
and
habits of thought, who
the artificial customs
have cast
who
aside or ignored the trivial,
have, in spiteof and with
the help o$ the material, risen to a higher intellectual and
plane. There is art which belongs only to certain
spiritual
peoples or certain ages, which had its mission in helpingto
clear away
and as a means
to somesome
thing
hazy impressions,
greater belongs in the category of art, for it possessed
element
lesser truth which
of truth, some
into
some
merges
and becomes
a
as
man
begins to see
part of a greater one
the likeness in all things. There
are
products,lyricpoems,
charming statuettes, dainty bits of music, pleasingpictures,
will always hold interest for their grace of movement,
which
their elegance of form, their charm
of color,and they may
but they are
of a singleindividual,
tell the joys or sorrows
creations prompted by
not to be compared with the splendid
whose
universal belief or emotion
some
national, religious,
grandeur lives throughages.
his taste
We
have
time
some
truth
it may
emotion
rouse
common
joy, some
some
wrong,
it cannot
hope
to
live
poets.
It is he
by
self-environed
creates
for
us
his
even
that
poem
may
one
triumph which is an
through centuries,and
however
trammeled
or
strong appeal to
may
his
uncultivated,
be
then
seek
average
will
never
become
one
universal
one,
its merit,
of our world
on
the man
unlife,
as
nearly as possible
though it may be for the time only, who
which,because of its truth,will live forever.
with
the
largestview
environment, who is
of
and
by
artist was
The
monarchy.
was
people do
until
class used
the
subjectsof
as
to
come
we
nor
traditional,
we
of the humbler
sorrows
Not
its dictators.
to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
250
joys
free
and
When
art.
not
of
people,it
joys,common
free
but this
satisfied;
were
of greater
As we
far from
swung
passionsof
the
was
in this
art.
Netherlands, the
in the
however, it obeyed, as
When,
emotions
their human
nor
court
and
scenes,
the humbler
mands
de-
classes
turningpoint,the beginning
things.
have
of civilization and
before
art
and
general revolution has its spiritual
the productionsof its time, and the
influence on
economical
circle of art critics widens.
Today the artist must pleasenot
few people,
not a singleruler,or even
a government,
not a
a
in hand,
hand
go
church
the
or
leaders of
societyat large
the
of art.
name
to
branded
be
the artist is
As
worthy
as
today
or
before
passes
unworthy
freer to work
out
of
his
were
societydemands
give more,
and
in art and
but
asks that it be ennobled, a likeness,
that
one,
it may
an
respect itself,
raised
be
art
in its
wide
ki"nd,"a
enough
people to
gift of the
everybody can understand, and
ap"it of every life and
'
"
!p$tery
more.
sight and
own
to admit
the
every
the whole
people, a
one
beautiful
taught
of
thing
surround
to
man-
which
with love,
hindrance to none."
has
told
us
APPRECIATION
251
divine
his
as
and
voice
Based
own.
the
on
of
the modulations
human
of the human
muscles
by the
and emotional
sensations,the needs and hopes
spiritual
many
with human
of humanity, it has grown
growth and developed
into civilization. Having no
actual model
in nature, being
neither a repetition
of an experiencenor
imitation of a
an
real object,it stands unique and supreme
the arts,
among
it speaks directly
without the medium
of
to the souls of men
any tangiblematerial.
The
is
of sound
tendency to express feelings
by means
The wolf or
to all livingcreatures.
universal; it is common
dog that givesvent to short sharp barks or prolongedhowls
is actuated by an impulse similar to that of the child who by
We
know
the
its cooing or crying expresses its emotions.
sound has to excite human
beings,how a mob may
power
be
orator
audienc^
an
are
emotional
of its leader
tones
word
to make
But
the man,
appealto
sympathetic
use
necessarily
unmistakablyintelligible.
utterance, must
Music
own
an
how
an
handling
intelligent
emotions
pels
com-
forms of expression
consists of
material and
into
the
by
caused
his voice.
that
violent acts
led to
though
movement
As
form.
exist without
stated
some
great
in
kind of
mass
previouschapter,music
design;there must be a
and
only vague, fleeting
cannot
definite-
useless
phrase or
find only
impressionsare produced* In early music we
well defined though there
rhythmic sounds, but they were
no
was
varietyafforded by a change of pitch,or, there were
ness
about
each
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
252
sounds
even
furnished
for
far
so
birds,from
the
life
was
when
he
great scheme
it
which
creation
us, but
has
of the universe
always
its foundations
because
the
from
song
view
sighingtrees. His
and the primitiveman
was
ascribed it to a special
god ; it is
taken
were
and
ripplingwaters
superficial
one,
the truth
nearer
theorist
one
to
model
the
attempt
to
the
of
as
birds,and
are
been
of man,
with us,
and
part of
deeply rooted
so
in the
to
formulate
one.
that
doubt
and
wider
we
develops,as
stand
greater, will under-
will
infinite,
understandingof
than
express more
of expression. It
and
the
even
we
and
with
nature, be able
through it,as
have
greater,
said,with
to
medium
the
race
limited,so the
modulation
notes
of
vocabularyof primitive
peoplesare
their music, and they use gesture and
of voice to
He has grown
out
of the superstitious
beliefs
APPRECIATION
with
connected
the power
of the art
understanding
through its beauty
of
the
thing of
truthful
and
law
possiblean
and
order
expressionappeals to
With
man.
average
freedom
of
as
253
freedom
the
which
the intellect
of
thought
tion
expressionof the present day, with civilizathe earth,music should exert
spread so widely over
a
influence
than
other
art.
one
Sculptureand paintgreater
any
ing
appeal to a comparativelysmall number, for only so far
their works
accessible can
are
as
individually
they wield an
When
influence.
copied,though of value, they lose much of
Literature
their original power.
standing
depends upon an underof the language in which it is written,and it like a
element
in a translation.
statue
or
picture often loses some
classic qualityof music
the other hand
The
is not hurt
on
by repetition.The same
symphony,
opera, sonata, the same
in
the same
lands at the same
fugue, may be heard
many
and
of
quality. The
in
The
but
his
of
be
each
seen
only
serve
only as valuable
can
casts
travel
must
the world
his fellow
with
or
spontaneous
or
of sculpture
or
painting,
home,
own
statues
and
museum
individual
greatest works
in
originalpower
of
Greek
famous
art
particular
references.
the
loss
without
moment
of
to
over
see
architecture,
in
townsmen
ideal
an
in human
nature.
the
of
mass
people
even
before there
training,it is the
educational
most
has been
special
any
universallyrefiningof
all art.
We
and
know
ballads
important
Some
themes
of
dances,
have
factors in culture
our
drawn
of the
and
people,the folk-songs
always been recognizedas
are
of
reallyclassic
been
based
value.
upon
ballads,
Lied
German
the
OF
THEORY
THE
254
and
MUSIC
Hungarian dances,
which
placein operas and symphonies,
for good
and power
the universality
have
found
their
music.
is music
There
which
simply pleasesthe
picturemay
like books
ear
which
as
pretty
entertain
us
for
reason
few
to say
effort have
that all
an
by proper trainingand
understandingof the masterpiecesof
men
can
mental
musical
be unintelligible
to them.
compositionwhich may now
They
now
appeal to certain emotions,the list may have some
may
understanding of the composer's thought without any
vague
real knowledge of the design of the various movements
or
of why certain harmonies, certain tones, produce different
effects.
If he
can
with
observation
crease
in-
wants
irst to know
of "w$athe
something
may
expect
APPRECIATION
will
find, he
to
weeks
spend
255
in
reading
the
historyof
the
in
to
of us make
many
truths of life as given
How
the
Either
conceit is
our
visit.
equal effort
an
to
understand
by
us
large and
feel we
are
capable of understandingthe
language, we
language of the genius,or we are indolent and do not realize
the benefit to be derived, or we
are
ignorantof the fact that
a
it is
the
possiblefor
us
Pleasure, that
improve
to
and
our
the mind
of
leads
want
we
have
man
pleasure,which
is real
until
taste
to
only
offer
us.
happiness,
to
The
soul.
expression.
musical
For
treated
or
ages
as
in the
has
community
presumed
know
himself
the
could
eye
This
not
for
same
to
one
of honor
criticisethe works
either
through
difference between
by lookingat
the
and
moment
reverence
only
and
innate
genius,his position
or
ballad and
tion
through educa-
sonnet,
picturetellwhether
or
would
stand
respect have
not
it
or
who
pleasedhis
the test
of time.
always been
ac~
THEORY
THE
256
OF
MUSIC
corded
to
attained
music
come
we
to
know
much
comparativelyrecent
placein the fine arts, and
within
her proper
time
we
has
have
mentary
moexpressionof some
regard her, not as a mere
mood
or
fantasyintended only to pleasethe ear, but
now,
an
Only
music.
and
masters
expressionof
have
man's
that music
long known,
soul and
of
is
as
universal
truth,
Raphael's Sis-
lost in
vastness
forest.
of the
The
first thingyou
woods
around
you;
are
you
conscious
are
of is the
surrounded
by
the
know
trees, familiar enough sightsto you, you may even
but their number
Steelsby name,
confuses you, you feel helpin which direction you turn, you'll
" :$$re that no matter
But if, as yw
out
wander
way
along, you
of
foot-path,or
ya;ur;eyerests
on
the
APPRECIATION
familiar
of
contour
well-known
rippleof
for you
you,
know
where
is
you;
you
stoop
to
now
heart
and
and
vast
the
enjoy
you
but
pick
ear
listening
the animal
see
your
no
protectionfrom
tall forms, you
or
are,
you
the forest,so
arises in your
surroundings
your
old
an
tree,
257
admire
the
ful
gratetheir
"
"
exclaim
forest
so
are
now
around
are
you
Let the
but the
untaught
images and
listen to
will be those
will fail to
He
taught
to
understand
the
look
any
for the
of your own
soul.
pression
opera, his first im-
in the
confusion
in it at
of
mass
all
But
as
significance
of the music
he
becomes
able to
he
is
and
to
read
in
passion,expectancy,
joy, sorrow,
opera
surrounded
sound.
as
motives, to distinguish
them,
or
Wagner
meaning
see
their
character
of
echoes
by a forest of unintelligible
sounds, but as the music proceedshe finds himself wandering
to well-known
voices,and,
through familiar paths, listening
willingto lingerif he dared, he is carried along athrill with
sympathy. Some people are fortunate enough to be born
with a capacityfor enjoyinggood music, but most of us have
he
to
is
longer
no
be educated
Before
the
must
the
up
imaginationor
nature
spiritual
be
an
to it.
of
fancy
can
be
awakened
and
there
appreciated,
great composition
intelligent
hearingthe
firsttime.
It is not
sary
neces-
first
recognizewith
and
relation of
of
material
little or
tones
memory,
no
which,
as
composition.Then
and
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
258
said, form
have
we
with
tones
the
little exercise
raw
of
aginatio
im-
of concentration
added to
power
design of music as set forth in the
and
knowledge of the
sons
previouschapter,the listener will be ready to make comparimusic is made.
and recognizethe elements out of which
effort to recognize musical tones
as
lated
remake
One
an
must
other in regard to time and pitch,and
some
to each
of all
recognize the three chief elements
men
intuitively
music
rhythm, melody and harmony.
of understandingof
In the order of development and
felt by almost
these elements first comes
rhythm, recognized,
all men,
a
grouping of tonal time units so accented as to
of the music, it is an
make
feel the swing or movement
one
to the sensuous
element, appealingat once
unifying,life-giving
"
as
well
as
of these tones
blend
ordering of
rests
or
harmonize
these tones
value
the
elements
with
each
we
have
ing
blend-
of the universe
to truth
a
other, and
series of tones
and
to
flow of tones
in the correct
successively
of the melody which forms
the larger unit
design of a compositiondepends. Melodies
which
the
upon
of course
contain
from
two
be
must
requiresharmony,
beauty,and with these
which
There
intellectual emotions.
their
or
smaller
units which
rhythmical and
time
heard
derive
their individuality
value
characteristics,
and
the ear
becomes
accustomed
as
gent
to a melody the intellilistener will be able to distinguish
these smaller parts
which
termed
are
phrases,periodsor motives.
Melodies
all simple nor
not
are
the whole
on
easily
followed.
In the songs of the people one
usuallyrecognizes
the melody at once
by the rhythm which is well defined and
which
characterizes
or
rhythm
he
the
song.
will find
If
by
one
will mark
littleexercise
the
ment
move-
of memory
APPRECIATION
follow
259
the
so
in music
work
masterful
is like
wonderful
picture,where
whole, and in
detail is necessary
to the beauty of the
the spectator does not
which
appreciatethe detail until he
has grasped the idea as a whole, and so sees what part it fulfils
every
in the
form,
or
Gain
larger scheme.
you
so
fugue, you
Many
then
may
know
want
to understand.
make
what
the mistake
to
first a
expect,
which
has
fairlygood
a
sonata,
idea
an
of
opera,
to them
through
given us of
be a pictureof some
kind or a story in every piece of music, and that if they fail
it all as such, or fail in their pictureto agree
to understand
made
with another, they are
to feel that perhaps they are
lacking in imagination and hence in musical appreciation.
One
is not imitatingeven
must
not forget that the composer
that the sculptoris, his ideas are
in the sense
mainly and
He
conceives a definite
primarily of a purely musical nature.
come
fanciful
beautiful
every
melody
seeminglyaims
phenomenon
concrete
leads to
and
wide
have
conceptionor largerclass
at
no
class
more;
or
in which
kind
but
or
it is but
one
sentiments
lower
our
or
and
we
loftier sense
to
ability
see
construe
different strains of
accordingto
our
music
in
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
260
could
feelingswhich a picture or poem
by long contemplation.The action of sound is
only arouse
so
sudden, so powerfuland so direct,it takes us by surprise.
But undue
prominence has been given to the action of music
to think that
seem
and there are those who
our
on
feelings,
the
in
arouse
may
beauty.
musical
the
The
created
artistic forms
the mind
to
music
works.
there
is of
affectpossesses of ing
ascribed to the
much
music
be
cannot
evidence
more
which
power
system
nervous
the
action
the
violent
more
which
us
so
the mind
and
of the composer
pealing
apwith
of the listener as to the material
by
listen to music
Many
with
the
physical
and allow
only; they are in a state of passivereceptivity
servant,
only the elemental in music to affect them; they are not obthey exercise no power of will but are rather in a
of sound.
state of waking dreaminess, lost in the harmony
do not understand
the
and they are numerous,
Such listeners,
in its artistic
specialfeature of a piecenor the individuality
number
of compositionsof like general
a
interpretation,
character,say solemn and somber, will all impress alike.
Instead of closelyfollowingthe movement
of music they
ear
allow
their
to
senses
be satisfied,
their faculties to
be lulled
It is such
If
allow
they
elemental
themselves
in music
enjoy
and
with
listeners who
so
as
glory of
keenly
be
to
to
lower
dignityof music.
by the purely
away
carried
lose mental
art
the
well
as
observant
mind
control,they, for
the
of
To
as
that
is the
most
man.
dignified
beneficial mode
to
music.
but by no means
the easiest one
of listening
Without
mental
aesthetic enjoyno
activity
ment
is possible.
The habit mentioned
revelingin
those who
sensations
have
and
of
passively
to music,
listening
of
emotions,is invariably
limited
to
the preparatory
of the beauty of music.
mot
APPRECIATION
important
part with
the
261
uneducated
are
listener,
by
latter wants
should
listen to
while
One
it is
what
is used
music
as
musical
as
to
means
must
appreciateda pieceof
than a
something more
a
be
to
confound
not
If
an
matter
no
in
has
one
ties
proper-
reallyheard
he
vague
purely
its elemental
lastingimpressionof
and
with
him
he
feelings,
the particular
know
what
to
to
how
art
music
definite and
composition.The
bad.
or
it may
have; the moment
induce certain states of mind
it ceases
will have
sake
sad,
or
good
of
construction
We
sense.
with
its own
lover
is gay
it is
whether
compositionfor
ornamental
or
accessory
what
or
to know
music
shadowed
over-
for and
its immediate
consider
the emotions
over
power
to look
the ear
effect upon
its dramatic
or
of more
taining
importance than its con-
in itselfthe germs
of a well-developed
and symmetrically
rounded
composition. Many melodies appeal strongly
to
but may
emotions
the
"developedfor an
charming
contain
material
no
orderly composition;they
and
and
interesting
which
may
be
can
be
selves
them-
inspiringbits
even
of
The
several movements.
melody
once
that
be firmlyfixed in the mind
in part or with other
it appears
must
when
that
and
after this
and
one
requiresclose attention
which
relation borne
which
it learned
is made*
an
and
upon
The
taught
un-
at first
easy one
observation.
And
the mental
faculties,
affords keenest
by
reallymeans
of its structure.
when
tax
severer
material.
one
an
The
to
enjoyment,that of findingthe
part of the compositionto another,
of the organiccharacter
understanding
works with largerunits than
mind now
melodies.
recognize
In
making
an
effort
first
gain
to
between
relation
of the
of
perception
clear
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
262
unit and
the melodic
larger and
then
larger musical
units,
of purely
the
should
every
musician, and
tunes
or
who
many
more
compositions
a
of
music
as
well
as
more
without
times
few
lover
musical
any
ear, and
of every
should be no
ambition
the
be
ever
having seen
the notes*
Why
should
the
the
without
is
such
difficult
most
score
alone
ory
instrument,and therefore pitch memfor
qualification the accomplishment of
feat.
It has been
that
the
of the
use
essential
an
compositionfrom
because
International
of
the
and
three
Concert
different
be
pitchesin
a
use
detriment,
French,
"
is
likelyto be confused.
of a hair,and it may
This, however, is but the splitting
as
well be contended
that a highly trained ear
is a detriment,
in that to the average person slightly
out-of-ttme instruments
m
an
orchestra
will pass
"
one
unnoticed
and
the
performance be
enjoyed,while to the highlytrained ear they will
be a distinct shock, and its possessor will be ex-
APPRECIATION
We
ceedingly uncomfortable.
study of art on the ground
multitude
to
the
of
drawing,
while
bad
in
to
263
the trained
perspective,
poor
eye
in
of
artist it is out
an
monious
inhar-
composition,or
in color.
Pitch
is not
memory
as
difficult as
it seems,
and
be
may
to some
much
acquired by practise,although it comes
more
of people are
in the
naturallythan to others. If a company
habit of singing together without
accompaniment one person
will always be asked to start the songs because he has a good
the tenor
and
too
runs
never
pitch memory
high nor the
dozen singers,at least
basses too low, and usuallyamong
a
will be found
has absolute pitch,or, at least,very
who
one
it. Every one
knows
the range of his own
near
voice, his
lowest and highestnote, and by a littleeffort can
fix these in
Let
his mind.
he
tone
latter
hears
in his
fix
and
mind,
trials of
"practisemakes
student
the
as
then
this
any
kind
will
perfect,"and
note
tone
with
the pitch of
nearly as possible
verify the pitch on the piano.
he may
hear and
compositionhe hears is written.
name
his lowest
compare
he
soon
will
know
convince
be
soon
the
key
him
enabled
in which
the
peated
Rethat
to
any
and
the
which
best
expresses
The
key of
the
A
emotional
character
of his sition.
compoto the
example, seems
major, for
while the key of A minor, the
trained ear
very brilliant,
The key
simplestof all the minor keys, is dull and somber.
rich and brilliant,
but B minor exof B major is sensuous,
presses
and
simplicity
sincerity.The key of C major is
while that of C minor
noble, frank and open in expression,
that of
pathos. The key of D major is brilliant,
expresses
is sad. The key of E flat is grand but also pathetic,
D minor
while the key of E major is sparklingand vivacious. The
and that of F minor
key of F major is mixed in expression,
is most
patheticof all. The key of G major is used to
express
the C
emotions
warlike
the
major, while
it is not
though
key of G
is
minor
lofty a key as
only a littleless
so
It will be
that of F minor.
than
pathetic
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
264
from
seen
this that
parison
has a wide range to choose from, and a comthe composer
keys reveals
of the major and their relative minor
liant
the fact that the major keys usuallyexpress outspoken, bril-
chords
minor
be summed
can
up
If to each
third.
small
step of the
called
scale
triad.
minor
major
the
minor
one
the
triad.
effect of
and
fourth
triad.
steps
the fifth
are
one
minor
small
triads
The
on
the third
augmentationis formed
half tone,
making both
is
notes
the
ones
third is
joyous;
plaintive.The
the
principal
on
on
major scale
the seventh
step,which
triads,but the
one
three
minor
or
triads of the
In the minor
are
of
the primary
step, constituting
All other
the
chord
the fifth
major
major key
step and
the
triads,except
diminished
with
effect of
formed
with the
one
The
triads in the
fourth
have
we
The
major triad,and
step becomes
by
an
on
on
are
is
the first
the
fifth
primary triads
ished
step is dimin-
augmented triad.
being raised
APPRECIATION
mentioned
heretofore
first
had
have
large
and
then
chords
chord
the
different
the
difference
and
265
possiblechords
in harmonies,
major
third; the
small
large third
One
; the
minor
diminished
by comparing
see
can
chords
in the
and
effects.
tone
minor
originallyformed by beginningon
the third tone below
given major key, using the same
any
intervals of the major key through one
octave, and it was
diatonic minor
scale. This, however,
called the parallel
or
was
unsatisfactorybecause reallyit was
only the scale of C
beginning on A; and while the interval from the first to the
the required minor
third step formed
third,nevertheless the
of the scale,the seventh
mark
tone, which
distinguishing
The
be
should
seventh
and
key
half
was
before
tone
in the minor
note
scale
newly formed
this
Its form-name
scale.
the harmonic
was
to
being stillunsatisfactory
and
half
change
is
what
scale, which
The
work.
three
is
before
student
can
which
There
is
which
we
one
must
used
see
words,
a
more,
seventh
most
to
as
from
of minor
because
it left
on
a
This
a
step
tone, another
tone
the
harmonic
minor
this that
composer
from
and
scales to work
has
the
compositionsare
the composer
besides the
other cause
look
for what
scale.
seventh
based
were
commonly
different kinds
to
and
relative minor
minor
th'e melodic
termed
in minor
possibilities
those
sixth
the
now
indicated
chords
minds
some
by raisingthe sixth
added
was
formed
between
called the
was
modulation
the former
there
some
so
are
mentioned
difference in
call harshness
commonly
seventh
used
keys
in
to
positions.
com-
zation
in harmoni-
chords; in other
triad is added
one
interval
pleasingone
of all the
seventh chords
formed
within
of
the
chords
the seventh
All
seventh.
the
dominant
formed
the
termed
is therefore
scale, and
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
266
on
or
ruling
other
steps
on
secondary sevenths, and the one
step is the diminished seventh, both its fifth and
scale
are
the seventh
called
makes
Any composition which
being diminished.
will appear
chords
to
of these secondary seventh
much
use
ears
people like dissonances, and
some
harsh, but as some
when
to like them
some
they are used right,this source
grow
of
of pleasure. The
cause
of unpleasantnesschanges to one
apparent difference in the feeling of different keys, which
people experienceat present, is mostly due to faulty tuning
seventh
or
Of
respect.
raised
course,
half
one
or
in
of their instruments
condition
the bad
to
pitchof
if the
whole
other
some
composition is suddenly
temporarily
tone, it will appear
effect
wise,
takes
place; othercontrary
the
standpointof
strumen
perfectin-
mood
in
which
If it is to
be
he
intends
to
the
have
compositionappear.
brilliant and
"
examples
"
Funeral
Chopin's "Funeral
are
"
March
Sonata
March"
weird.
One
to sad
music.
the
Poles
as
minor
must
not
Some
tones
use
it even
mazurkas, many
rather
mean
Beethoven's
are
soft,singing,
patheticand
nations
in their
and
"
key
often
is restricted
in their dance
music,
of
in the
which
are
Of
even
course
in
the
APPRECIATION
Strauss
as
waltzes
267
preceding chapters of
the
As
this
volume
have
given
composition we
in general but
reader
THE
the modern
Because
ORCHESTRA
orchestra
is
and
perhaps the
we
maintained
complex
music
it must
of timbre
range
solid sonority
a
finest
pianissimo to the
If it is not possible
heaviest forte.
for you to distinguish
ing
by ear the various wood, brass and stringinstruments durthe performance, it would
musician
be well to have some
identifythem for you, as they can be learned only by hearing
them
be
can
from
potent
consider it first. As
most
the
often.
The
orchestra
consists
of
four
of instruments,
groups
first includes the viols,
of
orchestra, though
an
they
as
this effect
by
hence
are
given
the
horns
will be
drums
distribution
but
or
the
others
other
wind
development
the
by
part and
bass
The
and
ments
instru-
are
the double-
bassoons
flutes,oboes,clarinets,
violins
trombones
front
ments.
instru-
do
the
composition as
the
of
of
choir,
singleoboe, flute,
composer
a
of
This
cornets.
of the various
the volume
may
and
cellos
violon-
and
just in
and
by the
instruments,for
instrument
of
in each
the left
to
treated
solo
as
and
center, with
found
stringsare
ground
fore-
the
of the orchestra
is indicated
The
ductor
con-
are
percussiveinstruments
hearers, usuallyoccupyingthe center
the
front, and
in
the
in
are
the
other
and
of
usually in
are
massing of voices
placesof advantage.
the
from
placed farthest
drums
the
taste
are
make
and
as
the
with
cellos
violins,violas and
the
work
varies
instruments
of these
of
instruments
other
and
chimes
cymbals, triangle,bell,
percussion. The arrangement
of
consists
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
268
same
whole
as
work
body
in
of
first
violins.
The
number
somewhat
upon
which
an
use
to
or
dramatic.
dramatic
the
music
orchestra
number
orchestra,such
tuba
concert
instruments
and
depends
to be
special
is to be put, whether
symphonic
of
instruments
required in a
group
performed or the
bass
tuba, contra-
contrabass
work, and
instruments.
as
each
About
of
so
three-fourths
ninetyor
of
well-balanced
tra,
orches-
hundred
instruments,consists
of strings,
which
choir is usuallyspoken of as the string
Its chief instrument is of course
the violin,the
quartet
which
leads the entire orchestra,
one
for its clear,
practically
penetratingtones make it the richest of all the voices,and
the brilliancy
of a compositionis portrayed by the mass
of
say
violins
one
playingin
one
the upper or middle register.Instrumentmakers, performers and composers have combined their skill
APPRECIATION
and
made
genius and
whose
modern
our
of
range
269
orchestra
expression is
into
almost
ment
instru-
an
infinite.
Its
and
varied that there are no shades
so
many
color it cannot
of tone
touch, and its compass reaches from
the lowest tone
on
a
piano, given by the bass tuba, to the
voices
are
so
in the voice
highest found
piccoloflute.
The
lowest
is about
of the
as
orchestral music.
violin part of an
orchestral score
is two
be many
voiced, first and second violin,but there may
which
subdivisions
smaller
produce entrancing effects.
the
Usually
Between
in the music
written
The
violin the
second
for them
; it is a
division made
firstviolins
are
orchestra;the second
only difference
be
in order
properlyfilled
the sopranos
the altos;the violas
frequentlycalled
violins
are
lies
of
are
barytones
; and the doublethe basses. This is not exactlya true division,
basses are
for the viola and cello are
capableof a soprano register,
all are
but when
playing togetherthe order is correct, and
the tenors
as
all violins
The
an
qualityof tone;
somber, while
pathetic.
lie too
far below
have
played together,we
importantinstrument
were
viola is
would
the
in its lower
in
its upper
tones
tones
owing
to
its beautiful
In size it is next
tuned
stringsare
four intervals
violoncello,whose
the
violoncello possesses
The
lower.
octave
an
is tuned
violin and
to the
with
beautifully
blends
It
lower.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
270
marvelous
It sounds
is called therefore
for it and
The
full
which
each
of
groups,
The entire choir
the
harmony
can
with
brass, or
or
divided
be
may
and
produce melody
can
written
capableof playing
is
group
be combined
instruments
into
small
harmony.
stringsor
distinguishthese
difficult to
music
the
than
transposinginstrument.
instrument
wood-wind
itself in
by
lower
octave
an
It is not
they
as
all
so
are
instrument has a
frequentlyused in solos. Each wood-wind
strongly characteristic voice adapted to certain styles of
other or with
music and it is only by combinations among
of expresthat they possess any great range
other groups
sion.
The flute is an
Flutes and oboes are purely soprano.
instrument
of
marvelous
other
sentiment
superficial
and
as
soft
are
instrument,for
and
complaining,its
with
The
is
oboe
the
oboe
can
be
blended
with
instruments,though brilliancy
about
solo
compared
is
agilityand
all that
are
requiredof
while
low
tones
are
not
it
times
rich, and,
clarinet,it is expressionless.
melody instrument of a pastoralnature and
frequentlyused
in the
or
orchestra
in
imitative music.
It
well
march
and
same
of his Heroic
Symphony.
While
the oboe
is
grave
rather timid
grave
deeply solemn
utterance.
The
Nighf 9 Dream"
voice combined
clowns
are
in
introduced
with
by music fat
two
bassoons.
APPRECIATION
The
clarinets,both
the widest
of
the
expressive of
most
and
soprano
wood-wind
three
over
range
is
rich and
clarinet
the
271
"
contralto, are
instruments,
and
mellow
perhaps the
they have
as
half octaves.
and
The
voice
fuller than
much
the
its
rather
shrill and
high tones
are
even
for
its
lies
in
its
middle
These
tones.
beauty
screaming,
instruments
wood-wind
are
usuallyemployed in pairs,though
is added, and
frequently a third flute,clarinet or bassoon
oboe, though
The
occasionally a fourth.
all
are
The
the
and
lipson the
variety of
size
shape,
produced by
and
brass
vibration
modifications
wood-wind
ments
instru-
of reeds.
instruments
take the
of
place of reeds,
the
quality depend upon
of
the
and
tone
in these
tones
bell and
the
piece
mouth-
of the brasses.
The
have
brasses
been
Ages
French
adapted
is the old
horn
for
orchestral
hunting
It is
use.
horn
a
of the Middle
valuable
member
the
softest
and
orchestra
of
powerful
chords
and
with
strings or
yet mellow
and
sweet.
Two
familiar
is
horn
show
the tone
of the
clearlyand distinctly
the hunting calls which
precede the entrance
I of
of the Landgrave in Act
Tannhauser," and the trio
Eroica
in the scherzo of the
symphony.
The
place of trumpets we usuallyfind filled by the more
the highest voiced of the brass
familiar cornets, which
are
which
passages
instrument
are
"
"
"
THEORY
THE
272
They
instruments.
give
seldom
they are
occasionallyhappens, leads
of
choir
the
Their
in chords.
used
and
which
as
the head
the
melody except
plays alone,
member
orchestra, but
the
brass band
as
or,
ofteuest
are
often
when
combatant,
familiar to all.
are
and
three
The
MUSIC
is brilliant and
tone
lead of
or
OF
bass,
are
known
and
dignifiedtones; they are
majestic,serene
other instrument
and no
can
equal
wonderfully expressive,
when
elevatingeffect is
them
a
nobly solemn and spiritually
required. Though chieflyused to sustain harmonies, they
their
for
are
passages, and
orchestra, proclaimingthe entrance
found
often
the
in melodic
act
of
heralds
as
some
for
musical
idea.
the
of the brass
band, sounds
though of great
The
size
harmonies, and
of a compobe made
it can
to respond to the gentlermoods
sition.
sound
While
think
of
volume
of
a
we
usually
great
in connection
with the brass choir,a little observation
shows
when
that it is capable of vague,
far away
us
tones, and
played softly,as in the prayer in Lohengrin, it is quite as
lowest
note
effective
as
of
when
its
used
for volume
of tone
in
combination
Except
to
to
the kettledrums
or
rhythms.
Many
which
tympano,
of
of
can
percussionare
these, such as
be tuned
used
only
steel bass
are
ways,
allowingfor
frequentchange
of
Founder
to
composer
with
away
all
any
German
romantic
German
create
Italian
and
that
has
him
given
is
His
this
his
in
clo
work
quality
place
first
and
liberty
Germany,
It
The
opera.
musical
in.
opera
German,
thoroughly
other
the
o"
1786-1826
WEBER.
VON
MARIE
was
than
more
the
musical
world,
H/B.
K^fcfel^l
guys*
W^a^tiw
i*
atot
"ti
^feistlc
legacy
fro^i
Carl
by
Marie
4
'
von
In
only
*"""f"yed
idt^r^^^li^l'
**"*!**
Richa^i
"T^-ttfttrm
'
APPRECIATION
In
so
orchestra
present-clay
our
handled
the kettledrums
are
as
give effective
to
as
effectivelywith
used
is
entire orchestra
"
in
tutti
One
of
of
the
or
be
ulated
manip-
pitch,but
no
is
drum
it is
smaller
ones
compositionswhere
in the
the
cian,
the musi-
languageof
first time
listens,
say
he
to
by
The
derives
from
an
pleasure one
abilityto
instruments
various
and
to discover
just what
fillsin the interpretation
of a composition is
one
effort and close attention it requires.
oft-repeated
wishes to gain much
who
from good music should
the
place each
worth
heavy parts
passages.
hope the
played by
its voice.
follow
It cannot
because it has
employed or,
instruments
the
results.
big bass
"
cannot
symphony
the
even
large stick
one
in
of the kettledrum
273
the
Every one
acquirethe habit
fair knowledge
at
sonata
ear
further
sound, and
through three or
feelingor musical
relation between
concert.
of
The
of the
most
study of
form
reallylies
form
at
that it expresses a
four different moods
is
There
idea.
the bottom
at
the reader
has shown
of
of
usuallya
heard
compositions
one
close
classical
that the
symphonies,symphonic
overtures, concertos
poems,
orchestra as well as smaller forms, such
of
kind
and
trios,
quartets and
compositionthen follow, not
form
movements,
and
it is
symphony, concerto,
instrument, we
written for
an
have
is
one
such
scheme
composed
of
as
number
accordingto the
treatment
of
If
written
for
or
the
sonata.
sonata,
if the
orchestra,a concerto,
as
we
have
the
and
is found
of parts
parts
a
solo
accompaniment is
if the entire
symphony.
score
In
we
the
first of
recognize
the
OF
THEORY
THE
274
the
usual
sonata
four
in
form
MUSIC
parts of
which
are
symphony
found
the
which
to
are
the
form
close.
The
first movements
dramatic
fire and
is to be
worked
contain,as
out
hopes, despair,in
merrimtet
in the
are
we
full of
usually rapid and
have said,the theme which
in all other
second
scherzo; and
slow
jiarts,its
sorrows,
movement;
its
its triumphant or
griefs,
gaiety or
tragicending
APPRECIATION
275
which is a movement
of largedimensions and
finale,
of great importance. After the playful,
mood
of the
merry
scherzo, where perhaps the stringsand flutes may but whisper
in the
the
the basses
carry
brought
are
we
loud
the
to
answer
other
whole
on
strains of
back
to
the
melody,
eration
statelyconsidviolins perhaps start
often strictly
repeat
The
up
unadorned, and
rounds
this theme
as
form
and
occurs
of
been
other
choirs,or by
sonata
in
passage
triumphant
the
the wood-winds
which
the
acclaim
and
the
cadence, whereupon
of the
snatches
whole
the
melody,
deep design of
felt it before,
rondo
charm
of mystery
lull in volume
and
orchestra
furious
the
their
not
work
of the
wood-winds
sixteen
are
second
gentlytoss
close,which
loud
into
little
about
usually feel
another,as
most
well
One
a
then
novel
after
may
whole.
lends
comes
of
the instruments,
expression,and
part of
an
orchestra
upon
and
of instruments
proportioning
More
conductor.
stringsthan
upon
brass and
least sixteen
first and
necessary
and
violins,twelve
at
emphatic voices.
a
interpret
sition
compo-
considers
first carefully
as
follows the
vehement
hurrying
orchestra
an
overpower
the arrangement and
the
for
in loudest and
composer
his work
often
comes
fugalpassage
volume, register,
flexibility,
range
balances
must
that
by strings with
serious
rhythm, with
rhythmic guisesand
In order
In
the very
at
and
a
have
the composer
even
though you have not
feelingof completenessand usually of
themes
of
then
again enters.
orchestra
the
instead
orchestra
instruments
and
it stands
joins with
to drop exhausted
seems
stringswith possibly a
the wood-wind
from
assistance
as
in constant
alone, there
whole
then
it
form
beginning.After
played,perhaps only by strings,or
the
even
recurs
discover
we
or
serious and
more
of the theme
choirs, and
violas,ten cellos,and
eight
THEORY
THE
276
doublebasses
well
may
more
have
due
right
partly to
a
who
one
or
needed
are
balance, while
proper
Solidityis another element we
to
expect in
to
the
the
secure
added.
be
is hollow, thin,
ear
any
and
at
detects
once
full
one
nasal.
or
is
of
this
and
good orchestra,
arrangement
arranges
MUSIC
OF
in
no
Again,
attack
voice, and
instrument
at fault.
way
one
can
detect
soon
should
tone
exactlythe
same
failure of
orchestra
be
begun
instruments
should
and
act
ended
instant,otherwise
as
by
the
to
one
every
theme
unorganized
phrase lacks definiteness,
you feel the careless,
handling of instruments,and it detracts materiallyfrom one's
instrument
little
so
one
enjoyment. When
drags ever
behind
the
another
the
not
rhythms are
perfect,and
smoothness
and
the unity of the performance are
ruined.
We
brilliant passages partlybecause we
admire
realize what
precisionand unity they require.Unstinted applauseshould
be given a conductor and his orchestra for a perfect
ance.
performArduous
and frequentrehearsals,
constant
practiseby
the various instruments,continued working togetherof the
of
separate choirs and the entire orchestra,a subordinating
self and instrument
for the perfectionof the orchestra as a
whole, a common
sympathy and understanding between
or
conductor
and
Many
of
his men,
all necessary.
are
fail to recognizethe power
us
of
analyzinga composition which is reqttired
He
know
the symphony, the concerto
must
know
thorpjdgWy,
to
t"" manner
it
so
in which
of
the conductor.
properly
or
own
overture,
ideas as
APPRECIATION
277
the
possess
is
He
orchestra.
where
is due.
none
CHAMBER
Chamber
limited
for
in small
of
only.
rooms
music
when
includes
music
groups
was
MUSIC
used
compositionswhich
instruments
It
as
suitable for
originatedduring the
a
performance
Middle
Ages
of entertainment
means
written
are
to
add
to
the further
As
realized
to
pleasureof banqueters.
the demand
for such performances grew, musicians
there should
suitable
be a specialkind of music
nature
of the instrumental
compositionsthat
was
made
chamber
definite form.
It
collection.
It
prominent
so
music
as
we
was
in all
know
it
Germany that
these smaller instrumental forms
developed. To-day under
the head of chamber
music we
place trios,quartets, quintets,
according to the number
sextets, septets and octets, named
of instruments
employed. The trio is usually written for
hear combinations
piano, violin and cello,though frequentlywe
such as piano, violin and horn, or piano,violin and
began
to
assume
was
in
quartet, if the
The
flute.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
278
is
word
alone, usually
used
second
violin.
Either
the
piano
cello
brass instruments
and
in fact
and
groups,
be
can
fixed
As
number
form
as
upon
endless
almost
no
second
or
introduced
larger
of instruments
definite arrangement
for an
have written music
composers
of different combinations.
music, such
of
in
sometimes
are
viola
the second
as
is known
the
to
modern
chamber
music began with Haydn's firstquartet,
program,
written about the middle of the EighteenthCentury,when
concert
the
sonata
form
had
assumed
that
the
sonata
discovered
was
the
best
had
adapted
to
music.
For
good chamber
time some
the string
a
quartet too light
of instruments
to portray much
a
feelingor to give
group
them
chance
because
to displaytheir genius,but this was
a
thematic
the
they
the
ideas
to
necessary
musicians considered
failed to understand
the wonderful
power
mastery
of
this wonderful
instrument, as
and
With
we
scope
a
have
of
greater
already
seen
balanced
place in
as
have
every
both
our
and
study
of
symmetrical in form
concert
rooms
that
they
still hold
by experiment,
stringquartet offers
that the
composers,
opportunityfor the development of instrumental
more
recent
their
music
to
APPRECIATION
In
the
find
often
trios and
piano
by bringingone
we
cannot
possiblewith
may
look
for
composers
we
for
about
the
skill in the
performance
that we
do in orchestral performances.
massive
of tone,
expect the same
solidity
or
eight instruments can give this as is
same
music
four, five
no
quartets of modern
the
overpower
279
several
the
the
large groups
excellence
same
of
orchestra,we
an
in balance
of
parts and
in
qualityof tone.
In producing an
exact
agreement of tone as regards
the string quartet far surpasses
the
quality and power,
if properly performed, for this quality depends
orchestra
largelyupon the skill of the musicians.
who listen to concert performances of
It is because many
music
chamber
do
not
to
seem
know
lies
each
and
largely in the subordinatingof each instrument
performance to the balance of the group that they encourage
the bringing into prominence a special instrument,usually
the piano.
The
pianistin a quartet should subordinate himself and
his instrument
paniment
quiteas much as he who playsa piano accomin
the
music
to a vocal solo, only
of chamber
case
the three,four,
there is or should be no
solo part. When
five or more
instruments so work
together,so blend as to
give the effect of a great voice with various registersand
wonderful
compass
expression,tfien we
have
builded
and
and
know
and
marvelous
range
the composer
and the
unified
the
parts
and
power
of
performers
instruments
the
sympathy may
by
orchestra, inspiredand matured
This
instrument.
but
it is
Their
same
often
more
close and
works
make
found
long
it
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
280
in
for
possible
wonderful
of the
some
association
and
them
in
found
be
to
conductor,
famous
earnest
large
quartets.
study of
play with
the
fineness
of
THE
PIANO.
and
call forth
enthusiastic
composition has
composer
than any
Music
wrote
other
flows from
not
been
and yet
applause,
the
soul of the
revealed
And
surely the
music, more
at
all.
with
inner
life.
musician,it is an expression
of his emotions
and his moods, and
since ho two
people
think just alike nor
feel just the same
the same
feelings,
composition in the hands of different performers must be as
different as the personalityof the players.
APPRECIATION
It
the
is
duty of the
composition thoroughly, that
it
before
written
was
We
pick
cannot
them
he
piano player
he
catches
attempts
the
up
would
the
give
to
sheets
score
book; not
conception of them.
we
as
281
until
it to
of
audience.
an
music
hear the
we
And
study the
spiritin which
to
and
read
do
tones
we
the
in this
composer,
respect, suffers a great disadvantagewhen
compared with
the
novelist.
The
the sculptoror
carved
image, the printed
get
any
more
are
page
with
sheet
score
remains
unsolved
an
little black
understand
to all
intelligible
its hundreds
carelessness
seeming
those
less
or
stand
notes
can
but the
see,
of
singly or
enigma, and
who
with
in
its pages
over
groups
until the tones
not
which
for
produced
are
can
we
what
the composer
has to tell
guess at
The
us.
piano with its wide range of pitch,with its modern
for sustainingand blending the tones by means
contrivances
even
or
of different kinds
of
pedals,is
Formerly, when
they used the
production,but
This
the
goes
estimation
how
of music
piano.
modern
the
utterlydevoid
worked
composers
violin as
The
creators.
the
Their
their sitions
compomedium
of
tone
for
such
instrument
old
purposes.
holds in
harpsichordswere
blendingmasses
tones
ment.
perfectinstru-
out
their
piano is used
high a place this
almost
an
the
now
show
to
now
thin
were
coloringof the
of
and
tone
fleeting,
piano. That
player who best tells the story, or, who by his touch adds
caprice,pathos or tenderness to a melody, who satisfies the
the emotions, that player is an
intellect and arouses
artist
and we
are
gratefulto him for the pleasurehis music has
given us.
just as a
the eye.
the
Music
beautiful
the
reach
heart
the
through
the
ear
through
Its effects should be ennobling,it should not satisfy
sensual
bit of
should
side of
landscape rouses
your
nature
emotions
by pleasingthe
ear
as
luscious
thoughts to
by strikingan
hearer, can
answering chord
it be called great
or
within
good, nor
the
breast
will it live.
of
the
One
of the
OF
THEORY
THE
282
MUSIC
ings
Polish birth,he expresses in his music the sufferNot in vain have
turbulent emotions of his nation.
Of
rewski.
and
been
as
the
cry
of
most
sensitive soul.
Paderewski
to
out
the
times
is
us
full
pleading
master
the
effect.
not
As
to
the
all musicians
manner
of
agree.
Some
holdingthe
contend
back
of the
hand
should
be
as
much
as
upon
his touch
produce.
for the
varietyof
tone-
APPRECIATION
Aside
from
tone-color
well defined
be
the
283
rhythm
of
composition must
equally well sustained. This is done by
and
to bring out
the
accenting certain parts of each measure
consideration
must
the
no
rhythm of the melody. Under
player allow the rhythm to lapse;no matter how dainty or
impassioned the passage, the ear cannot be offended by the
disappearanceof this accent or by it being misplaced. Nor
be pronounced, it dare not appear
the accent
in the
may
harmony as a blow on the key, but it must fall upon the ear
with the same
unconscious
of
rhythmic effect that the waves
the ocean
produce as they break in regular succession upon
the
shore.
Next
This
a
is
thingto
the
most
which
musical
composition
It is that
which
It is that
in the
Liszt.
Schumann
the emotions.
was
lacked
no
hearers.
of the
temperament
player.
it,Liszt
is the
subtle
lesser
consider
brimful
without
artist,
can
of the
Rubinstein
a
distinguishes
which
music
of
talks to
from
you
in
expressionof emotions
but it is the
will.
him
artist
An
loses
never
should
who
one
under
his
self-control,
directs their
is
the
tryingto
guidanceof
emotions
the
carry
course.
learn to
appreciategood
of expression.
diversity
look
at
different movements
bear
the whole
they proceed.
to
Before
to
unless these
his
program
compositionto which
to
see
what
is the
whether
he is to listen,
nature
of
it is to
the
be
dance, an
sonata
; for each
kind
different musical
idea, and
he
overture,
for
stands
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
284
or
of
composition
will not
stand
under-
knows
unless he
something of the
composer
of musical composition. Moreover, he must
different forms
what
to know
styleof music
of each composer
study the
the
age
to
look
the
for
fulness
same
of
be
It would
for.
generation stood
his
in
tone
Bach
sonata
Rubinstein
had the
expressed in one by Rubinstein.
advantage of Bach's experienceaugmented by the experience
Add
to this
since Bach's time.
of generationsof musicians
that is
composed
pieceswere
the performer
knowledge of music generally,
the various marks
in each individual piece before him
there himself
wrote
to
expression which the composer
Besides
of
various
these
be inevitable.
must
has
and
which
for
instruments
in the
difference
the
indicate
staccato
these
his
acceleration
an
diminution
or
legato
passage, to
But
best suited his idea.
or
of
indicate
these
mark
or
forte
as
more
or
speed,to
piano
signsare
less
Beethoven's
Sonata
in E
minor
never
"The
on
of
"
people'shearts.
and
feelings
those
Warsaw
been
had
of every
ransacked
by
the
Russians;and
news
a
that
trained
APPRECIATION
listener hears
285
here
if the
But
that
mind
your
struggle,and
agony,
emotions
he
has
catch
given
you
shows
you have understood, and which
what
he wrote
the
'Chopin did when
could
have
The
such
cheeringframe
that
of
manner
of
tones
rage,
tone-languagewhich
that he
music
himself
he
or
felt
never
these
pianist'smusic
be
should
communicated
the
such
it
mind,
to you.
feelings
should
be eloquent,his playing
produces
and
the
in
the
hearer
happy,
recollection of his
playing,
stimulating
long
after
the
were
have
praisemust
than
repaid for
required before
Too
often
this
more
the audience
the player
1 Does
upon
all the weary
hours of
he
able to
was
fails in
not
he
feel
practisethat
produce
the
because
appreciation
-effect?
it is not
it should
nor
master
An
audience should
be
critical,
cian,
by misguided applause encourage a poor musichill by its freezingcalm the ardor and geniusof a
not
musician.
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
286
istics
leadingcharacter-
the
are
that
which
must
charm
to
as
will
what
such
had
hear
we
it
has
gone
great
men
have
Mozart
and
adds
give
endowed
their music
time
from
because
only
Schumann
Bach, Beethoven,
men
Tis
follow.
does
it
because
it different
makes
and
which
music, and
his
composition just
the
or
expressionin
find
individualism
before
in every
in every composer
as
call his personalityand
which
we
course
something
certain
man
is of
There
example.
these
their
every
their music.
he understood
Beethoven
he
had
composer.
him
the
way
Beethoven
of
technique,and
it
of
back
the
to
inner
did
the
its
man;
than
this when
hear
"
aim
not
for
more
than
primitiveuse.
with
him
any
He
music
it
an
intellectual utterance.
an
his music.
Everybody
other
any
effect,to
than
else who
made
was
speak
of
more
one
knows
sonatas
brilliant
composition mattered
he
was
spiritrather
we
all composers
soul
music
well.
is
easily to
more
so
its
brought
expression
an
affair of
And
we
the
feel
Beethoven's
"
As
the
tones
fall upon
the ear, the fancy is
flit through the mind, the tones
APPRECIATION
The
287
symmetry
who
perhaps best of any
composer
of
technical
development and
with
result that
combined
soul,
perfection was
is an
There
of styleabout Mozart's
Mozart
individuality
be mistaken.
compositionswhich can never
Apart from their
artistic
innate beauty the
strengthof his compositionsconsists
in their perfectadaptation to the situation which
they are
designed to describe. Every note fits into the little place
intended
for it,and blends so harmoniously with the others
the
design
in
occurs
any
finish,such
such
work
wealth
of
creates
such
melody
will
so
are
emotions
that
his music.
excels
in his songs;
sweet,
so
when
before
you.
the mood
His
they
world
the
written
loves.
in
His
most
and
great lover of literature,
plainlyexpress
romance.
and
if any
composer
glance
at
heart
almost tense
leaps
readily
so
revel
pianists
will
never
and
style,
his
grow
not
in his
old
and
beauty. Schumann
does
in
opera
piano music
intellectual and
He
your
this
of
name
themselves
heart's best
and
moments
pleasurable
adapt
finished
highesttype of excellence
"
the
choral, orchestral
is the
Carnival
to
charm
are
"
true
music
some
Schumann's
Boundless
their
tender,so
you know
little songs
express
them.
interpreting
while
its
is
artistic taste
the
fall upon
your
eyes
is very
much
loved, your
and
composer,
for
with anticipation,
to
it casts
of
and
of
in his
truth
surpassed.
refinement
hears
he
are
beauty,such
been
never
looseness
or
compositions. There
and
ever
program
Mozart's
such
brilliancy,
charm
who
Schumann
indecision
of
melody governed by
one
every
of
skill has
his
that
trace
no
was
as
his
emotional
becomes
expression,but
he
of imagination.
gives free rein to the most dancingflights
In Chopin's music we
must
recognizehis nationality,
for it expresses the high strung passionof the Polish nation
which
of
has
indomitable courage
with
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
288
struggledthrough
years
His
sorrow.
and
waltzes
these
even
are
Although
sad.
so
much
his,
of
own
emotions
without
Liszt
he
producingany strain
is without
to
slightly
when
was
the
doubt
the
thoughtfulconcert
himself
upon
the intellect.
who
appeals but
composer
lover.
And small wonder,
in
this
techniquein
back
but
it does
their
form
or
another
is what
constitutes the
of
greater part
man
one
not
touch
the heart.
complexity,they
reveal
the
His
works
astonish
technicalresources
us
by
of the
APPRECIATION
piano better
dazzle while
they do
custom
Liszt
willingto
display he
of
the
warm
it takes
other
any
A
you.
with
the material
in
they
can
Liszt
soulful
sacrifice
some
succeeded
concert-goer who
always
leaves
in
the
hall with
Liszt
with
the
creatingan
productionringing in his
impression;he has had, as
fleeting
but
composer,
skilful technician
player to interpreta
to be the
melody, be it ever so simple. It seems
who
with many
plan popular concerts to close with
number; the effect is taking,for even
though Liszt
Schumann
was
not
of
effects
but
Rhapsody/'
those
marvelous
produce
"
than
289
ears,
it were,
effect.
And
forgetstheir
soon
a
of
salon
ance
acquaint-
has
but
to
man
littlebetter
understandingof
to
the
piano
generallyabused
no
than
instrument
is the
is
more
popular
soulful violin.
that
instrument
pressure
the tones
in violin music
whole
the
wholly upon
shiftingof
more
character
nor
And
one
most
of
yet it
stands
under-
the
the
of the bow
he
It is the
most
master
or
program
VIOLIN.
THE
more
concert
selection.
singlepiano
Next
are
recorded
and
affect the
qualityof
produces.
us
look at the
down
press
this
tone
same
responding
the
it, sounds
upon
key
be
may
bright or
master
tone, but
softened
whole
the
white
instrument
; not
novice;
of
or
vary;
or
the
is
key
course,
then
a
gently,producing
does not
the pitch of the note
black keys is always
the two
sharply
struck
it sounds
struck, whether
it is
of
the touch
to
one
time
every
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
290
key
look
fret
four
across
or
the violin
at
the
on
neck
of the
violin to
within
skill in
indicate
musical
scale,as
notes.
The
the interval
half steps only. The pianistsounds
half step
C to D on
the white keys, and
a
step from
the white
key C to the black key just above it. But
from
by unskilled fingeringor
that
interval
any
discord.
eighth steps
or
since
stringexactly;and
no
descends
and
by steps
of
and
it,ascends
know
we
our
ears
if he does
than
can
easilybe
this must
produce
On
music
much
is the song
hearing
imagined
an
awful
to
the
Thus
of
ear
touch
not
accustomed
are
the semitone, it
smaller
untrained
an
violinist is almost
as
the
other
hand, the
part of himself
of the
toueh.
m
The
the hands
it,call
bow,
of
very
true
of the violin
tears
of
joy
or
they seem
pathos to the
as
from
to
come
out
eyes
as
easilyas
do
APPRECIATION
the strains of the human
291
voice.
The
movement
slightest
of
arm
the
manner
the
or
of
The
bowing.
"
is
bowing.
From
the
"
of
art
what
it is
"
When
playing.
has
one
has learned
to
foundation
handle
that
readilyseen
his
violin
of
fingersin
such
that
manner
In
other
no
musician
and
flow
is the
so
relation
close
his violin.
as
between
is the
If the bow
the
relation
is drawn
to
stringscorrectlya mellow liquidtone seems
the player's
under
bow, the tones glide smoothly
the
across
instrument
violinist and
the
between
his
instrument
from
within
the
body of
embrace
the
his
ear
all his
close to
the
soul
the
to
player and
of them
out
blows
he
with
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
292
loving,tender
not
the sounds
coax
touch.
The
compass
These
color
of
the
are
to
violin is increased
the
overtones,
simple
or
of
tone
by
the
of
use
harmonics.
tones, and
itself. Whenever
add
partialupper
the
note
the
in
instrument
whose
each
will
old
an
the
other
instruments
and
parts have
not
in the
players. A
yet learned
to
blend
new
with
fact that
well-known
violins grow
Oliver Wendell
Holmes
tellsus
age.
of fifty-eight
different pieces,
each a
and
it takes
century
more
acquainted. "Moreover,
after a long drying process
A
from
frot"
i"aster
down
and
to pupil,
violin is made
stranger
less to make
to
the
other,
them
thoroughly
wood
is stillgreen, and only
does it become tolerably
resonant.
or
the
violin is handed
that
better with
one
generationto another
in its progress
down
or
the centuries
APPRECIATION
voiced
it has
the
fingersstiffened and
bequeathed by
it whisper his
or
more
from
the
which
have
The
hand
flying
It is then
who
of
the hands
in sweet
cold
some
but
makes
their lord
virtuoso
life
to
comes
symphonies
stormy
of
royal
and
leader.
it
once
orchestras
And
so
kindled
and
faded
arm
should
be
bow
to
in its case,
rushing bow
his touch
hand
his
awhile
given finallyinto
under
some
till the
masters
rides
the
beneath
to
ancient
hidden
despair. Passed
perhaps slumbers
and
the bow
him
his
scream
of
magic
293
its
on
free and
strings."
limber,all
its
ments
move-
muscular
without
passage
the tones; and the wrist
be flexible and
strong so that
not be marred
the daintiest touches may
by a harsh, uncertain
touch.
Passages in which several notes flow from a single
while those in which
stroke of the bow
requiregreat skill,
is made
each note
by a separate stroke of the bow requirea
A good playerknows that by playing
motion.
free,firm arm
close to
for
the
vibration
the
from
away
harsh.
sometimes
bridge adds
the
finger-board,
But
as
power
the bow
the
to
tone, and
moves
toward
up
it is
the
become
tones
The
mellowness.
must
the finger-board.Masters
produced by playing over
of their violins combine
the tone
understand
qualities
of bowing with these different positions on
manner
who
strings,gaining thus
tone
character, and
is the
wide
range
individual tone
of
variety of
each
coloringof
the
violinist
result.
Some
the
the
the
of the effects to
tremolo, which
is
look
rapid alternation of
It is used
whether from
feelings,
for in violin
fear
or
to
up
express great
sorrow
or
playing are
joy.
and
down
agitationof
It is
usually
THE
294
played not
far above
THEORY
OF
the middle
MUSIC
passionateand
It is
flat.
fierywhen
singingvoice
in
"
Faust,"
or
to
depictthe
presence
of
evil motive
an
at the
great effect to
other person's misfortune, as
joy in some
portray wicked
in the case
of the unscrupulous
dwarf, the smith mime in the
of the different effects
Siegfried." Perhaps none
story of
produced is such an excellent test of good bowing as is the
If a sustained staccato
is played distinctly,
staccato.
evenly,
but with
a
light firm touch, the player is said to have
One
of the most
common
splendid control of his bow.
methods
resorted to in playing for effect is the pizzicato;
this is done
and
by pluckingthe stringswith the fingers,
the result is a series of short, stiff tones much
like those of
effects are thus produced ; they
a banjo. Very dainty,telling
unguarded
moment.
Wagner
uses
it with
"
be used to add
may
dance of goblins,
but
they
are
never
lightpassage, such as a
owing to the lack of depth of expression
employed in largeor serious passages except
to
mystery
they are
very sparingly. But where
with thoughtfulpurpose
chosen
and
When
such
effect,
dutches
an
bricjgeas It
vibrations and produces a
the
to
is
they
used
are
produce
is desired in mournful
air of mystery to
contrivance called a sordine
to
add
as
violinist wishes
used
or
passages,
placed on
muted
This
mute.
tone.
the
very
usually
tageously.
advan-
subdued, muffled
livelypassage,
are
or
he
if he wants
uses
little
little*
damper
checks the
strings,
APPRECIATION
The
295
produced are
disappointingof
you
to
come
music
not
but
because
course,
hear
the
music
of its creation.
manner
the heart
touching
singer has
becomes
lived and
of
And
an
when
and
not
acrobatic
you
come
so
the listener
only when
much
performance,
to
to
concert
see
the
voice,capableof
the heart of the
master
divine.
THE
The
rather
has
been
ORGAN
called the
king
Large and
of
instruments,and
it justly deserves this title.
majestic in form,
complicated in construction,its very presence inspiresawe.
The
peculiarpitchand qualityof its tones thrill you through
that of all other
and through, and its voice predominates over
the
instruments, and in its full strength it overtones
even
Its tones
are
clear,and it produces a
largestfull orchestra.
other
fulness of chords and purity of harmony such as no
The
full organ
is capable of.
is overpowering
instrument
in its grandeur, and gives a totallydifferent effect from the
is richer in tone-color but which
full orchestra, which
lacks
of tone expressedby the organ.
the vastness
The
is a gloriousinstrument when
it responds to
organ
that is composed for it, but it is a big mistake
music
to
it the human
be
quality of tone that can
expect from
expressed on a violin,piano or flute. The stop called the
orchestral flute is a perfectimitation of the tone of a flute,
of giving the effect of a
but this stop is utterlyincapable
flute solo when
lipsand directed by the
played by human
is true of all the
touch of the fingers;the same
intelligent
beautiful oboe solo in Bach's
other orchestral stops. The
ment
Christmas
Oratorio, intended to be played on the instruitself*becomes cold and powerlesswhen produced on
the peculiar
Neither can
the organ*
qualityof the tone of
organ
THEORY
THE
296
looked
upon
it. The
for
imitated
is of
imitation
An
organ.
on
produced with
be
instruments
stringed
MUSIC
OF
there, but
course
in
be treated
must
concert-room
be
And
made
differs from
orchestral
more
be
not
must
an
own
instrument.
the church
organ
are
ments.
flute,clarinet and other favorite solo instru-
imitate
to
an
as
organ
with
being made
made
it must
and
The
the
upon
as
The
attempted on the organ.
organ
maintain
imitative instrument, it must
character
success
players choose
this construction
of
because
intended
originally
concert
many
compositionsas
were
an
produce these
intended.
the instrument
for which they were
as
as
effectively
that the organ production,
But this is a mistake,for we know
can
while
clear and
pure
in tone
and
under
the immediate
expression such as only instruments
control of the player can
give. Fugues, sonatas and oratorio
music belong to the stately
organ.
An organ can, however, be used to very good advantage,
with
in connection
an
orchestra, by being treated as a
and having music especially
separate instrument
designedfor
it, or by being used as an
accompaniment to swell the
volume
of tone
'to St.
Paul
plays the
taking
may
to
or
be cited
choral
opening
the theme,
up
orchestra reaches
an
as
and
and
fortissimo
parts. The
overture
silent,the
later
it bursts
with
wonderful
in
as
organ
orchestra
the
effect.
full
While
the modern
APPRECIATION
stop that
solo
he
accompanying
the first keyboard
over
rhythm, or musical form,
draws
chords
few
harmonious
the
on
note
297
without
and
by
second
the
on
of
pedal.
fingers
phrasing,
at
accompaniment
manual
and
The
he
his
attempt
any
way
manual
adds
occasional
an
effect
pleases
an
There
meaning
no
in
is amateurish
playing
is
means
of
this kind
But
extreme.
the
and
true
its effect
of
art
solo
easy,
of- music
kind
The
that
of the old
that
bass
worth
its
ho
by
the
in
supplying either an
droning bass, but every
the
to
an
harmonic
whole
organic
faculties
and
whole.
manual
to
the
has
as
necessary
The
result
as
Is that
intellectual
the
in composer,
called upon
organist and listener.
artistic enjoyment to all concerned, it is not a combination
are
It affords
sounds
of
and
unthinking
majestic,so
which
irritation
affords
to
that
dignified,
and
intelligence
respect due
the
scholar.
unless
to
childish
delight to
The
its construction
and
power
to be trifled with.
beyond
their
time
becomes
piano is
while
change
of
it
the
stops is
By doing
being made.
rhythm in organ music
all music
value
the
is so
organ
it is handled
with
the
offends
notes
is
organ
planned for it
play; the pedals do not merely
occasional deep tone or a regular
note
arranged for them is a part
fill in,
of
Each
composers.
distinctive part to
own
suited
is best
maintained
of
accent,
the
correct
this the
298
OF
THEORY
THE
MUSIC
and
accent
No
absolute
rule
can
be laid down
for
the combination
of stops.
to get its
emotions
look
he
for
to
more
will look
stimulates
their
fullest power;
but a trained listener will
than vastness
of tone and emotional harmonies,
for
some
definite musical
THE
The
it
form,
something that
pleaseshis fancy.
OPERA.
APPRECIATION
and
produce an
opera,
equally important, each
performance.
It is impossible in
idea
of the
elements
in
contained
our
studied
and
299
while
is
one
the
quite
work
of
to
necessary
chapter
to
give
each
greatest
operas.
for itself.
Each
not
successful
adequate
an
is
and
opera
to the
power
must
be
If one
for
by itself and
goes
opera
the purpose
of spending an
of
evening for a certain amount
pleasure,such as can be gained with very little intellectual
the story of
trouble, he is usually content, if he but knows
the
drama,
to
let his
senses
which
by the music
read, and by the spectacleof
stirred
action
dramatic
of the
be
is
satisfied and
retellingthe
his
emotions
story he
and
has
the
life, of
must
possess
emotions, and
opera
universal truths,some
form
all mankind
passions which
some
of
can
music
it has awakened
poet's,
ideas in the mind
of the musician, and he has reached
new
the poet. Quite as often the
into fields unknown
to
out
musician
has failed to translate intp successful tone language
was
the
OF
THEORY
THE
300
MUSIC
the real
But
they
are
when
words
both
worthy
music
have
close
study
and
of
stood
if
one
There
opera.
music
ness
can
as
itself the
upon,
in
him
is for
no
and
words
but the
shades
are
reach
manner
can
have
ever
in which
of
emotional
sensations
which
with
definitewonderful
convey
It does not suggest in
done.
the
emotions
are
to
be
worked
or
the
hence
narrow
popularityof
the
class of musicians.
APPRECIATION
should
301
while
not
always
for
reason
inating
discrim-
catering
their
abilityof appreciationallows.
in attendance
audience
for
must
of an
manager
pleasethose who do not
to, every
has
and
operaticstage
that
be
he
was
To
to
the
used
as
his
of almost
use
of
taste
the
be catered
studies how
to
company
for any real musical enjoyment,
present conditions
for
excuse
worthless
true, then
for the
long
the
pecuniaryreasons
opera
come
As
putting the
performances
it demanded.
point to
If this
hopeful outlook
operaticstage.
understand
of opera one
knowledge of its historyand
earlyhistrionic efforts,
for from the old Greek tragediessprang the lyricdrama, and
from that,which is their real foundation,
developedthe several
them today. The historyof opera
forms of opera as we know
cause
is much more
easilytraced than that of other musical forms beit is
one
developed.
operatichistoryhave
of the latest
Revolutions
completed in
also of the
in
the
course
of
few
arisen
opera
secures
years
ago
Wagner's
maturer
works
been
been slow.
changes have never
development is the knowledge of the demands and
of
of taste of the public. Today the presentation
its
and
but
were
the
change
Wagner
few
comparatively
a
considered by the
or
intelligible
unintelligible,
only
generalpubliceither entirely
had devoted years of study to the unraveling
to the few who
of their mysteries.
Reputationsfounded upon stagedmusical productions
made and often as suddenlylost;and even
have been quickly
so matericomposers themselves alter their styleand methods
ally that
to
THEORY
THE
302
MUSIC
OF
masterpieces.At
their maturer
resemblance
scarcelyany
bear
the
time
one
framework
acts, each
three
character, of which
of the five kinds
one
and
in succession
an
was
the hero
and
The
five kinds
show
of
which
of the
had
to
second
end
his power
allowed
third acts
and
of
included
arias
afforded
chance
first and
the
difficult air,and
a
accompanied recitative,
and heroine.
Occasionallyonly,there were
trios.
each
allowed two
of songs ; no character was
class could follow
airs of the same
two
in each
acts, and
second
solo; and
generallysix, was
were
airs
principal
The
another.
one
no
there
with
ended
of which
scene
there
duet
choruses
first those
to
the
of
singer
expression,for sentiments
vocal
by
of
of
and
sentiment
stood
the aria of
between
last and
fifth class
singer'sexecution.
This
the
was
form
was
All songs
followed
ideas
were
used
almost
pathos and
air
declamatory
of
the
was
during part
forms
carried
from
in
classed under
were
that
in the
way
of
these
five.
Sixteenth
changed
concerted
country to another,
one
of
tral
harmony, varietyof modulation and orchesadded, and the old model became
accompaniment were
greatlychanged and for the better,as the opera gained in
Then came
effort to bring words
varietyand animation.
an
new
and
resources
music
the orchestra
more
than
developedinto
mere
than
a
means
was
customary, and
of
finally
acting something
voices;it helpedto interas
APPRECIATION
of the
than
the opera
The
scene.
into
fused
opera were
in time the music
303
piecesof
the
early
more
became
isolated
more
the words.
were
always has
forms, though
been, and
Opera
is
of
today, a mixture
the changes in public taste and
musical
of
of singingand of orchestration have brought a great
method
variance
of the operas of different musical periods. As we
have
noted, the public has been very fickle in regard to its
and
dislikes of the musical
likes and
dramatic
phases of
What
from
pleasedand called forth great enthusiasm
opera.
music-lovers
of another
day,
generationmay rarelybe heard tothough as we have said the outlook for the opera is a
good one, for the past few years have seen a revival of some
for the time seemingly forgottenoperas, and the manner
in
which
appreciation
they have been greeted and the intelligent
is proof that a really worthy creation
does
given them
audiences, and as years go on there
appeal to our American
is every
and the
of lack
In
believe
to
reason
will demand
we
will
operaticmanagers
of publicsupport
respect audiences
no
the best
longer
for
have
have
oftener,
complain
to
seemed
quite
satisfied to leave the opera as it has stood for so long, and
this is in the matter
of language,for nearly all our
grand
operas have been presentedin a foreigntongue, justas they
there that they
centuries ago in England. It was
two
were
attempted for a brief time to introduce the mother
tongue
sad
into Italian opera, and the result was
a
as
only
one,
English singerscould use it and at least half of the opera
one
was
company
to
a
use
their
all the
of
text
in
the
let
settingand
a
foreigntongue,
is after
which
music
story
our
alone
exhibit,seems
we
that
we
we
are
want,
content
to
to
do not know.
tell
us
of
the
The
joy,
continued
the
prove
with
and
enjoy
supply the
imaginations
languagewe
passages
years
an
that
of
it
standing
under-
its musical
want
wonderful
the
use
made
by
tral
orches-
grief,the sub-
emotions
stir the
of
words
no
as
makes
audience
an
they anticipatefor
of the drama;
triumph
limity,or
us,
and
do, and
can
effort
no
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
304
at
though
even
general
should
rule
be
operaticperformances.
Though England made sad havoc at its earlier attempt,
it is today making some
progress in forcing the recognition
of vocal expression,
of English as a possiblemeans
by occasionally
employing it in opera at Covent Garden.
It was
during a revival of learning,when classic tragedies
been
attention
than
had
were
given them
receivingmore
into existence.
for a long time, that the Italian opera came
These
and
tragedieshad been musical throughout in words
lines,and in
Century
Sixteenth
Church
music.
other
while
saw
music
obliged to
invent
abandoned
all
were
produced in speech
in
been
a
caused
choosing their
their invention
lay
as
the
had
seed
to
the
melody
interfere with
their
made
kind
We
of musical
stiff and
of
form
new
known
to
also
conform
poetic flow.
are
their
the text.
to
as
their music
consider
now
weaving
inter-
an
such
inflections,
by different emotions, was
it, and
from
inspiration
was
vocal
of
from
derivingits
they
in the choruses
there
created
been
developed
fluent and
which
never
composers,
neglected,so
style. Except
tones.
their melodies
monotonous,
between
highestdevelopment
somewhat
new
Observation
declamation.
closer union
its
at
polyphony in
melodies, and
of several
guide
then
was
had
forms
bringabout
to
poetry and
dramatic
they
attempt
an
The
to
of music.
The
the ecclesiastical
the
declamation,
recitatives
them
In this way
so
the
as
were
not
Italian
FANNY*
in
Born
all
tours
Austria
in
over
-with
1898
In
she
Festival
Music
the
of
greatest
pianists
great
1866.
She
States
soloist
Cologne,
at
in
the
she
musicians
and
the
concert
Europe,
for
where
celebrated
triumph
made
meeting
success.
piano
was
has
and
unqualified
most
winning*
ZEISLER
United
the
everywhere
some
BLOOMFIELD
world.
being
Lower
Rhine
played
before
in
declared
the
one
world,
of
the
APPRECIATION
opera
it did
305
was
much
free music
to
of other
musicians
it,and
deaden
threatening to
from
countries
the
find
we
the
impetus to other
developthis styleof
further
to
composition.
The dry form of recitative,
such
is now
only occasionallyfound; in
operas
formalism
give
to
used
as
the
in
early operas,
greater number
its purpose,
which
was
the formal
of
tive.
recita-
purpose
transition and
the
monotonous
and
entire
in which
the
scene
loses
Italian
cannot
righteffect
in
and
a
interest of
the
audience
in
the
operas,
understand
the
the taste
the
language or
is not
wearisome.
Of
of the
ability
in
desirous
course,
ing
of follow-
much
depends
the
and
recitative,
comic
vivacityas
It makes
and without becoming monotonous.
effectively
element of music, that of pitch,
of only one
and it lacks
use
melodic structure
and sustained tones.
panied
However, the accomrecitative has its place in the operaticform, for it
often prevents a droppinginto speech and so preserves the
instead
musical idea throughout,making a real lyricdrama
It is
artistic sphere into another.
of plunging us from one
do make use of the
of our great opera singers
true that some
the
for great emphasis by contrast, but on
spoken word
whole it is not considered artistic and is for many
a
ous
dangersuch
experiment,
The merging
development with
given to
this form
Wagner,
of musical
and
the
conversation
name
or
est
high-
arioso
dialogue.
was
The
had
orchestra
OF
THEORY
THE
306
become
such
an
opera,
as
MUSIC
play
as
aria
the
was
could
never
preventedthe monotony
and
of
recitative.
It
Wagner
was
who
'
his
singing,aside
musical
from
the mental
for he
difficulties,
poetictext
and
element
must
exercise
adapt
his
of
dealingwith
expressionto the
were
beauty of vocal tone and flexibility
tional
required for emoexpressionin singing.The real character of the stage
hero
was
not
with a
sang
would use in
taken
did not
act
but
APPRECIATION
developed and
there
was
music
the
became
307
the emotional
dramatic
more
quality,and
and
scenic,
and
differentiating
cializing
spe-
it
with
ask
dramatic
highly specialized,
The
have
operaticstage
wonderful
sung
florid
who
ornaments,
vocal
gymnastic
shown
supposed
to
has
void
feats
who
thanks
should
be
to
from
a
German
ences,
influ-
its
original
of dramatic
means
their
special
their ful
powertheir thought and attention and skill
elocution,to dramatic
of character,as well as to mere
effective
utterance.
In order
As
we
thought of
any
that the
of course,
necessary
to the text in which
than
donnas
all
of
appeal to us because
are
given to the study of
and delineation
truthfulness,
voice
prima
us
have
feeling,and who
understandingof the character they
for
never
expression.
subservient to
offered
impersonate, but,
Music
purposes.
has
entire lack of
an
opera
art
out1
singers.
opera
are
impersonationof
have
the
scene
singercan
the dramatic
said, the
even
more
idea is expressed.
music may
often express
the
dramaticallyand convincingly
thought as
thought in tones and melodies the same
in the poet'slines. The music of an opera, because
has
is found
it
speaks
an
suppliesthe
As
MUSIC
universal
and
OF
THEORY
THE
308
chorus
to
higher
power
life.
emotional
singing is
treated
of
place in this
requirementsof the
large body of
any
in another
of
grasp
and
themes
counter-themes
is rare, and
that he can
nize
recog-
trulyand quicklytouched, so
various
motives
as
they appear,
his emotions
the
of the characters
of
and
scenes
can
feel their
they portray.
baldly,but the
makes
grander
but
text
space of a few
marvelous
and
that
the
of beautiful human
voices
hours, for by means
has expressed all
instruments, the composer
has in a
he, the listener,
to put it into any
means
has
way
language, and
he is
gratefulto
CHORUS
The
vague
AND
CHORAL
MUSIC.
within
range of choral music is very wide, including
the different kinds of vocal societiesfrom the church
its scope
choir to the
characterized
chorus
enormous
of hundreds
of
voices,sucfi as
our
Not
ing
everybody possesses the skill or the technical trainan
instrument,but every normal
necessary to play upon
human
sotoe
being possesses
time
voicing his
in
his
moods
some
sort
or
under
life
or
his
of voice and
finds
joy
certain circumstances
at
in
possessing
APPRECIATION
within himself
the
voice
strike
be
the power
harsh and
a
or
preserve
because he
music
he
enjoys
'Tis
said
produce song,
to
unmusical
and
pitch,man
correct
no
the
grasps
whether
matter
untrained
ear
and
to
vocal
eagerlyat
it in part anyway,
understands
fore
there-
it.
nation
be denied
cannot
309
be
may
that
known
good music,
by
this advice to
in choirs, and
diligently
choose
compass,
emotions
your
as
in song.
Schumann
"
his students :
Sing
simplestmedium
the emotions, and no community is so small
boast of some
sort of singing society. No
with it,neither is a largenumber
connected
life; all that is needed
willingand
among
the
direction
in the
to
common
take
the
of
one
Welsh
are
Their
that it does
not
be
need
expense
of
the
the
miners.
expressing
leadership.Some
best examples of
the splendid
and large choirs that
and
districts,
are
for
necessary to its
love for music and some
finest choral
work
able
is
vocal
musical/'
you
Song
one
middle
the
especially
wonderful
excellent
so
are
or
choral
numerous
results in this
not
United
It
were
Century, where
it had
its
originin
the
hymns
Luther
com-
write
metrical
is said to
He
posed
but
his time
Before
others.
it
of
ancient
to
himself
by
for them
of the
the text
who
he
was
composed
music
had
sometimes
of
of secular songs,
the tunes
to
first to
language
sometimes
adapted
were
people,and his verses
church melodies, and sometimes
the
and
the
been
have
on
verses
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
310
hymns
was
praiseand
and
in Latin ;
into
prayer
the
choral
to
singing was
others
by many
sacred
music
England
and
to
The
lipsof
their
employed
also
of
hymns
the
part associated
music
or
the words
England
to
thus
for
with
tunes
certain
we
have
the
any
poem
of
the
are
were
metres
same
church
moral
music
as
an
within
same
composed
the
influence;
For
art.
of
so
England*
for the
that
whenever
one
not
In
are
singing
of
has
verses
tunes,
same
English custom
the
that
over
heard
in the
the
tunes.
Germany
the
hear
to
Germany have
imaginationupon the working
and
scholarship
Germans-
spread
soon
Cross
the musicians
hymnody of North
strong advantage
The
ting
of fit-
sermon.
of many
out
in
after the
ever
Paul's
it has had
and
lowed
fol-
so
populace joined
of the
for
popular that at
titude
Century, when a largemul-
it became
and
collected at
and
before
psalms
Seventeenth
beginningof the
of people was
preaching,thousands
idea
This
Germany.
in North
France,
the
of
His
their enunciation.
enforce
the
most
the
While
posed
com-
individual poems,
and
of singinga certain tune
to
metre,
and
any
poem
In
may
be
England the
is usually named
for the place where
tune
it originated,
as
Windsor
York/' or by some
or
equallyunmeaning term ;
but in Germany a tune
is usuallynamed
from the initial
sung
"
to
any
"
tune
"
APPRECIATION
words
which
to
it
belongs,as
311
Luther's
well-known
hymn,
"Ein'
Feste Burg"
(a strong fortress),and consequently,
whenever
with the words
heard, whether
or
without, it suggests
hearer
the
the
entire
to
subjectof the hymn of which it
forms
a
as
they are, a knowledge of the
part. Manifold
is included
choral
in the early education
tunes
of every
Lutheran
Calvinist in
every
entire congregation to
and
the
the standard
then, grounded on
they are based upon a
and hearer, and arouse
The
common
Germany,
take
which
thus
Compositions
part.
works
of art, for
understandingbetween writer
tunes,
are
sympatheticemotions.
cliurch cantatas
large church
are
services with
written
festival. Each
religious
cantata
written
embellish
to
therefore
for
which
theme
is
certain
recitatives,vocal
comment
text
the
or
day.
But
of the music.
instrumental
or
the text
on
gospel
appropriateto
the foundation
form
ables
en-
or
solos
reflect upon
to
to
the
form
con-
service,or
are
stands
the
the
verses
interspersedto
sentiment
tained
con-
in the theme.
The
It derives
by
its
from
name
meetings held
the
priestin
Roman
make
desiring to
his
his
religious
teachingsmore
friend,Animuccia,
to
compose
This was
music
FilippoNevi,
engaged
effective,
to
be
spersed
inter-
of
cast
and
sermon
by
The
modern
success
immediate,
and
his discourses.
song
took
the form
composers*
of this music
after
the
and
death
in
in which
the oratorio is
lecture combination
of
Animuccia,
the
was
great
312
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Palestrina,furnished
Italian master,
And
music.
the
right
it may
be well to state the difference in the character
in
furnished by Palestrina and that furnished
of the music
here
times
later
Palestrina's
work
of the
material
Handel
England, lead
the oratorio
to
Handel
with
which
the human
he
had
chief work
assign the
it is in these choruses
And
the chorus.
to
and
voiced.
are
excellence
in
the
of Bach
in the music
angels,while
passions of man
Handel.
and
Bach
masters,
speaks with
music
of
The
German
the
by
to
of
that
geniusshines best.
his
without
stands
have
"
been
never
live in
they
of constant
for musical
composer.
The chorus
in the oratorios
is used
to
serve
various
poses
pur-
"
in Bach's
Passion
as
contemplative,
Music;" again didactic,teachinga moral lesson; again it is
used merely for dramatic effect to produce a climax, and
3gain it is used for descriptive
purposes to helptell the story.
The words
choir and chorus are used synonymously in this
chapter,and they are intended to describe a group of singers
ranging in size from a very small number, six or eigMt,to
collection numbering hundreds.
The size of the
an
enormous
chorus usuallydepends upon the number
of singers
available
of sound
and the volume
desired by the director. Choirs
it is
; sometimes
in
vary
character; there
singingis done by
men
The
for
male
men
and
choir
male
choirs in which
women's
; or
are
all the
composed only of
posed
popularkind, com-
choirs
choirs,the
most
women.
its
second
owes
and
first and
second
bass.
The
written
APPRECIATION
choir
313
male
can
color and
And
voices.
female
the
choir.
of male
form
belong
and
which
to
chorus
effects produced
that
voices
aim
another
are
at artistic results
as
these
by
reach
may
voices.
The
since
boys' voices are limitless,
remarkably high pitch,in notes
clear and
are
are
should
choirmaster
voices, since it
choose
the correct
kind
of music
fects
efthe
for such
be artistic to allow
cannot
intended
music
the
sing
to
clubs
Episcopalchurches
boys'
the addition
very
catchiness of
the
male
not
by
becomes
of the text
the
collegeglee
these do
chorus
afforded
contrast
The
But
yet such
inexperiencedboys
portray the passions of
to
maturity.
The
chorus, like
female
four
And
contralto.
second
and
contrast
becomes
as
and
if he should
voices
are
women's
they
best
as
and
form
Some
ideal chorus
soprano,
One
sort
so
of
be made
to
constantly
female
Some
and
are
tender
bass, and
consist of
low
sound
choir
men's
than
feels
beautiful effects
contralto,tenor
thinner
nature
voices,airy,graceful,sweet
sound
The
the
low
unnatural
and
by
supplythe lackingbass.
second
harsh
are
even
lack foundation.
like to
very
voices
to
seem
wearisome
the
attained by
tones, but
consists of
in which
firstand
each
second,
large mixed
little
music
more
and
not
But
effect.
and
the
upon
of
advertisement
The
great oratorios
number
now
way
questionedwhether it
be
to
deal with.
to
Egypt
reference
closelywith
rely so much
an
singersand choose
to the quality of the
volume
to produce the
of
chorus
of
thousand
one
tion
and proves quite an attracthe program
unthinking. For, since choruses must necessarily
well
voices looks
the
to
in
the number
better to diminish
not
were
Israel
or
hundreds, but it is
the
into
festival music
for
choruses
Messiah
the
like
has
the musicmaster
up
ume,
voices, capable of volwell balanced they form
of
thus
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
314
on
sion,
brought together for the specialoccathey have but a comparativelyshort time for rehearsal.
The
only real advantage gained from such a large chorus
is that it affords study and practiseof music to all who
ticipate
par-
consist
of
amateurs
in the
and
production.
large amateur
is
as
centuries
music
this
was
done
with
the
These
of
singing
as
any
naturallysmall.
was
thousands, such
festivals now,
Handel.
form
performance of
by professionalchoristers who were
churches,theatres and singingschools.
the chorus
and
States
modern
the
ago
reason
is
chorus
The
as
undreamed
were
their
of
For
dreds
hun-
of in the times
choral music
of musical
masters
take
Choirs
nected
con-
as
of Bach
and
expressed
in
and
oratorios, cantatas
matchless
compositionswith
choir.
church
Messiah
time
while
which
he
Handel
the
orchestra
Twenty-four years
five voices,and an
the
then
the
same
numbers
handled
their
passions never
chorus larger than an
nary
ordia
the
At
last performance of
the
to conduct, but before
which
was
number
of singerswas
twenty-three,
consisted
later
twenty-eightinstruments.
choir of two
orchestra
oratorio
have
of
of two
in
hundred
hundred
Westminster
increased to
enormous
and
and
seventy-
fiftyperformed
Abbey.
size.
Since
And
APPRECIATION
submitted
Bach
when
choir
from
formed
be
to
the
to
315
authorities
his
pupils he
own
and
and
he
What
At
at
the
the instrumental
in
for
asked
church
for
twelve,
pleasehim better,
least eighteeninstruments.
the
and
vocal
that he be allowed
asked
also
plan
modern
relation between
oratorio
changed.
numbers
now
about
The
the
chestra
or-
one-fifth
large as the choir. This is due to the fact that the orchestra
is
treated
today
independentlyof the chorus, as in
In the claysof Handel
orchestra in an opera.
an
and Bach
the orchestra was
used as a background to fillin and supply
for the production,
volume
thereby adding to the sonorityof
as
the tonal
mass.
Sometimes
very
ing
stirringeffects are produced by dividinto two
choirs, or, as it is commonly
large choir
called,a double choir
a
of four
One
parts each.
of
the most
beautiful
effects when
the other
to answer.
We
have
of
come
now
choir
one
to
good chorus.
is used
discussion
these
And
to
interrogateand
of the
are
elements
requisite
the
much
same
in
matter
voices should
there
The
must
voices
loud
how
so
nor
what
never
should
be
any
never
harshness
seem
are
or
strained
smooth
and
hollowness
but
should
The
fluent,
of sound.
produce
chorus
the
to
voice
his
handling
production. And
The
balance
two
should
There
leader.
be in
should
nically
tech-
of
the
proportion
quality of
of those
the
not
contralto
The
parts.
potency
tire
en-
good choral
the choir, and deserves
to
of tone
the
by
the
coupled with
comprising the chorus.
the
to
This
the voices
add
to
the volume
aim
singershould
chorus, every
singerof
effect of
harmonious
must
since each
And
apparent effort.
without
their tones
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
316
of the
range
often tax
the voices
color, while the parts of the soprano
strained tone; such a contrast
and cause
a
destroys balance.
within
As
of
the
rule the
good
by
chorus
voices,and such
tenor
deplored in
correct
chorus
should
the
on.
been
allow
said
about
ideal mixed
can
of
matter
No
tune.
half tone
that
there
that
see
to
correct
should
the
is the
choral
members
of
no
conductor
from
for
excuse
of
chorus
drop
lower
is
Attack
the
soprano;
gated
miti-
be
pitch* From
singerbeing able to keep the
his choristers
is
part of
maintained.
to be
the defect
can
is meant
intonation
composition a
the
course
badly balanced.
large one
pitch, one
singing out
This
scarcity
correct
has
the
in which
one
choir than
what
to
is of
weakness
Nor
good chorus.
preponderance of the
equallypowerful.
^By
weak, owing
any
the
is
part is very
tenor
the
the
action and
correct
care
pitch can
on
be
the note.
There should
striking
no
attack, no slidingup to the note, the
wavering in
singershould know justwhat pitchhis voice is to reach, and
he shottkj iateck the note firmly and sttfely,
with masculine
be
manner
the
APPRECIATION
strength,and
uneasiness
not
faults
worst
on
By precisionwe
The
mean
tone.
This
attack
should
voices
leave off
in
accuracy
of every
precisethat the entire chorus
a
317
and
note
attackingand ending
phrase
is there
who
for
Unanimity
of
be
so
can
chorus
should
individual
in the
the conductor,
on
purpose.
is another
word
for concerted
action.
The
the
be
undue
no
on
precipitation
the
in another.
This
laggingbehind
part of any
soon
one
clouds
voice
nor
brilliant or
By phrasing is
breath.
The
dividingthe melody
so
spoilthe
sense
be
ductor
con-
into connected
that each
each
in
ditions,
con-
be sung in a single
can
group
at the end of
placesfor takingthe breath come
of notes
groups
meant
be done
with
two
things
be
is lost.
Some
passages
are
very
to
difficult
phrase,and
if
literarymeaning
phrasing of
The
to
depends mostly
conductor
drill his
voices
so
from
these
upon
singersthai
the loudest
able to
pianissimoand be
between
tone-colors
all the
must
shade
may
daintiest aerial
the
the melodious
preserve
The
their combined
to
difficult strain
the music.
emotional
shading.
the
impossibleto phrase
finds it
conductor
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
318
extremes.
fortissimo
produce also
By watching
hasten
to
all music
quality of
retard
or
lies in the
lightand
Everybody knows
artistic use
strain
should
chorus
follow
can
a
catch
to
it.
so
The
human
is said.
what
of
clearlyenunciated
words
intended
are
selection
vocal
that
to
the
be
of
audience
heard,
chorus
must
ear
listener has
mixed
be
our
understood, if the
be
cannot
sense
of
expression.
a
uninteresling
how
the
color
cause
The
the music.
ductor
con-
in
shade
of
if the words
becomes
with
the
and
large
clearly
as
whose
balanced
a
acoustic
chorus
that
choral music
is
too
able to handle
be
the
of
one
his chorus
so
essentials necessary
tageously
advanto
good
is offended.
all
time, energy
produce these, cannot
Messiah
Bach's
or
instead of
the
that makes
much
these
size not
not
festival choruses
so
propertiesare
should
conductor
In
of
and
forth
Music
an
which
choral
one
numbers
often
feels the
often
why
is usuallyspent
intelligence,
as
bring
Passion
listener wonder
lack
and
leave
of
to
of the
interpretation
will
warm
swaying
the soul;
the hearers
for instinctiv
dissatisfied,
bepersonal interpretation
one
APPRECIATION
hind
it.
each
and
man
woman
singing,to study
are
to
fire the
to
part
This
that
them
of
him
the words
live in the
to
music
tilltheir purport is
the
magnificenceof
which
it is
capable,and
listener would
away
room
the
carry
impressionof a
them
before
vast
and
singinghas yet
chorus
Solo
clear
so
every
so
they
the
rise to
music
319
such
with
him
from
excellent music
an
unfulfilled
SOLO
SINGING.
to
from,
realize.
difficult form
most
field
choose
to
promise
the concert
of music
are
so
interested in the
are
so
by the
sweet
that
have
we
have
our
muscular
we
man
or
who
woman
is
singing,we
voice, or
sonorous
charmed
brilliant execution,
tones, or thrilled by some
and at once
decide
give our unstinted applause,
heard
low
finished
emotions
feats,or
singer. We
touched,
are
won
we
by
like to be pleased,to
wonder
the
at
the
personalcharm
marvelous
and
grace
vocal
time.
We
go to
concert
or
opera
to
see
and
hear
the
the par-
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
320
ticular
with
without
in tears
have
the
demanded
discriminating,
would
not
be
such audiences
do not
That
must
there
doubt, and
toward
of
and
natural
expression.
on
us
the
The
human
pleasesour
of
were
standard
stating
more
no
of
Fortunately,for the
calist
vo-
world,
be
right way
that
of
year
of teachingof
method
Methods
should
or
sure,
the whole
every
have
varied
do
singingwe
sees
so
with
results which
woman
either of these
as
moves
more,
no
high one.
know
we
far
so
to be
privilege,
we
away
who
who
rapidity,
lightning
and stupefies
who
amazes
can
we
the
to
us
scales with
descend
individual taste
sends
and
audience
an
our
and
ascend
can
stirs up
temperament
some
natural
musical
not
advance
a
means
periods
agreedupon
the
be obtained.
voice is
one
of Nature's
grandestgiftswhen
the
an
its tones
highestpraisegiven an
But of those
effort to make
giftedwith
voice
APPRECIATION
321
would
be
more
and
genuine,
the number
increased.
It is not
purpose
but
we
instruction,
vocal
own
United
who
have
States,we
evolved
forced
have
her
It is
This
be proud, and
country, whose
of
and
here, in
earnest, enthusiastic
methods
the
of
worth
vocal
invited
sing
an
in opera
recognitionof which we have
was
a
it
points to
art
as
to
our
teachers
their methods
of
of
training,and
only in
is
The
text
in
American
received
in
in Covent
right to
greater accomplishments in this
American
art
the
music
makes
plainits emotional
vitalizes it, while the singerinfuses
of
song
most
potent song
emotional
should
At
is
in which
one
subjectof
singingis
into it
agree
the
the music
most
written
that which
poem,
is devoted
While
we
song.
qualityof a vocalist's performance,
of this kind
interpretation
we
correct
nature,
of his temperament.
schools
development.
the power
The
and
many
that
country,
Garden.
speak of the
proud to say
have
natural
singer,whose
own
are
recognitionof
other countries.
born
to
our
our
of
own
opinion as
to
the
interpretation.
the
outset
then
we
want
to
know
at
what
vocal
schools
are
such
of breath
when
we
state
to
allow
rob
us
of
most
as
no
excitement
of
our
physicalor
speech move
lowest
and
and
ligaments stretch
vocal
the
the
and
qualityin
different
to
registers.We
produce
our
higher tone
is
them
singer learns
The
his vocal
over
mental
concerned
between
space
smaller.
accomplished,that
have
us
unnatural
or
in expenditure
of moderation
amount
in
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
322
instrument
as
the violinist
only of
or
upper
of
equalizing
the
voices
Some
lower
one
are
which
so
no
poorly equalizedthat
noticeable
the tone
physicaleffort
were
change
easilyand
should
different
tone,
or
us
It must
aware
seem
to
in any
there
come
way
of
Without
the
intensify
softest effects to
the
we
it.
though
as
its force.
hall.
to
sound
never
make
not
necessary
good singerwill,as
one
voices,whereas
produce
to
and
naturally,
the mechanism
from
of
from
they pass
as
the clear,
of breath comes
the proper management
free tone.
All the breath should seem
to be turned
and
pure
will
our
With
by
lower
answer
to
shall be
voices,but it will
in human
and make
it heard
nearlyas
perfectcontrol he
the
intensify
far
as
loud
very
one.
can
even
softest tone
If
poorly
singerventures
t$|fs
on
APPRECIATION
is usuallythroaty and
sound, lacking,of
so
essential to
breath
control
effort
to
ends
all
course,
good singing.
in
and
louder
shoutingor shrieking
purityand freedom
He
has
produce
be
seldom
often
323
are
sound.
which
being strained
The
audience
of
in
an
should
he
as
singeris inhaling,
should be able to take a full breath easily,
quicklyand firmly.
Another
element .of good singingwhich
depends upon
the control of breath is that of phrasing or dividing
a melody
into
aware
connected
of
groups
notes, each
is so
groups
the voice, and it requires
be easilyphrased by
written
as
skill
on
preserve
to
of which
The
to
as
breathing
modulation
The
of voice.
his
knowledge
of musical
for the
intervals between
phrases in order that the song
proper
be delivered in an intelligent
This is but one
manner.
may
than just
of the many
proofsthat a good singerknows more
of
sing;he understands
to
well
clear enunciation
one
to
the
of compositionas
principles
how
on
the
not
demand
although no
part of the solo singer,
all the
are
artisticmusical
beauty of
good tone on
able to
at any
produce a
musical pitchwithin
There
sound
to
are
lesser
smoothness
the
any
the compass
musicians
who
song.
Such
vocalists
of the vowel
sounds
of their voices.
sacrifice clearness
but this is if
of vocalization,
of
anything
even
than
worse
other.
In
methods
of
made
one
and
we
time
at the same
and
which
in
way
feel we
the
perfectmethod
more
the
words
of
song
losingnothingof its worth
are
appliesalso to vocal.
by utteringit
is emitted, and
been
enhance
composition.
musical
to
two
extent, and
as
and
harmonized
be
qualitiescan
The
clearlyenunciate,
failure to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
324
in
begun,
is
tone
of attack, that
instrumental
music
is obtained
tone
clear,positive
perfectly
the
at
it is such
that
tone
that the
moment
exact
expands
and
is,
breath
fillsthe
call a
hear what
we
Frequently we
largest auditorium.
of
breathy tone, the result of a poor attack quiteas are some
like an
the harsh and unpleasantlysudden
tones which
come
ond
explosionwhen the enunciation of the word is begun a secor
fraction
throat, and
of
the
rightclosingof
tone,
tone
leaves
the
one
tone
into the
with
should
tone
next
of
second
song.
Each
often
prevents purityof
so
beginning and
of
other.
That
but
good effect,
airs
operatic
in most
that the
slidingof one
is frequently
used and
pure
melodic themes
as
how
monotonous
how
often it is
the
togetherof tones
While
method
second
the
of breath
in the correct
artist may
be
necessary to the
holding
way.
born
qc^mmd
ones
^T'^hkh
wfe have
singing,
only the fundamental
spoken.
It is
perfectmastery
of the
APPRECIATION
voice added
natural
emotional
to
that
principles
influence not only in
all artistic
in the land
the
lands where
or
force and
their songs
but
heard.
are
VALUE
OF
MUSIC
it pay ?
relevant
question.
Does
ful
power-
circle of musicians
In
understandingof
artistic singerssuch
narrower
PRACTICAL
THE
Does
makes
325
girlsto
it pay
spend
the city to spend its dollars for instruction in singing in our
Does
it pay a country to support public
public schools?
concert
halls,to supply bands for its parks? Does it pay a
to
provide regimental bands for its armies?
government
Does
it pay
of the world
nations
the
to
in every
encourage,
possibleway,
We
country.
and
dollar
Americans
few
cents
practical
peopleand
are
in value
returned
look
for every
for
dollar
time
known
in
evolved
system of publiceducation
We
lands, in
manners
have
mind
peculiarto
We
at
and
our
own
we
the artisticcreations
of older
the
have
of
best
art
experiments of
can
endeavored
solve
to
difficulties
needs.
for
ridicule,
possible
now
other
the people
creatingamong
of the hitman
expressions
does it pay,
unafraid to ask the question,
are
the risk of
feel
highestand
heart, and
and
methods
is
findinga
profited,
by
and
as
is
today American
no
such
answer
our
own
we
even
rightto know,
question. Yes, it pays;
have
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
326
THE
decidedly and
emphatically
yes;
of
wealth
all the
the
vidual
indi-
and
equalprogress of
progress there went
remain
would
nothing to be desired."
material
there
of
higher
is well
kind
on
it
and
its way
higher kind
The
progress
longer depends
no
and earnestness
of a small circle of
the enthusiasm
upon
of people
communities
artists and a few philanthropists,
as
have
and
awakened
needs
than
Our
physicalcomfort.
to
of their funds
share
realize the
need, and
to
those
other luxuries
clothingand shelter,and
contribute
who
other
to
suppliedby
than
citiesand
food
those which
states
voting
de-
are
us.
nation
we
are
in
concerned
here as perhaps in no
other country all
spiritually.And
ness
depends upon the development of the individual. Our busithen is to make
our
homes, our schools and colleges,
our
all our
institutions such
churches, our publicentertainments,
will help to develop the individual and make
him a good
as
citizen.
Man
them
is
social
animal,he
out
hope to developwithhelp from his fellow men, and his right relations with
What
other art is so
prove his right to citizenship.
available and
cannot
as
social
as
well
as
people,brings them
am
that of music?
it
pne
once
aesthetic influence.
into closer
No
If then it unites
sympathy, surelyit
pays
"
of its greatest
one
pays all a country expends by aia"wering
needs.
But perhapsit is the commercially
who
man
practical
as
professionpay?
for figures
iscraetimsia
figures,
gp far
thewies prove
nothingto
the
rasua
We
can
to convince
APPRECIATION
In the United
States alone
have
we
teachingmusic.
in
engaged
327
over
68,000
and
men
precariouslivingperhaps
for some,
but that is true of any
Over
profession.
of
in
the manufacture,
our
75,000
countrymen are engaged
In Paris the Grand
sale and tuning of musical instruments.
700 singers,
Opera pays about $500,000 yearly to some
In London
players and -others needed to produce the opera.
alone there are 4,000 men
and women
earning a livelihood as
women
teachers, and
music
figuresto
but they
be
do
sure
supports
show
all able-bodied
the
value
upon
is
whose
men
German
services
imagine what
theatre
As
is
an
Germany
they are
soldiers would
be
of
mate
high estigood music in militaryorganizations.
of
the
worth
the world
if music
as
of music
which
consideration.
These
government evidentlyplaces a
the value
realize
value
10,000 militarymusicians.
commercial
Britain.
its proper
have
than
more
nothing of
prove
there
that should
element
were
our
drum
of
would
taken
own
country has
its band,
play
important
corps
thing it is well
be without
from
an
it
to
Think
try
to
of the
without
THE"
328
thousands
for
good
more
as
music
can
all
be in
and
educator
the artist. It
to
afraid to view
is not
which
land
meaning
that is best
an
be
can
of art
ideal condition
by
eye.
cities with
good
for
schools and
our
to
way
with
nor
commercial
with
orchestra
an
or
band
ing
deep understandof all
large appreciation
with
in his
even
art
of
every member
real musician,one
performers. Not
or
of
going to solve many
to belong to the theoretical
of our
mind
is the practical
is
who
seemed
need
to
great nation
man
practical
It is the
the
will
made
peopleare
and
musicians
of
thousands
need
We
countries.
"MUSIC
OF
THEORY
own
We
art.
and
greater knowledge of
appreciationfor the best thingsthe world offers* We
can
widen
balanced
the
see
have
we
material
must
common
from
underpaid,and
we
whether
their services
awake
are
who
uses
it to best
have
all know
or
the
not
in
our
Americans
when
and
ready to pay
the professionalman
in order
interests
,
work
not
proof
been
showing the
hopes of creating
but of performer.
thing,as a people,
tbe day will come
have
to
have
other
to
community
'
",*
in
of composer
of
will
to
proportion
In
time
for it,and
to
sort of
some
them, in
to
are
is
If not, then
When
our
have
own
the
they
this is true, but again we
peoplewho are paying for
must
we
takes
country that
benefitsreceived,
to the
and
he
advantage. There
professional
peopleof
consider
to
he finds and
great cry
are
the
as
will have
everyday
well
they
their
oneness
But
of
that
way
APPRECIATION
then
Where
the
we
The
family
of
success
good
or
easy
is the smallest
all
bad
the
how
our
is
social
greater than
inculcate
to
can
we
for music
and
when
and
munity
com-
nation then
we
work.
can
it rests the
upon
its influence for
It is then
measure.
of culture should
love
creatinga
each
our
through which
unit,and
and
larger institutions,
the home
so
first medium
is the
home
and
must
of
process
artistic production,
and
possible,now,
Everywhere
If
begin this
to
we
understandingof
desire and
how?
are
329
in
be sown,
and it is
good music in the
his
to waltzes
marches
and
drummed
out
to
his one,
two, three
Such compulsorypractise
means
one, two, three, four.
Rubinstein
said
sufferingfor both child and adult. When
and
far from
to
our
"
"
that America
afflictedwith
was
of it
We
music.
wish
not
have
to
endeavored
it,however, be of
of
poet than
do
the
sane,
rational nature.
adult and
the
The
simple songs
we
child is
and
do
Let
more
lullabys
to
him
in
this
spoken word
the
before
in the
while
has any
language
cradle,and then
it is
reason
OF
THEORY
THE
330
development
of his natural
MUSIC
he
familiar with
become
be
there should
desire for it
no
break
there
as
for
and
so
in the
often is.
The
its
anythingOff the
him
teach
place in
any art
elements
plan of
education,for
his
know
must
one
which
enter
has
of
reallygreat appreciation
somethingof how it is made, of the
into it and of the design or working
a
the creator.
Today good
where
homes
That
music
there
is
great masterpiecesand
well
performed is
musiciaa*
no
The
not
barred
demand
from
for the
play them
has
The
brought about our truly wonderful mechanical music.
to us as a means
of amusement
but now
in
pianolafirst came
its perfectform is a means
also of education. Because you
cannot
follows you are
sing and camtot play it by no means
not
musical.
love and
of many
performer,tmt
de^op *e
to
a*
There
home
yes^
dften
there is
opportunityfor
appreciation.The valtee of a pianolain
fcasinet be
estimated*
no
MacMtte-made
music
is
^feti^lfia^per
cent, better flian ttat often performed
APPRECIATION
homes
in
of
even
artists scoff at
the
of
and
inventions
the
peoples the
of
millions
wealth
331
culture.
which
of
means
greatest composers
Why
then
to
thousands
carry
knowing the
interpretedby
should
and
musical
ations
cre-
the greatest
performers ?
it is true
It caters
to
the taste
of him
who
prefersthe
it also produces the finest
popular songs
be performed upon the piano. And
music which
can
more,
furtherthe two-steps are well played,which cannot
even
always
the
said
when
be
played by
boy or girlwho can read a little
music, can
manipulate the piano keys, and trusts to ear for
and
the
rest.
There
to
two-steps, but
the time
or
that of
wearisome
of
child cannot
excel
be taken
from
order
to
gain
the
time
and
Half
boy
him
her
or
as
studies and
other
knowledge
but
how
they
for
as
and
so
correctlyis
not
read
of dollars spent in
for the art of music?
love
small amount
will
of money
vocallyat sightand
music
that not
so
kept alive
minds
of
to
give the
will teach
only
the technical
senses
beauty
are
going
influence and
school
should
of entertainment.
means
structi
in-
making of the
pleasureswith them, only
towards
the
bring their
them
be such pleasuresas will elevate and create
a
something higher. Music has its placein the home
but
these
that home
course
of all kinds
let
of chorus
hear.
It is true
man,
form
hundreds
of and
listen to
to
but
gratified
be
may
of what
some
enough
or
at least voice
not
spent in learningto do
money
great, while
months
few
are
No
how
matter
desire
just
boisterous the
and
its
one
home
or
mere
enjoyment by
sensuouts
It is
of several homes.
thea, with
ment
of entertain-
form
wiser head
the children
to
guide them,
will rise to
in the home
music
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
332
higher plane,and
the finer
true
world
littlehome
own
opening
God's
man's,
an
art, with
The
or
best is
is the
the child.
our
the
best
If
and
to
can
all less
rugs.
is not
does
some
were
givinghim
we
of
all
creation,whether
is his
what
by right.
homes
life
but
and
through so universal
all its people? By
too
none
where
one
are
you
but
beautiful.
rise
soon
Morns'
we
demand
for
only
rule would
apply equally
tangiblethings than furniture and pictures
or
that
best.
Educators
have
no
taste
faction
to life'ssatislong realized the necessity
of the constant
btt tprtilthe
of
APPRECIATION
333
the
part of
our
schools
the
on
kind
particular
which
however, that
citizen and
seem
feel his
man
our
shall be
follows
which
which
of education
ground
of service in the
their school
life.
struggle
They do ask,
schools
oneness
all mankind
is the very
thing that
be
agent, it has
nature
of
acted
some
men
strengthenedthe
But
these
for music
must
occupy
no
and
overstimulant
an
in that way
for
the
has weakened
emotional
instead of
will power.
objectionsare
in the
overcome
tion,
publicinstruc-
wiselydirected and
instruction.
as
must
It is not
make
boys and
for
music instruction,
musicians
for
of
our
is
orchestral playersor
make
to
not
copiesof song-books;it
of
pianos,and
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
334
and
school orchestra
It is here
attention.
in the home
as
powerfulagency
in
the
somewhat
of music, but
study
practical
of the
slow
to
leading
sciences,language and
today
our
literature.
the child
History to
youth means
accordingto
justso
or
his
of
picture
facts
many
inclinations,
own
life. The
history
the studies
included among
have always included it,and now
of the child,but colleges
musical education,the study of
that they also offer a practical
of
art for
an
is seldom
this reason
Its value
to greaterappreciation.
historyof music is a means
lies in its abilityto establish a close relation between
the
student
and
He
work.
art
is
through sympatheticpower
able to enter
all he is not
so
far removed
from
them,
to
developmentthroughthe
Musical
courses
so
as
is in
theory
it treats of music
way
from
scientificstandpoint,
and
value
as
unlike
not
mathematics. The trainingof
discipline
not
however, was
considered a proper
singersand players,
part of collegecourses, but with a fuller realization of the
part music is to play in the developmentof our country came
added courses, includingperformance. Historic and theoretical
mental
studies
how
are
necessary,
to listen to music, and
surelyand correctly
as
know
so
nothingwill givethis ability
knowledgeof the technics of music
APPRECIATION
Then, too,
giving
musician
be
to
it.
It
It is
making
to
class of
unbalanced
mind
The
of
and
musical
business
ties
collegeauthoriwill expect
we
well
as
vocal
or
balanced
critic,composer
man
or
former.
per-
practical
thingof music that is going
musicians
and of music, that is going to
a
the
people and
the
that in time
educated
specialtyis that
whose
of music
and
university
means
well
given in instrumental
the standard
the consideration
by
are
is
335
grows
that music
as
are
of
sort
study weakens
of the student
power
by what it is fed upon, and
the habitual
great
reach
of
mass
cannot
our
nor
churches, colleges,
We
but
other
arts, and
music
without
It would
in
publicschools,through
to them
easier than
to appeal to
possible
and
to the coarse
resorting
be madness
to
expect
districts of
slum
concert
in the technics
it is
of the
some
interest them
cannot
system of education.
through the
even
can
we
our
them
We
theatre.
people in
all
hall and
of
an
any
art,
of the
peoplethrough
gross.
to reach a park audience
our
art
true
art
have
of Bach's
one
which
or
when
reaches
to
are
been crushed
No
the
one
can
masses
be, we
deal with
by
is art worth
do make
a
an
while.
However
peoplewhose
finer instincts
good
derived
from
the
hour
and
them
lives about
be worth
the
greater, and
the
while.
most
successful settlement
so
and
MUSIC
and
struggles
and
cares
OF
THEORY
THE
336
greatest and
workers
bringingabout
and
feelingof responsibility
they deal.
whom
peopleswith
of the
closer relationship
There
free
pleasurewe
enjoyinga common
the music seems
of people. And
with equal charm.
one
They
their
sway
subdue
desire
emotions
under
to drink
hum
all ages
to appealto each and every
it is true,
differently
rhythm, others attempt to
listen
but
along;
in the charm,
of
the
to
those
who
have
their
and quietly,
ing
seemintently
beings
to be
an
bodies
to
at
There
concert.
some
and
no
overrun
by
the
with the
ennoblingeffect of
is
Many a working man
attracted to the wholesome
atmosphereof a park by the band
music.
Many a laborer takes his wife and children along in
the evening to one
of the neighboring
parks,and thus the
wife who
has been toiling
in close rooms
all day, and the
children who have been playingon dusty streets,get out into
the open air where the sky forms a big,wide canopy, and the
must
grass
husband, removed
from
And
the
the degradinginfluence of his usual
around
him
realizationof his
appreciation
and unconsciously
he longs to do
life,
better. And havingenjoyed these pleasures
together,
having
been stirred at the same
time and by the same
to a
cause
for
the
better
of
side
husband and wife leave the
craving
life,
for what
is better in
APPRECIATION
park with
family is
happier hearts
and
And
337
nobler
ideals and
their little
parks
can
attractive that
be made
so
they will call many peopletogether,
and call them
togetheroften, the amount
of money
expended
authorities
for
the
such
music
and
for beautifying
city
by
the
selections and
the second
part to be
Mater.
Stabat
patientlythrough
Add
to
the
accustomed
park
seated and
intermission of
is down
waited
one
hour.
the crowded
near
nationalities,and
that
an
admission
fee of
ten
cents
was
can
hall,and no thinkingman
say that music does not hold a high placein the hearts of the
people. These band concerts in parksare not only affording
the people happy hours of recreation but they are educating
the peopleto a love for good music, and are therefore one
concert
the student
songs
present with
of
generations
the
connectinglink
join the generationsof the
the past. The collegesongs
form
they
each
between
class but
of each
members
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
338
lower
dignityof
the
sing in
the
mass
but
position,
meetings,and
the
his
And
at
he and
real live
professorcan
his students
will be all
banquet,when
graygraduates who have just
but
at first,
a bit stiffly
run
the -alumni
with the
boys meet
received their degreesthings may
haired
old
let
some
start
one
and
goblets,
"
dancing
composed
handed
chorus.
for the
These
people,by
ballads
the
or
are
folk-songs
people themselves,and
songs
were
artificialmusic
of the
Ballads sprang
flitted from
from
the
mom
the
tf $*$ i^"mn'$
sptesh
simple classes of
and
forgotten.
APPRECIATION
the whir
339
the
spinningwheel, and they lightened
of the
labor
and nature
seemed
to aid these
plowman in the field,
simple singers in their song, for the folk-songimitates the
of the bird, the whisper of the trees, the roar
of
song
of the
of the stream.
the storm, and the murmurs
The soul of the
through these simple songs and afforded
peasant breathed
the
him
to
pleasurethat the bird seems
the
in
From
similarity the ballads
same
lilt
musical
Greece, and
France,
people their
songs
know
we
lay and
how
what
of
England,
comfort
have
find in his
and
solace
they
wanderer, and
solitary
in the home, the village
what
an
unifyingpower they were
games, and at festivals and publicgatherings.
labor;the work
Every one knows how singinglightens
must
of
hands
the
sing to
or
of the
the motions
countries
at
body.
half
And
stages of
man
reveals to
civilization,
the
aesthetic
or
tive
primi-
by
signs that
many
the utility
of music in dailylife
as
us
useful art
than
more
an
as
one.
as
more
of the
rowers
The music
song, and then all join in the chorus.
stimulates their sluggishnatures and helpsthem to overcome
begin the
stream
easilyand
regular accents,
increased
under
cheerful frame
boateien
negro
and
the
In this way
long distance
up a rapid
quicklycovered,the strokes fall with
a
as
The
used
Much
is
tiegroes
different songs
to
accompany
theif work
the
same
put
war
in the fields.
of a planta|j|"teresqtieness
tion
every
of
The
vibratingmelodious
notes
the cotton
of the
scene.
among
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
340
listener
darkies
hearer, but
not
to the workers.
the song meant
easy it is to be carried along by a
hands, feet and head involuntarily
guessed what
how
knows
Everybody
the
the music
lasts.
of
some
of
originof
the
Just what
unknown, but
darkies' song
the southern
is,is
of them bear
many
tribes.
the African
Without
doubt
singing
harvestingit was
generationto the
somewhat
idlyno
repeatedand
other.
doubt
The
handed
so
text
down
from
one
mind,
occupiedthe singer's
because it
was
so
Nor
it necessary
that every worker sing.
being created to be heard by all
was
of the
singerstired,
others who
had been silent took up the song, and by the
freshness of their voices infused new
vigor into the tiring
limbs.
Sometimes
hired by plantation
singerswere
owners
furnish instrumental
music at a harvesting
to sing or
time.
The
noted for the rhythm of their
are
now
even
negroes
music; they have a perfect ear for accent, and all their
melodies are clearly
marked
by a well defined rhythm* And
this characteristic so essential to good music condones for
of the shortcomingswhich their melodies
many
display.
may
Among the tribes of Africa the drum plays a very
importantpart; drums are used to call the men to arms, to a
dance, or
to
sound
trained to know
an
some
alarm, and
these sounds
every
negro
that he makes
no
is
so
well
mistake
in
APPRECIATION
them.
distinguishing
drum
and
we
so
beat with
all their
make
can
only do
as
Not
341
might
biggest
the
and
'tis a
noise.
of
case
It is
seeingwhich
well-known
side
fact
in
which
made
"
Small
won.
the
his foe
to
following the
wonder
bigger noise
flight.For
noisier
then
often
the
drum-beats
warriors
had
who
their head
at
under
advanced
impetus
thus
been
naturally
powerful
inspired
ness
and by the fierceproved to be the fiercest fighters,
of their onslaught drove their enemy
to flight.The
usefulness of musical instruments among
savages as signals
in battle has always been recognized. By the use
of certain
signalsthe army is told the positionof their chief duringa
battle,or whether to scatter and shoot from ambuscade, or to
in a body upon the enemy.
advance
The Swiss herdsman
his Alpine horn as much
for
uses
told that herdsmen
and we
as he does for pleasure,
are
signaling
soldiers
'Tis
pipesto call the cattle home.
upon
fact that animals
readily obey signalsof
play
known
Circus
the
to
the
men
trainingof
certain tunes
tune
as
their animals.
movement
The
very
animals
music.
great factor in
learn to
the music
else do it very
the animals
seeming spiritless.
value of music in the
practical
and
So
in camps
The
well-
perform
and learn easily,
but they depend wholly upon
guide and a stimulus. This is shown by the
forms
and
important a part
does
in cheeringthe soldiers
army
music
on
cannot
play
be
in
the line of
estimated.
over-
drilling,
march,
that
one
may
of the
hands
than
bugle
the various
of
meaning
lies in the
the army
say the destiny of
bugle,the fife and the drum-players.
almost
One
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
342
calls.
The
calls
are
the
of signalsis more
and the number
of army
discipline
of the alphabet. The
bugle sounds
twice the number
which
instrument
depended
are
use
to
may
Under
any other
of the country
the
so
inspiration
sary
neces-
stimulatingeffect of
face
or
he
when
cold, and
with
comes
face
of the
physicaland mental
the march
and
unmindful
heat, or
drum
be the custom
furnish the
to
upon
livelyrhythmic march
on
line of march
the
to
been
made
does
arrive at the
new
he is not as
enemy,
strain as he would have
the
without
music.
And
camp,
or
conscious
been
good drum
had
and
it is safe to
soldier
by
had
can
say
recall
been forced
some
drum.
the
APPRECIATION
Nor
can
during
time
war
strain
the
of
much
too
cheer
to
the soldiers
cheered
No
on.
composed
one
hear
can
the
words
give
we
343
Not
ing
catchbut its
The
which
the Civil War
called forth were
of
songs
inestimable value during those hard years of struggle and
the line of march
on
in camp,
suffering. Whether
the
or
the
songs
emotions.
soldiers
became
them
safety-valvefor pent-up
For
they found expressionfor their longings
for home, their hope for success
in battle,and
from
they gathered cheer to carry them on to deeds of heroism.
The
solace which
sang
in them
night
bravery by
at
and
conveyed, and
these songs
just
was
the
furnished the
valuable
as
comfort
and
just as
was
the
necessary
heart-sick soldiers
militarydiscipline
sympathy their words
to
to
the
the drum
as
were
corps or the buglers.
army
the hearts of the soldiers closer together and
violent
sometimes
and
the real
Music
to
passionsto thoughtsof
of
success
home
the
They brought
turned
and
of
their
try
coun-
for which
theywere fighting.
shipers
was
undoubtedly earlyemployed in aiding worhad
approach their deityor deities. Before man
cause
evil potency
counteract
sacred
songs
crude, shows
ancient
and
of
by
means
instrumental
music,
influence
plainlythe spiritual
Hebrews
knew
the power
of praise,
or
well
The
of music.
of
historyof
no
matter
how
of
music.
The
music, and
the
is
There
church,
Protestant
or
deny
the
and
in
choir
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
344
joy
mystery,
of
charm,
which
Music
sensitive
defined
man
religiousnatures
ideas
Infinite,
they
see
and
nor
do
truly a
their
hear
in nature
divination
for
feelings
so
with
an
which
in
are
have
and
concerning God
of
divinity
feel the
to.
those
are
natures
same
they try
pictureor
not
schisms
or
yet these
us
his
no
love
well-
for
express
their
feelings
deep, so
real,so
of the real truth in life that they accept
Their
idea and
sculpturedmarble
It may
music.
never
must
stand
are
so
A
try to analyzethem.
represent a definite idea,
for
but it usuallyexpresses
A few
only a mood,
suggest sadness, melancholy,darkness,
may
tenderness,a simpleconfidingfaith,daintiness,
humilityand
but when
supplication;
major chords are sounded the ear
fearlessness,
quicklycatches tones that express strength,
joyThe
vivacity,
major tones may express
brilliancy.
ousness,
of hope, of courage, not the
a prayer, but it will be a prayer
prayer of a crushed, wailingspirit,
Although the music of the church in early times was
its value in the
very simple, yet Gregory the Great knew
church
service and
collected and
elaborated the
diligently
the composer,
chords
minor
music
then extant
and
great reformer, so
in
religious
APPRECIATION
services that he
their
language. Up
own
in
been
had
music
the
gave
Latin, and
we
to this
if
we
text
with
proof of
people had
the
hymns
and
for
By
in
hymns
the power
of
been stirred,
church
to them.
unintelligible
was
the words
needed
satisfiedwith
and
spiritualized
whose
people hymns
rightthere,for
it
have
345
song
ices
serv-
of his
means
Luther
the hearts
if he had
than
the
of his hearers
old
had
to
relyupon
Latin
with
hymns
more
readilyand more
convincingly
the spoken word, or had used
Tis
texts.
have
no
spoken word.
and
oration
"
audience
An
will listen to
as
of
My
soon
Fourth
strike up
audience
up the
finished the introduction.
has
July
longs to
melody as
And
they'll
sing with all their might even though they may not know all
that this is often
the words
a disgraceto the Americans
('tis
true, but it is a fact) and though they may be compelledto
hum
along or repeat stanzas. It is the strains of the wedding
march
that
much
more
makes
the
knows
how
multitude
Sousa
are
useless,and
ones
can
or
start
people who
a
the
sad, mournful
tears,
to
march
there
waste
how
the
all the
argue
of time.
music
can
measures
move
of
a
a
whole
tuneful
whistlers a-whistling,and
that
These
music
same
is
impractical,
people are the
who
never
go
gain in dollars and cents. Such men
ball game; they can't spare the time,or else think it is
They don't know what it feels like to shut up
visible
to
ish*
fooltheir
desk
2:30
at
and
To
shout, to
good view of
go
rise to
their business
but it must
business
For
Now
a
joy
conducive
are
good
so
ought
can
himself.
excess.
game, but he
find time for an
for
that he
be carried to
not
to
and
good
it
is
arouses
they
arouse
in them
and
The
his business
so
rejuvenate
from
care
longevity.
men
and
of
women
healthy,wholesome
joy
as
And
pleasurableemotions.
get
and healthy,
stimulating
can't neglecthis
A man
to manage
better
far
walks, make
games,
to
your
whether
recreations,
our
onlookers
and
occasional game
cheer and a freedom
health and
music
emotional
game;
good
boys again.
forget themselves
like play again.
so
is
the
looks
world
be
park and
the
that
joyousnessof
to the ball
over
difficult play, to
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
346
music,
ever
whenin life.
from
business long
actuallycannot
get away
enough to indulge in any form of recreation,and for such
it is very fortunate if they have within them the power
men
Some
men
of
appreciating
good music.
or
any
who
man
and rest in
both
then
certs,
enjoy park conin the theatre or concert hall,the pianola
the concert
other instrument they have in their own
homes.
Many
soothed
can
comes
a
They
by
from
the music.
ing
Perhaps while playmg,or listen-
of his
he too has
familyplaying,
his business,he too has been a boy again,or
of happy memories.
caught again the inspiration
to
some
The
and
the
member
gotten
forhas
cannot
is acknowledged by physicians,
heads of institutions
therapeutics
for incorrigibles
and criminals and by physicians
in
.chargeof asylums for the insane* Maiatyexperimentshave
been tried in,this field,
and their results have bten watched
with interest and recorded ; but music as a healing
power has
as
a
yet produced
so
be
regardedas
science*
thbugh-it is believed by weJWcnown doctors ttrat its
in treatpg diseases warrants
systematic
APPRECIATION
Just how
the
music
is not
body
works
upon
347
known;
or
duced
in-
are
the
combination
both
the
of
nerve
and
a
condition
is such
of
disorder,it may
that it harmonizes
We
bodilyorgans.
know
Music
nervous
is
breakdowns
There
nerves.
caused
is
by
questionas
no
it has
delirious cases;
depressionand
been known
to
to
of
venting
pre-
overworked
induce
in
freshing
healthyre-
the
seems
nervous
of medicine.
It is
well-known
refreshingstimulant
and
acts
as
depressed
nervous
music
tends to weaken
upon
the
muscles
them
further.
stfll
Js similar to
The
effect of
the
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
348
disputethe effect
condition
through
of
person,
mind, does
the
relation
correct
body
not
of music
to
no
age
will
one
the
upon
physical
directly,or
acts
nearly so
matter
remains
now
and
music
whether
so
It
act.
day
condition
of the mental
in this
but
investigate;
still to
has
much
as
the
be obtained.
that the best results may
individual
theorists affirm "that
every
and
in order
Some
constitutional
has
key-note,which
itself,
just as an edifice trembles to sounds in its own
ticular
parbe
key. Hence, health of body and of soul may
promoted by properly adapted music, for if the individuars
key-note can be discovered,music that is in harmony with
and
his organism may
be found
to suit his case
produce
to
healthful results."
for
one
person
may
not
agree
with
that is nutritious
another; medicine
trouble
disorder,may not relieve that same
in all persons, and so with music, not all music affects all
and the individuality
of the patientas well
people similarly,
his malady must
be studied and the music must
be wisely
as
selected and skilfully
appliedin order to reader it useful as
The Egyptianswere
the firstnation to
a therapeutic
agent
ascribe healingqualities
to music; and the Persians were
said
which
to
some
cures
various
cure
diseases
by the sound
of
corresponding
the lute.
stringupon
Physicians managing
wholesome
cases
can
In many
effect of music
insane
on
their
asylums all
and
patients,
men
become
aad
to
the
innumerable
attest
interested in their
women
have
been
cheered
to
smile
taciturn,stolid
surroundings;
been moved
to
speech and
to
tears, a
APPRECIATION
healthful
very
have
been
sign with
such
patients.Insane patientswho
benefited by music usuallyrespond to
and
roused
its
repeatedstimulus and
left the hospitalcured.
the inmates
among
349
of
after musical
The
results of
certain
treatment
asylum
musical
show
have
many
treatment
that about
one-
third of the
improved by
the
to
benefit at
natural
It is believed
all.
love
before
for music
that
it
can
patientmust
be made
sympathies.
effect of
The wholesome, regenerative
accord
with
the
of
derive
to
music
no
have
his
rouse
when
made
the
patientsis fully
ist.
acknowledged and appreciatedby Dr. Drapes, an Irish alienHe
Nothing cheers these patientsor helps them
says,
ports
forgettheir troubles in an equal degree to music. It trans-
to
temperament
"
the
regionfor the time being,removes
cloud of depression,
excitement,
grief,tranquilizes
assuages
ill effect. The
and
rarely,if ever, produces the slightest
of the insane is, and
positionof music in the treatment
ought to be, a high one, and its importancecan hardly be
exaggerated."
them
In
to another
1891
in London
later in New
and
York
musical
formed
for the purpose
guildscalled St. Cecilia Guilds were
music to inmates of asylums and infirmaries.
of furnishing
The
music
to be appliedunder the supervisionof the
was
physicians.Many good results are recorded of the services
of these guilds,
but owing to a lack of financial support both
guilds failed
to
maintain
music
has
vicious children
and
That
all who
were
deal with
studied
more
children of mankind
themselves.
influence
softeningand refining
all unfortunate
it to be.
have yet known
It has been the aim of this chapterto cite
than
over
more
tical
prac-
we
of music, to
uses
practical
pastime for idle moments,
prove
nor
that music
is its
some
is not
of the
merely
excited
dreamers
of
of
and
poor.
and
mother's
the
have
to
come
Parents
story.
understand
as
it
well
be
ask
moral
is
love
to
the
is
quotation,
practical
to
him,
spiritual
and
life.
it
is
it
rose,
is
the
is
the
It
that
akin
their
to
what
cannot
which
his
to
good
value
music.
helps
of
him
standard.
the
of
It
song
have
helps
to
is
market
make
to
music,
would
child,"
in
help
the
value,
life
worth
to
as
man
perfume
it
it
art,
tual,
intellec-
the
bird,
to
almost
makes
what
good
in
higher
his
them
might
Each
is
and
friendship
realize
to
the
One
value
the
parents
beautiful
and
practical
toward
of
pleasure
music.
or
scholar.
music
to
its
tion
inspira-
interpret
to
creates
nation,
to
children
is
what
painting
poetry,
ennobles
happier,
enjoy
to
what
is
what
ask
owe
and
whether
it
an
if
meaning
be
and
technicalities,
to
deeper
would
music
good
in
delight
happier,
and
them
help
day
in
betterment
the
better,
to
time
less
devote
toward
in
invalid,
the
reflective
the
unifying
tend
children
guide
would
understood
were
of
the
young,
child
the
solace
to
toward
happier,
of
the
element
mind
is
and
peasant
tend
sleep
to
cares
it
joy,
and
peace
lulls
the
forget
that
would
teachers
and
is
all
and
refining
disordered
the
old
by
enjoyed
it
home,
man
music
If
race.
life
to
common
socializing,
soothes
people
its
making
the
as
ignorant
things
all
And
in
of
atmosphere
to
acts
busy
the
and
loved
It
and
arms
makes
an
in
passion
one
language,
common
world,
the
community
it
is
Music
rich
whose
men
"
music.
nations
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
350
is
is
what
beyond
while.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SELECTED
Anweisung
Albrechtsberger, J. G.
of
Methods
Harmony,
Figured
"
zur
Base
Composition.
and
Composition.
2 vols.
Alibrandi, Gio.
di Musica
Manuale
"
all'uso
degli insegnanti
alunni.
ed
Manual
A
Baker, Theodore
Oscar
sequel to Professor
Interludes ;
Banister, H. C.
of
Counterpoint forming
Paul's Manual
of Harmony.
"
"
the
1891
years
Lectures
and
delivered
between
1897.
Musical
on
lectures
seven
Analysis.
Music.
The
of
lating
modulating; a series of papers on moduto the pianoforte.
The
Harmonizing of Melodies.
Relation
of Psychology to Music.
E. F.
Bartholomew,
Basevi, Abramo
Studj Sull 'Armonia.
Der Contrapunkt.
Bellermann, Hemrich
Treatise
A
Modern
Instrumentation
on
Berlioz, Hector
art
"
"
"
"
and
Orchestration.
T,
Bertenshaw,
H.
"
Elements
Rhythm,
"Counterpoint,
of
Music,
Analysis and
Harmony
Muskal
Form,
exercises.
H.
M,
"
Trait^ "fHarmoafe,
3 vols.
and
with
Blaserna, Pietro
OF
THEORY
THE
352
Theory
The
"
of
MUSIC
in its Relation
Sound
to
.Music.
"
"
"
of Music,
Rudiments
Broadhouse, John
Broekhoven, J. A.
Pupil.
Broomfield,W. R.
Musical
"
"
System
The
"
Acoustics.
of
Harmony
for Teacher
and
Music.
Brown,
P,
J.
Intervals,Chords
"
and
Ear
Training for
pianofortestudents,
A companion to the Thoroughbass Primer.
Burrowes, J. F.
A Grammar
of Music.
Busby, Thomas
dans
La Musique Simplifiee
throne
sa
et
Busset, F. C.
dans son
enseignement.
Musikalische Forrnenlehre.
Bussler,Ludwig
Manuale
di Armenia,
Casamorata, L. F.
A Treatise on Harmony.
Catel,C. S.
Challoner, Robert
History of the Science and Art of
young
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Music.
The Theory of Music.
Chev"",fimile
A Treatise on Counterpoint
and Fugue.
Cherubini,L.
de Compositiondes ficoles
Choron, Alexandre
Principes
"
"
"
d'ltalie.
A Manual
Clarke,Hamilton
of Orchestration,
Clarke,H. A.
Strict and Free.
Counterpoint,
Harmony on the Inductive Method.
The Elements of Vocal Harmony,
La Musique,
Colomb, Casimir
The Orchestra and How
Corder,F.
to Write for It.
The Theory and Practise of Musical Form,
Cornell,J* R
"
"
"
"
"
SELECTED
Crotch, William
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elements
"
of
the rules of
tuning.
Crowest, F. J.
Musical
"
of musical
form
and
353
Musical
Composition, comprehending
thoroughbass and the theory of
Groundwork
being a
first manual
history.
to Observe
Curwen, John
Harmony, with exercises
in analysis.
Musical
Theory. 5 books.
The
12 parts.
Commonplaces of Music.
Staff Notation; a practicalintroduction on
The
the
Tonic
of teachingMusic.
Sol-fa Method
How
"
Sol-fa.
Tonic
Dannreuther, E.
Davenport,E.
Ornamentation.
Musical
"
Elements
"
of
Harmony
Mathis
Lussy,
"
and
parts.
Counterpoint.
Histoire
de
la
tion
Nota-
Musicale.
A Treatise
Day, Alfred
Lehre vom
Dehn, S. W.
Fugue.
Music
Dibdin, Charles
"
"
Harmony.
Contrapunkt
on
dem
Canon
und
der
Epitomized; a school-book; in
which the whole science of music is completelyexplained,
from
the simplestrudiments
to the most
ciples
complex prinof Harmony.
and
Basses
Melodies, for students of
Dunstan, Ralph
Harmony.
Dyckerhoff, Wilhelm
Compositions-Schule. 2 vols.
The Ethics of Music.
Eastman, Edith V.
The
Elson, L, C.
Theory of Music, as appliedto the
teaching and practiseof voice and instruments.
Elements of Harmony.
Emery, S. A.
et
"ementaire
M"hode
et abregee d'Harmonie
F"is, F. J.
d'Accompagnement
to understand
Music explained to the word; or how
Music and enjoy its performance.
Trait"" complet de la theorie et de la pratiquede 1'Har-y/
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
monie.
Trait6 du
contrepointet de la fugue.
Fuchs, Carl
sein
des musikalischcn
Zukunft
Die
"
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
354
Vortrages und
Ursprung.
"
"
cation
Forchestre.
Gladstone,F. E.
Gleich, Ferdinand
rung.
Glyn, M. H.
Handbuch
"
der
modernen
Instrument!-
The
"
Harmony.
Five-Part
"
Goddard, Joseph
"
expressionof Music.
Philosophy of Music*
The
'
Goldbeck,
Robert
The
"
and
Art
Science of Music
Musical
Science Primer
in three
in
fifty-
lessons.
three
'CompleteMusical Analysis.
a
Language, or The Meaning of Musical
Goodrich, A. J.
"
Music
as
Sounds.
Goss,
Sir
Gow, G.
John
C.
Musical
Grimm,
F.
An
"
essay
on
The
Composition.
A Simple Method
C. W.
Hadow, W*
Harmony
Structure of Music,
Notation and Harmony,
The
"
on
Graham, G.
Introduction to
An
"
H.
"
an
oughbass.
Thor-
book
elementarytext-
Theory and
of Modern
Practise of
Harmony.
Sonata Form.
"
Hanchett, H. G.
and
The
"
Hanslick, Eduard
The
"
guide to the
Beautiful in Music.
"
"
"
Practise of Music.
SELECTED
Helmholtz,
H.
L.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
F.
On
"
355
Sensations
the
of
Tone
as
"
"
"
Holden, John
An
"
Essay
towards
Rational
System
of
Music.
Horsley,C. E.
Horsley, William
"
Text-Book
An
"
of
Harmony.
Introduction
to
the
Study
of practical
Rudiments
Jadassohn, S.
Fugue.
A
of Musical
"
Manual
of Musical
Manual
of
Johnson, W.
Form.
Musical
The
decorative
The
Klauser, J.
tonal system.
"
Pitch
the ancient
and
the Measurement
of
Greeks.
dlnstrumentation.
"
Kling, H*
and
terpoint.
simple,double, tripleand quadruple coun-
"
"
Canon
Harmony.
Intervals among
Cours
Kastner, G.
Kitson, C. H.
on
in Instrumentation.
of instruction
course
of
instruction
of
course
Manual
as
Grammar.
and
Counterpoint
principle.
Art of
septonate and
the
its
application
centralization of
the
Populate Instrumentations-lehre.
"
E.
Krehbiel, H.
How
"
to
gestions
sug-
Kullak,Adolph"
"
The
"
"
books.
Logier,J. B.
and
"
Practical
Composition.
356
THEORY
THE
Lowe, C. E.
Lussy, Mathis
Rhythme
Expression.
Le
"
Musical
Macfarren, G.
The
in Harmonics.
Lessons
"
A.
Six
"
Harmony.
with progressiveexercises.
on
Harmony
Elements
"
Musical.
Lectures
of
Rudiments
McLaughlin, J. M.
MUSIC
OF
Notation
and
of Music.
Le Principeessential de THarmonie.
Marchand, Alexandre
Marx, A. B.
Theory and Practise of Musical Composition.
"
"
The
W.
Mathews,
S. B.
Primer
How
"
Musical
of
Typical Forms
Metcalf, E.
D.
Italian of Antonio
to understand
Forms;
of Modern
Treatise
"
of Music.
School
Universal
on
music.
2 vols.
systematicview
of
the
Music,
the
Reicha.
"
"
"
"
"
The
Elements
A Manual
of Harmony.
Paul, Oscar
Harmonie-Lehre.
Piel,P.
The Philosophyof Music.
Pole,William
Prout, Ebenezer
strict and free.
Counterpoint;
Harmony; its theoryand practise.
"
"
"
"
Instrumentation.
Raymond, G. L.
Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and
Music, togetherwith Music as a representative
Art.
A treatise on The Science of Music.
Reeves, D. M. G. S.
"
"
SELECTED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
What
is Music?
Rice, I. L.
of Harmony;
Manual
Richter, E. F.
357
"
practical
guide
"
to
its
study.
Reissmann, August
Allgemeine Musiklehre.
der Musikalischen Komposition.3
Lehrbuch
Riemann, Hugo
Neue
Handbuch
"
Schule
Musikalische
vols.
der Harmonielehre.
der Melodik.
Logik.
Syntaxis.
Musikalische
E. A,
Robbinrs,
"
American
Method
of
Harmony.
Manual
Ruelle, C. E.
d'Harmonique.
Old
Saunders, Gordon
Examples in Strict Counterpoint,
"
"
"
and
New.
Savard, Augustin
"
"
"
Stainer,John
Composition.
hundred
one
Harmony; including
"
Treatise
on
and
Harmony
exercises.
the
Classification of
chords.
Statham, H. H,
Stone, W.
The
H*
Form
"
Sound
"
and
and
Design in
Music.
Music.
ScientificBasis of Music.
Tappert, Wilhelm
"
Tartini,Giuseppe
"
The
"
Studien.
Melodien.
Wandernde
Taylor,John
Musikalische
Traite des
Agr"nens
Student's Text-Book
de la
Musique.
of The
Science of
Music.
Sound
Taylor,Sedley
"
The
and Music.
Science of Music
; or
the
harmony.
ThSbaut, A, F.
Purityin Music.
First Steps in
Vernham, J* E,
basis of musical
physical
"
"
Melodies*
the
Harmonization
of
358
Vernon,
M.
the
to
Vining,
natural
H.
S.
C.
of
Contributions
K.
temperament
creation.
Music.
of
Wherefores
and
Whys
Musical
of
Laws
the
dissonance
"
Wead,
of
Analogy
"
MUSIC
OF
THEORY
THE
Musical
of
History
the
to
"
Scales.
Weber,
Godfrey
Weber,
H.
for
Text-Book
Composition.
Musical
of
Theory
"
of
Study
the
vols.
Harmony.
"
Weitzmann,
C.
of
Manual
Weitzmann's
Bowman's
F.
"
Musical
Theory.
Rudolph
Westphal,
der
Theorie
Allgemeine
"
Musikalischer
Rhythmik.
System
Antiken
der
Wohlfahrt,
Rhythmik.
Heinrich
Guide
Composition.
Musical
to
"
Woodbury,
I.
B.
The
of
elements
Musical
Composition
"
Thoroughbass.
and
Woolhouse,
W.
S.
B.
Essay
"
and
Wiierst,
the
Richard
Musical
on
of
temperament
the
Elementartheorie
Die
monics,
Har-
Intervals,
scale.
musical
der
Musik
und
"
Lehre
Wylde,
Zahm,
Ziehn,
den
von
The
Henry
J.
Accorden.
of
evolution
the
Beautiful
in
"
A.
Sound
Music.
and
"
Bernhard
Harmonie-und
Modulations-lehre.
"
Zoeller,
Carli
Zundel,
John
The
Art
of
Modulation.
"
Treatise
"
on
Harmony
and
Modulation.
Sound.
die