Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HISTORY
OF
INDIAN
PHILOSOPHY
of
of
all
people,
threads
with
time,
apertures
new
like
knowledge
minds
the
of
the
through
links
who
He,
May
of
garland
flowers,
be
pleased
thread
this
to
though
accept
of
offered,
thought,
Eastern
my
it
be
small,
with
the
devotion.
greatest
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
INDIAN
BY
DASGUPTA,
SURENDRANATH
PROFESSOR
OF
SANSKRIT,
IN
LECTURER
GOVERNMENT
BENGALI
IN
COLLEGE,
THE
UNIVERSITY
VOLUME
Ph.D.,
MA.,
CHITTAGONG,
OF
BENGAL,
CAMBRIDGE
r^"3
Zl-
CAMBRIDGE
AT
THE
UNIVERSITY
1922
PRESS
UNIVERSITY
CAMBRIDGE
C.
LONDON
NEW
CLAY,
F.
Manager
LANE,
FETTER
CALCUTTA
MADRAS
TORONTO
MACMILLAN
AND
MACMILLAN
THE
CANADA,
Ltd.
RIGHTS
IN
OREAT
CO.,
CO.
MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
ALL
fc"tN7ED
CO.
BOMBAY
TOKYO
E.C.
MACMILLAN
THE
YORK
PRESS
RESERVED
8RITAIN.
Ltd.
OF
TO
HIS
LAWRENCE
EARL
RONALDSHAY,
OF
it
AND
please
The
some
in
the
by
me
which
the
Convocation
in the
of
advantage
with
name
The
work
is
an
problems
That
often
both
find
be
what
is
humble
do
work
of
uniting
gradually accomplished
through
The
best
your
of the
are
great
in
each
may
is
in
even
already begun
Excellency
ancient
country.
after
ideals
remain,
of
those
identical
which
to
the
more
is
be
very
in various
your
return
esteem.
Loyally
spiritof
see
that
tasks
for
omen
can
aid
measure
this
and
of
if this
happy
may
country
sincerely yours,
SURENDRANATH
the
thinkers.
Excellency,
and
of
the
of India.
your
take
to
appreciation
ways
to
With
Europe
very
small
become
other's
with
mutual
shall
we
each
India
to
thought
auspicious
an
letters
European
realise
holding
and
the
still holds
with
the
Excellency's
thought
often
they
volume
process
This
of
wish
your
present
should
that
and
to
kind
work.
this
deepest respect
West
future.
only
East
of
attempt
identical
of
associating
it is studied
more
are
mark
its best.
at
the
and
India,
the
as
India
in
with
already
therefore
of Indian
the
honour
thus
composition
opportunity
study
subsequent
has
name
Calcutta,
from
the
in your
permission,
this volume
present
Ancient
and
this
and
honoured
kind
I had
that
of
going through
by
to
delivered
remember
ever
work
my
the
of the
received
suggested
University
shall
that
in
with
connected
the
first
Excellency
special need
occasions,
Excellency's
your
BENGAL.
was
your
students.
Excellency's
peculiarly
UNIVERSITY
OF
work
of
conversations
various
on
Your
the
showed
you
this
which
encouragement
that
manuscript,
me.
address
Indian
by
gratitude
you
at
GOVERNOR
writing
emphasised
you
philosophy
with
of
idea
ago
THE
THE
OF
Excellency,
your
Rectorial
years
interest
CHANCELLOR
CALCUTTA
G.C.I.E.,
DUNDAS,
LUMLEY
JOHN
OF
May
EXCELLENCY
DASGUPTA.
this
sent
reprething
some-
ON
NOTE
OF
PRONUNCIATION
THE
SANSKRIT
TRANSLITERATED
AND
almost
pronounced
vowels
The
WORDS
PALI
the
in
same
are
Italian,
in
of
that
ft
of
in
a
cerebrals,
except
correspond;
t,
t/i,
dk,
dentals;
dy
/,
church
in
kk,
almost
d,
n
gh,
the
sounds
simple
is
the
an
French
is
gn;
ri%
as
sh.
and
s,
as
jh,
plus
are
aspiration;
ch"
pure
are
bh
ph,
dhy
army.
cy
English
which
to
as
ch
English,
in
as
are
th,
that
a
are
d,
approaches
of
and
but,
in
or
consonants
sound
the
bond
in
o
The
that
except
as
way
usually
pronounced
PREFACE
old
THE
sided
civilisation
the
science
far
so
philosophy.
It
practical and
theoretical
amidst
unity
It
produced.
of
of
this
It is
the
law
of the
India
The
events
the
like
of
India
is
of this
countries.
It
is therefore
who
to
appreciate
has
that
therefore
should
empires
India
is to
be
obedience
superior
as
to
done
thing
every-
very
indispensably
should
properly
become
of the
estimate
of its
But
it is not
more
and
that
more
has
Indians
all those
the
round
Much
harm
other
the
It is
peoples
teristics
charac-
true
form
the
that
abstract.
as
and
history
nucleus
and
with
thought
other
from
opinions
well
acquainted
and
potentialities of
of
as
it is
progress
grown.
dreamy
was
affected
for
the
is
mere
passivity of
borrow
and
circulation
India
political
understand
which
in India
these
creative
necessary
significance
political
of her
may
the
of
necessary
she
the
never
become
unity
the
and
season,
If after
fundamental
the
of
which
to
by
philosophy
order
again going
that
Pathans
people, for
culture.
highest
and
the
changes
physical
anything
they
is best
been
already
and
of
controlled
the
or
philosophical thought
all that
culture
for
not
culture
Indian
which
in the
politicalchanges through
of the
Hindu
and
of
unity
and
minds
or
civilisation
Indian
peoples
times, in the
Scythians,
land
hurricanes
account
wish
the
the
natural
centuries
on
all the
the
spiritualintegrity of
mainly
by different
regarded
were
Huns,
ruled
never
were
some
complex
spiritualaspirations and
outlived
occupied
phenomena
the
the
foreign invasions,
the
of
point
passed.
who
machinery
that
of
of
was
highest
the
which
different
at
monarch
which
spirit,
Greeks,
Moguls
history
the
it indicated
inhabited
days.
thought
all
of
goal
those
in
Indian
diversities
kingdoms
it has
of
the
as
area
the
in
essentiallyone
else, and
which
vast
great
understood
was
apparent
is not
that
or
it
as
activities,and
over
independent
sought.
to
the
of culture
growth
rise
all
of many-
unity
concrete
regarded
was
was
achievement
important
most
India
in
developments
morals, and
But
of
correct
special features.
only
for the
sake
of
the
right understanding
of
Preface
viii
India
of
are
more
Indian
that
solutions
connection
the
on
the
of the process
course
discovery
thought. The
philosophicalthought, and
turn
may
the
as
modern
of
out
also
the
due
as
has
been
work
however
publicationof
of
of them
some
of
presence
has
have
that
It is unfortunate
of
Indian
those
work
who
chief
translations
systems
the
Indian
of
in most
familiar
not
are
pursue
study
not
been
interested
in
philosophy.
in the
of
way
the
containing some
of the
has
of
also
the
literature,
to
task
the
thought
done
already been
technical
many
Indian
largenumber
of
investigationof
the
to
of these
scholars
have
study, for most
in mythology, philology,and
historythan
Much
light
of modern
features
field of
more
throw
may
reconstruction
important
re-valuation
on
few
very
times
own
undertaken
with
in
properly grasped
ficance,
appreciationof their full signiphilosophy
important to modern
researches.
philological
been
yet
of
Sanskrit
and
re-interpretation
our
of the future
be
to
of
discovery
of
problems
when
cases
the
with
is necessary
for those
telligible
in-
themselves.
texts
of the
general account
hardly
are
mutual
tions
rela-
intend
who
to
they
about
can
at
are
the
Indian
philosophy.
Yoga Philosophy in
Study of Patanjaliand
Systems of Thought I have
attempted
interested
time
same
to
In
books
two
my
know
to
The
interpretthe Samkhya
and
systems
and
seeks
to
show
of
some
their
from
The
also
inner
I could
terms
and
for the
have
help
always given
of those
who
the
want
Sanskrit
to
make
or
Pali
this book
technical
a
guide
ix
Preface
for further
indeed
essential
followingthe
treatingthe
be
to
these
is
likely to
of
ways
to
much
while
of
to
put any
them
from
what
had
fore
there-
each
on
Indian
on
pressure
system
in
thoughts
as
appear
tried to arrange
manner
which
appeared
and
indications
the
In all other
been
not
made
It is
because
and
sense
the
justifiedby
of what
Some
have
will appear
also
themselves
system
with
missed
contexts
obscure
also
philosophy
which
are
used
I would
cated
unsophisti-
an
in
meanings as are
which
they are used.
I hope be
system may
attention,for unfamiliarity
in
such
in any
and
care
of
condensation
have
of
as
in the
places where
many
and
passages
of
of technical
sense.
in
those
sense
words
which
words
clear
English
that
Indian
choose
of technical
with
them
of
me
acquirement
those
take
the
to
the words
sort
to
associate
stands
sometimes
the
to
places that
terms
appeared
tried to
for
difficult,
readers
if it is re-read
removed
it
in
their
to
few
by
terms
approach
nearest
is
systematic whole
in very
only
Indian
in
strictlyfaithful
places I have
dangerous by
however
This
senses.
I did
them
me
the
of
some
philosophy,and this
were
approximately
term.
to
suggestions.
translated
may
of works
of
knit
I have
have
is
methods
and
altogetherdifferent
philosophy. Materials
large number
thinkers
the
he
order
have
that
sure
is
terms
quite undesirable
make
the
from
more
be
to
thoughts.
style of argument
work
been
be
wishes
of these
of the
topics are
modern
have
Sanskritic
it
different
something
who
anyone
course
collected
and
understand
treatises
find in any
we
for
actual
Sanskrit
In
To
study.
was
inevitable and
sometimes
insoluble
is without
its dark
the
systems
difficulties,for
and
in
no
uncomfortable
corners.
Though
manic
The
stage, my
be traced
systematic.
begun
treatment
beginnings of
they can
nor
I have
my
of
the evolution
work
this
of
from
the
Vedic
and
Brah-
are
neither
connected
Preface
while
I could
and
Europe
the
those
who
wish
have
to
into
details
myself
to
it worth
this
epoch.
fully,but
published in
certainlygo
been
already
go
therefore limited
I have
them.
to
subject
on
works
many
think
not
thought of
period more
Upanisad
the
with
dealt
have
of
shreds
broken
the
elaborate
to
I do
but
Brahmanas,
in the
is found
More
will
the dominant
current
It will be
connected.
is in
places of
some
that
inconclusive
an
of
treatment
my
dhism
Bud-
early
This
character.
is
of the texts
which
character
were
largelydue to the inconclusive
of dialogues and
in the form
put into writinglong after Buddha
directness
the precisionand
where
required in philosophy were
of theories
has given rise to a number
not contemplated. This
of the philosophicalproblems of early
the interpretations
about
Buddhism
decide
to
easy
one
being dogmatic
allow
to
But
difficulties.
of my
that
will be found
in
have
worked
space
for
entering into
I leave
those
of
the
the
literature
any
expressions and
strict exactitude
of
a
and
discussions
English.
and
I have
school
systems
in the
books
last six
which
who
writing of
who
acquainted
may
be
school
of
us
that
most
invention
of
these
the
are
almost
untranslatable
incorporatedwhat
been
in
intelligible
important differences
bibliographygiven of the
chapters is not exhaustive
those
different
scholars
are
in the
it
however
have
theories
are
European
consist
textual
polemic, but
the
of this
contributions
technical
and
of
of
with
limited
wrong
it to
risk of
places formed
the
and
the
discussions
in many
rightor
always
also too
was
of
interpretations
those offered by some
them
on
elaborate
it is not
running
work
my
from
cases
some
no
are
and
without
of my
scope
in very
they
scholars
the other
I had
judge.
to
the
; and
whether
own,
or
way
indulge
to
me
Buddhist
modern
among
fruitful in
different
but
actually studied
chapters. Exact references
or
Indian
consists
work
systems
mostly
consulted
to the
of
pages
of
in
the
of
the
Preface
have
generallybeen given
difference of interpretation
was
texts
a
that
reference
where
the
It
to
the
opinions of modern
gives me
gratefulness
make
bear
of the
the
entire
of the
Bengal
Sir
of this
name
noble
made.
But
His
the
and
of the
other
scholars
of
of
much
am
he
volumes
him
above
I have
given me
feelingsof
the
ever
former
and
indebted
of
also
am
large
whole-hearted
assisted
to
esteemed
my
rebirth
English
my
indebted
for
number
of
sypipathy
and
with
me
"
many
for the
studies
my
gratefulness
for utterance.
they improved
I
him
pursuitof
friends
his
advice
the
exposition of
owes
something
the
his
in
J.Thomas
Douglas Ainslie
Sanskrit
the
to
words,
points
many
Buddhist
doctrine
of its treatment
to
with
of
course
To
the
tion
transliteraalso
and
great friendliness
on
in the
places.
many
attention
E.
Dr
which
has
friendship,
Like
to
Cambridge
their
giftshe
seen.
attachment
about
Bodhisattva
indebted
in the
in
about
to
and
veritable
giftof
come
sympathy
deeply
am
total
word
educational
to
education
has
my
deep
too
are
of the
with
both
made
made
is far
that
men
Bengal,
that
researches,and
for him
himself
man
amiabilitymake
noblest
encouragement
of
kindly promised
household
he has
sterlingcharacter,universal
his kindness
for
has
is almost
man
for the
"200,000.
Manindrachandra
publication of
magnanimous giftsthat
and other causes.
he has
Up till now
^"300,000,of which those devoted
to
and
clearer,or
matter
present work.
The
one
felt
incorporated.
acknowledge my deepest
Maharaja
expense
it was
been
where
cases
where
the
have
pleasure to
Hon'ble
the
in those
anticipatedor
writers
the greatest
to
in footnotes
would
text
xi
for
which
detail,in
of the
repeated
cause
the
he
ticular
parof
discussions
him.
I
N. K.
also
wish
to
express
Siddhanta, M.A.,
Mademoiselle
rendered
Paule
my
gratefulnessto
Povie
for
the
kind
my
Churches
assistance
friend
Mr
College,and
they
have
D.Sc, Ph.D.,
the
Vice-Chancellor
of the
University of Calcutta,
Preface
xii
for
the
this
would
have
work
than
greater
materialised
if
can
by
other
the
here,
express
which
with
publication
for
he
had
especially
kindly
Calcutta
agreed
University,
circumstances
had
to
which
changed
not
arrangement.
of
scholars
To
of
far
enthusiasm
generous
accept
this
is
which
debt
owe
reading
book
my
Indian
who
and
and
shortcomings
who
philosophy
be
may
I
defects,
can
do
may
impressed
with
only
in
pray
the
me
honour
its
the
able
inevit-
words
of
Hemacandra:
Pramdnasiddhdntaviruddham
atra
Yatkinciduktam
matimdndyadosdt
Matsaryyam
Prasddam
way
have
errors
of
wrong
ddhdya
noble-minded
the
May
whatever
been
scholars
here
and
interpretations
taddryyacittdh
utsdryya
instead
committed
visodhayantu1.
of
through
cherishing
the
dullness
ill
feeling
of
my
kindly
correct
intellect
in
misstatements.
S.
College,
Trinity
Cambridge.
February,
1922.
D.
the
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTORY
II
CHAPTER
THE
BRAHMANAS
VEDAS,
The
Vedas
and
The
place
Classification
The
Samhitas
The
Brahmanas
The
10
mind
Hindu
in the
Vedas
10
literature
Vedic
of the
PHILOSOPHY
antiquity
their
of the
THEIR
AND
1 1
12
13
10
Aranyakas
The
Rg-Veda, its civilization
The
Vedic
gods
Polytheism, Henotheism, and Monotheism
Growth
of a Monotheistic
tendency ; Prajapati,Visvakarma
11
Brahma
12
Sacrifice ; the
13
23
14
Mythological and_Philosophical
Cosmogony
Eschatology; the Doctrine of Atman
15
Conclusion
26
7
8
9
The
The
5
6
7
8
9
of the
First Rudiments
place
.21
25
(700
600
B.C."
literature
B.c.)
28
....
influence
Upanisads ; Non-Brahmanic
and
the Early Upanisads
Brahmanas
The
meaning of the word
Upanisad
The composition and growth of diverse Upanisads
times
of Upanisad studies in modern
Revival
The
Upanisads and their interpretations
of the
30
31
38
38
....
The
after Brahman
quest
the
struggle
and
of Brahman
Unknowability
the
and
failures
the
Negative
39
41
...
42
...
44
Method
doctrine
1 1
Place
12
The
World
13
The
World-Soul
14
The
15
Doctrine
Atman
45
in the
of Brahman
48
Upanisads
51
52
of Causation
Theory
52
Transmigration
Emancipation
of
53
58
IV
CHAPTER
OF
1
In
Growth
what
The
Some
sense
"
THE
SYSTEMS
PHILOSOPHY
INDIAN
Indian
fundamental
Karma
The
Doctrine
3
The
The
Doctrine
Pessimistic
Faith
Unity
in the
in
agreement
theory
of Mukti
of Soul
Attitude
71
71
74
75
towards
the
World
and
the
Optimistic
end
Indian
endeavours)
points of
62
65
67
of the
The
ON
OBSERVATIONS
GENERAL
19
III
in Vedic
Upanisads
of the
names
The
of Karma
Law
UPANISADS
EARLIER
10
16
17
.
"
THE
14
16
20
CHAPTER
14
75
Sadhana
(philosophical,religiousand
ethical
77
Contents
xiv
CHAPTER
'
PHILOSOPHY
BUDDHIST
PAGE
Philosophy in
of
State
The
Buddha
Early Buddhist
The
Doctrine
The
Khandhas
Avijjaand
7
8
Slla and
before
Buddha
78
....
his Life
81
Literature
82
Connection
of Causal
of
early Buddhism
84
...
93
Asava
99
Samadhi
100
106
Kamma
Buddhism
and
Upanisads
The
11
Mahayanism
12
The
109
of Theravada
Schools
10
Buddhism
112
125
Tathata
14
15
Sautrantika
16
Sautrantika
17
18
The
The
or
the
of
the
or
Nihilism
"
of
.129
School
.138
Buddhism
Vijnanavada
145
151
Perception
of Inference
Doctrine of Momentariness
Doctrine
of Momentariness
The
school
Sunyavada
Idealism
theory
theory
As'vaghosa (80A.D.)
of
Philosophy
Madhyamika
Uncompromising
13
India
155
158
and
the
Doctrine
of
Causal
Efficiency(Arthakriyakaritva)
19
OntologicalProblems
diverged
20
Some
163
which
on
The
Origin of Jainism
Two
The
Sects of Jainism
Canonical
and other
General
Some
Life of Mahavlra
The
Fundamental
7
8
The
The
Doctrine
Doctrine
Doctrine
The
Indian
Systems
.
of Buddhist
CHAPTER
THE
the Different
JAINA
Thought
164
.166
VI
PHILOSOPHY
169
170
.171
172
173
Ideas
of Relative
of
Jaina Ontology
(Anekantavada)
Pluralism
of Nayas
of Syadvada
its value for us
173
.175
176
179
183
185
13
Knowledge,
Theory of Perception
Non- Perceptualknowledge
Knowledge as Revelation
14
The
^8
15
Karma
16
10
11
12
17
18
Jivas
Theory
:1a and
Samaya
181
186
190
192
i95
197
198
Jaina Cosmography
Jaina Yoga
199
I99
22
Jaina Atheism
203
23
Moksa
20
21
(emancipation)
207
Contents
xv
VII
CHAPTER
THE
AND
KAPILA
SAMKHYA
PATANJALA
THE
(YOGA)
PAGE
208
Review
Germs
Samkhya
Upanisads
and Yoga Literature
Samkhya
An
Early School of Samkhya
karika, Samkhya
Samkhya
sutra, Vacaspati
The
3
4
in the
of
211
212
213
Misra
Vijnana
and
Bhiksu
7
8
Patanjali
of Soul
The
The
10
and
226
Yoga
222
Prakrti and
Pralaya
238
241
242
its evolution
245
of the
the disturbance
and
Prakrti
Equilibrium
247
248
Ahamkara
and
13
Mahat
14
The
15
Principleof
and
Tanmatras
Paramanus
the
Causation
and
the formation
of Energy
Conservation
of new
collocations
16
Change
17
Causation
18
19
Buddhi
20
The
21
Sorrow
22
Citta
23
Yoga
24
The
as
and
that
(the theory
Satkaryavada
as
effect
the
251
254
255
potentially
of the cause)
257
258
Purusa
259
CognitiveProcess
and
some
.261
of Citta
characteristics
264
its Dissolution
and
268
PurificatoryPractices (Parikarma)
Yoga Meditation
CHAPTER
THE
243
12
Purusa
Gunas
11
or
Criticism
270
271
VIII
NYAYA-VAISESIKA
of Buddhism
and
PHILOSOPHY
the
from
Samkhya
Vaisesika
sutras
Nyaya
Vaisesika
Does
represent an
standpoint
Nyaya
and
274
276
old
of Mlmamsa
school
280
5
6
285
294
sutras
301
....
'
7
8
9
The
The
The
Vaisesika and
main doctrine
six Padarthas
Literature
of the Nyaya- Vaisesika
Nyaya
305
Philosophy
.310
313
'
10
vaya
The
1 1
Dissolution
12
Proof
13
The
/14
The
5
/i6
The
17
18
"
Theory
of Causation
(Pralaya)and
of the
Existence
323
of ISvara
325
326
330
332
Perception(Pratyaksa)
333
Inference
243
354
Upamana
Negation
20
The
and
Sabda
in
Nyaya- Vaisesika
necessityof the Acquirement
of Salvation
22
313
319
(Srsti)
Creation
19
21
The
of Soul
Doctrine
Isvara
and Salvation
355
of
seeker
360
362
363
Contents
xvi
IX
CHAPTER
MIMAMSA
philosophy
PAGE
The
Comparative
3"7
Literature
Mlmamsa
of
3"9
and
Nyaya
the Svatah-pramanya
Mlmamsa
37
Determinate
Perception
Perception
Problems
connected
in
place of Sense-organs
The
of
doctrine
Paratah-pramanya
The
doctrine
4
Review
and
Indeterminate
Some
The
Nature
The
Psychology
Inference
Ontological
375
378
with
the
of
Doctrine
ception
Per-
379
382
384
of Knowledge
of Illusion
387
Arthapatti
10
Upamana,
11
Sabda-pramana
12
The
13
14
Mlmamsa
(anupalabdhi)
Non-perception
"_".".*
and
Mlmamsa
of
Dialectic
2
Vedanta
Literature
Vedanta
in
Vedanta
and
The
In
/7
'8
9
10
11
12
13
/
14
15
/ 16
main
what
idea
403
VEDANTA
OF
Issues
more
essential
than
the
Review
408
418
Definition
of the
420
(788
of the
is the
sense
nature
820
"
Vedanta
A.D.)
philosophy
world-appearance
world-appearance,
of Ajnana
established
and
429
(nescience)
by Perception and
of Ajnana,
Ahamkara
439
false?
phenomena
.
443
17
Vedanta
Ethics
18
Vedanta
and
and
other
Vedanta
Indian
452
....
Inference
Emancipation
systems
445
....
454
....
and
Antahkarana
Object
and
Vedanta
the
dialectic
Anirvacyavada
The
Theory of Causation
yedanta theory of Perception and Inference
and
Atman, Jlva, IsVara, Ekajlvavada
Drstisrstivada
Vedanta
of
Illusion
theory
INDEX
406
situation
Sankara
The
Locus
Gaudapada
The
Ajnana
-399
Controversy
philosophical
The
Philosophical
of the
Comprehension
"
SCHOOL
SANKARA
Ritualism
as
CHAPTER
THE
397
....
God
Philosophy
as
394
of
Pramana
39
.457
461
465
470
.
474
485
489
492
495
ambiguous
problems in a clear and unconceiving philosophical
is an important feature of Sanskrit thought,but
manner
the ninth century onwards, the habit of using clear,definite,
began to develop in a very strikingmanner,
preciseexpressions,
tendency
from
and
and
as
to
result of that
These
invented.
have
began
properly explained,and
seldom
are
the reader
of them.
knowledge
of technical
largenumber
terms
presupposed that
who
Any
wants
in olden
one
he from
teacher,and
philosophy,for
had
few who
his. There
idea then
the
otherwise
was
the works
who
times
do
with
so
himself
it is
should
took
to the
teacher,who
had
got it from
fitness,deserved
their
to be
tendency to popularize
that only the chosen
no
prevalent was
shown
terms
read
to
[ch.
Introductory
become
to
and
the
rebuilding of
philosophy
were
Another
allowed
to
study
which
difficulty
the
sometimes
different
senses
meaning
of
which
life in accordance
it occurs,
He
the matter1.
technical
and
with
used
are
The
is
meet
in
student
reference
must
to
the
this,that
extremely
to
the doctrines
of other
in
system
Allusions
the
know
no
will
used.
finds them
terms
term
of
truths
high
it.
in different systems.
each
the
beginner will
technical
same
with
about
and
systems and
all the
doctrines
and
their refutations
it often
of
other
becomes
refutations
which
There
systems
difficult
are
two
without
to
poured
follow
forth
series
of
important compendiums
to
so
and
answers
of these
course
in any
sions.
discus-
in Sanskrit
giving
some
principalsystems
thought,
summary
viz. the Sarvadarsanasamgraha% and the Saddarsanasamuccaya of
are
of
Haribhadra
with
of the
the
commentary
of Indian
of
Gunaratna;
is
very
able Sanskrit
called
terms
dictionaryof technical philosophical
Nyiyakosa has been prepared by M. M. Bhimacarya Jhalkikar,Bombay, Govt. Press.
Recently
very
Introductory
i]
am
afraid
the
translation
be
not
may
found
intelligible.
very
technical
Indian
thinkers
terms
and
and
their
the
general positionsof
of expression,he
modes
the whole
master
a
the
to
of
source
helping us
writers
understand
to
who
used
the
well-known
and
them,
misunderstanding them
are
that avoidance
philosophicalworks
The
art
the
chances
reduced
to
of
to
have
value
in
It is I think
has often
terms
liable
writingis indeed
expect
are
meaning of the
misinterpretingor
minimum.
of technical
can
definite
of clear
philosophercannot
preciseand
which
the
it. But
rare
to
tation.
misinterpre-
virtue
when
rendered
and
every
technical
pressions
ex-
himself
writer can
make
a bad
properlyformed, even
In the early days of Buddhist
understood.
philosophy in the
Pali literature,this difficulty
is greatly felt. There
some
are
are
technical
terms
here
which
are
still very
elastic and
in different
their
repetition
heighten
New
York,
1914, p. 3.
I
"
[ch.
Introductory
thought, and
of
real systems
produced
have
speculationsof
the
whose
culture
doubtless
with
begin
our
necessary
for what
follows
to
will
will have
to
is another
different
vast
for
reasons
that
literature
sources,
are
each
on
his
separate
in each
systems
could
systems, I
of
Indian
philosophy
to
in the
not
yet
accounts
for
come
points of
Two
is
view.
vast, and
so
graphical
biblio-
philosophy.
different
two
afraid
am
It
such
possible
original
the
truth
particularsystems. There is some
but although in some
of the important systems
in this objection,
the literature that exists is exceedingly vast, yet many
of them
less repetitions
of the same
more
or
are
subjects,and a judicious
of twenty
selection
each
of the
or
on
thirty important works
exposition.
always drawn
tried to
appear
chosen
certainlybe made,
In
collect
at
their best.
many
excused
My
features
the
the
materials
my
had
to
which
undertaking
own
my
directlyfrom
important I
problems and
to
of
from
Indian
collect
working
definitelyand
more
of the different
given
exists
before
know
to
history
field of
to
want
originalsreferred
the chapters.
opinion,that the time has
are
the
anyone
There
in part, rests."
the
to
write
to
attempt
is said
go
of
notices
an
Greeks,
ancient
and
people who hold such uninformed
only show their ignorance of Indian matters.
say anything in order to refute these views,
I hope show
the falsity
of their beliefs. If
There
of the
other
many
It is not
they
philosophy
civilization
own
which
beliefs,
untrue
the
which
leave
give a fairlycorrect
in this
originaltexts,
from
space
would
has
those
out
to
many
diverse
There
are
indeed
many
and
always
have
and
be
to
me
discussions
of
of the
This
does
not
they
I have
the
each
defects and
have
in which
limited
very
important bearings of
interesting
aspects of philosophy.
in
sources
been
appeared
direction
hope
aim
most
difficult
systems
may
at
be
pleteness.
com-
shortcomings,and
Introductory
i]
would
these
the
than
present
imperfectionsof
whose
better
In the
and
much
one.
At
the
and
ought
attempt
been
have
second
called
place it
records
historical
accurate
would
one
earlier
a
first
at
beginnings
efforts
that
are
defect
dates
some
Indians
of
fourth
and
chapter.
and
it is not
of that
state
the
supersede
form
was
course
point
of
often
of
types
the same,
and
probably
of
and
almost
been
time;
but
only
of the systems
their
mutual
observed.
The
in the
on
and
philosophy
it with
contrast
did not
coherent
more
the
to
but
in
of
coherent
more
India, though
the
thought became
In
in
are
priorityand
of the
development
determinate.
the
existing side by
coherent.
of the
originalsystem but
through historyhas in Western
the
through
state;
dates
out
Most
existent
schools
systems
their
much
so
very
the state
later
forth
coherent
more
undifferentiated
different
Evolution
brought
objection
touched
particulartime
philosophic thought,
remained
take
generally true
was
proper
early beginnings
development through the succeeding
previous state,
determinate.
countries
were
at
system
it,which
more
more
at
had
no
times, we
well
been
fections.
imper-
us
the
most
be
its
This
centuries
has
systems
possibleto
particularsystem
the
of
not
As
it. No
it is therefore
affect
in later
to
development
of the
Most
continuous
centuries,and
of
this
had
for,though
in the case
of other thinkers.
posteriority
developed side by side through many
relations also developed, and these could
specialnature
of
the
those
to
supersede
account
does
obscure, yet,
very
stimulus
will
the
that
hoped
biographiesand
Indian
philosophy.
sight suppose;
affirm
position to
will be
abler
writer
and
be
impossible on
is said
of
case
it may
rate
any
competent
be
to
less in the
present attempt
more
side
and
more
some
criticism
cases
the
of
they
the
were
types
them
parts
in
conflict of
and
parts of each
of
an
the
the
determinate,
differentiated,
more
this
development
has
been
have
the earlier forms
cases
imperceptible,and in many
lost, or so inadequately expressed that nothing definite
could
be
could
be
it. But
interest
made
made
I have
should
of
out
in the
never
be
them.
interests
considered
subordinated
such
Wherever
of
philosophy, I
it desirable
to
the
differentiation
have
that the
tried to do
philosophical
chronological.It
is
no
[ch.
Introductory
doubt
a
that
true
chronologicaldata
about
a general notion
different systems by mutual
of the development
the
that
opinion
fair amount
growth
association
would
the
considered
be
little
of
and
ing
help in formdevelopment of the
and
conflict. If the
of
in
as
same
of
thing, yet I am
have give us
we
desirable
very
chronologicalinformation
definite
more
dition
con-
been
the
would
be
system
richer
their
these
at
systems
of the
dates
with
all dealt
the
as
knew
we
earlier
features
of
invalidatingthe
definitelythe
could
we
times
thing twenty
and
of
best
ascertainable,
system
same
tried
system, and
more
earliest literature
The
the
as
not
European philosophy,without
same
same
type of thought in
same
the
in
be
not
may
if
even
is done
unnecessarilyrepeating
they
tried
regards
as
considered
of the
thinkers
as
separately,
them
treat
be
never
Moreover,
programme.
correct
I have
the
rather
earlyoriginhas
notions
stages in detail
these
interest
of their
general
in
are
of the
some
the
getting them
with
regard to
we
philosophicalinterest.
certain
form
to
stages of
when
environment
and
historical than
I could
forms,
better
conditions,nature
a
by side, and
side
developing
are
India
bring
to
determinate
more
is the
over;
Vedas.
out
for
the
forms.
These
consist
our
of the
sense
It is here
term.
that
interestingphilosophicalquestionsof a
of poetry
character
expressed in terms
later Vedic
mostly
works
in prose,
followed
which
tendencies,viz. one
that
sought
to
and
hymns,
the
feebler than
ritualistic
philosophy
express,
but
tendency
the
later
there
are
had
the
former,
unmistakable
are
two
the
and
latter
it
tendency was
might appear that
actuallyswallowed
parts of the
there
magical forms of
indulged in speculative
Aranyakaswritten
the
establish
ritualistic
indeed
less
or
Vedic
intensely
cosmological
imagination. In the
more
and
the
first find
we
Vedic
up
hymns
marks
that
what
were
this
little of
trying
to
tendency
Introductory
i]
existed
and
of
also
but
reasoned
or
felt
statements, but
of
to
B.C.
from
about
century
systems
of
the
Hindu
The
systems.
too
which
to
that,though
the
Jains
splitinto
another
the
Mimamsa),
Of
these
different
and
of
is
schools
thought
became
systems.
so
former
to
Nyaya
or
mixed
with
other
of Vaisnava
to
by
Jains
like
and
Buddhist
ideal
religionand
be
may
It is
other
interesting
dissensions
some
to
seem
with
some
guess.
less
or
of Hindu
the
are
amongst
differingfrom
(known
up
Buddhist
and
thought.
These
Samkhya,
the
(generallyknown
as
The
also
as
not
one
Mimamsa
Vaisesika
as
and
Yoga
Vaisesika
and
the
was
as
Yoga,
Purva
are
Nyaya
early times
greater than
fundamentally
have
the
Mimamsa).
Uttara
in
Jaina
six systems
Samkhya
that, though
regarded
and
it came
alluded
there
will contain
Mimamsa
system.
be
or
did.
thought
Vedanta
one
one
tenth
not
forms
is seldom
more
known
differently
of
the
contact
some
to
us
been
of this work
the
in
that
thought
Hindu
and
of the
similarity
Nyaya, they came
same
have
Vaisesika, the
what
later times
there
of orthodox
Nyaya,
in
dogmas
first volume
philosophy and
in
of their
it is difficult for
Buddhist
India
extent
schools
many
as
The
about
believe
it does
Buddhists, though
non-aggressive nature
reasons
note
much
came
later
Gunaratna
certain
as
Buddha
to
about
Buddha,
to
of the
thought. Excepting
and
in
old
as
the
with
reason
time
some
are
doctrines
or
carrying great
probable
200
But
writers
Haribhadra
is
not
are
earliest
Jaina thought
in later
thought
singularistic
These
It is very
develop
to
till
also
are
the
systems of Hindu
may
various
intuitively
perceived
them.
There
B.C.
The
Buddha.
the
that
the
contain
or
philosophy began
forms
about
to
in conflict with
me
written
indubitable,and
continued
A.D.
thought
Buddha
priorto
treatises
500
vigorous
eleventh
and
Buddhist
philosophy
of its
of the
earliest
B.C.
time
Buddhist
of truths
utterances
persuasivenesswith
the
700
some
other
certain
come
the
unquestionably real
as
many
500
this
to
called
verse
force,vigour,and
that
Next
Upanisads, which
philosophicalthoughts mostly monistic
some
pluralisticand dualistic ones.
in prose
sorts
worked.
and
but
in
the
that with
almost
therefore been
the
treated
[ch.
Introductory
so
all these
are
systems, which
to show
commentaries
also wrote
taught in
were
thereon
commentaries
wrote
to
on
the
of these
of theistic works
also
had
their
are
known
They
with
which
thus
as
the Saiva
volume
and
more
thought can
100
200
be
It is
B.C.
and
interpretations,
the
Tantra
classical
In addition
sprang
another
up
eclectic
old
thus
as
the
class
These
nature.
the
to
position
ex-
Upanisads.
thought,and
are
dealt
of this work.
see
Hindu
or
of
there
wished
Upanisads,and
Upanisads.
beginnings in periods as
in the second
We
were
different schools
thinkers
Brahmasutra,
thinkers
Vaisnava
the
their
prove
as
of the Vaisnava
philosophy. Most
of Vaisnava
known
are
traced
to
extremely
beginnings of
some
time
difficult to
the relative
most
between
systems of
600
B.C.
to
anything about
degree of certainty.
say
of
As
on
time
went
by side. Most
were
of
crude
outlines
firstconceived
unbroken
chain
of Hindu
thought
of
system
to
some
about
teachers
has
its
own
the
and
seventeenth
century
A.D.
in
an
each system
pupils. Even now
adherents, though few people now
CHAPTER
BRAHMANAS
VEDAS,
THE
The
to
the
be
is indeed
difficult
to
Bal
kept
4000
historical
record
of
The
mouth
from
to
the
who
were
that
when
people
but
old
that
time, though
of
Vedas
by hearing
or
history
with
of
India
periods, since
little
had
the
in India.
or
no
suffered
time
of
the
reverence
the
all times.
at
paid
Even
to
at this
the
day
Vedas
that
for
all the
all
as
revealed
Vedic
it has
sections
old,
in
some
no
scrupulous
been
of
the
all.
The
changes
had
the
literature
in
civilization, but
they
of
at
the
course
find
probably
was
that
sages
beginning
was
such
God
very
mind.
considerable
Vedic
only
was
we
Hindu
interpolations at
the
Thus
creation.
whole
the
the
to
of each
preceptors,
through
us
It
men.
taught by
not
there
But
the
got
their
faithfullyto
more
the
composed,
who
it from
in
to
Hindus
composition
been
beginning
Vedas
were
Brahmins,
most
years
of the
place
by
least, no
have
to
the
hymns.
the
political
mouth
; and
were
them
upon
the
at
writing prevalent
the
look
believed
were
period
the
of
system
of the
B.C.
seldom
from
revealed
remote
When
they
after
elapsed
to
come
they
The
heart
had
either
of themselves
were
had
down
true.
2400
Hindus
composed
never
that
Haug
ancient
antiquity
were
been
incontestably
B.C.,
1200
handed
{mantradrasta)
time
some
unknown
they
"seers"
the
Vedas,
zeal
that
or
be
to
positions
com-
have
guesses
literary,religious or
unknown
they
shrewd
It
race.
of these
portions
The
B.C.
believed
generally
Indo-European
be
to
their
generally supposed
sages,
so
that
the
earliest
were
of
period
generally believed
therefore
Vedas
PHILOSOPHY
are
proved
date
the
Tilak
achievements.
Vedas,
be
Garigadhar
any
antiquity.
Many
can
supposed
Miiller
their
the
existence.
of them
none
THEIR
of
when
say
into
AND
India, the
literary record
offered, but
and
of
earliest
came
Max
and
Vedas
books
sacred
THE
II
mitted
trans-
last
3000
religious
the
latter
such
was
remained
ever
of
by
the
obligatory
duties
performed
according
as
Hindus
of the
to
at
Hindus
the
old
Vedic
a
Classification
of the
u]
ch.
ritual.
day
The
the
are
two
the
Hindu
of
old
Vedic
three
used
were
little
that
been
has
of which
Most
of the
base
upon
Sanskrit
them
Brahmin
quarrel with
that
prove
Vedas
flourished
that
literatures
validity,and
own
of Hindu
and
others
it and
it alone
rites of the
Hindus
systematized
held
be
to
such
draw
claims
to
details
is unnecessary.
its
as
upon
the
as
say
in
spite of
the orthodox
Hindu
adumbration
of the
its
lightall through
the
Vedic
the
beginner
of later Sanskrit
when
he
meets
who
of
source
drama.
which
life,
of the
is introduced
and
but
be
to
To
that
are
British
had
into
Vedas,
past,
in
this
enter
the
far
still
are
all literatures
almost
in short
Thus
is
Vedic
has
time
in the
we
wrought,,
main
ceased
never
may
as
an
shed
to
likelyto
first time
appear
texts
"
generic name
in its wider
literature.
for the
authoritative
which
past.
literature
with
the
followed, and
changes
still be regarded
life may
of
under
Even
of the
that
many
would
laws
said
are
Vedas.
the
literature
poetry and
Classification
A
dead
origin and
their allegiance
The
is
suffice it to say
But
as
authority from
being regarded
looked
of
them
to
teachings, and
authority.
inheritance
the
Vedas
religiouscustoms
Vedic
legal transactions,Hindu
other
from
their
rituals.
follower
views.
and
old
money
superiorityby trying
present day
of
memories
obligatory on
administration, in
the
to
even
at
of them
one
faithful
represented correctlytheir
its
the
was
Even
after the
only own
of each
maintain
his
of
appeal
philosophy not
and
with
so
sacrifices and
Vedic
to
to
teaching of
their
authority.Systems
often
and
insight
ordered
orthodox
an
as
grafted
are
can
for the
times
the
Thus
rites.
as
ago.
image-worship is one
regular obligatoryduties
the
to
years
1 1
says
verses
of
the
life,
according
now
of Vedic
thousand
ordinary
an
system
his
upon
three
or
Brahmin
selections
same
verses
prayer
that
prayers
literature
Vedic
sense
somewhat
of diverse
Veda
to
"
is not
or
the
study
confused
purport
"
the
Sruti
name
"
and
(from
of any
over
this
long period,say
literature
in different
directions
necessitybe of a
this huge literature
subjectmatter, we
diversified
people
Samhita
from
both
literatures,
holy that
them
the
in
learnt
by
and
looked
were
verse,
thought
of their preceptors
mouth
Indian
four different
and
it was
therefore
they were
of the
manas,
(sam together,hita put), Brahthe Upanisads. All
treatises ") and
prose
early times
As
so.
verses
Aranyakas(" forest
these
or
years
tending
ex-
the
of
collection
or
particularepoch
achievements
for such
point out
can
Philosophy [ch.
thousand
two
total
the
represents
of
literature
of the
but
particularbook,
their
and
Vedas, Brahmanas
The
1 2
almost
heart
by
sacrilegeto
the
so
write
from
Brahmins
called
hence
were
as
upon
ally
(liter-
sruti
anything heard)1.
The
There
Yajur-Veda
Sama-Veda,
Veda
the
probably
is
collections
four
are
Samhitas.
Samhitas, namely
or
Of
Atharva-Veda.
and
has
to
sung
of chants.
The
reference
were
be contrasted
that
there
all the
the
the
who
poems
god
with
verses
are
are
adored
addressed
Indra
and
so
of
Yajus
almost
the
formulas.
is
solelywith
sacrifice;the
to
on.
primitivestage
with
exclusively
sacrificial prayers.
"
tents
con-
in the
Rg-Veda
These
in
generallyarranged in accordance
in them.
Thus, for example, firstwe
Agni
The
the
Fire-god,then
fourth
collection,the
or
"
more
to
originalprose
Soma
the arrangement
book
the
may
gods
be
to
in addition
Sama-Veda
in the
use
called
be
contains
of the
verses
place and
Yajur-Veda are
It is therefore
the
the
their
to
of the
to
of
thus
may
Yajur-Veda however
from
the Rg-Veda
many
arrangement
verses
melodies, and
The
taken
verses
fixed
certain
(excepting
meant
were
Rg-
practically
taken
no
the
these
Sama-Veda
The
earliest.
Rg-Veda,
the
1
of
form
as
the
thought.
higher gods
Panini,
III.
iii.94.
Rigveda
While
as
the
get
Atharva-
Macdonell
but
with
all those
considerablylater
Professor
this,
than
says,
represents
Rigveda
conceived
by a
deals
com-
The
n]
parativelyadvanced
book
demon
world,
and
among
the
immemorial
other
in
lower
13
refined sacerdotal
and
Brahmanas
of
spellsand
with
teems
grades
of
Atharva-
the
class,
witchcraft
about
current
from
population,and derived
two, thus complementary
the
antiquity. These
contents
are
obviously the
important
most
the
appealing to
incantations
notions
Veda
each
to
of
an
the
four
VedasV
The
After
called
the
type.
They
familiar
the
there
which
Brahmanas,
of
"
Samhitas
the
different
the
with
spiritof
full of
details.
those
to
in which
its
who
Professor
the
time
fanciful
ceremonials
the
when
at
But
the collections
of
Thus
complicated.
there
priests. We
system
became
the
subordinated
the
1
A.
Weber
which
A.
to
prayer
they were,
versed
was
brahman.'''
the
the
for the
in Vedic
revealed
Brahmanas
instruction and
for the
most
and
But
as
were
so
thus
was
result
guidance
31.
"that
signifies
Brahmana
1.
p.
lxvi)says
in view
priests(brahman) generally;
competent
the
of such
utterances
to
act
Brahmanas
as
was
symbolic
only
sacrifice
and
sacramental
Miiller [S.B. E.
Max
the
sacrifice,and
fanciful
most
when
religiousminds was
speculative thinking
the
more
period when
that
whether
in the general
"originally the sayings of Brahmans,
of Brahman-priests."
more
specialsense
Eggeling (S.B E. xii.
"
priests.
much
the
and
in the
intended
this
meant
one.
of
of
service
from
tribution
necessityof the disamongseveral distinct
MacdonelFs
relates
or
priests,
p.
the
to
production
Free
rituals.
down
and
wise
so
composed.
more
becoming established,and
engage
its elaborate
and
that
assume
lations
specu-
never
were
being handed
were
about
came
probably
were
works
field of sacrificial
the
in
ceremonials
may
was
could
thing which
trated
concen-
and
symbolism
caste
Macdonell,
activityis
early hymns
hymns
the
already
significance."These
imagination
sacrificial
elaborate
of
ficance
signi-
not
are
all intellectual
originand
unbounded
The
classes
sacred
the
explain
sacrifice,
describing its ceremonies, discussing its
an
when
theologicaltreatises
different literary
distinctly
and
dogmatic assertions,
of
the
reflect,"says
an
value, speculating on
are
rituals
"They
the
on
up
of
were
them.
age
grew
in prose,
written
are
Brahmanas2.
as
Brahmans
were
were
or
mana
Brah-
Introd.
they
or
of
sense
were
because
thoroughly
ing
superintend-
also supposed to be
view
as
is the correct
later than
not
was
Aranyakasor
the
thus unable
In
men
had
period
these, meditations
certain
on
not
symbols
forest and
requiringa
be procured
supplant
get
the
were
multitude
in forests.
supposed
were
to
we
probably
were
into the
sacrifices
could
however
works
These
retired
articles which
and
of accessories
who
perform elaborate
to
It is
Brahmana
Brahmanas
of the
treatises.
forest
for old
composed
of the
Gnostics.
Aranyakas.
development
further
the
500 B.C.
The
As
Philosophy [ch.
among
close
the
that
generally believed
now
but
unparalleledanywhere
system,
their
and
Vedas, Brahmanas
The
14
be of
to
sacrifices
as
being of
instead
that
the
from
illustration
of
( Usas) as
the
head
the
its
life,and
are
of
claims
Brhadaranyaka
find
we
actual
there
as
the
the
{asvamedhd)
air
of
beginning
horse, the
the
so
the
as
is indeed
This
on.
sun
eye
of the
ment
advance-
distinct
horse,
the actual
over
speculationor meditation
of sacrifice. The
performance of the complicated ceremonials
as
growth of the subjectivespeculation,
being capable of bringing
the highestgood, gradually resulted in the supersessionof Vedic
ritualism
and
of the claims
of philosophic
the establishment
of the
meditation
find
we
and
that
thinking
which
self-knowledgeas
the
tried
had
of
Aranyaka
gradually to
fettered
it for
the
was
age
shake
a
long
highest goal
a
of life. Thus
period during
off the
shackles
time.
It
which
of
thus
was
free
ritualism
that
the
Aranyakas could pave the way for the Upanisads, revive the
of philosophicspeculationin the Vedas, and develop them
germs
in
which
manner
that
arose
made
the
in the
world
The
The
hymns
singlehand
were
and
of the
do
Upanisads
Rg-Veda,
Rg-Veda
of
Hindu
the
source
of all
sophy
philo-
thought.
its civilization.
are
neither
the
productions of
the
before
handed
the
entered
Aryan people
from
mouth
additions
that
down
new
It
generations.
considerable
its civilization
%g- Veda,
The
n]
the
it
India.
collection
increased
had
were
to
very
in the present
probably arranged
was
They
and
made
were
that
extent
plainsof
graduallyswelled through
by the poets of succeeding
to mouth
when
was
the
the present
which
to
previous forms
its origin.They therefore reflect the civilization
arrangement owes
of the Aryan people at different periods of antiquitybefore and
form,
after
in
or
they
vanished
had
age
other
some
to
come
is of
This
India.
great aesthetic
unique
value, and
of the
soil with
the
ground
watering
"The
chief
food
plough
when
consists,"as
is little
used, and
flour and
the
on
only
and
wagons,
also
as
understood
women
they
and
tribe
and
smiths
Metal-workers,
delicate
more
the
tribe
under
was
the
the
much
in pots,
portant
im-
more
built war-chariots
and
artistic cups.
their
mats,
weaving
sheep
into
trade.
and
The
sewing
clothing for
strongly prove
how
persuaded
were
that
inviolable
were
realm
of nature, and
as
punished
to think
The
the
and
men
that the
the
sin
ordinances
and
act,
wrong
had
even
cases
by
the
"
the
the
the
the
rulers
as
hymns
people
of the
in the
unconscious,
it is
a
of
justice,right and
only rightand
pretty high degree
2
13.
some
limited
matters
Thus
attained
of
moral
expiated2."
Aryans
of
in
Thus
in mental
every
ideas
the head
or
Kaegi says,
prominent minds in
eternal
that
the
father
absolute, but
developed
deeply
world
proper
nowhere
were
of the
sway
probably hereditaryand
was
the
butter,many
of individuals
The
forming a
covering for animals.
group
the highest political
unit; each of the different families
was
forming
law,
of
wool
bread,
spitsor
works
potters continued
plaitingof
the
manufactured
carved
hoe,
at the
the
and
"together with
says,
race.
artificial canals.
with
necessary
probably eaten
was
primitive
mattock
harrow,
of
that is
Aryan
cattle-keepingand
and
Kaegi
much
of the
long
of the
book
of various
sorts
contains
estimate
"
cultivation
of
monument
Ibid. p. 18.
and
Vedas, Brahmartas
The
nowhere
of civilization,but
the
was
Philosophy [ch.
their
spiritof
sincere
the
Aryans
essential and
which
the most
was
religion,
all the hymns, except a few secular
feature of almost
dominant
Thus
Kaegi says, The whole significanceof the Rigveda
ones.
in
than
manifested
more
"
in reference
been
pointedout
to
the
us
in modern
the
to
times, rests
this,that
upon
it presents
of
Vedic
The
praiseof
repeatedly
earliest
and
its
composed
in
man1."
to
The
has
development
beginnings
relation
as
general historyof religion,
the
to
the
hymns of
the gods.
The
Gods.
all
almost
Rg-Veda
were
social and
other
materials
of
are
secondary
dentally
inciimportance, as these references had only to be mentioned
to their feelingsof devotion
to the god.
in giving vent
The
personalities
presidingover the diverse
gods here are however
of nature
or
They have
forming their very essence.
powers
like the
therefore no definite,systematic and separate characters
Greek gods or the gods of the later Indian
mythical works, the
The
Puranas.
thunder,
such
nature
closelyassociated
are
associated
of
powers
with
them
with
also
are
the
as
and
personalities
like the
mortal
them
with
characters
of nature.
Kaegi
in
has
in
this,that
take
it,as
butter
melted
a
horse
"
that
suddenly
sacrificer takes
pour
like
he
and
but
the
Agni
or
in the
the
springs forth
on
their
wonder
Tht
love
at
to
see
actual
and
expressionsof
fire
by
lost
sorrow
contrasted
is
described, as
softer
rubbing
the
as
the powers
in
wood,
the
as
early
gleaming brightness.
When
the priests
wood.
in
forth
later
be
may
few
In the
became
joy
same
in
impersonal nature,
an
the
only
gods
thus
gods
lies concealed
lays him
upon
he whom
prosperity. They
of
mostly
"
the
their tales of
Vedic
example,
an
one
are
until, called
morning hour,
The
they
it is
of nature, and
The
The
another.
Puranas
having
below.
here
chamber,
characters
and
gods
the
in character.
rain, the
another, and
one
similar
mythological compositions of
character
as
hypostaticpowers
the
storm,
neighing
increasinglike their
him, when,
decking
himself
own
with
people as
fresh.
At
accord
of
gods
in the
find
we
well-defined
peculiartrait of
This
time.
adored
it. The
of their mind
admiration
or
of
HenotheismorKathenotheism
the
most
Max
hymns
"a belief in
to
multitude
that
They
overawed
its beneficent
deitywhich
was
the Vedic
the
creed.
nature
gratefulnessand joy by
with
filled them
or
to
monotheistic
force
hypostatizedunconsciously any
them
existence
in
for them
ripeenough
not
was
universalize them
to
Philosophy [ch.
highly impressionableand
were
time
and
consistent
nor
hymns
the
this stage
their
and
Vedas, Brahmanas
The
votion
the de-
moved
for the
supreme
Muller
or
has called
singlegods,eachin turn
ascribe the
most
may
that
god, before
no
offence
urged," as
being
time
are
other
any
"
Varuna
the
since
rest,'
and
not
Asvins
god
no
Surya
submit
is
spoken of
laudations,such
are
subordinate
to the
as
or
force,through the
chief
modifications
or
their
of
Zeus
as
tendency of
exaggerate
1
9
Tht
the
the
lack
of any
constant
head
and
than
Vedic
Thus
others.
and
to
in
monotheistic
suppliedby
the
text
con-
is therefore
an
reality,
an
appearance
undeveloped anthropomorphism,
god occupying
the
position
of the
priestor singer in
his greatness
the
even
(i.ioi),Varuna
Henotheism
"
the
that
temporarily
corrections
even
by
frequent
more
..Even
when
(i.156)..
(eka),as is natural enough
verse8."
by the same
appearance,"says Macdonell, "rather
produced by the indefiniteness due
or
Indra
to
lose
statements
theory
of Visnu
power
unique
this
all the
thing
every-
"
Macdonell
deities
Vedic
"that
"l"gy2"
alone
if I
department
depreciationof
or
to whose
"
divine
all others
whom
been
it has
for the
him
be said of
can
matter,
belongs.This god
suppliant; with
of the
in the
power
to
ignore other
gods, and
by
the
Rigveda,by Kaegi, p.
27.
See also Arrowsmith's
note
on
theism.
it for other references to Heno-
Growth
n]
tendency
19
belief in the
growing
of whom
each
Monotheistic
of a
whether
call it Henotheism
we
of the powers
of the
the
or
deity in
temporary
mere
tion
exaggera-
question,it is evident
that
this
nor
monotheistic,
properlycalled polytheistic
which
had
them
one
a
both, although it
tendency towards
not sufficiently
developed to be identified with either of them.
extreme
tendency towards
exaggeration could be called a
stage
but
was
The
neither
can
bias
monotheistic
deities
was
be
in germ,
the
whereas
correlation
of different
Growth
of
Monotheistic
was
as
in R. V.
beginning rose
In the
This
2:
121
x.
Born
the
the
as
earth
only
Hiranyagarbha,
he
What
shade
heaven
with
established
oblations ?
our
givesus strength,whose
the
bright gods
is death, whose
shadow
even
bidding
lifeimmortal
What
What
extended
arms
god
shall
Who
made
Who
fixed the
Who
measured
What
god
Macdonell's
and
ocean
Whose
we
are
adore
exhibit ;
these
with
spreadingregions:
oblations ?
our
the heavens
shall
out
we
with
spaces:
oblations ?
our
The Rigveda, by
to
is said to be father
and
He
(All-creator)1.
that
It is to him
He
uncreated.
himself
though
also
are
the
is
Who
Who
sage
Philosophy [ch.
their
ascribed
attributes
Similar
and
Vedasy Brahmanas
The
20
the
Visvakarma
deity
generated
primitive waters.
says,
our
father,our
every
place doth
By
whom
alone
To
him
all other
creator, maker,
and every creature,
know
gods their
to
creatures
names
given,
were
to ask him2.
go
V. x. 82. 3.
R.
Brahma.
conception of Brahman
Vedanta
philosophy of
The
for the
the
the
from
Rg-Veda
which
later
associations
has
the
been
had
days
of the
highest glory
in
hardly emerged
sacrificial mind.
The
of the Vedas
meanings that Sayana the celebrated commentator
givesof the word as collected by Haug are: (a)food,food offering,
or
text,
(b) the chant of the sama-singer, (c) magical formula
(d) duly completed ceremonies, (e)the chant and sacrificial gift
together,(/)
says
it also
that
of
of
only
the
created
has
is the
to
the
itself went
made
the
sphere beyond,
into these
two,
worlds ?
Form
and
it
Name
the
are
so
two
these two
In another
Universe
considered,
Whatever
"
Kaegi's translation.
"
See
with
translation
Eggeling's
of
which
form
to
one
: as
ception
con-
the
this
Agni
far
these
is name;
and
knows
by
there
as
himself
be the ultimate
Prajapati,Purusa
S. B. E.
its
are
form,
Form
indeed
knows
great force*.
thing in
and
Texts, vol.
vol.
up
of
means
that
the
again
(universe).These
he who
and, verily,
Satapatha
Brahmana
the
gods.
I descend
can
name,
becomes
is said
is identified
the
worlds:
again by
this
'How
has
far,indeed, extends
place Brahman
behind
force
these
descended
and
to
Then
Surya the sky....
sphere beyond. Having gone
and
again which has no name
this is (of a certain)
form,'that is
and
forth
as
ascend
that
1
itself
air,and
the
It then
Name.
the
created
them
to
up
'
manifests
reaches
and
moving
(neut.).It
gods, it
which
soul
Verily in
"
world, Vayu
(terrestrial)
Brahman
the
Roth
priest,(g) great.
that the
Satapatha Brahmana
acquired a great significanceas
Satapatha
says,
the
hotr
in the
Brahman
Brahman
the
the
devotion
the
"
means
principlewhich
supreme
was
it is
of
recitation
satisfaction
longing and
gods." But
Thus
the
XLIV.
I v.
the
Prana
pp. 5-1 1.
the
n] Sacrifice;
First Rudiments
of the
Law
ofKarma
is described
(the vital air1).In another place Brahman
the Svayambhu
who
(self-born)performing austerities,
his
self in the
own
and
thus
compassed
all creatures2.
the
The
Rg-Veda
with
three
parts transcend
fourth
the
On
the
to
be
hand,
contributed
the
however
of the
or
by
to
Vaisnava
details.
these
monotheistic
as
influence.
melted
"
notes
butter
in the
which
The
to
the
be
the
on
kind
which
could
sacrifice
taken
teristics
charac-
magical
the
were
not
Christian
under
as
give
whole
is
ceived
con-
of
other," the
minute
the
familiar
are
we
sacrifice
a
offeringsat
The
with
to
dignity of
institution
an
gradually
growth
unimportant
relatively
were
The
raise the
to
piece must
tallywith
a
performance of even
of the
the
once
of Karma.
ritualism
sacrifice
Haug
as
remaining
is at
Law
that
suppose
complicationsof
to
devotion
He
of the
Rudiments
fruits of themselves.
dictated
the
the
wrong
position,and
desired
region beyond.
in their elaborate
growing
pervades
man
supreme
sacrifices.
gradually supplanting the polytheistic
were
other
the
self,
own
(Purusa)in
man
supreme
First
It will however
tendencies
the
offered
lordship over
future8.
Sacrifice;
of
being
as
in his
creatures
sovereignty and
that
supposes
world
the
supremacy,
conception
also
only
and
creatures
2 1
ritualistic
the
or
fire,
detail,say
in the
pouring
placing of
proper
utensils
straw
misplacing of a mere
sufficient to spoil the whole
contrary to the injunctions was
sacrifice with
whatsoever
it might be
earnestness
performed.
employed
word
Even
if
might
follow.
production
was
reversed
the
sacrifice
there
detail,
of the
mistaken
to the
and
would
be
of
accent
able
a
the demon
could
was
who
demon
the
even
was
Thus
of
Indra, owing
or
sacrifice,
no
produced was
duly performed
be
power
which
could
dreadful
kill his
to
killed
by
down
to
or
for the
sacrifice
singleword
arrest
results
enemy
the
Indra.
the
object
But
if
minutest
delay the
fruition
fulfilled not
objectsof a sacrifice were
by the grace of the gods, but as a natural result of the sacrifice.
The
performance of the rituals invariably produced certain
mystic or magical results by virtue of which the object desired
object.
Thus
See S. B. E.
See Ibid.
xliv.
the
xliii.
p.
pp.
418.
and
8
xliv.
R.
V.
p. 409.
X.
90, Purusa
Siikta.
sacrificer
the
by
natural
to
itself
world
the
from
existed
was
eternitylike
even
regarded
like the
course
physicalworld.
in the
law
have
fulfilled in due
was
the
fruit of
of
believed
was
The
Vedas.
the
fulfilment
sacrifice
The
as
Philosophy [ch.
their
and
Vedas, Brahmanas
The
22
of
creation
sacrifice performed
an
as
Being. It exists as Haug says
by the supreme
of electricity
and is like the latent power
invisible thing at all times
in an
machine, requiringonly the operation
electrifying
of
in order
suitable apparatus
offered
not
from
to
god
with
on
earth
welfare
him
to
view
to
be elicited."
propitiatehim
obtain
to
or
rewards
; these
bliss in Heaven
or
sacrifice is
The
are
were
the
is thus
by
duty, and
for
bad,
it
law
was
also called
was
was,
moral
sacrifices which
in
or
pleting
com-
that
these
regarded
karma
almost
as
or
only
for
mystical ceremonies
good
of
kinds
were
the
kriya (action)and
immoral
or
rank
to their divine
stated attained
of sacrifice. Sacrifice
of
sacrifice
the
about
mystical ceremonies
it is sometimes
unalterable
the
or
regarded as
means
kind
bringing
of
course
gods, who
the
in
instruments
enemies
or
of others)
at the cost
gaining worldly prosperity or supremacy
destined to produce their effects. It is well to note here that
were
the first recognitionof a cosmic
order or law prevailingin nature
under
in the
the guardianship of the highest gods is to be found
of the word
of things). This word
the course
Rta (literally
use
also
was
in
the
world
used,
moral
world
effects. It is
we
such
day.
hymns
as
sacrifice or
as
that
Macdonell
as
'
"
interestingto
Thus
on
we
of
towards
realityof
find
the
denote
'right' and
its unalterable
the
in
the
law
of
that
in this connection
of the law
over
to
Indian
simple faith
of
karma,
thought
and
which
up
"
order
it is here
exercises
of the
present
Vedic
hand
monotheistic
the
or
philosophicknowledge of
universe.
1
Macdonell's
'
religious
producing
to the
devotion
'
one
system
control
and
note
dominating
and
truth
rite1
observes,
the ultimate
n]
Cosmogony
Mythologicaland philosophical
"
Cosmogony
The
Mythological
"
of the
cosmogony
Rg-Veda
The
regards the
one
the
work
represents it
find
Rg-Veda
we
the
and
wood
and
the
as
earth2?"
The
Brahmana
which
heaven
also sometimes
are
is sometimes
this
hymn5
attracts
noticed
above
has been
earth
having
spoken of as
and
The
notice.
is there
said
all
his
the
his head
the
ear
Sun
four
Being
The
sages7.
of the
some
passages
the
world
from
sprang
existent
sprang,
soul
being is
called
the
In
from
in which
hymn
Macdonell's
R.
Macdonell's
BR.V.
7
R. V.
Muir's
x.
x.
1.
"
the
the
Vedic
also
golden
atmosphere
earth;
to
blew
of
in which
the
and
effect
the supreme
as
these
existent
gods, the
first age
of
the
thereafter
most
gods, the
the
regions
remarkable
90.
72 ; Muir's
and
philosophicspeculation
Br.
Taittt
; also R. V.
164. 46.
In
births
u.
3
the
by
names
forth
the
from
is movable
many
and
(Hiranyagarbha8).
Qgg
the
already
has become
hymns
extolled
of
x.
have
statements
translation of R. V.
parentage
inanimate,
all that
The
p.
came
sometimes
are
posts4. They
the
other
Uttanapada9."
Mythology,
Earth
the
came
non-existent:
Mythology,p.
from
universe,whatever
and
are
earliest age
the
and
we
by
In
tree
immortality who
his feet
81. 4.
Vedic
as
whole
Brahmanaspati
the
the
with
it is called
non-existent.
thereafter,from
V.
though
it is said
sprang
sublime
man
(atmari) of
are
Taittirlya-
semi-pantheisticMan-
his navel
from
There
is one,
blacksmith.
the
supreme
Lord
like
sky;
is immovable6.
the
that
arose
is called
all that
the
; from
was
Daksa.
and
be
in
parents, and
things animate
everywhere among
out of him
beings came
from
Heaven
supported
diffused
Brahman
supreme
to
duction,
pro-
built heaven
they
question
and
philosophicalaspect
our
says,
of mechanical
which
universal
Aditi
to
Macdonell
in the
this
been
mythological
generation1." Thus
one
place says, "what
made3."
were
two
other
of
to
wood
as
attributed
Under
result
from
at
joiner'sskill; the
out
given
the
and
described
sometimes
tree
answer
is "Brahman
the
the
as
poet in
the
was
looked
Professor
as
of natural
the
be
The
philosophical.
carpenter'sand
that
philosophical.
may
currents,
result
what
the
universe
of
and
23
n.
R.V.
1.
R. V.
x.
Sanskrit
11.
8. 9. 6.
15 and
iv.
56.
115.
m.
Textst vol.
V.
p. 48.
and
24
with
regard
found
are
is the
atmosphere
The
covered
What
all ? and
neither death
Then
2.
Alone
that
breathed
Other
than
one
It
was
That
which
Alone
by
And
In
6.
there
whether
then
The
source
And
whether
know
from
from
which
it was
what
on
this
were
there
nor
become
a
this
the Rishi
"
or
"
arisen?
does
'
know1?
probably
that
in the
"
129.
1),'There
This^Mind. -when
and
it has
did
been
then
neither
it were,
neither
was
as
was,
existent;
existed
Wherefore
for Mind
beginning
nor
it were,
as
in the
passage
non-existent
Mind.
X.
risen,
He
not
says
neither
(Rg-Veda
has
uncreated,
highest heaven
this is
only that
non-existent.
manifest,
the
1) which
the existent
nor
or
(universe)was
then
was
the non-existent
it
as
it has
this universe
made,
5. 3.
(universe)was
the beginning
surely
has risen?
not
can
tell us
can
this universe
how
Satapatha
Brahmana(X.
existent
hidden;
desire,
arose
here
Who
earliest commentary
by
distinction.
calmly, self-supported,
aught above It.
declared
existed;
no
nor
He
exist:
yet
was
of mind, within
and
what
Who
not
the
is it knows
And
in
it.
it.
primal germ
sages, searchingin their heart, discovered
Nothing the connecting bond of Being.
From
The
sky
undistinguishedwaiej;.
emptiness lay hidden
of fervor was
developed.
power
was
Who
7.
not-being.
above
in void and
Which
nor
first in darkness
at
world
the
by what protected ?
?
abyss of waters
none,
was
originof
X.
deathless
nor
night there
Then
nor
where
Of day and
there
3. Darkness
The universe was
4.
not,
was
the fathomless
there
Was
of R. V.
neither being
was
Philosophy [ch.
of the
mystery
29th hymn
there
Then
1.
wonderful
the
to
their
created;wished
to
morexlefined^jiica^-su^stai^
self^aJjodyjnTjDrac^
In the
Atharva-Veda
universe
Thus
forth such
find that
we
comprehended
were
we
also
find it stated
within
the
that
all forms
god Skambha3.
in the
The
Sc"
A. V. x. 7.
even
of the
there sprang
who
x.
119.
B. E. vol.
xliii.
pp.
374, 375.
could
of the
often
more
of the
enjoyments
works
when
conception
the
and
of
sorrows
with
notion
the
of rta, and
Rg-Veda
which
to
are
the
vital breath.
mean
emotion, and
and
the
dwelling in
atman
dead
realityin
man
came
man
and
atman
the
first-born,
being
born
from
the
him
ask
that
it is said that
with
his
Self
him
is
no
pre-Upanisad
denote
of
"
or
at
least
one
the
world
"
thence
blood, and
Who
has
how
seen
world
of the
the
was
Who
vital
went
to
he
that
Thus
who
find
we
probably
atman
then
the
TaittiriyaBrahmana
it. In
evil deeds.
in man,
was
that
world, and
we
knows
in the
first used
find the
to
sinless and
man
of
out
essence
the
as
looking at the self of man
principleof the universe,the knowledge of
supreme
makes
the
into
by
It is from
man.
growing tendency
In
literature
vital breath
"
self in
the
Vedic
ultimate
is however
(asu) to
omnipresent, and
stained
more
going
man
the
{atman)
self entered
is called
atman
how
understand
Prajapatiafter
own
There
of
as
says,
it2?"
knows
however
dtman
difficult to
separablepart
regarded as the
where
Boneless
the
in the
soul
Macdonell
regarded,as
be
self of
the
and
thought is generallyused
regarded as the seat of thought
inmost
or
Indian
universe.
Rg-Veda
the
as
the
denote
word
be
law
of Karma
Law
The
It is however
as
bad
and
good
inviolable
an
which
asu.
is
to
seems
to
from
deeper passes
to
it
breath, or
in the
passage
Manas
heart1.
vital
as
the
in later
famous
became
his
was
words
and
dtman
manas,
connection
transmigration. The
of
ordinary good
necessary
of
than
with
man
already seen
have
we
of a
possibilities
of the
combined
order, which
Philosophy [ch.
of sacrificial duties
nature
ideas
These
works.
their
and
VedaSy Brahmanas
The
26
to
then
traces
present
omniwhich
pure.
Conclusion.
Looking
at the advancement
only looked
not
1
Macdonell's
'
R. V.
Ethics.
I.
fabric of
upon
Vedic
164.4 and
the
Mythology,p.
Deussen's
of
166 and
article
on
as
R.
correlation
V. vin.
Atman
in
of
parts or
89.
Encyclopaedia of Religion and
n]
Conclusion
made
construction
emanated
from
with
one
being
of
the
universe
doubts
even
knows
the
on
whether
of
growth
of
the
effects
of
themselves.
being
the
of
character
and
his
world
of
on
be
earth,
is
as
of
and
the
supreme
approached
the
soul
the
his
also
self
and
the
great
first
when
see
man
as
Atman
certain
is
that
of
doctrine
the
of
in
idea
the
has
the
of
again
begun
the
born
re-
may
doctrine
place
one
in
be
this
later
universe,
the
another
that
and
in
some
separable
in
passages,
atman
as
being
could
it
spoken
trace
we
well
that
seeds
(atman)
we
in
in
or
in
doctrine
the
the
multiple
enjoyment
deeds;
etc.,
and
their
as
deities
fate,
our
tendency
and
bad
or
at
the
and
described
suffering
their
of
importance
world
is
unalterable
produced
diminished
man
Secondly,
the
monotheistic
plants,
hinted
Aranyakas
essence
good
sowing
world,
to
to
go
The
the
of
subject
could
the
express
"Who
not?"
actions
the
gradually
to
transmigration.
essence
of
masters
and
man
lessened
to
creation
establish
to
mother
the
as
as
"
or
(sacrificial)
also
advanced
body
regarded
the
henotheism
according
soul
which
of
as
times
is
bold
so
created
ever
helped
has
which
be
to
other
at
questions
was
It
Thirdly,
quarters.
world
by
times
at
fundamental
most
supreme
tendency
from
law
it, and
spirit
having
as
described
sometimes
is
agnostic
seen
sacrifices
nature
as
is
this
who
it
explain
to
surpassing
the
it;
thought
sought
being
and
from
separate
but
them,
great
one
philosophic
the
of
27
the
of
as
the
Brahmanas
to
and
Upanisads.
mean
has
the
thus
III
CHAPTER
The
it
THOUGH
attached
treatises
separate
that
yet it
Brahmanas,
subjects which
are
introduced
into
are
sometimes
fused
This
1
shows
There
that
11
18
mahamsa,
are
28
Brhajjabala,
nirudra,
32
Subala,
33
19
Ksurika,
34
mavidya,
Atmabodha,
Yogatattva,
52
^arabha,53
rahasya,
61
44
48 Yogacudamani,
Skanda,
62
72 Ekaksara,
vitri, 79Atman,
80
90
Bhasmajabala,
95
Mahavakya,
50
Upanisads.
with
which
of
and
purport
the later
106
The
Upanisads
Muktika
Kalag-
31
37
Su-
Brah-
42
Daksinamdrtti,
51
56
60
Vasudeva,
59
Rama-
Mudgala,
65 "ariraka, 66 Yoga^ikha,
70 Aksamala,
82
Avyakta,
71
78 Sa-
77 Kundika,
83 Tripuratapini,
Avadhuta,
89 Yogakundall,
Rudrahrdaya,
88
87 Bhavana,
chapter
Varaha,
102
Upanisads
the earlier
were
These
doctrines.
with
in
in Volume
this
composed
will be
II.
chapter
even
Amongst
others
are
as
The
do
late
which
as
later date.
the
later
deal
referred
later
not
With
Upanisads.
less
or
more
ones.
these, there
systems
dealt
of
are
Jabali,
Sau-
109
list of 108
gives a
108
Ha-
104
Muktika.
112
Dara
by
Sathyayaniya,
103
Kalisantarana,
107
translated
of them
are
of
the Vaisnava
of those
of those
Garuda,
Upanisad
most
the Yoga
Parabrahma,
81
Yajflavalkya,
101
Upanisads
in this
consideration
Mai-
27
55 Advayataraka,
76 Adhyatma,
75 Aksi,
Sarasvatirahasya, niBahvrca,
no
collection
of the first
dealt
Krsna,
Dattatreya,
105
bhagyalaksmi,
The
Pasupatabrahma,
Para-
22
94 Tarasara,
91 Rudraksajabala, 92 Ganapati, 93 Jabaladarsana,
96 Paftcabrahma,
GopalapurvatapinI,
Pranagnihotra,
98
99 Gopa97
100
lottaratapini,
yagrlva,
Mandalabrahmana,
50
74 Surya,
85 Tripura, 86 Katharudra,
Narayana,
45 Naradaparivrajaka, 46 Tri"ikhibrahmana,
69 Paramahamsaparivrajaka,
Annapurna,
73
Brahma-
Dhyanabindu,
41
58 RamottaratapinI,
64 Maha,
63 Bhiksuka,
67 Turiyatlta,68 Samnyasa,
16
36 Niralamba,
Sarvasara,
35
5 Mun-
Brhadaranyaka,
Jabala,
NrsimhottaratapinI,
30
Tripadvibhutimahanarayana,
Paingala,
one
"Nirnaya-
the
AtharvasHkha,
26
Ramapurvatapini,
57
Sandilya,
84 Devi,
21
Nadabindu,
40
Nirvana,
49
54
Narayana,
Yantrika,
39 Tejobindu,
43
20
Nrsimhapurvatapinl,
29
karahasya, 38 Vajrasucika,
Slta,
15
in
up
Prasna,
10
14
Atharva"ras,
25
teaching.
grew
Chandogya,
Kaivalya,
Garbha,
Amrtanada,
24
trayanl,
47
materials
Upanisad
3 Katha,
Kena,
cases
some
published by
been
Isa,
Maitreyi,
13
Arunika,
Brahma,
23
have
which
Taittiriya, 8 Aitareya,
Kausltaki,
Hamsa,
17
These
of
as
inaBrahmana
gradually
literatures
Upanisads
191 7.
Mandukya,
"vetasvatara,12
bindu,
three
in
Aranyaka
the
bulk
great
find
discussed
and
Aranyakas
the
be
to
distinction
their
we
usually-
are
again attached
are
that
Thus
expect
into
112
the
these
about
are
should
we
which
said
observed.
always
is
be
cannot
literature.
Upanisads
Aranyakas
the
to
the
that
B.C.)
600
B.C."
Vedic
in
Upanisads
generally held
is
appendices
as
the
to
of the
place
(700
UPANISADS1.
EARLIER
THE
to
there
ones
with
the
Upanisads
which
or
exception
Upanisads
are
some
"aiva,3akta,
in connection
require further
the fourteenth
the
The
with
the
mention.
Some
of
the.fifteenth
century.
The
in]
ch.
development
of
and
literature 29
Deussen
found
in this,that
process
of
one
the
the
into
ancient
as
to
of
the
world
to
intended
were
for those
who
forests
and
attain
ultimate
for the
in their old
the
withdrew
age
for those
Upanisads
salvation
holders,
house-
who
by meditation.
Whatever
of
the
were
Brahmanas
Aranyakas
solitude
renounced
the
they
Vedic
an
of the
latter.
orthodox
Veda
It is not
Hindu
is to
be
out
holds
view
of
place
that
here
mention
to
whatever
may
commandments
interpretedas
that
the
be written
in the
perform
certain
to
actions
commission
why
to
particularVedic
any
reason
can
why
have
the Vedas
to show
the
therefore
the
been
revealed
path
true
Vedic
of
it is
as
commandments
happiness.
The
to that of the
Karma-marga or
etc. The
sacrifice,
Upanisads
of
performance
of any
action,but
only
at
a
reality,
knowledge of which
Readers
of Hindu
philosophy are aware
and
controversy
on
(Upanisads) and
to the other
that
the
that
they
held
this
point between
those
of the Veda.
Upanisads
should
should
also
be
to
the
For
as
and
any
reveals
the
and
prohibitions
teaching belongs
performance of Vedic
the
however
reveal
once
do
the
require
not
ultimate
emancipates
that there
adherents
is
very
of the
literature to establish
truth
a
man.
strong
Vedanta
in
analogy
the
principle
be regarded as an
not
exception,but
so
interpretedthat they might also be
of
duties
; but
of the Vedic
the
ture
litera-
reference
the slightest
to
they do not make
duties,but only delineate the ultimate
realitywhich
highest knowledge in the minds of the deserving.
assert
Vedic
effect that
Vedic
the performance
commending
former dissociate the Upanisads from the rest
out
no
fails
reason
certain
argue
followed,for
only because
leads
act
rightto
any
is to be
that,and
certain
has
person
commandment
discover
ever
find out
duties
prohibitions.No
that
Earlier
The
3"d
"arikara the
eminent
most
of the
exponent
ceased
such
have
to
deserving
belong
duties
student,
the
Those
duties
Vedic
latter who
above
are
longer
no
eager
fit to
are
the
perform
who
those
alone
an
or
but
be
may
householder
to
that
duties
there
revealed
been
have
stage inferior
it is the
emancipation, and
the Vedic
Wheresoever
knowledge.
true
to
of
fruits
for the
care
the
and
emancipation
Vedic
Upanisads
the
ascetic,for him
he
be
person,
already
are
for whom
attraction.
any
holds
Upanisads
who
for such
superior men
they are meant
and
worldly or heavenly prosperities,
have
[ch.
Upanisads
for
final
hear
the
Upanisads1.
The
Upanisads
The
they
believed
are
Upanisads
of the
names
also
are
to be
Non-Brahmanic
known
last
the
by
influence.
another
Vedanta,
name
portionsof the
the philosophy
{veda-anta,
Upanisads,
Vedas
of the
that
by this name
the Vedanta
philosophy,is so familiar to us. A modern
that in language the Upanisads approach the
knows
Sanskrit ; the ideas preached also show that they are the
it is
end) ;
intellectual achievement
the
of
Vedic
which
names
schools
schools
Sama-veda
the
attached
Upanisads.
Kausltaki
Those
called
are
to
no
along
longer any
in different
memory
directions
with
the
and
the
to
classical
tion
culmina-
they
retained
their
they
of
name
the Vedas
different
the
studied2.
were
of the
Brahmanas
Aitareya
respectivelyAitareya
Chandogya
Talavakaras
and
Talavakara
and
of the
Taittirlyaschool
those who
are
of
(or
Yajurveda
{adhikdribheda).Those
Upanisads and
and
who
fit to
hear
perform
the
nisads
Upa-
had
become
fixed, they
substantially
transmitted
from
were
compositions, the
diverse kinds
of modifications
committed
teacher
to
The
pupil
latter
Brahmanas.
These
accordingto
however
were
which
recited. Thus
after a time there
they were
people among
the
of
the
of the
in
of
the
Brahmanas
texts
even
readings
divergence
great
the
known
Veda among
different people. These different schools were
name
by
needs
occurred
same
of
matter
graduallyliable
the
student
great epoch. As
of the Tandins
of the
the Samhita
When
formed
not
the
which
This is what
from
to
of the Vedas
called
are
Kena) Upanisads.Those
1
took
(sdk/id)
among
Upanisads
Kausltaki
and
they
branches
or
the
Thus
concluding parts
the
formed
thus
of
as
of the
of
associated
with them.
Brahmanas
in]
the
form
Taittiriyaand
of
Kathaka,
the
the
school.
be
cannot
with
But
regard
forms
has
these
to
the
school
Katha
the
The
MaitrayanI.
The
Isa
school
and
of
school
MaitrayanI
the
traced,
Early Upanisads
Mahanarayana,
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
of the Vajasaneyi schools.
latter
the
and
which
the
probably
Upanisads
been
to
belongs to the
Svetasvatara
belongs
also
Upanisad
lost. The
is that
tion
presump-
they represent
the
which
enlightened views of the particularschools among
they
and under
whose
names
flourished,
they passed. A large number
of Upanisads of a comparatively later age were
attached
to the
Atharva-Veda,
Vedic
of
most
schools
but
which
named
according to the
subject-matterwith which
were
according
the
to
not
they dealt1.
It may
be
not
frequent episodes
described
of
in the
having
as
of
out
and
well
from
from
the
to
philosophy, as
Brahmanas
that among
in which
from
that
the
mention
to
that
the
Ksattriyasfor the
as
of
the
from
the
Brahmins
are
ledge
highest know-
the
disparatenessof
general doctrines of
the
allusions
speculationsamongst
inferred
here
Upanisads
gone
Upanisad teachings
place
the
to
people in
of
existence
Pali
works,
the
the
sophical
philo-
it may
be
the
not
the
production
alone, but
that
non-Brahmanic
was
the
set
their
formulation
their culmination
in the
Brahmanas
The
Upanisad thought
is
and
hands
of the
the
Indian
probably
monotheistic
some
developed,but
the
1
some
Upanisads
Garbha
these
as
Upanisad,Atman
exceptions such
as
well
mind
the
the
either
fruitful assistance
achieved
Early Upanisads.
We
from
most
know
the
Brahmanic
remarkable
that
Ptolemaic
from
and
event
in the
conceptions of great
as
have
must
rendered
dogmas
Brahmins.
much
of Brahmanic
cultivation,though they
historyof philosophicthought.
hymns
as
have
afoot,or
and
of the
passage
growth
thought
doctrines
Upanisad
to
of the
in the
were
absolutism
the
the
later Vedic
excellence
the
to
of
Copernican
were
however
into the
Hiranyagarbha
to
seems
admit
that
doctrine
when
to
of the
Brahman
the
and
atman
though
improbable,
be very
to
me
translation of Visvakarman
direct
The
systems in astronomy.
[ch.
Upanisads
Earlier
The
32
swallowed
conceptionswere
it had developed to
these
sads
Upani-
quitewilling
am
by the atman
Throughout
up
extent.
proper
or
is to be found of Visvakarman,
Upanisads no mention
Hiranyagarbha or Brahmanaspati and no reference of such a
is to be found
nature
as
can
justifyus in connecting the Upanisad
the earlier
When
as
those
from
creator
they
and
"
for
pray
whence
worldly benefits.
from
the principle,
was
has
god, who
side
on
arms,
shapes
karm
and
the
with
grant
to
is
and
arms
thy friends
man
Visvakarall-seeing
sky by his might ? The
every
side
producing
the
generous
may
every
earth,
highestobjectof
the
who
disposer,
here
remain
son
is wise,energetic,
find "Visvakarman
creator,
sky
and
those
we
face,on
his
with
middle...
R.V.X. 82
father,our
our
feet,when
disposer,and
creator, the
who
his
lowest,and the
to us2" ; again in
the
side
which
position,
the
the
on
to whom
events,
the
was
which
side eyes,
every
every
them
an,
on
What
disclosed
of mundane
controller
outside,a
him
it describes
Visvakarman
describes
Rg-Veda
the
intuition. ...He
all
knows
spheres and
the
to him
gods their names,
other creatures
resort for instruction8." Again about Hiranyagarbha
in the beginning;
find in R.V. I. 121,
we
Hiranyagarbha arose
the
the one
lord of things existing. He established
born, he was
creatures, who
alone
assignsto
the
"
this
and
brilliant waters
is lord
thou
than
obtain that,through
become
1
HI.
The
4 and
masters
name
iv.
"
to
what
created
all these
over
desire of which
of riches4."
we
Speaking
god, etc.
have
things:
invoked
manaspatidoes
not
Muir's Sanskrit
occur
refers to
thee; may
of the purusa
at
occurs
all in the
Texts, vol.
IV.
only
in the
later Nrsirnh.
we
may
the
9. The
we
Rg-Veda
VisVakarma
Deussen
Prajapati,no
which
word
in Svet.
yagarbha
Hiran-
Brah-
Upanisads.
pp. 6, 7.
Ibid. p. 7.
Ibid. pp.
16, 17.
Earlier
Tke
34
self has
wants
but
fails
Gargya
to
the
to
contrary
from
and
warrior
him1."
that
the true
unusual
was
thousand
to
Janaka
to
run
and
story of Svetaketu
regard to
with
of
way
tell him
the
speak
to
the
him.
Brahman
order of
Brahman
At
to
asking
the
about
Brahman2.
The
be
one
people
second
clusive
fairlycon-
transmigrationdoctrines,
and
gods (devaydnd)
beginning
Balaki
pay
to
the
to
since all
Jaibaliseems
to
things a
Brahman,
the
is
instruction
Brahmin
promised
fact that
this
To
about
Pravahana
man
Brahman,
true
the
of Brahman?
knowledge
if he could
coins
find
to
the
the
it
boastful
receive
latter to declare
the
expect
Brahman
always
Ksattriyas,and
Ksattriyaabout
used
that
order
Ajata"atru
translation)"it
own
this not
Does
Brahmin
of
and
story of Balaki
In the
produced.
[ch.
Upanisads
the
of
way
fathers
the
the Ksattriyas,
but it is without
(pitrydna)had originatedamong
any relevancywith regard to the originof the superiorknowledge
of Brahman
The
is
the
as
story of Aruni
third
hardly
what
Aruni
; but
and
convincing, for
more
know
self.
true
the
and
Brahman
the
self were,
to
went
Uddalaka
about it he accompanied
sufficiently
them
to the Ksattriya king Asvapati Kaikeya who
was
studying
the subject. But Asvapati ends the conversation
by giving them
certain
the
as
instructions
import
self
true
only
he did not
about
Brahman.
few
We
discussingand
Brahmins
as
hasty
too
been
in
shared
given by
1
Garbe's
Brh.
him
owing
expressed in
his judgment.
to some
to
article,"Hindu
atman
The
iv.
about
that
the
cases
passages
the
essay
seems
also,and
are
structing
inwere
.thus
led
feelingagainstthe
opinion of Garbe
Winternitz
am
are
were
Brahmins
knowledge.
the
there
Ksattriya kings
Monism"
anything
say
his bitterness of
by
Upanisad
also Brh.
also to consider
in all other
to
extent
the
not
where
instructingthe
11., compare
brahmavidyd.
does
ought
But
that Garbe
think
fire doctrine
exceptional cases
the Brahmins.
to
the
of its sacrifices. He
as
the
know
had
to
been
have
the references
also the
same
as
we
p. 74.
3, how
speaks
Yajfiavalkya
to
Janaka about
the
in]
and
Aranyakas
the
Upanisads
35
be this,that the
to
to me
just examined1.
^JPnetruth seems
took
interest in the religiosome
women
Ksattriyasand even
in the Upanisads. The enquirers
philosophicalquest manifested
were
so
eager that either in receivingthe instruction of Brahman
and
in imparting it to others,they had no considerations of sex
or
definite evidence
for thinking
to be no
birth2; and there seems
the Ksattriyas
that the Upanisad philosophy originatedamong
be traced
of its growth could not
in the
that the germs
or
the productions of
Brahmanas
the Aranyakas which
and
were
Brahmins.
the
the visible
eye, wind
dawn
is the horse
to
significant
most
suitable
the most
animal.
of
an
the
and
lost their
value
side
with
chosen
the
and
the
bare
meditations
ritualistic sacrifices
from
the
external
world
of these
as
took
such
is
as
mere
their
place. Side
generalityof the
thinking and symbolic
of the
in the eyes
imports were
Winternitz's
The
Jabala and
story of
of these
taken
men
his teacher
sun,
up
and
it
not
and
only
etc.,from
the senses,
but
believed
that
was
the greatest
Sacrifice in itself
was
ductive
pro-
losingmysticalsignificances
diverse
be considered
197 fF.
Litteratur, I. pp.
3
was
as
matter
wind,
the
and
and
highest and
results.
beginning to
Maitreyiand
as
the
vital functions
the
of great beneficial
and
is
sacrificial rituals
accurate
was
the meditation
value
of it
meditation
and
elaborate
most
his various
body
arbitraryalphabetswere
even
the
which
of man,
the
and
is the horse
universe
Brahmins,
action
is the
sun
moving
mind,
horse, the
of the
substances
by
This
meditated
and
and
that grazes
can
horse
as
is the head
What
on.
The
such.
as
upon
is to be conceived
universe
that of
Cha.
v.
Satyakama
if,
3-2
son
of
identified
(verse)of Rg-Veda was
Aranyaka under several allegoricalforms with
Uktha
The
of the Samaveda
Udgitha
water,
II. the
Chandogya
; in
eye
identified
was
Saman
sacrifice ; his
identified with
in
Aitareya
Prana1, the
the
identified
was
the
and
with
Chandogya
in
Prana, etc.,
seasons,
[ch.
Upanisads
Earlier
The
36
III.
with
Om,
16-17
was
man
with
hunger, thirst,sorrow,
rain,
tion
initia-
of the Mantras
laughing,eating,etc., with the utterance
restraint from
asceticism, gift,sincerity,
injury,truth,with
and
Indians
of
anxious
was
thought had
to our
most
seed
of food
seed
is this
word
The
The
seed
The
seed
of seed
The
seed
of the heart
Brahman
the
fathers."
at
sound
the
It
of
with
of herbs
pure
origin
of the
is food.
The
is creatures.
is the mind.
gods
The
seed
The
The-act
of
seed
done
it is
Sayana
the
hotr
spoken
of in
ceremonies,
that
to
existed,"and
as
meant
mantras
priest,the great.
R.V.
as
being new,
"coming
into
being
from
juice is pressed
endures
seed
speech is action.
according
hitherto
having
not
of
the
comes
The
as
of Brahman2."
(magical verses),the
Hillebrandt
points out
"as
find "Then
of rain is herbs.
seed
considered
often
was
things
of instrumentality
kind
Any
gods.
abode
the
man
connection.
II. 1.3 we
speech. The
is
find in the
we
fanciful unifications of
and
the
is seed.
of the mind
result of that
Prajapatiare
is the heart.
creatures
as
no
Vedic
cultured
of these
unity,but logicalprecision
some
effect
an
in Ait. Aran.
seed of
The
is rain.
little or
producing
identity.Thus
The
to
come
grotesque
have
eyes
in
of food.
to
developed,and
not
Aranyakasthe
which
giftedmind
{daksina).The
sacrificialfees
the
and
the
help
of
hymns are
the gods even
recited
in
at
the
battle,and
savana
soma
rite,
is its
guardian (R.V. VIII. 37. 1, VIII. 69. 9, VI. 23. 5, I. 47. 2, VII. 22. 9,
the strength of these Hillebrandt
the
VI. 52. 3, etc.).On
justifies
which
a mysterious power
can
conjectureof Haug that it signifies
be called forth by various
ceremonies, and his definition of it,as
the
the
think
that
this
meaning
find it in many
we
The
1
meaning
Ait.
11.
Aral?.
Hillebrandt's
in
is
passages
many
in the
these
"
1-3.
article
of
closelyconnected
on
Brahman,
the
meaning as
Aranyakasand the Upanisads.
be midway
between
to
seems
Keith's
".
with
R. E.
Translation
of Aitareya Aranyaka.
"
and
magical forced
rather
old
meditations, the
and
remained,
of the
as
great force
natural
Brahman
actual
the
of
external
the
in
of the
sacrifice
sacrifices
in many
with
is
replaced by
still
passages
meditating
identified
functions
the
that
which
be
to
of
of
thinking
interest
performance
began
find
$7
between
power
we
being
as
main
this
upon
diverse
symbols,
body.
transferred
was
world
from
certain
to
its
of
forms
understanding of particularallegories
sacrifice having a relation to particular
kinds of bodily functions
regarded as Brahman, without a knowledge of which nothing
meditation, we
was
the
in
are
"
objects,parts and
When
of
belief
Upanisads people
"
sacrifices
the
result of that
Upanisads
"great," transition
when
easy.XEven
the
and
Aranyakas
in]
of the
as
Pancagnividya
efficacyof
real
the
When
the
that
man
if any
the
that
gods
Kena
such
whole
all the
abstracted
There
are
and
from
each
know
of
so
away,
and
all the
and
that
these
were
the
of
deluded
self of
man
the
inner
unpleasant
all the
Upanisads
that
the
as
being
with
for
of the
magic
for
the
10.
being
power.
after the
first only
power
etc.
moon,
with
symbolical
time
were
power
was
dominating
the
at
was
with
the
presentations,
re-
idea
gradually found
solution*and
final
i. 4.
the
"The
work,
search
to
Brahman
the supreme
as
various
these
as
originated.
Brh.
the
which
Brahman,
to
(wind)
(unalterablelaw)
themselves
of
powers
through
could
man
conceived
satisfactory.But
came
the
unpleasant for
it is
it is
shows
Rta
and
functions
inadequate,they
beasts,so
many
that
that
senses
with
stories in the
and
meditations.
mental
such
that
think
Upanisads
to
came
it is
as
it indicated
associated
many
by
and
man,
taken
are
nature
nourished
Upanisad thought
of
as
some
Brahman,
upon
gods
process
of sacrifices
that
as
in the
to
people
depended upon
was
find
we
referred
culminating conception,that he is
the gods to be different from him, they
man
by
allegorical
interpretations
the
should
men
blow, depended
that
that
of his beasts
the
In
each
as
these
much
so
thinks
nourished
were
gods
to
rose
sages
gods
the
are
sacrifices
reallyignorantwho
thought
fact that
doctrine, shows
secret
The
obtained.
be
could
highest truth
the
the
doctrine
Brahman
of
Muller
and Max
(tosit),
act of
sittingdown
him.
In his introduction
of
and
teacher
sad
with
prefix
the
the
meant
originally
to
submissivelylistening
says, "The
he
Upanisads
the
to
the root
says
near
Upanisad.
word
from
Upanisad is derived
word
The
[ch.
Upanisads
of the
meaning
The
ni
Earlier
The
38
history
that
language
a session
session,particularly
consisting
Upanisad meant originally
round
their teacher1."
distance
assembled
of pupils,
at a respectful
genius
the
and
Sanskrit
of the
pointsout
Deussen
in this
in the
sense
of secrecy
or
great Indian
There
of the
destroy and
used
was
of the
communication
and
restraint
that it is
to
desires
the
however,
word
the
called
so
student
noble
Sarikara
Upanisads, derives
supposes
sads
Upani-
tions
great injunc-
only be given
them.
hear
deserving to
of the
find that
for the
moral
tion,"
instruc-
we
it should
supreme
''or"secret
secret
also agrees
observed
that
exponent
sad to
the root
his
by
himself
proves
be
to
little doubt
of the passages
many
Muller
it is said
pupil who
means"
Upanisads2.
are
doctrines,and
by
out
Max
themselves.
leave
from
it
because
meaning
have
in
some
verses
As
written
similar
is easy
is it in its
archaic
are
very
of diverse
growth
and
Upanisads
oldest
classical Sanskrit.
more
fullyjustified3.
composition
The
The
is
to
to
Upanisads.
in prose.
that
those
Next
see, the
older
The
earliest
language.
to
are
the
to
these
be
found
Upanisad
Upanisads
we
in
the
have
almost
Upanisad
doctrine
as
we
have
seen,
in
the
of
sense
or
conveyed
to be
high morals
used,
was
in strictest secrecy
superiorself-restraint
and
Max
S. B. E. vol.
Deussen's
Mttller's Translation
1.
to earnest
of the Upanishads,S.B.E.
p. Ixxxiii.
10-15.
"secret
also
tended
in-
enquirersof
of
achieving
vol. I. p. lxxxi.
Revival
in]
It
emancipation.
when
it once
attraction
find
for the
other
late
earliest
and
forms
of
result of that
as
and
prose
and
had
verse
we
been
position
language, the Upanisad form of comstopped. Thus
though the earliest Upanisads
Sanskrit
not
compiled by 500
the spread of
as
were
to possess
came
39
the
religiouspeople ;
when
even
had
that
into use,
came
for earnest
that
adapted
thus
was
studies
of Upanisad
B.C.,
continued
they
Mahommedan
be
to
written
influence
so
even
The
India.
in
most
It is
Mandukya1.
important to
separate Upanisads differ much
their
them
the
the
and
content
methods
philosophy
Revival
the
How
undertook
with
regard to
while
exposition. Thus
of the
of
some
of
manuscript
of
resident
Anquetil
in
translated
This
1802.
it
the
in modern
introduced
to be
eldest
the
Pandits
Faizabad
it into
at
Latin
by
the
with
supposes
that
Kausitaki
is also
Schroeder
Emperor
Delhi, who
In
Persian.
was
of
Le
1775
received
Gen
til,the
Shuja-uddaulah.
published in
1801-
read by
was
though largelyunintelligible
It had, as Schopenhauer
great enthusiasm.
Deussen
to
his friend
which
an
Zend-Avesta,
court
is
translation
Schopenhauer
himself
of the
into
of the
him
presented to
eight.
Europe
into
Benares
translatingthem
be
times.
son
from
discoverer
and
hundred
one
thus
may
6arira Upanisads.
and
Upanisads during
several
work
the
to
Shiko
and
body,
studies
came
Dara
invited
the
number
Upanisad
of
Anquetil Duperron,
French
the
up
Upanisads
He
1640.
four
another
the
interestingstory.
Shah
Jahan heard
counts
one
of
anatomy
or
in all make
These
from
the
that
respectivelycalled
in this connection
are
the
in
of
note
one
the
his
of
philosophy.
the earliest.
earliest group,
Max
Thus
Miiller
whereas
he
and
Deussen
as
he includes
In the second
Kathaka, Isa, "vetasvatara,
Aitareya,Kausitaki and Kena.
includes
he
and
in
the
third
Prasna, Maitrayani and
Mundaka,
Mahanarayana,
period
in the fourth period.
The
rest of the Upanisads he includes
Mandukya.
Earlier
The
40
writes
preface
the
in
if,indeed, in addition
"And
conferred
by
is in my
Upanishads,
the
still young
that
did
than
deeply
eyes
the
revival
Wille
is
Vorstellung1,
of the
to
benefit
through
us
ones,
literature
Greek
of
und
partaker
previous
over
Sanskrit
of the
influence
the
the
[ch.
which, opened
to
access
enjoys
century
als
this he
to
Vedas, the
the
Welt
his
to
Upanisads
I believe
will penetrate
literature
less
not
fifteenth
the
in
this
has
also
and
if, I say, the reader
already received
assimilated
the sacred, primitive Indian
wisdom, then is he best
century:
of all
prepared
the
which
is
by
each
the
case."
pervaded by
there
world
and
so
of my
and
study
with
and
Germany
the
the
their
as
impart, though
in the
Upanishads
every
line
display
From
every
meaning!
whole
In
spirit...
the
whole
of the
originals,so beneficial
It has
death
!2"
attracted
been
the solace
Through
hauer
Schopen-
much
general
way
deduced
the
of my
of
press
ex-
thoughts arise,and
that
growth
might
disconnected
be
to
does
earnest
Upanisads
found
Sanskrit, they
"How
Oupanikhat.
found
be
and
holy
of the
that
going
am
sublime
and
may
harmonious
study, except
no
elevating as
the
of
is
high
individual
is to
Again,
deep, original,and
sentence
him.... I
to
say
Upanishads
thought
thought
my
to
of the
one
up
the
the
means
no
I have
firm,definite,and throughout
its
is
that
converse,
what
make
from
consequence
the
that
opinion
aphorisms
a
hear
to
attention
interest
into
other
has
however
in the
in
study
parts of Europe
as
well.
The
study
impetus by
only
not
of
the
the
earnest
translated
them
Samaj
Bengal,
derived
his
at
the
directly from
Translation
Max
by Haldane
Mliller says
of
attempts
them*
published
in
Upanisads
into
own
expense,
main
the
and
Ram
Mohan
Hindi
and
our
Bengali,
gained
but
great
Roy
who
English
founded
religious doctrines
the
of
and
Brahma
which
were
Upanisads.
Kemp,
in his introduction
vol.
I.
xiii.
the
Scotus
a
more
I could
Erigena, as
considerate
say
in their
which
worked
not
are
in
out
[ch.
Upanisads
Earlier
The
42
each
Thus
systematic manner.
favourable
his own
to
the texts
interpreterin his turn made
doctrines
prominent and brought them to the forefront,and tried
But
others
comparing the
or
explain them
to
away.
repress
find that the interpretati
we
various systems of Upanisad interpretation
offered by Sarikara very largelyrepresents the view
of the general body of the earlier Upanisad doctrines,though
the doctrines of other
foreshadow
distinctly
systems, but in a crude and germinal form. It is thus that Vedanta
of Sarikara
and
the interpretation
with
is generally associated
Sarikara's
system, though
system of thought is called the Vedanta
which
there
are
some
there
are
many
the
Under
claims
a
these
of
circumstances
of the
Upanisads
these
exponents,
but
systematic treatise
the
thought
"
still in
state
rather
or
by
modern
that
all
should
and
as
turn
look
fusion,though
the
It is in this way
find in them
quest
The
is that
the
the
after
Brahman:
idea which
or
If
man1.
Plato
or
at
tendency towards
realityor the essence.
same
Sarikara,
purport of
better
that
meanings,
which
they
in
detect
the
we
tendencies
struggle
and
runs
through
the
look
at
of
change
with
Greek
that
of
the
of
germs
thus
thoughts.
failures.
earlyUpanisads
there
which
is
an
Brh.
iv.
4. 5,
12.
changeable
un-
underlies
philosophy
in
their
context
the
of
were
can
of those
of
of the ancients
claims
determine
the
as
currents
the
It will be
we
not
Indian
earliest records
fundamental
essence
menides
other
that
alone
diverse
regarded as
texts.
absolute
Upanisads
doctrine
the monistic
be
the
terpreter
in-
philosophicideas
all later
in which
thoughts of
The
the
upon
senting
repre-
modern
to
ear
repositoryof
largestmajority of
deaf
texts
appear.
that
it is necessary
approach thereto,may
an
far the
melting pot
of
as
doctrines.
Vedanta
true
systems which
other
Parthe
the
are
The
in]
treatises
systematic
no
There
is
are
doubt
no
pedantry
no
but
of the
sages.
They
of
there
have
from
is Brahman?
controller
nature
of this
yet only
was
the
as
sun
at
the
But
eye
function
show
to
or
So
prana
also
as
of
meditated
upon
meditated
visible material
or
the
prana,
sun
we
for actual
after the
and
had
could
none
Could
it
to
the
us
The
sages
and
man
was
the
identified with
it be
it no deity
deity or was
historyof this quest and
new
render
with
presiding over
was
the various
and
aroused.
been
to
this quest
life of
Brahman.
So
also
Brahman.
as
beneficial
most
of
and
manas
sacrifice.
Thus
discovery of
kinds
it is that
Brahman.
We
find
This
results.
(space) is
Aditya (sun)
side
of meditations
there
the
exalting
the
as
representationof Brahman
the immaterial
representationas akasa,
are
meditations
to the
presence
Again
not
most
as
depend.
eternalityakasa
and
such
organs,
functions
the
the
as
anecdotes
many
bringsus
leading to
owing to the
as
omnipresence
upon
regarded
the other
prana
have
we
symbolic {prattka)
of
and
it all other
of
superiority
as
and
man,
superiorto
on
that
find that
we
(vitalbreath)was
it is
that
find
characters
are
Prana
Brahman
we
hand
one
tried,but
were
Aranyaka ideas
that
the
this
achieved.
for the
and
ear,
recognitionof
on
Nature,
But
Brahman.
and
on
its nature?
was
merely
worship.
essential
man
essence
or
the
of
out
the Samhita
already started
were
look
we
yet gone
related
that
is his nature?
the wind
Upanisads present
results
When
what
deities of
all ? The
of
in
controller
of the
forms
had
about
the
to
Upanisads
universe.
any
the
to
supreme
in the
or
psychologicalfunctions
in the
risen
of the
deitybegan
such
satisfaction
What
Purusa, Brahmanaspati
divine
them
eagerness
the nature
conception of a single
universe, variouslycalled Prajapati,
had
controller
instruct
to
casual
enthusiasm
and
the earnestness
there
most
who
but
Where
that
the
logic. Even
with
competent
Visvakarman,
of nature
struck
run
people
and
creator
be
noticed
were
of
anecdotes.
simple discussions
there
teacher
of Brahman.
We
and
gymnastics
or
cannot
collations
here
reader
in search
of
43
compilations of
or
Quest afterBrahman
was
a
an
stratum
as
manas
or
substitutes
earnest
of
quest
thought
Earlier
The
44
which
shows
this
stillblinded
were
meditation
and though
associations,
yet
Upanisads
had
for
hardly adequate
was
[ch.
by
taken
the
placeof sacrifice
of
highest attainment
the
Brahman.
meditations
of the
failure
to the
Next
have
we
notice
to
the
in which
the sages sought to
historyof the search after Brahman
with
the presiding deity of the sun, moon,
identifyBrahman
of
lightning,ether, wind, fire,water, etc., and failed;for none
these could
It is
satisfythe ideal they cherished of Brahman.
tiresome
as
here
needless
indeed
only
not
well.
They
was
could
got
undergo
in this summary
of value
are
the process
toilsome
be
multiply these
to
of;
rid
before
they
what
in this that
which
the
old
strugglesand
reached
for
they
in the
they
are
original
indicate
how
ritualistic associations
failures the
knowledge
but
treatment
only
by
examples,
of the
had
sages
true
to
of
nature
Brahman.
of Brahman
Unknowability
It is indeed
in which
The
of the
minds
Vedic
He
poets
of
seeking after
involved
in the
almost
conceived
was
Method.
Negative
magical element
lingeredfor a while
discharge of sacrificialduties
worship of Brahman
the
the
that
true
and
could
not
deity.
worship
to
easilydispense with
definite
positiveand
symbolic
as
long accustomed
so
in the
the
of Brahman.
content
dim
could
which
was
dreamy
be
not
enough
vision
lead
to
of
it in the
translated
them
into
to
on
positiveand
they failed.
point out
to that
like
the
Positive
the Brahman
what
which
aught
Stman
is not
for he cannot
untouched,
be
for
was
we
find in
this,nor
their souls
But
terms.
permanent
this
were
like in order
unutterable,they could
was
that
of the
definitions
of
the
satisfied with
They
deep craving
to
give an
only say
utterance
that it was
not
nothing touches
him
; he cannot
he
is not
suffer
by
changed,
a
stroke
m]
The
of the
sword,
for the
which
Brahman
is known
to
but
are
he, and
the
yet
experience,whatever
unlimited, the
universe
can
we
basis
of all. "That
He
knows
causalitydo
and
and
essence
smallest
the
of the
is
of
him
all
of all limitations
the
of
said
however
forth
second
do
you
it is thus
describe
by
it by
here;
as
the
by
therefore
He
which
cause
the
no
denial
definitions.
time, and
of space,
sir,the
reverent
silent.
third time
or
than
and
their
empirical
"
"most
understand
not
cannot
to
remained
forms
once
was
Brahman
Vaskali,
Bahva
a
Bahva
Space, time
there,there
as
objectivelypresented,and
When
nature
me,"
is
at
possible,otherwise
is
(makat),thefixed.
of death2."
empirical attributes,relations
independent
universe.
here
once
is the
he
smelt,eternal,
He
small, at
of him
characterisation
to
them.
transcends
can
inaudible,intangible,
for he
appertain to him,
not
is
jaws
we
limited, but
the great
than
ourselves
We
be tasted, nor
the
from
him.
is. Whatever
is
which
cannot
without
it is released
by
he
express,
which
invisible,
indestructible,
who
what
such
as
he is being,for he alone
subsists
not
45
non-being,
is asat,
understood
to be
is,is not
know
we
doctrine
injury1."He
by experience; yet
us
supremely real,for
the Atman
and
suffer any
he cannot
being
being as
is
Negative Method
But
when
he
"
of
nature
the
question was
is not
neti
neti^it
any
positivecontent
you
indeed
The
way
I teach
answered,
Atman
is silence3."
; the
Brahman."
this,it
is not
which
is
put
but
to
this.
dicate
in-
We
limited
always
by conceptual thought.
The
The
and
sum
equation Atman
word
Atman
the
ultimate
breath
in
Brahman
is
Atman
1
Later
IV.
15.
5.
passage;
asito has
has
been
ever
been
adduced
Katha
Sankara on
in.
shads, p. 156.
on
to
in the
the
inmost
Miiller and
Max
an
on
former
evidentlythe ablative
we
Roer
of
on
have
the
the
other
see
that
sense,
essence
adjectiveor
involved
that the
alreadyseen
denote
to
Upanisads
in the
as
interpreted
; it is
have
universe, and
denote
Deussen,
We
Rg-Veda
the
generallyused
is reserved
Brh.
in the
of
essence
man.
Brahman.
used
was
Upanisad teaching is
of the
substance
in the
doctrine.
Atman
while
hand
one
the
vital
the
word
the
word
and
in man,
the
all misinterpretedthis
though
participle,
no
evidence
asi, a sword.
15.
Brahmasutra,
III.
2.
17, and
also
Upanisads
the
and
of
Earlier
The
46
emphatic
are
involves
man
Thus
far
so
is called
which
this
Behind
the
it
This
live,who
could breathe
it is he who
behaves
the
bliss. For
self
himself and
are
and
vessel
find.
They
hair,and
of water
and
answered
to
"
the nails."
is the deathless
and
the
tell him
We
SelfInvisible,
fearless
he
slightdifference,
from
death
desires
for,that
who
whole
Virocana
of self
much
our
and
cogitations
be enquired;
is to
knows
how
self
true, whose
are
said,"Well,
that
fearless,
support, he
"The
see, this
And
bliss? For
not
on
gods and the demons
hearing of this sent Indra
to enquire of
as their representatives
respectively
Prajapati. He agreed to teach them, and asked
into
could
Prajapatisaid:
all worlds
(the
rapture;
who
that
bliss
is the
in that
But
dtman.
pure
he
self
it the
there
as
(dkdsa) was
whoever
this Atman
of
vital breath
the
blissful. For
the sheath
within
"Truly
say:
if this space
as
behind
vijhdnamaya
for whoever
varietyof senses.
food (i.e.
the physical
contains
essence
texts
self
The
(prdnamaya dtmari).
"consistingof will" called
called the
one
breath
again
the final
to
are
consistingof
vital
as
consciousness"
come
we
But
annamaya.
self
in
of
essence
dtman.
"consistingof
behind
self
the
essence
it is used
of the
other
again there
manomaya
of man?
is called
is the
there
body
inmost
is the
consists
parts of man) he
this
ambiguity,as
an
man
as
in their declaration
what
But
same.
[ch.
Upanisads
they could
self,even
that
is the
is the Brahman."
look
to
to
the
self,that
They
went
as
dressed
when
the
decorated
body
is
when
the
body
eye, and
mutilated
1
Taitt
II.
when
7.
decorated, wellwhen
well-dressed,well-cleaned
that image
body is well-cleaned,even
so
the body is blind,injuredin one
eye when
one
is
the
body
blind
self will be
the
body
is
mutilated,and
is
2
Cha.
vm.
7.
1.
the
when
injuredin
it perishes
Atman
in]
changeless
as
47
when
but
again
was
back
and
said "that
the
when
body
injuredand
so
disturbed
with
the dream
though
affected
is not
by
its
its destruction,
but yet it is as if it was
and
if it wept
as
higherinstruction
does
know
not
in this I
"
filled with
self in
he
doubts
deep
know
any
other
and
the
when
the
came
blind
body
killed
is not
overwhelmed,
is
by
if it suffered
as
is the
departed but
returned
again and
and
know
not
become
Indra
the way,
on
eye
not
defects,and
this is the
is Brahman."
sleep does
one
and
no
man,
dreams,
any
fearless,this
the
"When
see
afraid
was
self does
blind,or injured in
is
and
doubts,
himself,that
deathless,
again
was
said "the
does
this,nor
am
bodiless
self
self. The
embodied
as
touch
As
This
inmost
the
body
pain do
not
can-
not
self1."
the anecdote
in
essence
is affected
man
as
beyond
was
been
has sometimes
essence
consciousness, the
object-less
and
constant
described
and
reality,
the
as
change.
subject-
pure
bliss.
changeable
un-
He
is the
of all
of all
seeing,the hearer of all hearing and the knower
knowledge. He sees but is not seen, hears but is not heard, knows
seer
but
is not
of
with
salt,
known.
entirelyof
but
consists
not
an
is thus
has
no
or
as
through
likened
reached
inner
savour;
attribute
is the
He
outer, which
in truth
and
of it but
unto
lightof
the
this bliss is
this Atman
has
no
inner
state
beyond
1
Cha.
any
viii.
fear.
7-12.
state
outer,
or
Bliss is
of Brahman
sleep. And
It is dearer
to
he who
us
than
son,
brother,wife, or
and
by
it that
who
live,if
who
behaves
has
then
he
attained
is the
universe,the
There
is
atman
universe
Now
of the
we
much
in its
their
attracts
and
one
Brahman
the
is
of
no
clay
of
is made
is known
ancl the
man
essence
it is Brahman.
be called
may
do
the nature
and
sound, taste,
in other
are
but
everything else
not
smell.
But
represent
the
"ankara
sake
the
dualistic
of
so
the entire
empirical aspect
yet declare
forth
come
and
of himself
it out
and
No
and
attempts
unity and
of
diversity
that it is all
it will
to
and
then
is thus
Brahman
find it asserted
forms,
as
it
entered
a
glaring
its controller,
as
emphatically that
most
when
Brahman
at
reconciliation
is known
are
made
the
in it is Brahman
fire burns
Brahman
{antarydmiri).Here
and
is known.
the
it and
of matter
placeswe
names
the
it has
controller
dualistic
though
between
created
the
is made
Brahman
Upanisads
the
affirm
notice,they
its inner
real
what
to
as
that
the
and
there
all that
in
same,
objectsof
is this atman.
that
iron
atman
of colour,
into it as
the
the
arise
world
has himself
He
return.
for
his fearless
therefore
clay all
essence
diversity.When
From
Brahman.
these
this
contradiction
the
even
nature
It is he
are
notice
man
breathe,
(dkdsa)?
Brahman
and
black
The
remember
also
who
are
of
of
when
so
is known.
phenomenal
must
could
in all
but
; and
atman,
lump
question may
the
ingot
an
known,
everything else
of the
from
from
iron is
Upanisads.
alone
man
the world
outside
As
pluralityat all.
black
When
in the
in
not
the moon,
sun,
as
highest bliss.
man
par
peace.
of Brahman
nothing
known,
dearest
fraughtwith pain;
is
when
is for it
invisible,supportless,
inexpressible,
unspeakable
Place
There
is the
not
bliss. For
as
in that
support
one,
bliss had
that
It is the
us.
receives
to
[ch.
prosperity. It
or
All limitation
that
alone
infinite
it is the
dear
Atman.
inmost
Upanisads
wealth
husband,
things appear
our
excellence,
is
Earlier
The
48
and
the
universe,and
wind
It is
blows.
yet the
most
account
on
He
is the
of
Brahman
active
passiveand
that
principlein
unmoved.
The
spite of
in
But
theism
that
in its true
of
atman
but
evil deeds,
by
lower
He
the
world
lord
the
Thus
other
again
immanent
grow
no
one
can
burns, the
the
it. This
the
overlook
currents,
found
in
expression
identifies
in
the
universe
is that
current
controlling the
melting pot,
out, that
the
others
develop
in which
later
none
consistent
over
the
of
Maya
fire
Death
and
look
is the
Atman
of
the
that
is this
this
besides
Brahman.
or
upon
Brahman
these
ideas
which
The
that
third
the
as
is
Lord
still in the
were
systematically worked
were
meanings
is
has
pantheistic creed
Vedanta,
which
main
the
to
thought which
of
current
of the
development
texts
systematic philosophy
doctrine
the
its fear
thought
them
the
in it
other
looks
exponents
whose
supported
that
texts
of
is that
and
only realityand
It is because
quarrelled
the
is that
of
which
world.
in the
majority
the
once
on1."
of
the
at
there
Indra, Vayu
its fear
are
current
with
of theism
.from
.
strongest
The
of
many
are
and
is the
There
upward
Upanisads
else is unreal.
found
be
the
that
is the
{atman)''
being
it is said
"
he
he wants
soul.
as
that,
whom
soul
is my
in
low
nor
universe, he
the
Brahman
shades
in the
the
whom
universes
is
run
different
Brahman
the
or
everything
and
that
deeds
grow
the
from
two)
Brahman
find
we
Atman
to
transcend
If
bad
is.still my
roots
All
other
of
Thus
whose
shines, and
sun
conception
regard
downward.
his greatness
tree
deeds
lord of all; he
which
read
we
good
of
protector
the
of the exalted
do
one
commit
transcendent.
eternally existing
and
and
passages
and
branches
is the
spite of
in
makes
ledgement
this acknow-
offshoot
an
doubt
is not
him
and
sional
occa-
no
principle. Thus
supreme
He
3. 9,
makes
down.
of
master
the
"
also
was
be
to
seems
the
and
tendency
prominent,
never
Lord
it is he
raise,and
to
wants
was
as
Upanisad
Kausltaki
theistic
ftena, there
or
sense
supreme
the
position of
Isa
[ch.
Upanisads
this apparent
word
the
of
use
to
Earlier
The
5"d
"ankara,Ramanuja,
of
out
in
texts
order
of them.
slightlyhinted
Thus
at
once
and
thrice in 6vetasvatara,
becomes
tion
Brhadaranyaka
the foundaof "ankara's philosophy of the Vedanta
in which
Brahman
alone
is real and
Katha
II.
6.
and
3.
him
Brh.
is unreal2.
11.
5. 19,
6vet. 1.
10,
iv.
9,
10.
to
it
in
in]
World
The
The
have
We
already
has
Brahman,
to
it. But
as
the
its
World.
that
seen
in
essence
51
the
has
universe
back
and
Brahman,
of
out
come
its character
as
spite of its existence as Brahman
held
Sankara
represented to experience could not be denied.
world
that the Upanisads referred to the external
and accorded
with the purpose
of treatingit as merely
to it consciously
a reality
unreal
soon
as
as
real,which will eventuallyappear
relatively
in
truth, the
ultimate
remains
be
to
modified
is known.-
Brahman,
to
this extent
that
the
This
however
sages
had
not
to
probably any conscious purpose of according a relative reality
the phenomenal world, but in spiteof regarding Brahman
the
as
highest realitythey could not ignore the claims of the exterior
of this
to it. The
world, and had to accord a reality
inconsistency
realityof the phenomenal world with the ultimate and only
was
attempted to be reconciled by holding
realityof Brahman
beside
is not
and
in him
is maintained
but it has
back
it will return
to
of
out
come
him,
it
him.
world
him
bodies
result of
Samkhya
gross
composed
IV.
we
natures,
school)of
elements, and
find
e.g.
of the
primitive
(especially
(tanmdlra)
pure
the
thingsare produced
infinitesimal substances
theory that
each
gross
substance
is
of the
of the atoms
And
in Prasna
primary elements.
the gross elements
distinguishedfrom their subtler
earth (prthivi),and
the
of earth
subtler state
(prthivlmdtra). In
is also
So all other
alloyingor compounding
this theory of the threefold
elements
and
formed2.
are
an
together.In
in the
is sometimes
described
the
as
elements, air,fire,water,
directlyfrom
1
Cha.
the
vi.
and
one
11.
earth,
which
described
are
as
directlypreceded
2
ibid.
vi.
each
it.
2, 3, 4.
4"2
ceeding
pro-
World-Soul.
The
The
soul of
he
from
the
is said
primeval
two
in the
point of
Atman
or
the
view
has
twice
the
as
X.
121.
1,
of creation
referred
been
It is indeed
strange
very
of the earlier
Upanisads.
been
of
one
as
creation, but
development
the
in R.V.
firstborn
regarded
cosmic
of
universe
the
12.
in any
to
is
of
process
IV.
he has
He
is apparent.
products
from
in which
as
being
III. 4 and
referred
passages
character
This
the
to
forth
sprung
waters.
is not
being
this
In the
have
to
in
6vetasvatara,
to in the
that
related
conception of a world-soul
for
to his body is found
man
where
[ch.
Upanisads
Earlier
The
^2
the
earlier
his
importance
the theory of
of
is almost
that
eminence
the supreme
in R.V.
he had
121,
Hiranyagarbha
of the created
beings. Deussen
of the Hiranyagarbha
in explaining the philosophical
significance
doctrine of the Upanisads says that the "entire objectiveuniverse is
had
brought
been
only in
possible
subject as
all individual
the
individual
far
so
one
it is sustained
as
of the
sustainer
without
them
by
and
not
from
has
an
no
seems
but
the
derived
are
in space
and
from
does
them.
For
objectiveuniverse
tinues
con-
therefore
exists
; there
with
in
whom
the
eternal
it is sustained.
ingly
subject. It is itself accordbelong to time, and therefore
this
not
doctrine
in the
time
is manifested
identical
means
objectiveuniverse
objectsbut is by no
objects pass away
exist
to
to the level of
X.
be
cannot
supposed
to have
any
philosophical
importance
Upanisads.
The
There
tried
of
Causation.
no
practically
systematictheory of
was
Upanisads. Sankara,
always
Theory
to
1
show
DtussaCs
the
Upanisads
causation
of Vedanta
looked
upon
201.
in the
philosophy,
the
cause
in]
Transmigration
ground
realityhad only
of
change
an
appearance
mere
as
the
of
strength
Upanisad (VI. 1)
on
spoken of
the jug or
in its
the other
for the
So
jug.
the
as
been
the
upon
is the earth
the
it may
though
to
appear
mirage imposed
pot,
unchangeable
world
This
which
call it the
you
cause,
outside.
a
that
is also
effect
side
the
as
such
though
in
expounded
there
manner,
world
appearance,
however
seems
having
as
ultimate
constant,
manifold
whether
same
the
in them
of
distinctions
suffer
is thus
only
Brahman,
upon
excellence.
real par
It
the
ever
ever
unsubstantial
the
clay, is
e.g. the
cause,
only empty
are
it is that
remains
Brahman,
an
material
these
jug,yet
remains
essence
change
the
form,
plate,or
the
the pot,
as
only realityin all its transformations
the plate. It is said that though there are
so
many
of appearance
is called the plate,the other the
that one
and
name
in which
the
as
diversities
pot, and
which
series
53
the
the
product
of
other
real
be
may
in
Upanisads
side
by
view
regarded
imperfect
an
looks
which
view
change wrought
in the
of the elements
through the action and combination
of diversityin it. Thus
when
the different objectsof nature
have
been
spoken of in one
place as the product of the combination
of the three elements
and earth,the effect signifies
water
a real
fire,
change produced by their compounding. This is in germ (as we
itself
cause
shall
by
see
the
hereafter)the Parinama
Samkhya school1.
Doctrine
the
When
Vedic
they supposed
to
wind,
the
of the
the
universe.
of
though
and
human
had
speech
They
recompense
own,
soul
but
In
good
we
of the
the
to
and
bad
the direction
of
limbs
as
we
of
dead
to the sun,
went
actions
body
his breath
to
have
in
already seen
in worlds
other
than
our
of the
things as the passage
tendency towards transmigration
however
time.
we
transmigrationin
idea of
burning
of such
Upanisads
man
believed
also
hear
the
fire,his
the
the Vedic
the eye
advocated
Transmigration.
people witnessed
that
his
of
of causation
theory
two
Cha.
vi.
2-4.
clear
distinct
in the other
recompense
1
find
development
stages. In the
world
is combined
in
one
with
of
transmigrationcomes
idea
of
after
; after
moon
deeds
good
residence
born
again.
world
in the
by
Here
we
moon,
way
is the
as
the
enters
but
at last reaches
of his
remnant
of the
womb
of
again
and
mother
only
not
re-born
was
way
the
as
fathers
etc.,and
long
the
as
of the
way
enters
see
of the
other
The
he
man
the
that
it is said
publicworks
the
death
of the month,
he descends
remains
such
after death
there
Thus
or
deeds
doctrine
the
supersessionof
in
world.
other
in the
performedcharitable
who
those
forefront
the
to
recompense
in the other
transmigration,whereas
of
the doctrine
[ch.
Upanisads
Earlier
The
54
is
recompense
in this world1.
for those
gods (devayana),meant
the
of
faith and
cultivate
who
the
is that
asceticism
soul
in
light,
ever-increasing
and
radiant
as
stations
the
on
the
lights'"(jyotisamjyotihy.
The
other line of thought
is
direct
of
to the
reference
the
Yanas.
Thus
Yajfiavalkya says,
to the doctrine
reaping the
other
of the
of the ways
doctrine
bright
'lightof
the
reference
of
"when
regions
all that is
Brahman
to
way
reaches
gods
is concentrated
which
on
of the
way
fruits of
worlds
and
out
with-
fathers
and
gods,
soul
the
becomes
itself
centres
turns
only
back, then
heart.
in the
the
Thus
when
know
colour; (thesenses)become
him) say
does
not
in the eye
person
he does not
see
; (thesenses)
one
(with
(with him), he does not taste, (the senses)become
one
him), he does not speak,(the senses)become
(with him), he
does not
one
hear, (the senses)become
(with him), he does not
one
senses)become
1
Cha.
v.
one
10.
with
8
one
him,
Deussen's
does
not
not
touch, (the
know, they
say.
335.
The
in]
Transmigration
tip of
his heart
When
he
other
the
with
self after
separate
small
coming
all
He
out.
such
as
any
and
he
comes
as
this
collects
movement
separate
collects
so
itself,
itself.
behaves
he
so
virtuous
desires.
he
attached.
was
of the
end)
world
for
himself,
who
his
self itself
frame
life.
At
the
and
senses
work
and
body
body
at
here"
own
not
Thus
verse
the
time
of
our
and
faculties
in this world
is
had
desires
and
self
that "he
are
vague
as
an
is of
and
reaped in other
the
and
newer
up
it reached
in the
and
that
shows
passage
built
after death
or
are
1-7).
above
the
that
immortal
becomes
in
attains
all the
iv.
has
and
desires
in his
says, when
mortal
have
desires,who
no
Brahma
body
regarded
it is said
deeds
as
this
to
who
being
of the
death,
back
He
(Brh. IV.
possiblethat there is a
the fruits of
is full
works,
those
with
satisfied
out.
go
activitywhen
rebirth
takes
deeds,
man
he
so
returns
case
end
of the
the
fairer
present
itself all
within
collected
previous knowledge,
The
fallingoff of the
all its
either
It is
it is the
desires,is
consideration
its
wills
he
and
acts
bad
by
The
vice.
here, he
does
desires,who
no
the
destroyed
by
by
wills,as
are
close
he
so
he
do
Thus
Brahma
and
So
all
senses
heart
attains
has
from
Brahmahood.
his
that
doing karma1,
himself
freed
vicious
he
gods,
it
so
karma
He
desires.
.As
being...
the
is also a verse,
being
happens. There
which
he
he wants
karma
that
to gain by
to
the
to
Having reaped the full fruit (lit.gone
that
to
deeds
desires
is done
attached
other
As
work
Pitrs,the Gandharvas,
of any
or
virtuous
by
of the
as
Brahma
Prajapatior
follows
previousexperience (prajna)
caterpillar
going to the end of a blade
as
destroying
fairer form
and
thus
and
by
or
newer
in
well
in
{prdna)
out.
goes
bit of
after
the
the deeds
movement
(prdna)
consciousness
Just as
by undertaking
of grass,
this
vital function
him.
accompany
vital function
determinate
Knowledge,
out.
of
the
the
body,
follow
senses
and
either
out
goes
part of the
is then
of
shines
55
other
the
building of
worlds.
The
newer
self which
gories.
aggregation of diverse cateof understanding,
the essence
obscure
worlds.
reference
of the
the
of the
of
the
turning off
of
essence
(manifest)and
all anger,
of
adharma,
of
essence
from
that
and
psychologicaltendencies,
physical world.
the
the fruit
wills
he
whatever
and
he
The
happens.
The
self that
within
the
on
of it
through
will and
is
whereas
theory is
in the
indeed
self itself
its
by
rebirth and
not
wills,and
born
by
is
karma.
desires and
Thus
changes
the
for he
hand
one
"
and
When
up, but
by
the
of
of diverse
physical elements
self continues
to
it
wills he
this
The
fruition
desire
and
beings.
seems
of these
rebirths
and
sometimes
is effected
to
The
distinctive
most
the
the
as
by
in
the
desire,it suffers
if it ceases
as
But
worlds
of
of rebirth
cause
no
feature
connecting link
that whatever
between
desires he
man
acts.
place
"
he
who
knowingly desires
but
places(accordingly),
fulfilled and
(Mund
celestial
as
in other
for it is said
in those
here"
the
moral
elements
the consequent
it refers to desires
it is said in another
is effected
and
and
the
only comes
he
whatever
desires vanish
his acts
of the
unity
wills
karma
being a combination
immortal.
Karma
been
genesisof
is
course
this,that
rebirth
desires have
with
in accordance
the
desires,and
own
his desires
desires,he
he
comes
the
becomes
this doctrine
and
of his
of rebirth
All
too.
moral
process
rebirth
given
largerscheme
this world
5).
whole
are
not
iv.
The
no
is this
world
fruits of karma
there
all that
which
on
act.
karma,
of
dharma,
elements
principleof
This
of
all the
tendencies
root
acts.
essence
other.
moral
itself the
act, it reaps
of the
of
also of
him,
undergoes
psychological and
holds
of anger,
but
logicof
whole
within
up
physicalworld
the
essence
essence
acts, and
psychologicaltendencies
and
the
of
this nature
from
follows
of desires,
essence
(unmanifest or latent)"(Brh.IV.
undergoes rebirth is thus a unity not only of
self that
the
up
is that
The
compose
the
make
the
needs) or
desires,of
of restraint of
essence
its
of
auditory sense,
would
(which
with
in accordance
physicalbody
[ch.
of the
sense,
elements
five
the
of
essence
the
Upanisads
Earlier
The
56
who
III. 2.
rightknowledge
has
2).
realized
This
of the
for him
self.
"
whose
himself,all
destruction
He
is
his
of desires
who
knows
Earlier
The
58
Upanisads
[ch.
Emancipation.
The
which
doctrine
of
is that
of
doctrine
the dead
where
had
then
to
never
were
the
of the
of the
Thus
suffer
fathers
those
rebirth.
{pitrydnd)
in another
find that
we
formed
per-
gods through
and
recompensed
the
that
faithful and
world
the way
tion
connec-
know
we
were
way
to the
time
suffer rebirth.
to
by
with
for
who
those
return
contrasted
be
that
(tapas) went
stages
could
This
held
Devayana
in this
attention
our
asceticism
successive
attracts
next
and
world
who
ful
faith-
are
and
in the
in the
of
emancipation. Emancipation
the
Upanisads
when
he
knows
ceaseless
course
his
ignorant. The
knows
Brahman
no
and
He
himself
beholds
him
the
For
him
all doubts
antipathies,all
ignoble and small in
We
exists
emancipated
to
seem
true
do
and
we
are
but
of
knowledge
emancipation itself.
so
long as we do not
and
only goal of
and
essence
of
1
true
All
know
man.
Deussen's
affect him.
ever
free.
are
pure
we
result
do
our
lead
sufferingsand
simply
self.
because
It is the
not
of other
not
of any
troubles
self.
to
Thus
is not
always
are
to
seem
thus
action,but
We
nature.
our
of
is
us
ourselves.
knowledge
do
the infinite;
we
are
Emancipation
We
nature
finite in
is
"
"
thousands
our
and
is transient
of
passions
our
effect,or
self does
man
becomes
once
deepest,
asunder,
of
immortal.
Truth
the
always
the
know
of all
himself
limitations
our
not
at
are
solved,
by anything, for
as
who
those
nothingness1.
acquisition,
product,an
always
we
are
become
know
not
new
it
do
limited
not
are
not
a
We
loftiest and
and
false.
for
divested
can
The
Brahman.
Brahman,
kind
attains
his works
knowledge
"
be
to
that
For
has
means
man
becomes
who
of any
bondage
And
The
however
man
who
thus
that
transmigration is only
wise
passions and
infiniteness
self and
own
of
of
state
Mukti
or
be
so
only because
Emancipation
but
are
true
is the
of
our
own
352.
is
only
natural
realization
the
it is that
emancipation
limitations
and
nature
nature
that
m]
Emancipation
is called
our
emancipation. Since
true
own
for
necessary
the
and
nature
Upanisad
the
that
only desideratum
that
of
can
rebirth.
wipe
of
to
grant him
three
Naciketas, knowing
that
his father
Gautama
him, said, O
let Gautama
son
Gautama,
death
"
his anger
second
known
There
of
that
boon
made
"
against me."
is this
instructed
by
say
This
not
This
is my
it.
say
thee.
it,but
There
and
is
there
exists
This
I should
boon."
; for
choose
who
grandsons
cattle ; choose
if thou
and
the
enjoyer of
gain
in the world
those
fair
them
but
replied,
they only
weaken
obtain
long
song.
as
thou
"
who
the
hast
takes
object of
abandoned
the
man.
All
to
those
gods
easy
be found
; choose
as
it
like
sons
of
herds
wide
the
wishest.
thou
togetherwith
wealth
I will make
earth.
that
desires
it
was
not
choose
years
ask
not
difficult
are
thou
at
their
musical
thy pleasure;
ments;
instru-
cannot
long
as
be
All
senses.
Man
satisfied
be
did
we
not
which
thing is good,
another
good,
But
but
thou
These
he
who
with
reach
boon
them.
Do
said, Choose
the wide
those
stand
under-
to
"
horses
chariots,with
not
pleasest. The
said, One
All
to
years,
many
on
the
was
I will give
gained by men.
ask
the question regarding death."
not
of to-morrow
and
those enjoyments are
are
the
wealth, as
Yama
he
"
and
king
their
do
Naciketas
dance
Be
mortals, all
like of them
thee,
to
of
boon.
all desires.
with
nymphs
the
and
gold
thyself as
boon
far-extendinglife.
thee
to
knowest
another
hundred
elephants and
live
easy
live
may
boon
other
no
it is not
speaker
It
"
sayest that it is
other
no
said,
death
said,
by
be
like to know
Yama
Even
the
should
after the
gods
is
gained
soul
to this." Naciketas
said,
compel me
and
thou O Death
even
inquiredbefore,
understand
asked
the
"
to
forget
and
Naciketas
third
is its nature,
with
being granted
exist.
the
by
is
choice.
offended
was
heaven
also
it does
thee.
his
at
be
which
by
enquiry, some
; others
man
him.
to
boons
pleased in mind
being granted Naciketas
This
fire
the
knowledge,
The
lord
the
Yama,
already and
are
which
and
all
always in
such
emancipated, the only thing
fore
so.
we
are
Self-knowledge is therewe
as
is to know
us
59
thee
wealth, we
you
I choose
we
live
I have
the
could
only
as
said."
pleasant. Blessed is
chooses
the pleasant loses
is
what
known
are
and
far asunder,
be
to
what
pleasant)and
is
[ch.
Upanisads
Earlier
The
60
lead
to
is
good),
goals.
different
to
Believing that this world exists and not the other, the careless
That
knowledge which thou hast
youth is subject to my sway.
I know
piness
asked
is not to be obtained
worldly hapby argument.
is not to be obtained
is transient for that firm one
by what
Brahman
Brahman.
he
wise
The
the
slain,though
house
knows
is not
man
is slain ; subtler
does
what
than
to
obtains
not
die;
soul
Unborn, eternal,the
anywhere.
body
is open
him
he
born;
Thee
joy.
door
whose
is
subtle,
is
far,lying it goes
what
greater than
like
him
soul,knowing
grief and
deathless, whoever
produced from
is not
not
is
he wishes.
whatever
be
to
both
leaves
behold,
to
I believe
Naciketas,
the
by concentratingon
wise
it is hard
whom
The
firm.
is not
where.
every-
as
unbodily among
Thinking
off all grief.The
soul cannot
casts
fleetingthings,the wise man
be gained by eloquence,by understanding, or
by learning. It
the soul
be obtained
can
its own
nature1." So
he wills and
acts
present and
in
highesttruth
about
of the
in his
gross
kosa)
thoughts and
maya
and
willed
Man
within
is
kosa),the
of
and
him
and
will
in other
in that
to
know
the
and
ciple
prin-
sense
to
the
were
epitome
fine constituents
the
(prUna-
(manomaya) and
long as he keeps
a
series
created
of
these
come,
by
have
truth
ultimate
vital functions
desire
lives to
the
it
as
himself
(vijnanamaya),and so
spheres and passes through
by
fruits in the
the
comes
realizes
body (annamaya
all desires
holds
its desires,
highestessence
ideas
in these
it reveals
him
infinitude.
life,the
To
reaps
he
he is the
immortal
he
and
when
But
himself,that
own
it chooses.
them
to
lives.
receding from
of the universe
of the
according
future
whom
long as
universe,the
and
desires,
of himself
alone
him
by
him.
the
self
him-
experiences
experiences
He
suffers
if he retires from
But
pains,disease and death.
he
these into his true unchangeable being, he is in a state where
is one
with his experience and there is no
ment.
change and no move-
pleasuresand
What
One
concepts.
not
any
1
which
Katha
may
this
of those
II.
be
The
state
could
is cannot
only
indicate
concepts found
translation is not
in
continuous.
differently
interpreted.
There
are
some
in]
Emancipation
whatever
and
It
tuum.
in
self
true
will
knows
one
dissolve
but
only
of
this
vanish
existences)
(Brh.
state
pure
II.
of
back
retires
of
in
our
to
absolute
blessedness.
4.
and
it
of
water
and
them
The
infinitude
can
be
then
of
longer
pure
all
in
no
be
salt
intelligence,
and
when
the
put
salt,
so,
consisting
(phenomenal
phenomenal
found
infinite
separately
out
these
but
existence
limitless
manifests
existences,
no
menm
find
we
and
itself
self
true
no
taken
taste
is
this
of
lump
infinite
there
phenomenal
it
as
we
In
phenomenal
our
cannot
manifesting
12).
itself,
it
reality
great
in
"Just
neti).
diversity,
all
water.
intelligence
pure
processes
in
portion
does
Maitreyi,
{neti
no
which
in
disappear
this
and
difference,
no
ocean
salt
whatever
in
is
an
like
will
water
there
like
is
this
as
itself
ultimately
in
them.
pure
ledge"
knowin
all
the
when
It
being,
it
is
and
IV
CHAPTER
what
In
in the
In
written.
been
the
work
these
chronologically arranging
of
influence
the
from
change
Here
in
school
one
time
their
beginning
it is
hardly possible
or
to
treatises
systematic
half-sentences
detail, but
of
{sutras)
served
of
memory
only
sentences
or
how
to
like
elaborate
to
example
of which
esteem
by
later
record,
and
they began,
time
of
foundation
so
many
probability these
in all
did
had
been
posed
com-
than
claimed
and
half
to
respect
writers
that
so
be
which
he
that
these
the
which
they
in which
whenever
gave
sutras
threads
was
already
pithy
rise to
in later
of the
Vedanta
nature
of
that
had
these
faithful
writers
they
had
one.
Such
of the
any
new
had
is indeed
days
were
system,
Badarayana
they
gave
divergent interpretations,each
only
half-
significance,
their
Brahma-sutras
ambiguous
the
of
in
lost
It
subject.
extent
subject
who
for those
the
on
sutras
dozen
the
hints, intended
pregnant
the
reader
therefore,
It seems,
the
discussions
of
the
before
and
short
elaborate
not
instructions
from
were
in
written
were
hold
lecture
oral
guess
far the
more
had
philosophy
Upanisads
earliest
The
originally intended
by them.
"arlraka-sutras or
known
the
as
for
the
to
philosophy.
scanty
what
at
disquisitions with
elaborate
were
difficult
but
period, for
which
to
thoroughly acquainted.
direct
early
so
of
general
arranged.
or
The
at
led
that
of
in
upon
the
upon
currents
have
correctly
say
formulated
were
to
or
and
we
consists
commenting
principal systems
influence
divergent systems
tides
of which
in times
the
compute
another
upon
the
India, however,
in
came
speculations
historian
and
views
in the
time
to
independent
modern
have
thinkers
times,
philosophy
philosophy
European
their
of
Indian
of
earliest
the
offered
The
of
histories
possible
Philosophy
history
from
and
philosophy.
on
attempt
Europe
another
after
one
which
in
manner
to
Indian
of
History
hardly possible
is
It
is
Sense
PHILOSOPHY
INDIAN
OF
SYSTEMS
THE
ON
OBSERVATIONS
GENERAL
was
sutras
the
were
rise
one
high
held
speculations to
Schools
iv]
ch.
offer,these
reconciled
were
the
existing systems,
the
system
these
systems
foundation
the
other
of these
systems
schools.
Their
of
faith
of
producing
to
systems
with
systems
succession
of
propound
and
rival schools
and
the
example,
free-lance
to
one
or
naturallybrought
All
teachers.
and
enchained
thinkers
having
had
the
dependence
inthe
by
of
Instead
attached.
establish,India
the
sutras
earliest
called the
their
brought
of
own
forth
this
At
school.
is attributed
written
all
rival schools
Buddhist
these
on
To
Misra
this second
number
the
work
was
these
answer
this commentary
the
on
the
maintain
a
an
also called
This
to
on
wrote
take
sutras, called
and
Dinnaga,
it failed to
originalforce
old
dignityof
called
commentary
where
commentary,
he
tried
Nydya-tdtparyatikd,had
another
by
tdtparyatlkd-parisuddhiwritten
had
commentary
prakdsa
Gangesa.
to establish
Gautama,
to
by Vatsyayana.
Vacaspati
on
Vdrttika-tdtparyatikd
in order
of other
philosophy consistingof
commentary
lost,and
was
attacks
they adhered.
of this work
to refute
which
to
system
Vdtsydyana bhdsya,was
sharply criticized by the
criticisms
against the
they constantlyattacked
or
The
Aksapada.
them
Nyaya system
half-sentences
called
of their
views
defended
which
superiorityof
the
thus
since
teachers
orthodox
pupils were
hold of
the
was
philosophy belonged
of
of
of
Such
all the
other
or
of
schools
the
the
one
of
interpretations
faithful
as
limited
thinking was
which
to
they were
their
school
the
that
63
of
doctrines
commentaries.
of the
in accordance
up
of
scholars
upon
the
with
put down
and
form
in the
of Philosophy
another
written
by
This
again
had
the
the
another
great
called
commentary
Varddhamana
called
commentary
son
commentary
Nyaya-
day ana.
This
Nydya-nibandhaof
the
called
illustrious
Varddha-
upon
on
I have
Dignaga as
it
commentaries,
and
did
after
not
try
to
formulate
Tatparyatika (p.i)and
Vacaspati's
any
not
Observations
64
India
As
passed
system
of
in support
originallyformulated
to
solve, but
in
which
which
the
make
opposition
and
the
sutras
is weak
and
take
of
it
the
seventeenth
strong and
to
write
all the
had
then
their
Indian
system
and
grew
growth
is
is therefore
it attained
adequate
by
In
the
phases of
case
of
and
elaborations
ages
systems
involved
but
to
served
to
it
successfully
own
system
babe, but
the
to
studied
the
as
successive
no
as
as
place
No
study
and
were
Each
of any
history of
the
system
all the
growth
ages
possible to suggest
this
Indian
the commentators
livingthrough
it is indeed
for systems
of its adherents
throughout
champions,
of
whole1.
one
targets of criticism.
history,and
it is
ages
lived
they
untiring energy
of
but
interpreted in
systems
have
man
possible
not
and
if
beginning
fullydeveloped
long
it is taken
of its
one
whose
of
or
history.
two
earlier
information
harmonious
some
the
its conflicts.
kept
problems
It is therefore
we
so
only
unless
its
down
rival
philosophy
work
the
the
remembered
historyof
with
successive
of
other
on
newborn
as
be
should
developed by
all the
through
opposition
philosophies of India,
importance only
forgotten or
as
acquired through
its conflicts
historyof
the
it appears
successive
system
problems
rival schools.
developments
it has
growth
history from
which
each
that
was
hold
of the
shapeless
century
history of
any
it to
attacks
its
harmonious
necessary
In
with
along
few
of
it
as
commentators
complete
more
enable
to
stronger
but
less
or
the
discover
system
teeth
opinions
successive
and
more
pared.
pre-
given before.
the
the
against
the
more
were
been
of
system
and
stronger
we
had
them.
least
ingenuity and
to
probably
in
its way
original views
all their
use
attacked
had
the
on
in the
not
was
positions,and
offer consistent
to
contributions
each
it
own
that
fought
attention
no
The
in
it
as
which
to
of
man
unexpected opponents
meet
in the sutras
schools, it had
other
their
rival schools
of the
defects
greatest
Bhagavadgita.
to
therefore
had
Its adherents
subtlety
for
criticisms
troublesome
and
it had
on
the
and
Upanisads,
the
Brahma-sutras,
the
Buddha,
after
"afikara,probably
Even
original system.
Philosophy [ch.
Indian
Systems of
on
Observations
66
Philosophy [ch.
Systems of Indian
on
of the traditionarysuch
modify and even
suppress
cult
views with which
they did not agree or which they found it diffiBrilliant oppositionsfrom the opposing schools
to maintain.
for them
it necessary
to offer solutions
often made
to new
problems
views
to
or
of
before,but put
of
unthought
In order
rival school.
offer such
into
by
illustrious adherent
some
reconcile these
to
the other
them
forward
commentators
These
hesitated
never
of the doctrines
slightmodifications
a complete whole.
solutions with
new
harmonize
could
as
elaborations
or
to
modifications
generallydevelopedthe traditionary
system, but did not effect any
serious change in the system as expounded by the older teachers,
for the new
to the explanations
exponents always bound themselves
of the older
would
only
teachers
only interpretthem
in those
It is not
This
when
there
is
systems
only mean
speciallynew
fact that
each
in order
to
forming
had
system
its
the
rately.
sepa-
is to
system
be
commentators
with
contend
left its
has
own
system
whole.
one
to
of any
repetition.Except
of the
jointwork
silent.
commentators
development,
as
hold
growth
unnecessary
the
things
new
say
remained
had
teachers
of the individual
contributions
would
interpretedon
treatingtheir
The
older
possibleto describe
therefore
by treatingthe
the
ideas,or
own
They
them.
contradicted
never
to suit their
where
cases
and
rival
other
mark
permanent
are
always
philosophic literatures of India which
written
in the form
of disputes,where
the writer is supposed to
rival schools
be always faced with objectionsfrom
to whatever
he has got to say. At each
certain
objections
step he supposes
all the
upon
their
destination.
can
styleof
so
that
answers
Most
referred to in
often
brief
catch them.
most
the
the
To
add
that
to
of the commentaries
Sanskrit,and aims so
literary
leadingto the use of technical words
of
an
study
of
these
becomes
expert preceptor;
widely
read
in all the
writer
can
objectionsof
manner
from
that
and
he answers,
pointsout
the defects
It
objectoror shows that the objectionitself is illfounded.
through interminable
byways of objections,
counter-objections
and
views
which
so
his way
rival schools
only
who
know
are
the
Sanskrit
and
different
condensed
at
precisionand brevity,
in the diverse
current
systems,
the
impossible without
it is difficulttherefore
different systems
to his
difficulties the
much
often
the
those
these
is
wend
to
follow
any
are
aid
not
advanced
6J
DifferentTypes of Literature
iv]
of
any
of other systems of
to be
philosophy
all the
thought,and
should
study
one
of Indian
thorough student
mutual
their
in
systems
Besides
treatises
the
kind.
In
commentaries,
Vdrttika
of
the
called
verses
course
to these
or
to
systems in
kdrikd
may
these
there
also
were
on
be mentioned
were
also advanced
to
kdrikds,which
as
work
any
Kumarila
examples.
In
explain them.
on
of this
written
system
as
treatises
succinct
long dissertations,
varttikas;the Slokavdrttika,of
may
also independent
are
system in
any
be mentioned
their commentaries
there
called
verse
general observations
of Suresvara
had
there
commentaries
important topicsof
Sdmkhya
addition
their
the
on
the
try to summarize
manner;
and
the sutras
the systems
or
in
the
All these
addition
in prose
selected
some
nominally followed
sutras
Of the former class
or
proceeded independently of them.
the Nydyamanjari of Jayanta may
be mentioned
an
as
example
and of the latter the Prasastapdda bhdsya,the Advaitasiddhi
of
Madhusudana
SarasvatI or the Veddnta-paribhdsdof Dharmaraof a
remarkable
of these treatises were
jadhvarlndra. The more
masterlynature in which the writers representedthe systems they
adhered
to in a highly forcible and
logicalmanner
by dint of
their own
also had their
and genius. These
great mental powers
commentaries
The
elaborate
them.
to explain and
period of the
growth of the philosophicliteratures of India begins from about
ends in
500 B.C. (about the time of the Buddha) and practically
the later half of the seventeenth
now
some
century, though even
minor
out.
publicationsare seen to come
in which
the
writers
The
The
Hindus
namely, the
not")views
Indian
Systems
the systems
classify
ndstika
are
either
those
and
the
which
of
of
dstika.
neither
Philosophy.
philosophyinto
The
nastika
regard the
Vedas
two
classes,
infallible
5"2
68
Observations
on
These are
authority.
three in number, the Buddhist,Jainaand the Carvaka.
principally
schools are six in number, Samkhya,
The astika-mata or orthodox
known
Yoga, Vedanta, Mlmamsa, Nyaya and Vaisesika,generally
the six systems (saddarsana1).
as
The
Samkhya is ascribed to a mythical Kapila, but the
earliest works
the subjectare probably now
lost. The Yoga
on
attributed
is
called
and the original
to Patanjali
sutras
are
system
the PatanjalaYoga sutras.
The
generalmetaphysicalposition
of these two systems with regard to soul,nature, cosmology and
the final goal is almost
the same, and the difference lies in this
that the Yoga system acknowledges a god (Isvara)
distinct
as
from
Atman
and
lays much
importance on certain mystical
for the achievement
as
(commonly known
practices
Yoga practices)
of liberation,
whereas
the Samkhya denies the existence of
Isvara and thinks that sincere philosophic
thought and culture
sufficient to produce the true conviction of the truth and
are
therebybring about liberation. It is probablethat the system
of Samkhya
associated
with
Kapila and the Yoga system
associated with Patanjali
but two divergentmodifications of
are
an
Samkhya school,of which we now get onlyreferences
original
counted
here and there. These systems therefore thoughgenerally
should
two
more
as
properlybe looked upon as two different
schools of the same
Samkhya system one may be called the
Samkhya.
Kapila Samkhya and the other Pataftjala
the
rational
root
to think
The Purva Mlmamsa
man
(from
cannot
properlybe spoken of as a system of philosophy.
conclusions)
code of principles
in accordance
with
It is a systematized
for purposes of sacrifices.
which the Vedic texts are to be interpreted
nor
own
their
on
validity
"
"
The
word
in the
"dariana"
of true
sense
of Kanada
philosophic
knowledgehas
(IX.ii. 13)which
I consider
itsearliest
pre-Buddhistic.
called
the
"
ditthi"
drsti
heretical
The Buddhist pitakas
(Sanskrit
B.C.)
(400
opinions
Haribhadra (fifth
from the same
root dri from which darsana is formed).
a.D.)
century
in the
use
Vaiiesika sutras
as
"
in the
Darsana
the word
uses
rthah"Saddarianasamuccaya
word
sanam
(1 33
The
{sarvadars'anavacy"?
philosophy
the tenth century A.D.)uses
the
dars"anedariane nanaprakaram sattvalakuktamasti." Ksanabhahgasiddhiin Six Buddhist Nyaya tracts,p. 20). Madhava
also in the
1 A. D.
word
sense
same
("Yadi
"mata"
or
view)was
(opinion
no
word
"jtidnin"etc.
sense
nama
Sarvadarsanasamgraha.
) callshis Compendium of all systems of philosophy,
the
of systems of
sense
I.).Ratnakirtti (end of
of
"
or
used in
also freely
quotingthe views of
in the technical sense.
'philosophers'
held hereticalviews
in the
philosophers
"perfects."
do not denote
seers"
to denote
"
modern
sense,
other
The
"siddha,"
theyare used
rather in
Purva
iv]
Vedic
The
and
texts
often
people
sentence
of the
the
regard to
applied
relative
The
context.
which
to
arrive
difficulties.
similar
regard
perception,inference,the validityof
order
that
order
of the
of
nature
universe
the
and
its relation
of
mantras
the
the
solutions
these
its main
objects,it
external
Vedas,
to
Veda
complex
uniform
the
to
in
exact
and
sacrifices with
might perform
man
the
ing
accordprinciples
some
Preliminary to
indulges in speculationswith
to
it maybe
the
or
sentences
rational
at
which
to
use
importance
formulated
Mimamsa
could
one
other
with
reference
with
sentence, the
in
were
its relative
mantra,
of
meaning
words
of
relation
importance
There
sentence.
of its connection
nature
Vedic
as
the
to
as
69
for sacrifices,
(incantations)
mantras
as
disputed
their mutual
or
general drift
with
used
were
Mimamsa
man
the
like,for
mantras,
or
in
definite
positionand
the
and
demonstrated
be
must
or
world, soul,
utilityfor
It is
man.
discussions
in the
Its
philosophy.
bhasya
Mimamsa
and
his
and
day
Kumarila
place
to
the
by
1
his
mention
that
the maxims
called
of
system
interpretationof
to
even
this
Jaimini,and Sahara
in the historyof
to
names
Sahara
to call him
are
Kumarila
Bhatta
as
guru-mata,
bhatta-mata1.
as
pass
be
preliminary
criticized the
who
used
here
great
Jaimini and
these
legalvalue
attributed
two
opinions pass
Bhatta
reservation
any
it. The
upon
are
for the
have
are
pupil Prabhakara,
this
to
of
Mimamsa
it may
maxims
sentences
literature after
much,
so
and
there
as
that
principlesand
import of words
day. The sutras of
a
far
so
Mimamsa
the
wrote
only
Hindu
and
Law
whereas
It may
not
the
be
{smrti)accepts
views
out
of
without
Mimamsa.
There
is
could
not
understand
the meaning of
Sanskrit
Atra
tunoktam
tatrapinoktam iti paunaruktam"
(hence spoken twice).
phoneticallyadmits of two combinations, tu noktam (but not said)and tuna
uktam
tatra
(saidby the particletu) and tatrapinoktam
(notsaid also
as
api na uktam
first interpretation
the
and
Under
tatra
uktam
there)
apina
(said there by the particleapi).
sentence
"
Tunoktam
indicated twice."
at
this.
would
Kumarila
"
mean,
was
so
Not
pleasedthat
he
called his
pupil"Guru"
(master)
Observations
jo
Veddnta
The
Philosophy [ch.
Systems of Indian
on
Uttara
by
written
Mimamsa,
the
the Brakma-sutras, form
as
Badarayana, otherwise known
The word Vedanta
means
originalauthoritative work of Vedanta.
sutras
are
"end of the Veda," i.e.the Upanisads, and the Vedanta
but a summarized
of the general
statement
called as they are
so
work
Upanisads. This
adhyayas and each adhyaya is
of the
views
first four
The
are
and
to ask
(i) How
decay,(3)This
the
The
(2) From
whom
from
second
second
the
Vedanta
chapter
Catuhsutri
as
have
testimony of
birth
forth,
come
Upanisads.
the
is devoted
book
book
is
to
of the
attacks
against the
of the second
or
chapters.
or
proceed
the Vedas
him
chapter of
the
padas
known
harmonious
justifyingthe positionof
rival schools.
into four
commonly
Brahman,
is because
first
of the
whole
The
about
by
is shown
(4)This
divided
of the work
sutras
is divided
Upanisad
limited
is thus
work
the
to
siltra
which
system.
views
all the
the
of Vedanta
school
philosophy
We
to
as
that
the
largely and
of the
also pass
to be the real
by
same
the
often
the
mentaries
com-
logical
theo-
many
is not
found
is that
Brahma-sutras
works
follow
that
of dualistic
forms
"aivas,
Ramayatas,
originalpurport
apostles of
dualistic
of the
Brahma
creeds
such
Srlkantha,
Baladeva,
by themselves
in the
These
systems
intended
interpretations
as
by
is the
these
show
view
of
These
"arikara'sinterpretations
attacked
of Vedanta
to
Brahma-sutras.
as
etc., have
the Brahma-sutra
on
vehemently
sutras.
name
like
philosophy,though
Vaisnavas,
the
differed
the
second
however
now
the
Variant
monism).
philosophy as elaborated
the Upanisads and as summarized
them
Vedanta
dividual
in-
express
find
which
other
are
of the Brahma-
that is
and
contain
first commentary
known
absolute
thus
however
of
interpretations
representedby
as
claim
etc., also
sutras.
of
portions are
commentaries
are
school
other
earliest commentary
popularly
philosophy ought more
vada
The
and
by Baudhayana,
written
The
now.
together with
of
Upanisads,
of the
this
The
probably
was
available
his
book.
of the
views
to
second
the
chapters of
reallyphilosophicalportion of
The
texts.
in
busy
expounded
as
are
the Vedanta
by
also claimed
(Upanisads)
Some
iv]
and
the
Veddnta
Points
Of
sutras.
of Agreement
these
the
7
of
system
has
Ramanuja
great philosophicalimportance.
The
and
Ny
the
ay
Vaisesika
represent the
attributed
sutras
attributed
sutras
called also
Kanada,
to
Aksapada,
called also
Gautama,
to
Uluka,
for all
They are
practicalpurposes.
in later times considered
to differ only in a few
points of minor
the Nyaya sutras
importance. So far as the sutras are concerned
lay particularstress on the cultivation of logic as an art, while
the Vaisesika
deal mostly with metaphysics and physics.
sutras
In addition
had also philososix systems, the Tantras
to these
phies
system
same
which
of their own,
of the
largelyas modifications
contributions
though their own
it
materialists
Carvaka
all the
Agreement.
Theory.
that
other
with
systems
the
exception
on
agree
of
the
mental
funda-
some
were
mind
human
which
has
of
the
religiouspurpose
aims and
postulates,
be
to
identical
postulatesfor
of
other
It may
matters,
all the
be worth
realization
that
note
far
so
as
state,the
be
general
sum
mum
in
practically
systems
were
while
note
to
of
the
may
the
in
found
were
Whatever
of the transcendent
concerned,
indulging
realization
conflicting
systems.
opinion in
thorough agreement.
for
inclination
the realization
were
life,
natural
conditions
in all the
their differences of
bonum
thought, but by
abstract
at
noteworthy.
of
Karma
remarkable
is,however,
also
Points
The
I.
may
are
fundamental
Some
however
of them
some
this stage.
First,the theory of
in
agree
believingthat
leaves
behind
it
ordain
for him
joy or
or
be
has
bad.
take
and
whatever
sort
some
the
When
enjoyed
to
Karma
action
of potency
fruits of the
actions
or
another
man
as
in
a
or
is done
which
in the future
sorrow
birth
rebirth.
are
the
systems
individual
power
to
according as it is good
such that they cannot
the
life,
human
any
by
has
an
other
individual
being in
order
to
suffer them.
at
The
Vedic
the
sacrifices with
the
proper
uttered
in the correct
observance
of
accent
all ritualistic
Observations
72
virtue
or
the adrsta
be
operandi of
commits
who
performs good
These
wicked
of
which
the
built
established
up
but
(new),that by it the
for the
mysterious manner,
desired
in
the
notion
is unknown.
as
is also
Karma
with
the
these
bad
or
elements
it is said
Upanisads, where
actions
rta, the
pretty well
find
we
will have
men
he
pleasures.
conception
probably the
are
in the
he
whereas
of
which
theory
emphasized
world,
highest material
the
enjoys
modus
have
suffers in another
associated
according to good
There
we
things. Thus
not
magical virtue,called
unseen
an
sacrifice is performed,
the
the apurva
deeds
inviolable order
that
such
deeds
probably
were
visible
When
Samhitas,
who
effects
effect.
apurva
the
prevalent in
certain
and
achieved
the
time
instrumentalityof
(theunseen) or
object will
of the
leaves
the
of
process
form
earliest
postulatesa semi-conscious
can
produce at a distant
mystical actions
the ordinary
without
the
the
It
doctrine.
Karma
the
without
slightest
something like a magical
desired
object immediately
had
trifle,
smallest
in the
even
directions
the
details,exactly according to
error
Philosophy [ch.
Systems of Indian
on
good
bad
or
births.
To
notice other
doctrine
as
believed
that
established
the
required some
merited
and
punishment
the
his next
life.
wicked
or
it could
items
be
of
birth
next
of
be
could
by
his
maturing actions
him by his action
for
goat.
process,
actions
there
so
no
is
no
lives of the
most
dormant
he has any
of
are
ultimate
time
varied
in the
have
which
has
life of every
particularbirth
any
had
nature, and
as
been
of
nature
made
man
beginning
at
life. The
the
by
in
ready for
this life. If the experiencesdetermined
such that they are possibleto be
goat, the
experiences. Man
or
life exist
there
is
the
doer
extremely
are
in this
is determined
man
the
which
reaped
was
often accumulate
would
actions
pleasurableor painfulexperiencesthat
him
giving
it
generally
action
sufferingand enjoyment
Only
fit for
the Karma
find that
we
of the
These
enjoyment.
particularlygood
of the
nature
or
systems
{adrsta)potency
before
with
connection
astika
in the
unseen
time
prepare
pointsin
relevant
an
the
in time
person
be
of this
first
instincts
or
that
or
his
past
kind
thus
animal
world
of
of each
as
began
infinite number
individual,and
this
born
of
ever
whenman,
Observations
74
idea
be
and
purged
adherence
contemplation, all
karma
soul
the
having ceased,
universe,where
of the
Buddhism
also
theory which
metaphysics
the
will be
previously
take
it must
and
body
to the
ever.
some
traits
new
the
to
The
2.
top
karma
with
of the
all activities
up
treated
effect
last stage of
in the
Thus
goes
contributes
however
has
the
is
and
worldly existence
the
its end.
leaves
conduct,
moment
sage
bably
pro-
when
towards
rules of
a
which
was
is free from
man
for
the
within
exhausted
are
rapidly draws
person
that
karmas
all the
when
lasts but
karma
But
away.
the
to
which
predestined limits
its
system
passions,and acts in
his actions produce karma
annihilated.
then
Every
has
Yoga
the
suggested by
earned
of the
karmas
and krsna
sukla
of the
Philosophy [ch.
Systems of Indian
on
their
on.
Doctrine
of Mukti.
of the
only do the Indian systems agree as to the cause
in the share of sufferings
and enjoyments in the case
inequalities
of different persons, and the manner
the cycle of births
in which
and rebirths has been kept going from beginninglesstime, on
the
Not
basis
of
the
of
happenings
this
the
running
its end.
This
in
distant
some
leads
to
us
all such
neither
this
from
on
not
was
realized
upon
in
some
the
self of
stage
also
agree
in
its
as
artificialor
by
the
births
distant
be
to
if
rebirth.
sought
could
divest
we
as
some
within
lead
neither
When
us.
births,
re-
time
or
Karma
of
ourselves
we
suffers
the
and
somewhere
action
to
us
nor
should
enjoys,
Indians, weaned
man.
The
being permanently
these
the
divested
conclusion
worldly elements
of
fruits,
at
the
believingthat
be attained
action,feelings
or
ideas,led logicallyto
connection
with
has
turmoil
somewhere
actions
self which
undergoes
and
one's
beginninglesstime
desires
or
of
and
but
they
was
kingdom,
endless
cycle,and
nor
generallyhit
to
the actionless
us
works
believed
be
end
but
of karma
emotions, ideas
find within
by
world,
beginninglesschain
this
connection
mysterious
was
of
that
all
the
extraneous,
ignorance
Pessimism
iv]
and
inherited
passion as
less time
that
cycle of
births
the
of the
dissolution
called
the
Nirvana,
of which
nature
The
shall discuss
we
the
to
admit
Indian
permanent
of Sou/.
Doctrine
the
exact
nature
of
of
view.
Thus
while
soul
this
the
atman,
there
the Vedanta
implied in
consciousness
pure
and
that
in
all
absolutely
it
unconscious
entity,
ness,
conscious-
pure
point of unity
(anandd),and pure
(at),pure bliss
holding that it is pure
impuritiesof
real
all agree
gences
diver-
indeed
are
of
jlva.
or
purusa
fundamental
it is that
that
says
the existence
calls
Nyaya
qualitylessand characterless,indeterminate
Samkhya describes it as being of the nature
action
passion do
or
of
bonunt
summum
unsullied
and
all
The
Pessimistic
Attitude
Optimistic
towards
Faith
Though
as
in
utterance
in
the
the
not
life is attained
of the
and the pure nature
impuritiesare removed
thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other
connections
with it are
absolutelydissociated.
when
is
in the ultimate
is to be found
on.
All
As
beginning-
realization of this
The
these.
of karma
process
3.
of
from
karma
cycle of
it with
75
of this endless
goal and final achievement
did
Buddhists
The
and rebirths through karma.
of soul, but recognized that the final
existence
realization
later
the
Optimism
is the
state
admit
not
from
connect
we
transcendent
and
World
self
traneous
ex-
the
and
end.
is full of
has
sorrow
in all systems,
Buddhism.
been
be
it may
yet
It finds
of them.
not
its strongest
interminable
This
looked
as
painfulexperiences was
upon
but embroiling and entangling us in the
What
as
pleasures
karma, rebirth,and sorrow.
appear
pleasurableand
nearing no peacefulend
chain
of
meshes
are
but
of
a
mere
painful,there
anxious
to
appearance
is
have
pain
when
them.
we
When
lose the
the
to
keep
them
pleasuresor
pleasures are so
steady is
when
much
we
are
ciated
asso-
but duped
We
are
painsthey are but pains themselves.
when
seek pleasures,
for they are
to lead us
to pain. All
sure
we
and
sorrowful
our
ultimatelysorrowexperiences are essentially
of the
truth of this process
is the ultimate
begetting. Sorrow
with
Observations
j6
world.
That
appears
to
which
wise
to
be removed
also be avoided
by
forced
it is
is
life of
action
by
uproot
sorrow
leads
action
elevation
highest moral
towards
from
all
in its true
When
this is
with
passion
dissociated
or
done
the
attain
rid of
get
knowledge
true
the
can
Thus
is
nature
dispassion
rightlyconceived.
again
never
at
associated
be
ultimately
this stage
it the
within
contains
actions.
absolute
It becomes
citta which
emotions, ideas,and
to
to
retire in
self
ignorance.
from
lead
will but
our
may
its true
light,and
once
It cannot
continually
are
way
greatness and
man
world-experiencesand
When
worldly concerns.
shines
only
it comes,
pleasures and
of
the
to
us
in.
we
suicide
The
for all. It is
once
intimatelyconnected
that
rebirth.
as
comes
suicide,for
or
of moral
sorrow
sorrow
nature, and
our
and
sorrow
the culmination
by
which
to
inaction
mere
for each
another
yogin
turbance
grain of disworldly experiencescannot
of
sorrow
experiences.The
the smallest
even
by bringing in remedies
it is remedied
another
world
with
This
being
to which
the eye
is unbearable.
pleasurable
seems
person
or
person
pupilof
is like the
ordinary
an
dissatisfaction
and
sorrow
to
greater the
painful.The
Philosophy [ch.
Systems of Indian
on
emancipated
the
of
root
self for
all
ever
conquers
person
as
the
creed
have,
may
supremely
of each
shirk
the
but
the
on
blessed
details
The
developed
There
system.
duties
appreciationof
one.
have
system
peculiarto each
to
It is
sorrow.
of this
was
of
the
the
pessimistic
logicalnecessity
tendency
slightest
them
rise above
to
mukti
the
from
never
but
life,
of
the state
through
a
right performance and right understanding. It is only when
rises to the highest pinnacle of moral
man
glory that he is fitfor
aspiringto
that
realization
of selfhood
all
the joys
worldly things or even
shrink
into insignificance,
but appear
sorrowful
all
and
loathsome.
In fact it
seems
to
me
It is when
he
of
sincere
comparison
Heaven
in their
his mind
strive towards
can
that
in
would
true
with
which
only
not
character
as
from
religious
craving after
some
iv]
in
Unity
ideal
and
blessedness
from
fact
complex
that
which
of
The
we
view
confidence
in
one's
and
all terror
loses
self
own
no
and
of
India
fear
for
but
the
logically
remember
we
ourselves.
in
in
absolute
ultimate
the
of
be
if
us
mental
funda-
many
can
blessed
it closes
as
the
is indeed
philosophy
has
us
sorrowless
naturally
pessimistic
her
civilization
around
sorrow
are
the
jj
self-realization
only
not
phenomena
deduced.
of
quiet
Sadhana
The
optimistic
and
destiny
of
goal
emancipation.
Indian
in
Unity
Sadhana
ethical
and
As
for
injury
for
desire
of
high degree
mind
his
his
of
for
regard
to
the
later
adopted
same
as
almost
universal
secured
there
their
goal
the
advocated
there
all the
Indian
in
for
and
India
India
for
of
attitude
the
unique
systems.
this
in
uniformity
of
all her
the
the
the
Thus
various
world
being
and
funda-
practical sadhana
sadhana
aspirations
only
more
thought.
among
the
tially
essen-
It is
religious craving
of
are
but
occupy
goal {sadhana)
The
There
system.
towards
unityin
with
names,
to
seen
differences
life,their
Yoga
is
prepare
everywhere
schools
Vaisnava
many
was
unity
the
by
of
almost
very
attainment
purpose.
technical
are
are
and
the
all
which
unanimous
are
the
or
(bkakti)
were
it for
trolled,
con-
that
attains
man
systems
be
and
done,
upon
followed
to
are
strengthen
steadying
purification
in
to
details
attainment
same,
the
and
be
principles
are
has
Indian
devotion
that
for
means
mentally
those
be
When
he
certain
for
though
yet
checked,
agreed
must
passions
should
employed
place specially
that
systems,
the
in
the
be
to
means
times
of
most
be
prominent
was
purifying
divergences
means
be
greatness
further
the
to
indeed
in
moral
ideal; and
form
acknowledged.
universally
almost
all
all
are
which
That
any
should
pleasures
systems
conduct
ethical
life in
to
Indian
salvation.
of
attainment
the
no
of
of
religious
endeavours).
the
expected
general principles
the
it
be
might
(philosophical,
and
has
has
been
therefore
strivings.
CHAPTER
V
PHILOSOPHY
BUDDHIST
scholars
MANY
be
may
been
to
every
and
the
of
has
largely
of
systems
have
we
Moreover
that
that
conflict
of
opposition
should
but
the
had
it is well-known
knowledge
and
relation
them.
them
philosophic enquiry
A
Yoga
It is also
view,
with
in
of
most
is
different
Buddhism.
to
begin
the
Buddhism
of the
right understanding
the
India.
of
such
as
philosophy
for
and
inspirationfrom
in
Buddhism.
therefore
desirable
seems
treatises
thought.
mutual
of its
Yoga
stimulated
Hindu
in their
systems
much
truth
Hindu
indispensable
therefore
Samkhya
some
after
written
student
Buddhists
drew
is
systematic Samkhya
decidedly
the
systematic speculations
there
that
that
opinion
Buddhism
that
suggested
It
earliest
the
represent
of
are
with
It
Buddhism
first.
The
of
State
difficult
is indeed
It
these
that
atheistical
and
had
"
time
everything
destiny
or
through
of
these
referred
flourished
SvetasVatara,
that
Lokayata (literally,
name
by which
the Lokayatas.
to
svabhabo
which
all carvaka
schools
in later
and
doctrines
the
thought
all these
that
inexorable
happenings,
Of
Carvakas
to
the
no
Upanisad
(Dhurtta
the
But
See
and
time
it
in
seems
iti cintyam.
general) seems
or
diverse
also, but
yonih purusa
in
world
others
an
literature,though
aiaong
of
that
literature
people
the
diverse
to
References
niyatiryadrccha bhutdni
and
not
some
rightly be discovered2.
is found
before
were
origin
known.
of
different
known,
these
accidental
Buddhist
are
India
with
general.
views
two
cannot
the
in
these
the
kalah
in
found
of
of
in
(svabhdvd),
accordance
in
the
all,others
nature
concourse
are
the
of
of
references
discussed,
own
combinations
I. 2,
that
cause
forth
fortuitous
materialists
are
their
by
accounts
Su"iksita)
on
there
ultimate
come
heresies
detailed
which
had
matter
of
kinds
type
forth
sprung
find
But
Buddha.
well
are
find
we
sometimes
the
was
Upanisads
Upanisads
were
"
sketch
prevalent
were
of the
We
creeds1.
its processes
that
been
in the
Even
ones.
short
the
before
brieflydescribed.
been
already
have
only
doctrines
The
India
give
to
philosophical speculations
Buddhism.
in
Philosophy
to
have
Gunaratna
Carvakas
v]
ch.
however
probable
the
in
Upanisads
Carvakas
other
and
that
did
the
refers
in the
holy scripture.According
consciousness
just
red
as
colour
the
was
no
there
nor
is neither
long
virtue
them
to
there
Life
of matter,
the combination
of intoxication
and
after-life,
it lasts it is needless
any
soul.
no
was
or
of
result
Life
vice.
Vedas
the
authority of
The
schools.
similar
to
or
products of
the
were
materialists contained
to the
these
to
believe
not
allusion
79
of
for
only
is
think
reward
no
actions,as
enjoyment.
So
of
of the
distribution
the
validityof
inference
any
there
is
comes
Dhurtta
Carvakas
elements
of
of
atomic
virtue
or
vice.
soul
They
written
quote
that
not
of which
The
body
was
Carvakas
that
no
held
it also
was
case
fact and
because
religiousor
to
carv
that the
There
but
any
eat.
nothing but
was
and
fire,
Susiksita
the
from
there
air and
other
accept any
upon
might destroy
called Carvaka
were
comes
combination.
apart from
body
the
was
self
four
but the
soul, no
or
that
The
there
was
destroyed with
of the
destruction
atna
held
earth,water,
result
was
it.
moral
the
about
would
they
absence
depended
not
If in
particularpiece of inference.
accidental
to be true, it is only an
any
certitude
no
(hetu)has
term
condition, the
extraneous
some
middle
to
in sutras
two
from
sutras
it. Short
of this school
accounts
may
be
SarvadarsanasamJayanta'sNydyamahjarl, Madhava's
Tarkarahasyadipikd. Mahdbhdrata
graha and Gunaratna's
gives
called Carvaka
of a man
account
an
meeting Yudhisthira.
of the Carvaka
Side by side with the doctrine
materialists we
found
of
reminded
Gosala, probably
Ajlvakas of which Makkhali
and a contemporary
renegade discipleof the Jain saint Mahavlra
are
a
in
Buddha
of the
and
Mahavlra,
determinism
for
responsibility
Makkhali's
or
remote,
denying
any
the
was
the
so-called
leader.
free will of
good
depravity of
This
or
is no
beings or
was
and
man
evil.
cause,
The
either
for their
going
thoroughhis moral
essence
of
proximate
purity. They
Buddhist
80
become
without
so
efforts
own
on
for
effort,
human
any
efforts of
the
there
The
human
to
fate,to
their environment
that there
no
was
world,
other
nor
we
can
do
an
end
at
There
or
was
this
prevents
the
That
to
come
the
any
evil deeds
or
had
nor
due
are
taught
; there
parents
is
nor
no
any
this life.
Nothing that
being wholly brought to
to
from
and
country
traditional
custom
those
to
basis
behind
There
were
probably
on
then
Samkhya
is the
change
nihilistic
do
but
away
without
the
realityand
pass
of circumstances
conceptions
or
schools,philosophy had
by
some
probably
Yoga practicesprevalentin
accepted partly on the strength of
the
were
were
sections,and
certain
and
which
had
these
But
they
rational
no
These
doctrines
had
which
grown
virtue
partlyby
physical power
performed them.
them
which
abides
concourse
among
who
gave
ultimate
intellectual
spiritual,
of the great
the
form
Thirdly
of these
these
the
thought: firstly
magical rites of which any
self,is
permanently
In each
of
currents
and
name
fortuitous
the
this is self.
deadlock.
nebulous
but
law, no
fate.
unknown
energy,
time
nature1."
desired ;
he
anything
which
no
being by
into
good
force of the
Brahman,
true, and
is
the
by
all else
there
that
or
power
by Ajita Kesakambali
alike
us
at
own
real;
at least three
attain
that
abide.
real and
led
result of
of
any
thus
could
being,and
not
conditions
one's
on
nothing depends
thing as
their
one
short
either
death2.
were
teaching
and
fruit
sacrificial Karma
person
such
no
efficacywith respect
lives any
former
is
school
sophistical
Another
others, in
varying
or
exertion.
[ch.
Nothing depends
cause.
any
on
or
Philosophy
certain
among
up
the
to
erecting
juncture that we find Buddha
a new
superstructure of thought on altogetheroriginallines which
of philosophy for all posterity
thenceforth opened up a new
avenue
motionless,
If the Being of the Upanisads, the superlatively
to come.
sections.
It
was
at
this
was
interest ?
of
direction
1
a
If
everything
was
due
create
any
philosophy of
S"mannaphala-sutta,Digka,
II. 23.
Simaiiilaphala''sutta,
II.
could
circumstances, reason
to
to
io.
the
for further
all other
reasonless
not
Hoernle's
scope
article on
further
The
unreason.
the
of
matters
fortuitous
proceed
new
course
con-
in the
magical
E.
Ajivakas,
R.
E.
[ch.
Philosophy
Buddhist
82
centuries.
Buddhist
Early
The
the
of
discipline
to
the
Pali
and
historyof
modern
technical
canonical
however
composed
s/probable
completed
before
before
the
241
B.C., the
of Buddhistic
to
of the
fix any
Buddhists.
of
the
definite dates
The
suttas
and
canonical
of the
date
religious
Abhidhamma
whole
the
yet
as
of the
literature
almost
that
failed
have
(relating
generally
with
them
in a
dealing
Scholars
composition
or
aforesaid
but
suttas
manner).
times
collection
the
the
subjects as
same
the Abhidhamma
and
monks)
the
scholastic
for
Literature.
third
were
it is
very
works
council
were
during
The
suttas mainly deal with the doctrine
reignof King Asoka.
of the Buddhistic
the Vinaya deals
faith whereas
(Dhamma)
of the monks.
only with the regulationsconcerning the discipline
is mostly the same
that
The
as
subject of the Abhidhamma
the
of
the
suttas,
the
namely,
interpretationof
the
Dhamma.
to Atthasalini,the commentary
Buddhaghosa in his introduction
the Dhammasangani,
is so called
on
says that the Abhidhamma
in the
it describes
because
in
suttas
more
the
Dhammas
same
intensified
as
{dhammatireka)
are
and
The
Abhidhammas
specialized(dhammavisesatthena) manner.
doctrines
that are
do not
in the suttas, but
not
give any new
elaboratelywith those that are already found
they deal somewhat
in the suttas.
the specialfeatures
Buddhaghosa in distinguishing
of the
suttas
of the
former
from
leads
this statement
one
the
one
Abhidhammas
to
attain
to attain
probably
wisdom
lies in
says
meditation
that
the
acquirement
{samadhi) whereas
(paundsampadam).
this,that
the
The
force
dialoguesof
the
leave
v]
Buddhist
Early
Literature
83
The
known
Abhidhammas
other
in the
form
of
opponents
the
schools
questions and
often
are
to
absurdity.The
to
shown
be
to
of
sorrow.
the
the views
reduce
discussions
and
answers,
craving
differs from
Kathavatthu
this,that it attempts
in
of the heterodox
as
the
based
proceed
of the
answers
contradictory
on
assumptions.
The
These
contain
suttas
of collections
five groups
called
called the
Nikayas.
of the
length
contained
in it; (2) Majjhima Nikaya (middling
of the suttas
of the middling extent
of the
Nikaya), called so on account
contained
in it ; (3) Samyutta Nikaya (Nikayas relating
suttas
of their being
to
specialmeetings),called samyutta on account
delivered owing to the meetings (samyoga)of special
persons which
for them ; (4)Anguttara Nikaya, so called bethe occasions
cause
were
in each succeedingbook
of this work the topicsof discussion
increase by one1; (5) Khuddaka
Nikaya containing Khuddaka
patha, Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka,Sutta Nipdtay Vimdnavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragathd, Therigathd,Jdtaka, Niddesa,
Patisambhiddmagga, Apaddna, Buddhavamsa, Carydpitaka.
Abhidhammas
The
Patthdua, Dhammasahgani, Dhdtuare
and
Kathavatthu.
kathd, Puggalapannatti, Vibhanga, Yamaka
are
exists also
There
works
of the above
Panha
so
literature
largecommentary
known
as
account
on
atthakatha.
The
on
diverse
work
parts
known
as
Milinda),of uncertain
(questionsof
date, is
King
value.
of considerable
philosophical
/
The
doctrines and views
incorporatedin the above literature
"/
Theravada.
is generallynow
known
Sthaviravada
On the
as
or
Theravada
(the doctrine of the elders)Dipaoriginof the name
met
vamsa
(elders)
(atthe first council)
says that since the Theras
Milinda
and
collected
does
not
the doctrines
appear
it
known
was
that Buddhism
as
as
it appears
the Thera
Vada2.
It
ture
in this Pali litera-
the
developed much since the time of Buddhaghosa (400 A.D.),
writer of Visuddhimagga (a compendium of theravada
doctrines)
and the commentator
of Dighanikdya, Dhammasangani, etc
Hindu
to have been influenced
fluenced
philosophyin later times seems
by the later offshoots of the different schools of Buddhismism, but
it does
1
See
not
appear
that
Pali
Buddhaghosa's Atthasdlini, p.
had
Buddhism
25.
any
share
in it. I
Oldenberg'sDipavamsa,
p. 31.
6"2
/
V
Buddhist
84
have
considered
be
as
The
word
in four
senses:
(hetu)and
these
Hindu
Pali.
point
philosophy
last
did
not
these
is
But
phenomena?
away
"
out
"
happens
of
or
realityhow
else
what
not
others
exact
series
and
become
of
this
has
Nikdya (II.5)
This
produced.
what
find
else
phenomena
being V
happening \
there
the
is called
{paticca-
it is difficult to understand
The
dependence.
the
which
it with
to
The
that
others; by
But
origination.
nature
happening
see
passing
was
else is not."
some
are
and
the Buddha
we
that*}
for the J
account
happening
What
being
to
all
pheno-
question arises
we
with
what
also
dependent
is the
is,"
are
are
"
determining
unsubstantial
The
the
What
"
the
dhammas.
in
Samyutta
Buddhism1.
{nissatta mjjzva*). Of
entity as
were
being
and
samuppddd)
it
main
events
what
with
happening
phenomena there
some
fixed
called
are
certain
could
is
phenomena
point of interest
the
What
"
soulless
accept any
substance
no
and
early
who
particularly
important from
The
philosophy.
early Buddhist
Buddhist
were
and
which
meaning
of
of
writer
of view
if there
Connection
(4) unsubstantial
and
any
in the
Dhamma
it is the
the
discover
to
of Causal
Doctrine
The
old
able
been
not
[CH.
Philosophy
question
Buddha
as
started
miserable
condition
this: in what
was
attainingBuddhahood
the people ! they are
born, they decay, they die, pass away
and
the path of escape
born
are
they do not know
again ;
before
are
and
from
this
How
and
""
know
to
death.
and
and
decay, death
the
Then
way
it occurred
death, depending
deeply
into the
death
and
on
him
to
do
this
what
they
there
misery
of
decay
decay
being there,are
come
it occurred
matter,
when
occur
from
escape
what
of the
root
only
can
misery.
to
he
As
to
him
is birth(jdti),
so
thought
that
decay
they depend
Co
1
There
of the
twelve
Buddhist
differences of
some
are
links of
view,
Samyutta does
as
as
it
gives us
discussions
*
start
to
in
desana
where
substances.
not
are
it in the
regarded
philosophyI
Dr
also
have
E.
not
as
i.e. Dharmmas
senses
are
part of the
fundamental
thought it fit
J. Thomas
other
could
one
Samyutta Nikdya
teaching.The
religious
gunadravyapurvaka dharmmd,
and
find
it means
whether
to
we
became
causes
dhamma
as
as
as
causes
opinion as
drew
my
in which
which
earliest
the
But
Buddhist
to
enter
attention
the
word
into
to
as
doctrine
tural
conjec-
this fact.
is used,
as
described Dharmma
Lahkdvatdra
those
as
suttas.
are
associated
as
butes
attri-
Doctrine
v]
What
birth.
on
of
Causal
being there, is
it occurred
there
could
birth
depend?
Then
previous existenc"^"kava)1.But on
depend, or what being there is there
were
existence
occurred
hirn^Jiatthere
to
It occurred
to
depended.
There
what
him
occurred
be
can
could
be
not
that
be
must
it occurred
him
in order
that
contact
there
there
depend
contact
do
there
must
depend
there
be
the
be
may
the
word
This
(La Vallee
janakam
be
does
be
may
be
must
feeling4.If
to
him
fields of
six
is
the
this
deed
there
vaca
it
question
that
rather
should
as
be
Jthere
no
sense-
six
are
(ayatanay.
does
sense-
But
on
him
that
that
there
to
in order
what
sense-
does
what
on
on
namarupa
consciousntsstyinndna)
what
which
'
depend, or
feeling(vedand)h To this
sense-contacr
a
{phassa)
contact:
but
But
samutthdpayati kayena
there
(tanhd)*.But
vedana
that
interpretedby Candrakirtti
as
edition)
?_ To
that without
namarupa8.
no
bhava
him
to
it
did
depend?
body\ndmarupa)
and
if
this
Then
unless
It occurred
ayatanas
be
bhava.
existence
feeling.But
no
only
feelirtg
(vedand) in order
fields of contact5;
Poussin's
kar?na
may
be
the mind
six
be
there
the
are
six
It occurred
could
there
It occurred
contacts, there
what
on
birth
does
what
is desire
desire
be
what
that
would
if there
be
must
But
there,that
to
was
there
there
does
upadana depend?
which
on
desire~(tan/id)
upadana
upadana
can
be desire.
may
what
him
to
it
that
being there,
there
that
were
him
what
birth,on
there
to
85
Connection
being
in his
brought
there
would
vrtti,p. 565
Madhyamika
about
there
rebirth (punarbhava-
ca).
manasd
desires he holds
fast to the materials necessary
for
thing a man
says that whatever
attainingit (yatra vastuni satrsnastasya vastuno
vidhapanaya
upadanamupdWjanaya
dalte tatra tatra prdrthayate). Madhyamika
vrtti,p. 565.
3
Candrakirtti
describes trsna as asvddanabhinandanddhyavasanasthanadatmapri-
yariipairviyogoma
that
there
not
may
prdrthand
be any
from
separation
those
pleasures,etc., which
"
desire
the
are
dear
to
Ibid. 565.
us.
4
We
read
also of
phassayatana and
phassakaya.
M.
N.
11.
261,
III.
280, etc.
drakirtti
Can-
M.
V.
565.
the six senses
together with
Ayatana
Field of operation." Salayatana means
six senses
has ayatanadvaraih.
pravarttante.
5
"
that
means
I have
followed
Compendium,
p. 271.
the translation
This
seems
to
of Aung
me
to be
their
as
is
objects. Ayatana literally
kirtti
operation. Candra-
six fields of
mind
and body,
as
rendering namarupa
called
The
four
skandhas
c
orrect.
are
fairly
us
give
(mind
(matter)
namarupa
rupa
in
birth. These
together with
body) which
being developed render the activities through the six sense-gates
possibleso that there may be knowledge. Ci.M. V. 564. Govindananda, the commentator
nama
and
in
each
Cc/vv^J
*\%
be
But
vififtana there
be
mieht
and
difficult
actuallywished
hand
Bhavacakra
He
those
the
signifies
of them.
or
rather
as
a
could
be
what
to
the
Buddha
of existence
existence). Decay
happened if there was
this
at
the
point
the
of
theory
and
no
difficulty
rebirth
was
as
and
name
agree
the womb
of
and
Govindananda
means
See
the
is the
sense
exact
to introduce
of the
that
physicalbody
nama
built
out
produced
were
On
womb
of the word
The
here.
proper philosophical
the
he had often to use
terms
and
called rupa.
holding
of it namariipa
account
on
in
the visible
produced,
are
blood
and
black, semen
with
and
that alayavijfiana,
are
and
into
vijnafia
Some
senses.
terms
philosophical
at
least
Buddha
and
same
are
was
logy
phraseoword
in
therefore
will,action.
different
the
method
philosophical
less different
means
will be
vinnana
antipathyor anger,
foetus is produced; from
while rupa
ovum
entrance
distinct
Sanskrit
ignorance
of
the momentary
of previous karma.
association
elasticwhen
later
sankhara
in
the
more
in
think
To
with
as
of attachment,
Amalananda
and
semen
is
sarikharas
stopped
But
that
are
"
thought of
entered
Vijfiafia
through the
one
not
Vacaspati and
Both
says
the samskaras
from
the
it occurred
of
the Brahmasutras
(n. ii.19),givesa different interpretation
probably refer to the Vijnanavada view though we have no means
on
may
verifyit.
come
have
clear.
be
remember
which
Here
cycle of dependence
(wheel
could
must
this
We
to
there
by
to
"ankara'sbhasya
from
be
seems
Namariipa
be
definite
to
This
begins.
at
mean
{jardmarana)
birth8.
on
to
called
sometimes
could
there
on3.
so
It is indeed
death
then
stopped
if the sarikharas
stopped,and
orderHthat
in
if there
be
only
can
be
that
conformations^awMtfra)1.
the
the sarikharas
there
avijjacould
'
stopped
must
are
him
to
be
sarikharas
the
that
him
{avijja).If
o
there
being
what
to
it occurred
Here
vififiana.
[ch.
Philosophy
Buddhist
86
sense
Mr
from
what
we
the
same
as
sahkhara
karma
khandha
; it is here used
(viz.mental
in Dhamma
get a list of 51 mental states forming sankhara khandha
Sahgani, p. 18, and another different set of 40 mental states in Dharmasamgraha, p. 6.
states).We
19),also interpretsthe
word
in connection
as
extreme
to
be taken
as
of
the entirety
representing
duhkhaskandha.
v]
Theory of Rebirth
enunciated
as
in the
insect
an
collects
Upanisads.
going
another
Carvakas
vaka
believed
doctrine.
The
future.
Buddha
be
If bhava
it to mean,
determined
a
as
better
as
depend
people
desired.
had
This
the
of
"
born
The
word
and
There
The
word
used
was
could
betaken
not
our
of the
betaking
not
oneself
to
only
note
tadabhi"bhava"
to
suit
used
rather
found
in the
scripturesfor the
on
been
themselves
what
does
this
previous existence
things or works
they
actions
ance
things in accordupadana. In the Upanisads we read,
whatever
betakes himself to, so does he work"
one
( Yatkraturtatkarmma
bhavati
kurute, Brh. IV. iv. 5). As this betaking to
the thing depends upon
desire (trsnd),
it is said that in order
with
desire
to
or
is called
"
there
that
also
himself
the
The
as
we
be
upadana
read
there
"Whatever
to"
(sa yathakamo
upadana nor trsna
word
1
such
may
attempts
the
to
prove
one
bhavati
the doctrine
be
must
tanha.
desires
so
In
the
does
he
sads
Upanibetake
tatkraturbhavati).Neither
(the Sanskrit
of rebirth
in the
and inadequate.
slight
which
Upanisad
is not
Pali
But
have
takes
could
kurute
probably
the
the
bhava
in
{bhava).
Candrakirtti
karma
was
of
present birth
of
interpretation
to
me
karma) seems
philosophicalterm.
people, and
present birth
( Yat
an
case
previousexistence
lectin
of them
existence
as
not
had
in the
1
1
this
does
IV.
Upanisads
to
reminded
are
be
kammabhava.
first time
if
we
will he
"existence."
looselyfor
bhava
that
(punarbhavajanakam
than
earlier
also
what
another
upon
mean
all
by
Car-
refute
to
which
except
brings rebirth
of the works
so
sampadyate,Brh.
Karma
which
account
does
man
came
did
infinite number
an
to think
fall back
to
it. Here
"
have
the
of the
us
one
T)e^Uv
been
disprove
or
fact and
as
of
end
presupposes
prove
to
which
strongly believed
it would
then
place on
as
would
as
only
comes
new
the
philosophy except
they
it
accepts
ones
karma
means
of
what
say
before,and
he
to
just
effort
seldom
has
little is known
so
also
was
due, had
life thus
there
attempt
lives
also, when
might
take
It
This
that
says
by a
coming to
soul
schools
life therefore
of
emancipated
in the
All
in it and
Buddha
the
serious
any
it is difficult to
that
sutras
I remember
as
rebirth1.
of
Brhadaranyaka
leaf of grass
another.
far
after Buddha
or
doctrine
the
So
The
of
does
so
itself in
existence.
before
end
itself in another
life collect
this
the
to
87
word
Hindu
corresponding
works
philosophical
t
UACA"vaC
Buddhist
88
in the earlier
tanha) is found
to
in them
similar
are
Sense-contact
whole
psychosis of
or
the
in the
in
reality2.Buddhaghosa
"
Name
"
the
meant
are
elements
four
He
further
and
that
says
as
also
cannot
produce
the
crippleand
blind
this word
derivative
itself
when
and
when
any
such
cardinal
the
sound
movements
all the
same
way
those
without, come
and
/rupa taken
body,
to
but
operate
the
The
of "field
*
having
will not
the
sense
functions
in the
viftfiana
word
or
Candraklrtti
I.
can
Form
not
nama.
in each
saha
or
"
both
not
go
the compass
form
But
like
and
to
collection
but
just as
of sound
from
come
of the
any
;...inexactly the
those
with
and
form
having previouslybeen
existence
pass away6." Namathe
mean
and
see
the
whole
body
with
that it may
of
which
mind
be said to
watchman
has
at
the
and
found
are
{salayatana). If
sense
take
we
depend
been
pared
com-
middle
of
birth
specific
act
as
name.
in Translations,p. 184.
185, Visuddhimagga, Ch. xvn.
Ibid. pp. 185-186, Visuddhimagga,Ch. XVII.
Ibid. p.
heap
it does
it does
So
in many
5, Brh.
nama
interprets
M.
V. 564.
namarupa.
*
Warren's Buddhism
we
Pahha
ayatana is found
place,"Cha.
of
doors
elements*.
another
one
(consciousness).Consciousness
Milinda
bhave ndmayantiti
The four skandhas
six
"Form"
after
into
come
by
sensation
itself.
previous store
no
being
sense
in the
of
into existence
in this sense,
namarupa
upon
points of
in this
only
is
it ceases,
elements
four
changes by
into existence
when
intermediate
or
there
upon,
that
says
the like.
or
comes
; and
store
/non-existent
played
and
forms
produce physicalchanges,
can
lute is
sads
Upani-
indefinable
the
effectuate the
of material
in the
determinate
from
the
together)
beginning with
predisposition);
by
of those
any
mind
indeterminate
the
by
name
the
groups
eating,drinking,making
such
the
form
operation1.
presuppose
Visuddhimagga
three
and
Desire
sense-contact.
again
of
the
the
"kdma."
fields of
as
would
sense
from
distinguished
as
and
senses
familiar with
are
it is used
there
six
(the body
man
We
called namarupa.
names
the
feeling or
on
operating fields
six
senses
"kratu"
depend
to
[ch.
Upanisads, but
words
presupposes
These
but
the
to
said
is then
{tanha)
Philosophy
These
together with
rupa
make
Buddhist
90
r*-
[ch.
Philosophy
but as
ignorance (avidyd),for an Arhat may have also vedana
[he
has no
cannot
avidya,the vedana
produce trsna in turn. On
into upadana. Vedana
its development it immediately passes
means
side
it
sense-contact
Prof.
is
Poussin
sticks heat
is the
and
the
between
contact
of
production
and
sense
is the
there
takes
also
here
takes
by vijnana,and
namarupa
of the
mother
of which
and
the six
five elements
of
karmas
past
We
of the
Govindananda
that from
Vibhanga,p.
of
the
137
dying
of
the
of the
product
and
man
on
anything becomes,
and
Warren's
Buddhists
believed
the
determined
man
in his j?a/"a/raMa
which
is a contraction
Prof. De
principleor
upholding
mother
Sankara's
his
past
merit
as
Buddhism
in
of
la Valine
"
kammabhava"
Poussin
or
in his
last
next
"
"
Translations, p.
Karma
the
of his
nature
201.
includes kammabhavo
Thiorie
that
Abhidhammatthasahgaha,
an
existence)and upapattibhavo(the passive side).And
2
the
It is the
dying
bhava
out
namarupa,
too.
sometimes
I thoughts
as
means
of the
there.
body
new
(sahkhara)
consciousness
probably
in the womb
the
womb
in the
specialized.
are
of consciousness
germ
descend
to
five skandhas
the
produce
senses
is said
as
the
that
says
vedana
"
in
processes
Poussin
object;
there
first there
Thus
vedana.
Valine
la
De
"
Aung
in
says
(theactive side of
commentators
say
that
des
S"listambhasutra
the
Mr
Douze
that
"
trsna vaipulya or
explains the word
"upadana" as
hyper-trsna
and Candraklrtti also gives the same
M.
V.
T.
Govindananda
S.
meaning,
(B.
p. 210).
i.e. the active
explains"upadana" as pravrtti
(movement) generated by trsna (desire),
in
of
if
desire. But
tendency
upadana means
"support" it would denote all
pursuance
"
Thus
Madhyamaka
paflcopdd"naskandh"khyamupdddnam.
*
Poussin's
vrtti says
M.
V.
Causes, p. 33.
up"danam
xxvil.
6.
pancaskandhalaksanam
.
Consciousness
v]
Rebirth
and
The
like the
of
so
death
lightingof
stamp
on
New
skandhas
pans
of
balance
lightedor
skandhas
the
next
the
principleof
to
are
the
new
be
At
life,
great break,
no
manner
the death
or
It is in this
the
lamp
man
the
as
of the
and
This
matured.
life.
is
same
(animal, man
vijnanas enters
gods) in which
forms
vijnana thus
vijnana that
name
associated.
(rupa) become
form
and
(ndma)
in the
fall,
of that mother
in
and
previous karmas
his
impress
changing
are
; there
like the
or
is reflected.
image
vijnana resultingfrom
an
skandhas
change
as
and
rise up
lamp
of destruction
sort
produced
are
another
all the
similar
uniform
same
As
is but
the
from
lamp
wax.
also
but the
is
in which
manner
and
product of the samskaras
the sort of birth in which
{ndmayati)
vijnana should bring down
determined
the
the new
existence
is
samskaras2, for
{upapatti)
by
lation
in realitythe happening of death
(rnaranabhavd)and the instilThe
vijnana is
of the
bhava)
the
they
then
chain
This
and
the
beginning
no
of the
the
life
new
latter
{upapatti-
succeeds
just
it is to
of twelve
samskara
at
said to be
the womb
direct
simultaneous, but
be
moment,
are
avidya
vijnana as
cannot
next
indeed
causes
of the
extends
over
three
lives.
"
Thus
namathe~vljnana,
The
of the
master
memory,
"
fear, energy,
all mental
are
qualities
produced
out
of it.
Just as
chariot is
made
"
birth, and
and
red,
from
semen
produced.
that the
and
ovum,
four elements
and
from
(kalala-budbuddvastha)is
Buddhist
92
[ch.
Philosophy
the
rupa,
to
interesting
It is
three
in
extending
of
manifestations
determine
of
birth.
'
mind
Again
have
been
and
(upadana)
twelve
is
'sorrow,'etc.
term
another.
"
taken
into
(karma)
for also.
In
(karma) becoming
and
the
and
when
the
of
actions
the
fivefold
accounted
fruit,to
wit
And
for.
causes
in the
Five
causes
Now
the
Present,
group
in the
These
the
the
consequences
of
actions
when
the
craving,grasping
into account,
ignorance
for,also
accounted
(implicitly)
death
taken
are
and
Now
to
into
account,
and
in the
in
3. bhava
the
even
rest
are
fruit.'
'
fruit
'
make
(i. sahkhara
and
Present
and
group
up
and
the
jati)and
resultant
Past, one
the
fivefold
Connections
tanha,
group
fivefold
come
Three
group
causal
one
'
composite
craving (trsna),grasping
counted
implicitlyac(bhava) are
taken
are
yet
and
causal
(one
groups
and
vedana
vififtana,2.
the
Past
Modes,
Twenty
and
consciousness,
(rebirth),
thus
Five
'
manner
been
birth,decay, and
the
account,
same
mind
chain
all but
incidental
show
to
becoming
have
in the
are
For
factor.
ignorance
the
and
is
meant
when
lives
bhava
This
ally
bringing in of which they naturThus
Abhidhammatthasahgaha
terms
only
links
twelve
three
over
to the
one
of these
each
"
says
sections
sorrow
these
that
note
bhava
four
in the
resultant
one
Future,
twelve
each
group
the
The
sorrow.
has
been
1
This
ghosa
paticcasamuppada
term
differentlyinterpreted in
explanationprobably cannot
mentions
Abhidhammatthasahgaha,
the past; "birth,"
It is
be
it in Sumahgalavildsini
viil.
"decay
3.
and
on
later
found
in the
Mahdniddna
Ignorance and
death"
to
or
the
pratityasamutpada
Buddhist
early Pali
texts
suttanta.
We
actions
of the
literature4.
; but
Buddha-
find it also in
mind
belong to
eight to the
ill.
(havingthree branches) in Abhidharmakoia,
and
"sa
in
the
future
in
middle
the
20-24.
eight
past branch, two
pratityasamutpddo dvddaidhgastrikdndakah purvdpardntayordve dve madhyestau."
2
Aung and Mrs Rhys Davids' translation of Abhidhammatthasahgaha, pp. 189-190.
present.
Two
The
trikandaka
styled as
in the
twelve
of the Buddha,
links
are
not
always
constant.
Thus
and sankhara
have been omitted
and the start has been
23 f.,avijja
with consciousness, and it has been said that "Cognition turns back from name
made
and
form;
4
M.
11.
it goes
Kp.5f,
not
beyond."
v]
in
Avijja
Samutpada
tltya
after
which
there
the
same
used
in
These
of the
originof
the
Thus
when
it is meant
instrument
the
which
through
(cause)and
often
are
that
in \
used
is also
paccaya
it is said
that
sarikharas,is
the
however
words
hetu
interchangeable. But
are
of sarikhara
called
are
arising,
two
specificsense.
of
kind
some
and
sense
paccaya
of
is
(ground).
paccaya
or
appearance
find,arisingafter
on
93
means
means
Paticcasamuppada
avijjais
the
they
of
{nimittatthiti),
their
and
of their function
as
are
determined
them.
by
ground of sarikhara
though avijjaitself is
the
the
When
take
think
of
anything
else
cause
sarikharas
reasonable
regarded
as
not
be
unwise
to
nine
that
in the
developed
proceed
further
word
khandha
generally used
and
is
seen
that
when
people held
they reallyonly found
that
them.
The
states
which
See
ground
it
seems
sense
this
inti
point
texts
it would
trunk
of
Khandhas.
mean
group
there
they
was
found
are
aggregates
immediate
with
I.
p. 50 ;
see
much
also
have
of
psychical
Nikdya,
Majjhima
one
any
divided
are
tree
(soul). He said
spoken of soul,
together or
of bodily and
and
us
We
aggregate3.
the
five khandhas
the
atman
no
the
vol.
of the
some
as
the
it.
or
Patisambhidamagga,
take
the
in
avijja2.But
to
that
cannot
we
above,
early Buddhist
with
grounds1.
we
be
to
were
means
khandhas
are
said
(Skr.skandha)
said that
Buddha
when
is
future,
sarikharas
of
in the
chain,
mentioned
ways
the
The
The
avijjais
which
ways
other
by
causal
better vision
nine
also
its turn
those
to
these
succession, but
specialmanifestations
further
was
all
past and
in
when
the
think
to
but
Thus
in
reference
aspect of the
have
can
ground.
as
of the
we
in the
determined
hetu
aspect
paccaya
both
the
we
ground with
Avijja in
into
I.
five
67, san-
avijjdsamudaya avijjdjdtikdavijjdpabhavd.
khara...avijjaniddna
2
the
abhinive^a
and
The
word
adhyayanam
VII.
11.
skandha
ddnam)
is used
in the
sense
in
Chandogya,
of branches
and
II.
23
{trayo dharmaskandhdh
in almost
the
same
sense
yajiiah
in
Maitrl,
Philosophy
Buddhist
94
[ch.
(i)
rupa
"
samuppanna)
only
deludes
The
word
as
find
in the
Nikdya,
samgraha
the
of
as
cattdro
proceeding from
ghosa explains
and
it
of
affections
are
them.
called
makes
he
as
appear
blue
not
make
yellow,red, or
or
white
to
the
or
the
makes
stone
to
not
themselves
the
five
Dharma-
sensations,
in
sense
In
rupa)3. Buddhafour
the
means
six
these
nor
blue
themselves
make
updddrupam), so
created
by
appearances
{oddtam
on
the
the
four
"Just
hard
as
gold
Bhikkhus
Samyutta Nikdya
it is called rupam
we
not
selves
them-
yellow,red
their similarity
as
magician they
Samyutta Nikdya,
Abhidhammatthasahgaha,J. P.
Dhammasahgani, pp. 124-179.
III.
because
it manifests
called
are
says, "O
how
{rilpyati)\
86, etc.
T. S. 1884, p. 27 ff.
4
himself
mahabhuta4."
In the
appear
as
makes
though
appear
account
as
including
appear
bird
elements
as
appear
is not
gold
is not
ghost
says
bhutas
maha-
them
senses
Buddhaghosa
which
that
and
explaining why
water
ing
defin-
mahdbhutdnam
is called
the
ceptions
per-
begins by
elements
or
rupa
which
bird,so
white
according
rupa
included.
though
ghost
the
mind
of
depending {nissdyd)on
mahabhutas,
the
himself
In
also
are
magician (mdydkdra)
hard,
arise
is also
also in Sam-
catunnahca
that
by saying
material
states
or
Dhammasahgani
of that
grasping
which
those
modification
elements
the
and
p. 16, and
mahabhutas
four
(the
of these.
more
associated
mahdbhutd
ca
self he
"rupa"
But
of five senses,
of
discussion
rupam"
updddya
just as
I.
Rupaskandha
the aggregate
or
affections
Yamaka,
(paticca-
perceivesthe
data2.
sense
other
for matter
stands
organic
pure
86.
III.
elaborate
rupa
as
the
Khandha
means
"
their
and
he
only perceivesone
implicatory communications
{vijnapti).
The
he
the
upon
that
says
rupakhandha
senses,
sense
yutta
and
in
rupa
in the
we
man
himself,for
the
qualities,
used
when
one
Atthasdlini, p. 299.
v]
Theory of Matter
does
as
it manifest?
It manifests
thirst,it manifests
and
sun
If
for
the
the somewhat
consideration
our
what
is meant
rupa,
itself to
the
senses
seems
to
the
and
were
and
the
by
the
it may
and
be
The
four
were
therefore
were
which
or
called
called
the
senses
elements
all that
together with
called
and
rupa
the
Samyutta
mahabhutas
were
of the
mental
and
and
But
communication
also
on
or
appeared
features
ayatanas
and
them
with
the
(the classes
sense-contact
were
of
sense-
that
for the
account
also
of the
sanfiakkhandha;
is the
and
hetu
Samyutta Mkdya,
Dhammasangani,
in.
but
sense-contact
Safina
86.
p. 124 ft".
is that
of
where
2
paccaya
sense-contact
the
Thus
of the vifinanakkhandha."
of the
tact
Con-
is
of the sankhara-
namarupa
four
"the
tion
communica-
and
the hetu
"
of the communication
cause
was
they j
^-s-
said
paccaya
four
or
sensations).
and
arise therefrom.
1
that
mahabhutas
it is
ancP
forms
rupa2. The
khandha
the hetu
paccaya
do,
tion
opposi-
an
states
in association
(ill.10 1)
communication
with
now
arise
affection
The
rupa3.
Nikdya
feelings(vedana);
kkhandha.
such
in certain
other
(sense-contact,phassa) is the
for the
start
in the
of
rupa
materials,sense-data, senses
In
lowed
fol-
were
we
as
that
mention
forms
appeared
formed
their
sensations
changing manifestations,
but
themselves
were
mind
also called
were
called
also
were
; the
them
with
appeared
the
probably
not
themselves
many
rupa
and
as
is
rupa
sense-data
the
and
and
neither
tinction
dis-
No
rupa.
the sense-data
did
place to
fested
mani-
were
matter
manifested
elements
called
which
physical world
conditions
of
found
which
Samkhya- system
the
above
to
to understand
as
that
between
Buddhism
of
so
the sense-data
certain
duality were
also
but
out
referred
that
was
sensations
of division
not
made
They
senses
them
organs
been
sensations.
kind
same
And
the
"
find
we
existing in
rupa." Under
"
and
of the
appearance
sense-data
I think
sensations.
as
combine
to
try
have
colours,smells,etc., as
appearance
of gnats,
conflicting
passages
and
by
as
take
we
cold,and
as
the touch
as
95
paccaya
only feelings
not
safina
for the
and
sarikhara
specificknowing
Khandhayamaka.
or
Buddhist
96
[ch.
Philosophy
distinctive
conceiving takes place. This is.the stage where the specific
knowledge as the yellow or the red takes place.
Mrs
Rhys Davids writing on saftfta says: "In editing the
of the Abhidhamma
book
second
pitaka I found a classification
between
distinguishing
sanfta
cognitiveassimilation
as
occasion
on
of sense,
and
occasion
of
impact
of
as
sight,hearing,etc.,when
latter is called
(mano), when
is thoughtful: "What
speech.' Thus
his
I.
are
is
of the
aware
we
things as different,
might
perception of the equivalent word or
{adhivachand-sannd) and
name
consciousness
of external
impressions;
The
say.
sanfta
there
by
is seated... and
e.g. 'one
are
is exercised
you
thinking of?"
are
two
the
asks
sensus
munis
com-
another
who
perceivesthrough
one
stages of saftfta-consciousness,
what
to know
2. ability
contemplating sense-impressions,
they
by naming1."
read in Samyutta Nikdya (ill.
sankhara
About
we
87) that it
is called
that
it
it
synthesises{abhisankharonti),
conglomerated rupa
which
saftfta, sankhara
as
as
because
sankhara
sankhara
as
It is called
consciousness.
as
conglomerated
rupa,
and
consciousness
because
sankhara
is
saftfta
(vinndna)
it
synthesises
and
sankhara
states
activityon
probably the
that
states
and
at
we
which
the
conglomerated
the
word
that
sankhara
elements
is used
sankhara
or
consciousness
already seen
have
that
also
fact
hear
we
of
52
exercises
its synthetic
in
to
in two
it,goes
senses,
as
show
mental
syntheticactivity.
as
Viftftana
as
and
The
elements.
viftftana
sankhara
the
meant
in the
intellectual
according to Buddhaghosa,
process
started
and
also
the
the
stage
final
resultingconsciousness.
Buddhaghosa in explainingtheprocess of Buddhist psychology
first comes
into touch {phassa)with
(citta)
says that "consciousness
its object(drammana) and thereafter
feeling,
conception {saniid)
and
volition
(cetand)come
Buddhist
in.
This
but
the
it should
is like the
contact
pillarsof
Psychology,pp.
be
49,
thought
50.
that contact
it
Buddhist
98
whether
various
excellent
tastes
and
not
the
to
[ch.
Philosophy
king,and
afterwards
he
king,being lord,
the
even
likes,
so
the
tasting
mere
"
a
*
double
Volition
a
effort,
double
exertion.
of
Hence
landowner,a
said
Ancients
the
taking
cultivator who
was
to the fields to reap. He
fifty-five
strong men, went down
his
and exceedingly
strenuous
exceedinglyenergetic
; he doubled
strengthand said "Take your sickles" and so forth,pointedout
the portionto be reaped,offered them drink,food,scent, flowers,
The simile should be
etc., and took an equalshare of the work/
thus applied:volition is like the cultivator,
moral
the fifty-five
factors
which
arise
of consciousness
like the fifty-five
states
as
are
like
the
time
of
doublingstrength,
doublingeffort
strong men
;
effort of
by the cultivator is the doubled strength,doubled
volition as regardsactivity
and
immoral
acts8." It
in moral
that probably the active side operatingin sarikhara was
seems
designatedas cetana (volition).
separately
*"
"When
one
that
he
any
does
one
nowhere
Tor
was
and
could
not
Just as one
the
belonged to the petals,
say that the rupa
of the other khandhas
any
to be found in the khandhas
1
of them
'I.'
was
was
deludes
say that
colour or
'I'
Ibid. p.
130.
or
'I am3'."
the
the
that the
'1/ There
self
him-
is
v]
Ignorance
Avijja
As
the
to
there
question how
be
can
no
fruition is
in its train,and
which
it
cycleof
never
has
ever
existence
and
with
goes
existence
and
that
sorrow
them
either
beginning1. Its
any
the
started
that
say
comes
all. Thus
beginning,it determines
cyclesof
bring about
could
we
and
comes
never
can
avijja(ignorance)first
for existence
in the
seen
Asava.
the
for
answer,
desire
ignorance or
and
99
as
we^J
the elements
is itself determined
by
only
place
in and through the changing series of dependent phenomena, for
be said to have any absolute priority
there is nothing which
can
It is said that it is through the coming into
in time or stability.
or
into
being of the asavas
depravitiesthat the avijjacame
being,and that through the destruction of the depravities
{asava)
the avijjawas
These
classified
in they
asavas
are
destroyed2.
others.
certain
This
mutual
determination
take
can
and
as
kamasava, bhavasava, ditthasava
Dhammasangani
avijand thirst
means
desire,attachment, pleasure,
jasava. Kamasava
associated
with the senses;
after the qualities
bhavasava
means
desire, attachment
holding of
the
means
to
come
an
end,
for existence
heretical
views, such
non-eternal,or
or
will
and
or
that
the
will
body
ditthasava
come
and
birth;
or
the
an
soul
is eternal
end
or
are
one
will not
or
are
the
its cause,
its
ignoranceof sorrow,
of extinction.
and
extinction
its means
adds
Dhammasangani
four more
of
supplementary ones, viz. ignorance about the nature
anterior mental
khandhas, anterior
khandhas, posteriormental
and their mutual
and posterior
together,
dependence3. Kamasava
and bhavasava
can
as
as
Buddhaghosa says be counted
one, for
they are both but depravitiesdue to attachment4.
different;avijjasavameans
Warren's
M.
Davids
N.
Buddhism
1.
p.
in Translations
Childers
54.
"intoxicants."
as
The
translates
word
(Visuddhimagga,chap, xvii.),
p. 175.
and
Mrs
"asava"
as
Rhys
"depravities"
in Skr.
"asava"
means
wine."
"old
It is derived
it is "cira
produce by Buddhaghosa
meaning
like
time
of its being stored up for a long
wine). They
pdrivdsikattkena''''
(on account
work
through the eye and the mind and continue to produce all beings up to Indra.
from
As
"su"
and
to
wines
those
which
kept long
long time. The
are
are
the
called
that
"asavas"
so
he
gives to
these
are
also
called
Buddhaghosa gives is
that they are called asava
of their producingsamsaradukkha
(sorrows of
on
account
in
of karma
the world), Atthasdlint, p. 48. Contrast it with Jaina asrava
(flowing
after
difficult
word
to translate it in one
Buddhaghosa, I have
matter). Finding it
for
asavas
translated
3
See
remaining
other
it as "depravities,"
after Childers.
Dhammasangani, p. 195.
alternative that
Buddhaghosa'sAtthasalinl, p.
371.
7"2
Buddhist
i oo
The
in the
[ch.
false
with
the true
and
metaphysical
Buddhistic
of one's
in the way
{andgdmimagga)
Nirvana
of
way
stand
kamasavas
The
the
ditthasavas
stand
views
Philosophy
trines.
doc-
entering into
bhavasavas
the
and
separate from
sense
some
attachment
desire
and
about
for
they
are
but
to
us,
such
as
infatuation
pride
arrogance,
kilesas
these
the
with
the
intertwined
are
and
This
and
and
counted
these
loosened
asavas.
three
as
kilesa.
sannakkhandha,
From
of heart
result of the
(lobha,
They
are
sarikharak-
kinds
of mind1.
Samadhi.
all
through outside
{tanhdjatd),and the only
desire
inside
and
way
by
by
which
the
these
centration
conby the practiceof rightdiscipline
{sila),
{samadhi) and wisdom
(pannd). Sila brieflymeans
desisting from committing all sinful deeds
{sabbapdpassa
by it one
thereby
serves
is
With
akaranam).
for
{dosa)"
hardness
called
are
vedanakkhandha,
vinnanakkhandha.
and
often
are
together
Sila
be
hatred
or
(ahirika) and
they
may
ledge
know-
true
or
proceeddirectlyas
varieties
and
dosa, moha)
tangles of
of
{moha\
{anottapa);these
In spiteof these
We
veil the
(Jobka),anger
covetousness
doubt
or
(dittki),
shamelessness
fulness (udhacca),
of
those
as
from
the asavas
do not
differ much
{kilesas)
the specific
passions in forms ordinarilyfamiliar
The
khandha
which
of existence
such
asavas,
sorrow.
afflictions
associated
other
the
sila therefore
to
ceases
to
the
remove
all actions
do
the
removes
inrush
of
kilesas,and
lead
sila would
of the
first start
the
be
to
made,
one
has
the
the
proper
first two
formance
per-
successive
one
stage when
is
one
are
right current)and
has
advanced
more
kilesas
in the
only
one
and
destroyed
1
the
birth
more
effort,for by
the
sakadagamibhava
to
it all the
tanha
Dhammasahgani,
or
undergo).
old
desire
p. 180.
roots
(the
Samadhi
of the
is removed
old
and
v]
Conduct
Right
101
those
means
which
by
desists
who
and
mental
on
the
(cetana),2.
the
associated
man
himself
maintains
control
3. mental
from
and
{samvara)
mental
actual
4. the
of
control
which
control
of
as
being
of
saves
him
five kinds.
who
Khantisamvara
(the
samvara
abides
(the
control
of
mindfulness
by
which
looking at
any
himself
bring
can
from
proper
adherence
may
{kammd)
nant,
ledge),
know-
of
Satisamvara
in the
means
right and
good
Even
when
of his mindfulness
which
as
its
(the
(the
patience),5. Viriya-
general.
of
of
(sati)control
think
(the control
when
associations
samvara
self-restraint).Patimokkha-
in
one
Samvara
Satisamvara
by it),2.
control
active
all self-control
means
right
i.
Patimokkhasamvara
Nanasamvara
mindfulness),3.
4.
1.
actions
(cetasika)
non-transgression
already in the mind
of conduct
speech) of the course
preceding three silas called avltikkama.
by the
spoken
etc.~"
states
the
states,
committing sinful
right path. Slla thus means
volition
particularvolitions
"
is that
Khantisamvara
in heat
cold.
and
to
it
by
the
By
are
upadhdranam, patitthdy.
The
number
who
sage
of
parts3. The
the
are
called
practiceof
course
the concentration
the
mind
should
course
rules with
reference
dhutarigas or
slla and
of samadhi.
of the
full
the
healthy monastic
dining,etc., which
adopt
adopts
the
Samadhi
bent
on
also
to
pure
we
have
dress,sitting,
disciplinary
dhutarigashelp the
as
follow
seen
rightendeavours
sage
to
means
(kusala-
Visuddhimagga Nidanadikatha.
Visuddhimagga, II.
2
4
Visuddhimagga-silaniddeso,
pp. 7
Visuddhimagga, pp. 84-85.
and
8.
Buddhist
102
The
in
particularways,
that
so
be
it may
of
concentration
chief
the
practised slla
has
who
man
[ch.
Philosophy
meditation
his
train
must
first
mind
of the mind
preliminary endeavours
steady meditation). These
for the
acquirement of jhanasamadhi eventually lead to it
tinguished
called upacara
samadhi
and
are
(preliminary samadhi) as disthe
from
jhanasamadhi called the appanasamadhi
he
firstly
(achieved samadhi)1. Jfius as a preparatory measure,
has
to
desires for
the
emphasizing in
in seeking food
mind
drink
and
continually habituates
of
associations
them
to
food
drink, he
and
and
them
takes
simply
made
all the
ksiti
and
(earth),
tejas(fire)
ap (water),
are
his
wind
man
disgusting
ment
attach-
any
of
all
mind
of
up
unavoidable
an
habituate
to
body
the
final dissolution
the
that
our
as
formations
trans-
When
have
to
ceases
associated
are
loathsome
ultimate
various
as
their
and
that
troubles
the various
the
like
(air),
sorrows
the
to
four
evil,
idea
elements,
the
carcase
of
mind
butcher's
at the
cow
think
to
greatness of the
Buddha),
the
the
gods
good effects
about
the
again {anussati)about
Buddha, the sarigha(the monks
again
nature
and
and
the
of
slla,and
of
death
and
qualitiesof
(upasamdnussati)4.
nature
As
law
(dhamma)
the
making
final
virtues
or
following the
of
the
of
gifts(cdgdniissati),
(marandnussati) and
the
the
extinction
of
Buddha,
about
all
the
about
deep
phenomena
it is not
be the main
its accessory
line of division
mark
the intense pessimisticattitude, "/mail
Visuddhimagga, pp. 341-347;
ca
ahare
patikulasaHMm
rasatanhdya cittam patiliyati,
anuyuttassa bhikkhuno
patikuttati,
pativattati
viya puttamamsam
vigatamado
; so, kantdranittharanatthiko
dhdreti yavad eva
dhdram
dukkhassa
nittharanatthdya,"p. 347. The mind of him who
inspireshimself with this supreme
disgustto all food, becomes free from all desires for
palatabletastes, and turns its back to them and flies off from them.
As a means
of
pana
getting rid
of all
own
he takes
sorrow
son
his food
without
any
attachment
as
one
would
Visuddhimagga,pp.
347-370.
Visuddhimagga,pp.
197-294.
eat
Meditation
v]
Advancing
further
called
which
directlylead
The
continue
mind
the
notice
and
from
and
convince
are
the
into
This
of the
their
as
the
and
the
on
This
parts and
mind
As
body2.
him
body.
his
mindfulness
the
concentration
to
less unconscious
enter
to
from
continual
aid
an
help
away
the
of the
constituents
this will
and
processes,
or
the
as
anatomical
more
he
inhaling
the
instead
that
he
manner
be
may
breathing quickly or
is
counted
numbers
of inhalation
is called
and
same
slowly; he ought to
definitelyby counting numbers, so that by fixing his
it
process
the
essence
the
whether
mind
in
sit in
breathing in
mark
and
grounds
as
to
of the
nature
{passdsa)
aware
they being
should
sage
cremation
the
to
go
first part
In the
Nibbana.
goal
mind
the
last attempts
represent the
first
is
about
to
loathsome
as
think
well
as
that
the endeavour
or
should
body
has
sage
himself
carcases
matthana
He
its final
to
appanasamadhi
strengthening of
these
other
and
carcases
horrifyingchanges of the human
nauseating,loathsome, unsightlyand impure they are,
bodies
his mind
this he will turn
to the livinghuman
how
dead
also,but
parations
pre-
highest samadhi.
of the
achievement
03
diverse
the
think
called the
meditation
or
those
to
come
we
purificationand
in this stage
lead
which
of
of
processes
samadhi
and
to the
preliminary meditations
the
upacara
of concentration
sources
of
the
from
the
and
he
may
or
the whole
on
exhalation
anapanasati
the
mindfulness
course.
of inhalation
exhalation3.
Next
this
to
we
Brahmavihara,
to
come
the
tation
medi-
fourfold
karuna
pity),
(universal
(universalfriendship),
mudita
(happiness in the prosperityand happiness of all)and
of preferment of oneself,his
kind
to any
upekkha (indifference
of
metta
friend,enemy
or
the meditation
how
happy,
he
how
and
have
that
the
his
on
then
himself
should
pass
like to root
over
to the
He
VI.
idea
should
friends,his enemies,
all
out
like to avoid
himself
desires.
Visuddhimagga,
oneself
should
he
same
and
Ibid.
pp.
that
thus
misery
death
fully,
live cheer-
himself
habituate
239-266.
and
become
beings would
other
all those
ing
think-
with
and
with
3
whom
Ibid. pp.
to
to
he
also
think
is not
266-292.
Buddhist
104
connected
to
such
should
He
by
his
offended
by becoming
think
should
he would
anger,
if he
that
should
has
also do
himself
he
findingfault
were
done
with
the
(indulge
in
being
he should
anger? Moreover
(khanikatta);
momentary
are
for
was
that
there
he at any
on
affected
by
carefullypractising.
injury,
by inflicting
could
If he
it ?
at
angry
that
he
himself
longer
no
He
so
angry,
think
any
of others.
account.
be
to
by being
same
others
he
vile action
that
on
himself
spoilall
If anyone
allow
should
and
of doubling
futility
of the
vexed
or
sorry
find
not
injuriesinflicted
of the
think
fix himself
Should
person.
any
account
on
enemies, he should
sadness
his
with
angry
would
he
safetyof himself
happiness or
become
never
feel himself
time
him
the
between
difference
that
should
He
happy.
in this meditation
extent
an
become
might
[ch.
Philosophy
existed
the
tion
the inflicinjury,and moreover
who
of any
was
injurybeing only a jointproduct,the man
in the production
injuredwas himself an indispensableelement
inflicted the injury,
the man
who
and
of the infliction as much
as
for making him
there could
thus be any
not
respecialreason
after thinking
/^jponsible and of being angry with him. If even
khandhas
in this way
the
indulgingin
his bad
him.
free his
in
he could
anger
he
subside, he should
not
should
think
think
himself
on
the
that
by
through
other
himself
mischief
that
man
but
not
to
only producing
be able to
By thinking in these ways the sage would
from anger
mind
self
himand establish
against his enemies
of universal
attitude
an
friendship1.This is called the
angry
was
In
should
one
does
anger
metta-bhavana.
also
inflicted the
deeds, and
by being
to
had
which
foes alike.
The
the
meditation
sympathize
with
of
the
universal
pity {karuna)
of his
sorrows
friends
and
sage
may
either
be
concentrate
1
his
the
mind
Visuddhimagga,pp.
sage
upon
295-314.
colour, light or
may
it
as
take
an
brown
earth
2
limited
space
ball of earth
ball,sometimes
Buddhist
106
be
[ch.
like sometimes
would
properlyand carefullywatched
istics
charactertwo
back to the enjoyment of pltiagain. The
turn
sukha
however
and ekaggata. It should
of this jhana are
that though there is the feelingof highest sukha
noted
here,
mind
to
Philosophy
if not
is indifferent to it
to it but
only not attached
{atimadhurasukhe sukhapdramippatte pi tatiyajjhdneupekkhako,
tattha sukhdbhisangenadkaddhiyatiy The earth ball (pathavi)
na
still the object of the jhana.
is however
the
is not
mind
In the fourth
the last
or
the dukkha
and
and
This
(misery)vanish away
antipathiesare destroyed.
and
supreme
in all the
growing
indifference
absolute
various
(happiness)and
the sukha
both
jhana
all the
of attachment
roots
is characterized
state
(upekkhd) which
by
slowly
was
tics
characteris-
arhat2.
and
There
absolute
is the
there
production of
further
is no
the
of all
cessation
khandhas,
sufferings
and
sorrows
rebirth,
no
"
Nibbana.
Kamma.
Katha
In the
with
that
comes
also
only
again
and
read
how
we
otherwise
result of deeds
that
they suffered
if the
earliest
do
we
soul
the
departure of
1
*
*
vicious
nor
better
or
his
that
in
his
apt illustrations.
his
in the
other
if
in order
death
of any
tell
to
or
us
world, that
they
fruit
arguments
return
time
soul,and
of
there
are
nor
is there
nor
he
in support
reasons
virtuous
suicide
thus
Digha Nikaya
the
Some
enjoyed happiness
certainlycommit
out,
the
life;he
future
world,
parents,
is blinded
who
other, and
any
other
ill done3."
or
find at the
not
goes
not
any
from
opportunity,that
his
with
or
had
virtuous
in it,they would
the
the
is there
than
done
well
neither
that
were
believe in
not
and
fool
"
beings,reborn
does
life exists
this
that
says
of riches
infatuation
the
thinks
(n. 6) Yama
to
best
believed
get it
at
tions
precau-
person
that
of
body weighs less on account
so
on.
Kassapa refutes his arguments
But in spite of a few agnosticsof
Visuddhimagga, p. 163.
Majjhima Nikaya, I. p. 296, and Visuddhimagga, pp. 167-168.
II. pp. 3176".
Dialoguesofthe Buddha, II. p. 349 ; D.N.
Deeds
v]
Payasi'stype,
of rebirth
and
Milinda
difference
taken
rich
and
and
some
chapter that
Upanisad sages.
other
karma
life
the
could
only
when
But
when
"
then
covetousness,
deeds
inasmuch
palmyra
and
tree
become
non-existent
the
by
the
any
fatuation.
in-
without
occasioned
are
of the
and
out
withthese
is gone
covetousness
as
in
or
performed
are
and
covetousness
life
low
antipathy and
covetousness,
man's
seen
this
some
of
some
enunciated
are
and
was
were
some
weak,
some
in
some
sickly,
some
of views
effect
In
alike,but
have
its
of in the
through
it is
"
doctrine
Buddha.
the
We
produce
there
spoken
all
not
are
the
foolish1."
sort
arise without
covetousness,
deeds
some
same
often
was
healthy and
powerful and
high degree
of
some
and
wise
third
But
men
ugly, some
poor,
degree, some
that
lived,some
some
that
accepted fact by
Nagasena saying
find
we
short
in this
an
karma
in their
handsome
as
Panha,
long lived,some
and
107
believe
to
reason
every
worlds
in other
Upanisads
the
have
we
Desires
and
like
ground
liable to
spring
craving{tanhat
not
now
there,to wit,
now
the
"
be
smelt, tasted,touched,
for
things in
recalled.
memory
These
are
The
cessation
cessation
it up,
the
1
3
Warren's
it and
desire
becomes
sorrow
can
disenchantment
renouncing
When
sage
of and
of
an
no
Buddhism
or
fruit.
in
about
An
the
arhat
deeds
cannot
Translations, p. 215.
11.
that
emancipation from
craving (tanhd)
arhat, and
p. 340.
with
only happen
very
"the
utter
craving,giving
it5."
has
that
he
have
any
Ibid. p. 341.
ceased
once
do
may
good
Ibid. pp.
5
or
the
after
bad
216-217.
Ibid.
p. 341.
Buddhist
1 08
finds
of
its scope
giving
it is
For
he does.
fruits of whatever
[ch.
Philosophy
through
the
With
fruit.
karma
all
of desire
cessation
and
that
desire
consequently there
An
arhat
suffer the
may
of the
of
cessation
his desire1.
Kammas
said
are
to
of three
be
mind
is
but
them,
cannot
body, it would be
body. But the merest
into effect
carried
ikay.
But
the
bodily and
Kammas
four
not
or
vocal
be
cannot
be
be
which
mind
of the
present
as
absent, as
(mdna-
the
of
root
in the
case
kammas
the
whether
illwill alone
or
for if this is
any
long search,
not
actually
could
kamma
must
from
after
even
thought
would
kammas,
divided
are
bad
of
mitting
gives an order for comis not
actuallycarried out
by speech {vdcika)and not
misdeed
it2. If
with
if he
if it
kamma
mental
arhat, there
an
and
kamma
of this
associated
for he
one,
body. So
the
the
all
his
there
bodily
misdeed,
similar
by
with
the deed
commit
with
is not
root
out
goes
of them
get any
misconduct
his
of
to kill animals
wishing
man
and
point
of
of view
effects into
and
bad
produce impurity,
are
(2) those which
good and productive of purity,(3) those
which
are
partly good and partly bad and thus productive of
both purity and
impurity,(4) those which are neither good nor
of impurity,but which
bad apd productive neither of purity nor
contribute
Final
\y
to
the
destruction
extinction
of
tried
to
various
Poussin
(nibbdna)takes place as
of desires.
meaning
have
interpretations
has
an
the
Professor
Pali
texts
De
la Valine
Nibbana
has
tion,
happy state, as pure annihilainconceivable existence
or
as
a
changeless state5.
See KathSvatlhu
Atthas"lini%p.
"
Prof.
De
in
have
happening, and
ultimate
offered.
the natural
of Buddhism
Scholars
of this
been
sometimes
as
the
discover
of kammas4.
sorrow
are
and
88.
la Vallee
Warren's
8
Buddhism
in
E.
on
See
Nirvana.
I.
and
also
II.
Nibbana
v]
Mr
in
Schrader,
identified
{akasa)
after death
is
no
texts.
It
in
terms
Nibbana
in which
cessation
is not
think
of
of
one
who
and
eternal
give any
or
which
that
of
the
exist
in
whether
to
me
which
at
stage
described
all
either
worldly
positive
as
form
been
Nibbana
is either
of non-existence
discarded
times
it all
what
or
But
regarded
hereticaU
as
satisfied
not
are
it is not
all these
positive/
annihilation,/
in Buddhism
means.
Buddhism
since
answer
state
mere
or
is
whether
in modern
we
some
he
is neither
has
know
to
want
we
infinite space
as
hopeless task
worldly experience,and there
indicate it than
by saying that
hardly be
can
discuss
to
state
view
It is true
to become
sought
eternally do not
Buddhistic
a
question,for it is a heresy to
proper
Tathagata as existing eternally(sdsvata)or not-
seeks
and
to
seems
all sorrow;
existing (asdsvata) or
existingor whether he
takes
who
SocietyJournal,
of the world
new
better
can
we
experienceshave ceased
or
we
negative. Whether
exist
soul
the
be very
to
me
Buddhistic
way
it is
to
seems
explain
to
with
that those
Text
they had a
really lost
of the
held
in Pali
09
consciousness
or
Nibbana
discussingNibbana
1905, says
with
it,for
possibleto
questionsas
,_
illegitimate.
Later
Buddhistic
Nothing existed,and
for
the
as
of
between
difference
no
all appearances
samsara
they
We
(bliss)1.
some
the self
the self
had
Upanisads
could
Tait.
11.
and
5.
and
preted
inter-
of all existence.
ence
exist-
never
existed
during
in Nibbana.
annihilated
Buddhism.
discovered
be
character
be
not
that
that
the
early
true
self
was
ananda
tacitly presupposes
Buddhism
ideavItwas
(attd)it must
{dtman) was
Buddhism
any
could
suppose
such
early
non-essential,they
Upanisads
te
of
Candraklrtti
and
are
that
so
Nagarjuna*
non-essential
therefore
non-existence
or
is
attitude
advantage of this
it as meaning the
took
like
writers
bliss.
indestructible
2
and
Brh.
iv.
eternal 3. If we
5. 14.
Katha.
v.
are
13.
was
that
allowed
Buddhist
1 10
[ch.
Philosophy
because
This
eternal.
was
who
reason
But
eternal.
the
point
there
that
found
in the
are
Upanisads
that
and
could
netiy./But
find
out
only
such
not
was
^/The
self
and
sorrow
self
true
of
in terms
looked
was
as
it that
all
All
tify
iden-
belief
with
bliss could
these
belonged
be
not
that
it,nor
what
did
defined
(tieti
nowhere")
changing phenomena
to
self, in ourV
constant
any
con-
this
could
we
is
essence
this, not
not
as
non-self,and
it were,
the
of
existence
in
what
Upanisads
for
and
non-self
was
it
belong
to
know
and
found
the
noble
the
forms
Samyutta Nikaya,
See Brh.
iv.
iv.
III.
and
himself
in
only
mental
me
this self
his
pp. 44-45
Chandogya,
viu.
self
be
or
pointed out
categories.
was
the
not
not
exist.
The
But
widely spoken
so
the
of
the
they
said
reply
when
mental
experiences
did
ignorant ordinary man
not
was
to
but
scendental
tran-
it could
be
it did
that
saw
that
experience ? To this
people perceived there
truths
considered
could
of
matter
said
they
anything,but
the changing
and
that
was
the
or
this permanent
but
that
men,
was
pure
were
demonstrated
Buddha
not
the
associated
essence,
with
was
there," behind
Buddha
of
as
therefore
mine, neither
described
how
sidered
con-
often
we
was
indicated
be
experience as
as
it
lies
self3.
my
"
that
permanent
doubtless
Upanisads
the
changing experiences.
therefore
there
that
Upanisads
the
this, but
The
the
self1.
is not
sorrow
impermanent. yBut
well, and
as
the true
was
eternal
not
was
experiences which
many
which
part
permanent
which
were
from
parted
self.
the
is
whatever
Buddhism
self, but
with
and
is sorrow,
which
at
what
be
to
appear
experiences of
in the
be
indeed
not
emphasized clearly in
is that
important postulateof the Buddha
not
Upanisads. -The
is changing
which
The
that
statement
converse
does
sorrow
was
as
has
connection
bliss,
be
been
as
causal
could
we
trained
endowed
the
self
in the way
with
in
the
of wise
form
(rupd)
forms.
He
ff.
7-12.
Samyutta Nikaya,
in.
45.
Buddhism
Upanisads and
v]
in
Ignorance about
ignorance about
the fourfold
it
the
Pali
means
contrasted
the
it
way
of sorrow,
originates,
and
of
means
ignorance about
with vidya or
f^Withthe Upanisads
the
about
of the extinction
ance
ignorbringing about this extinction represent
ignorance {avijja)\ The avidya,which is equivalent
word
in the Upanisads also, but there
occurs
avijja,
the
about
to
ignorance
sorrow,
the nature
with
but
bliss,
the
doctrine,and
the atman
it is sometimes
true
there
the Buddha
stood
ignorance which
fourfold
the
truths
is
may
of
of sorrow,
and
"
means
ego
or
inasmuch
self
no
as
we
however
of
"
in other
words
inasmuch
similarlywith reference
be
understood
twelvefold
of the
Samyutta Nikdya,
Cha.
been
1.
to
ignorance
as
Karma
wheel
and
the
of existence
is not
rest
that
an
Ego,
therefore
"
and
it is empty
is it
with
emptiness5."
have
any
thereto.
realityand
permanent
supreme
of the
cause
the
of
...or
sorrow,
"
or
fourfold
rightcomprehension
this
ignorance is empty
into
to
the
{ariya saccd)
extinction
Brahman
no
of
way
the
represented
ways
self,and
as
in the
cardinal
Originationof sorrow,
There
fourfold
above
was
1.
used
in
III.
Brh.
10.
a
Ang. Nikdya,
Warren's
IV.
3.
different and
III.
Buddhism
46.
20.
There
are
rather obscure
Majjhima Nikdya,
some
sense,
passages
I^a 9-1
where
1.
p. 54.
1.
85.
in
Translations
{Visuddhimagga,chap. XVII.),p.
175.
Buddhist
1 1 2
is
There
Buddha
quarrelsarose
Serious
the
successive
his
doctrines
and
other
monastic
Thus
held
their turn
they in
their
to
centuries
of the
amongst
rules
disciplesabout
he had
enjoined
which
the council
when
called
also
of Vesali
Vajjiputtakas,
the
another
about
decisions
own
instructions
disciplesor
find that
we
oral
disciplesof his
decided
came
few
his
amongst
Buddhism.
the
generations of the
his followers.
upon
until
collected
not
that
believe
to
reason
were
of Theravada
Schools
The
[ch.
Philosophy
certain
rules and
monastic
thus
be
to
came
Theravada
number
the
Sthaviravada
school
of Vesali
council
into
the
or
as
of
which
second
nagarikas. The
second
main
century
L^Sarvastivadins2. The
school
with
vatthu
who
in
branch
of the
fifth century
A.D.
us
few
schools
some
very
we
frorrf
or
the Theravada
of the KathaDavids
time
some-
other
schools
know
very
meagre
accounts
of
little.
of
did
Dipavainsa in holding that the Vajjiputtakas
to
into the
Professor Geiger
was
composed 975
holdingthe Mahasarighikas
to
A.D.
"
1000
be the firstseceders
a.d.,
and
follows the
vamsa
Maha-
Vajjiputtakasto have
independently.
confuses the council
Vasumitra
introduction
For
differs from
mentions
was
but it was
the Mahasarighikas
who
firstseceded
Mahasarighikas,
seceded
which
The Mahdbodhivamsa,
independently of them.
Vajjiputtakas
according
of all these
Mahdvamsa
develop
seceded
identifies
Buddhist
in
as
Hetuvadins
the
as
the
The
school
the
Vasumitra
while the
known
was
Theravada
Mahdbodhivamsa
But
not
latter
known
downwards
Buddhists.
well
againsplitup
Dharmottarfyas, Bhadrayanlyas, Sammitiyas and Chan-
into the
the
Dharmaguptikas,
(more
which
Sautrantikas)andtheVatsiputtrIyas
the
and
Kasyapiyas, Sarikrantikas
Mahisasakas,
convened
had
to
other
of Vesali
translation of Kathavatthu
accounts
of the schism
see
with
by
Mr
of Pataliputra.See
Rhys Davids.
Aung and Mrs Rhys Davids's translation
Mrs
Buddhist
H4
expressed
as
have
Pali works.
in the
been
commented
the
of the
that
external
only
Hindu
who
was
(fourteenthcentury A.D.)in
the
The
Sautrantikas
that
of
moment
that
Tarkarahasyadipikd
his commentary
decay and
production,the
the
Abhidharmakosa
to
with
the
be
four kinds
permanent
the
moments,
the
the
been
pointed out
believed
Vaibhasikas
by coming
of
moment
in combination
entityproduced
its
nent
imperma-
translation
(see Prof. Stcherbatsky's
Abhidharmakosa
karikd, V. 25). The self called
on
also
possessed
formless
and
was
conditions
an
Gunaratna
life
in
pudgala
same
which
of
essence
manifestations
of Yasomitra
It has
that
of forces
to
existence,the
of annihilation.
moment
in Vasubandhu's
these
of
moment
but another
was
four
for
existed
things
the former
Gunaratna
knowledge1.
Vaibhasika
Sautrantika.
on
Vaibhasikas
Thus
other.
this,that
was
diversified
our
trantikas
Sau-
whereas
directlyperceived,
of the external
objectscould
objects were
from
was
writers
inferred
each
and
Vaibhasikas
difference between
believed
who
Yasomitra
by
upon
the
and
with
of Vasubandhu
the Abhidliarmakosasdstra
was
Vaibhasikas
The
less associated
or
more
[ch.
Philosophy
Knowledge
characteristics.
those
according to
held
that
there
was
The
no
very
trantikas
Sau-
soul but
transmigrated.The past,
the future,annihilation,
dependence on cause, akasa and pudgala
assertions (pratijndmdtram\
but names
mere
are
{samjndmdtrarri),
limitations
mere
phenomena (vya{samvrtamdtram) and mere
other people
that which
vaharamdtram). By pudgala they meant
only
Gunaratna
the
was
called
eternal
and
These
skandhas
soul.
all-pervasive
objectsare
External
never
on
M
anumeyah."
nanda
The
nature
(1247-1160 A.D.)
depend
ye
yasmin
satyapi kadacitkah
in spite of certain
cognitions)which
(i.e.
diversitymust
"
on
other
Vcddntakalpataru,p. 289.
unvaried
thingsin addition
to
te
is shown
thus
by
Amala-
(those
tadatiriktdpek^dh''''
conditions
are
these,i.e. the
of unaccounted
external
objects)
Schools
v]
The
of
atoms
of Buddhism
115
touch, and
cognitionare
words
always
\
The
being destroyed every moment.
meanings of
1
imply the negationsof all other things,excepting that which is
intended
to be signified
by that word (anydpohah sabdarthah).
the result of the destruction of the
Salvation (mok"d) comes
as
meditation
that there
process of knowledge through continual
is
soul1.
no
One
the
describes
the Sarvastivadins
existence
of
those
are
who
"
those
who
maintain
and
future.
that
maintain
have
not
the
There
the
among
four
were
past that
of this
branches
and
element
an
have
element
being
aspects, the
likewise
present
of the future
and
and
ones
Dharmatrata
Buddhadeva.
different
enters
vadins
Vibhajja-
present elements
milk
of the
from
severed
retains
tained
main-
changed
into curd
existence
Ghosa
at
appears
The
alreadyproduced fruition."
school
representedby Dhar-
the universal
of those
to
appears
is
Thus
as
SauVibhajjavadins,
Sarvastivadins
everythingpast, present
those
among
which
philosophy.
the
the
or
of time
notion
Buddhist
are
between
the Vaibhasikas
and
refer to
with
differences
of the main
trantikas
fkm* "
"
held
past
one
its future
changes
that
"
when
retains
and
its
present
in
completely losingits past and future aspects,"just as a man
does
lose his capacityto love
not
passionatelove with a woman
other women
mitra
though he is not actuallyin love with them. Vasuing
held that an entityis called present, past and future accordit produces its efficiency,
to produce after having
as
ceases
deva
once
produced it or has not yet begun to produce it. Buddhamaintained
the view
that just as the same
woman
may
be
be called mother, daughter, wife, so the same
entity may
called present, past
preceding or
All
these
the
or
future
with
succeeding moment.
schools
in
are
maintain
universal
defective
excepting the
1
in accordance
existence.
view
Gunaratna's
some
But
sense
Sarvastivadins,for they
the Vaibhasika
of Vasumitra.
For
finds
them
all
Dharmatrata's
Tarkarahasyadipika,pp. 46-47.
8"2
l^
1 1
Buddhist
view
is
only
of
confusion
in
is also
of Buddhadeva
suppose
of
one
with
them.
Vasumitra's
depends
when
time
view
and
past times
doctrine
for
there
the
entity and
of
should
know
continue
to
non-existent
and
hence
the
it and
entities
and
same
again
case
in
present
existence,
the
time-
the
appeared
ceased
to
past is
of
as
there
to
should
present, since
between
have
much
as
the
in
that
the
grade
thus
done
in bringing
efficiency
is made
second
thinks
the Vaibhasika's
in that
past and
distinction
having
He
deeds
and
view
that
after
Entities
it exerts
ground
it is
moment
Vaibhasika
the
at
real existence
and
its appearance.
the
efficiency
by
have
between
because
between
a
view
for
the
the
on
If
efficiency.
future
and
can
present
difference
no
exerted
time
true
time
function
of eternal
the
in
it could
efficiency
that
doctrine
agreement
present.
some
thought
stuff remained
included
entity;
its effects
the
He
the
in
an
is
knowledge,
heretical
objected to
regarded as existent
about
assert
my
in it. The
the
of the
the
difference
no
as
produced
non-existence, existed
exist.
be
was
; there
however
them
appeared
that
be
have
not
imply
according to
from
of
existence
co-
it would
difference
the
past
and
object of
Sautrantika
would
difference
that
much
as
exist
not
the
could
The
time.
himself
time, and
togetherand
finds
holds
it becomes
future
past did
been
have
not
found
were
Vaibhasika
the
past and
if the
that
times
is
the
impossiblesituation,since
an
The
Ghosa
same
an
future; when
of the
the
entity at
an
of
it presupposes
the
upon
time, since
aspects of
of all the
that
of
notion
the
doctrine; that
Samkhya
veiled
[ch.
Philosophy
both
past, present
then
efficiencies,
a
we
vicious
can
we
infinite. We
know
existent
between
there
is
moment
of the
same
way
and
efficiency
no
time
are
all
past
we
our
at
one
all and
and
do not
in which
the
know
we
knew
the
the
same.
it
as
find
entity,you at once
the entity and
efficiency,
When
we
existingin
it when
it
was
remember
the
that
the
thing
present. We
are
and
Vasubandhu
v]
attracted
never
the
existence
Vasubandhu
that
of
cause
render
may
the
discussion
the
to
organs
sense
such
regarded
cause
be
can
existence
of
have
an
essence
actuallyexists,it must
the elements
be something different from
must
personal
life.
Moreover,
being
would
kriydkdritvd)which
soul
thus
can
school
same
held
the
as
that
separate
these.
as
be
cannot
be
this
To
Vasubandhu
But
individual
entities
elements
the
from
not
of
is
be
To
The
as
there
be
to
a
are
either
it, and
the
yet it is
has
it
that
say
the
But
life
or
was
the
elements
its existence
also
must
(the
must
is likewise
conscious
Devadatta
replies that
changing
un-
activity,there
an
is conscious
agent who
Vatsiputtrlya \y^
by
be defined.
walks).
and
personal
conditioned
there
of
(pudgala) which
could
we
and
own
existence
said
be
an
further
it cannot
the
life.
not
being
as
(e.g.Devadatta
action, hence
an
the
necessary.
soul, but
no
different
agent
an
from
It exists
but
personallife,
of
is
is
as
existence, though
altogetherdifferent
same
soul
which
existence.
nominal
There
or
soul
or
proves
mere
fire could
wood
the
or
personal
just as
it,so
usage.
of
burning
separate from
have
found
{arthapracticalefficiency
any
determines
to
current
elements
the
only
said
mining
deter-
eternal, uncaused
an
without
be
alone
be
object of
mere
such
though
as
of its
If soul
of
argument
this,that
is
be
may
of the
inference
The
of soul
existence
subject of
the
on
Abhidharmakosa.
in
perception,no
the
new-
respectivepositionsof
Sarvastivadins
as
represented by
the
against the
it is true
of
causes
of the
glimpse
soul
of
suggests, but
the
become
1 1
moment1.
attend
we
Vaibhasika
the
which
residues
Vatsiputtrtyas
past passions as
to
Vasubandhu
the
exist.
of
name
Devadatta.
name
and
but
their
from
1
of
of
one
am
small
belief
Their
is based
on
place to
indebted
another.
Petrograd. I
am
gratefulto him
life consists
This
account
portion of Abhidharmakosa
with
analogy
an
continuity of
own
Devadatta
that
movement,
to
by
my
the
that he allowed
me
ditioned,
con-
own
unpublishedtranslation
esteemed
is
experience,
constantly moving
though regarded as
their
in
moves
utilize it.
from Tibetan
Stcherbatsky
Buddhist
n8
belonging
to
entity,is
permanent
[ch.
Philosophy
but
of
series
tions
produc-
new
in different
'
Devadatta)."
The
problem
for the
stream
when
remembered
etc., and
emotions.
memory.
The
certain
No
the
such
and
such
he
was
past and
his
that
in
this
fire which
same
object,"we
that
know
moments,
but yet
the
fire.
known
such
been
of such
the
reached
having
understood,
an
but
we
as
family,of
displeasurein
exert
is thus
only
a
a
This
fields. Thus
evident
whenever
pressure
a
fiction,
of
becomes
the
perceived are
description and
grasped either by the senses
thing
the
when
we
say
reached
this
at
any
two
say
that
has
and
having
man,
such
it is
an
age,
this
eating
things,of
such
be
only
can
such
when
we
of
not
or
we
use
mere
these
and
on
elements
momentary
the
happening
later
nominal
at
existence, a
of
the
dividual
in-
The
ones.
acquaintance ;
mere
it cannot
be
common
and
life of such
as
only
one
to
individual
an
this venerable
a
saying
life,he
identical
not
mind
of
state
that
of
former
Just
or
phenomena
such
and
difference
call
"
caste, of such
who
man
is
the
we
food, findingpleasureor
age,
such
fire
the
attention,
consuming
overlook
we
the
suitable
existences.
Again, what
by descriptionssuch
same
name,
had
of
bodily pains
as
present belonged
lineage of momentary
same
conditions
is
Buddha
his
required in
of recollection
cause
not
factors,such
is
agent
When
meant
an
under
nothing else.
that
"
with
of distractive
violent
and
connected
object
absence
does
being one
of consciousness
its recollections
the
also
of memory
noun,
an
e.g.
milk,
we
and
water
are
v]
Sabbatthivadins
conventional
names
colour, smell
(tasteand
'
'
individual
of which
it is
The
but
touch) taken
common
the
why
the
set of
is the
together,so
tion
designa-
different elements
for the
name
some
composed."
reason
whether
(fora
119
Buddha
is identical
livingbeing
"
declined
decide
to
with
the
the
body
question
"
not
or
is
individual,"
just because there did not exist any livingbeing as
is generally supposed. He
declare
did not
that the living
as
the questioner would
in that case
being did not exist,because
"
have
that
thought
also
denied.
for
name
The
the
book
only
of the
known
Sammitlyas
name
to
A.D.
350
the
A.D.;
431
of
"
"
to
life
conventional
and
us
that
into Chinese
originalSanskrit
was
works
by
between
however
are
probably lost2.
Vaibhasikas
The
according
to
branched
off
from
separated from
the
From
the
believed
that
This
in
article
on
as
follows:
intermediate
it
de V Acadhnie
la Vallee
the
said to
the
burden
since
as
be
pudgala
above.
be
the
were
admitted
arhat
the dawn
samadhi
between
evil deeds
said to
of
ment
rightattain-
by
nothing
was
but
by
doctrine
of the
De
there
of
nirvana
says
and
the Vatsiputtriyas
fall away;
can
antarabhava
that
of their views
Some
later age.
pudgala (soul)as
different
or
(2) there is
(3)merit
an
not
accrues
burden
new
la Vallee
Sammitlyas
as
This
Poussin
sketched
and
use
distinct from
"
non-different.
skandhas
transitoryconstituents."
Professor
He
advantage reaped
a)
only
; (4) not
given (paribhoganvaya puny
that
end
merit
declaration of intention to
produces
in
be either
but
identified with
rebirth called
and
gradual
Russie, 1919.
some
the Vaibhasikas
(skandhas) shoulderinga
of
R. E.
been
possession of
death
de
has collected
in the E.
by
in
had
turn
Sabbatthivadins
insight but
even
or
{anityd)like the
transitory
it is made
sketched
of
des Sciences
Poussin
Sammitlyas
(1) An
state
from
can
their
in
on
by Takakusu,
out
who
(1) that
flash
but also by
only by gift(tyaganvaya)
whom
the
the
to
man
by
thing was
abstention
know
we
of its texts
many
pointed
as
who
school.
consciousness
is based
De
makoiavyakhya
are
Theravada
Sarvastivadins
Professor
an
the
Mahlsasakas,
momentary
Stcherbatsky, Bulletin
2
the
47,
with
everything existed,(2)that
account
vinihayah,
v.
Kathavatthu
(3) that
process,
Dipavamsa
not
was
identified
are
since
The
be
be
down
said to be permanent,
pudgala doctrine
of the
Sammitlyas
in full agreement
by Gunaratna
from
cannot
transmigrateslaying
it
; it cannot
is not
the skandhas
pudgala
which
we
have
with
the
noticed
Buddhist
1 20
flux
(4) that
and
batthivadins
arhat
an
Theravada
of the
Abhidharma
These
mentioned2.
1.
are
passed by
puttra which
the Sabbatthivadins
is said
have
the
of
2.
4.
vaksema.
to
Katyayanl-
Vibhdsd
which
from
This
Vasubandhu
the Vaibhasika4
makosa,
by
passes
out
the
he
of
point
Vasumitra
himself
view5.
and
and
Sautrantika
work
This
later
in which
called
his
own
which
he
pointed
available)on
Vaibhasika
and
hdvibhdsd.
the
who
Yasomitra
famous
his
See
9 and
also of other
Vasumitra
Samyuktdbhidharmasdstra
refuted
commentator
Davids's
Rhys
Mrs
xi.
of which
and
Ma-
a Vaibhasika
logician,
logic and
the celebrated
hear
Ghosaka,
Dharmatrata,
as
of
We
wrote
and
work
Buddhist
writer
lines.
was
Abhidharmakosa
work
celebrated
Dirinaga(48oA.D.),the
Sautrantika
such
writers
Bhadanta,
or
strict Vaibhasika
by
upon
of Vasubandhu
vydkhyd ; Sanghabhadra a contemporary
Samayapradlpa and Nydydnusdra (Chinese translations
are
trantika
Sau-
the
from
commented
by
on
on
the Abhidhar-
as
school
was
work
of his
Kosabhdsya
of the Vaibhasika
Gunamati
and
"
commentary
Abhidharma
name
A.D.
Prakaranapdda
(kdrika)known
verses
appended
of the defects
some
(420
in
system
which
to
been
Sangltiparyydya by Sariputtraand
6.
Vasumitra.
by
II.
already
called Vaibhasikas3.
it are
the
from
have
we
Sdstra
of Mahd
name
literature
work
have
Jhdnaprasthdna
followed
who
which
Sab-
The
is different
which
school
away1.
Abhidharma
vast
translations
fall
(saint)may
Sarvastivadins
or
[ch.
Philosophy
the
of
many
of
of the
translation Kathdvatthu,
views
p.
xix, and
Vatsyayana
regret
we
Sections
1.6, 7
6.
who
studied
*
it there.
work was
probably
says (P. T.S. 1904-1905)that Katyayanlputtra's
translations
existed before the Chinese
and
other Vibhasas which
Takakusu
compilation from
Vibhasa
and
texts
dated
See Takakusu's
The
383 A.D.
Sautrantikas
laid stress
on
R.A.S.
article/.
did
not
the suttanta
1905.
as
given in
of the Vaibhasikas
the
Suttapitaka.
as
authentic
Buddhist
122
be
it. The
around
others
the
with
[cu*
Philosophy
is
remembered
this,that
in
the
nection
con-
qualities
The
in the paramanus.
special
characteristics of roughness (which naturallybelongs to earth),
viscousness
(which naturallybelongs to water), heat (belonging
of all the mahabhutas
to
of the
each
combine
(belonging to wind),
movableness
fire),
form
inherent
are
; the
elements
together to
different
the
between
difference
special
only in this,that in each of them its own
teristics
characteristics
were
predominant and active,and other characonly in a potentialform. The
though present remained
of material
mutual
resistance
things is due to the quality of
elements
earth
consists
solidness
the
or
is due
things
moisture
to
four elements
The
in them
inherent
observed
be
to
are
qualityof
the
or
and
water,
three
from
attraction
mutual
; the
or
other
by
conditions
between
the
is
only
in the
owing
and
that
sense
here
as
pratltyasamutpada ;
change
link
nor
is rather
but
represents the
and
ultimate
in
of
the
is it
other
forms
chain
garded
re-
are
said to be momentary
their
of
phases constantly,
series
causal
"moha"
of
dividual,
particular in-
any
or
and
delusion
Avidya,
dharmas.
immaterial
is not
Avidya
the
ignorance of
of
of Buddhism
matter
combination.
identical with
state
of distinction
and
they are
changing
are
vyuhana
point
five skandhas
eternal ;
they
to their constant
regarded
the
here
permanent
as
main
Sarvastivadins
Vaibhasika
tion,
attrac-
or
together naturally
combine
The
causes.
or
this, that
(such as
the
collecting).These
clusteringand
forth.
so
aspects, namely,
of
of
in the case
through samskara, etc., produces namarupa
a particular
individual,is not his avidya in the present existence
but the avidya of his past existence
bearing fruit in the present
which
life.
"
The
it becomes
clay is
allowed
of
case
on
never
an
clay becomes
name
cause
simultaneousness
between
cause
and
The
and
the Madhyamika
of
For
example,
in this
the
case
Sarvastivadins
effect
when
its name,
only
in the
in the
case
of
Aryyadeva'scommentary
v]
Sabbatthivddins
the
of
interaction
the
of mental
"
vijftana
"
or
of the
aggregate
be
It must
five
that
substratum,
substratum
formed
of
sense
and
the
indriyasbeing
had
their
combinations,
of
as
also
it,as
which
excites
energies;
the
excites
becomes
active
in
also the
visual
sentient
and
when
the energy
five
external
of
the flesh,made
on
with
atomic
combinations.
our
rupa
of grosser
and
person
because
sooner
idea
an
which
it is
avijnaptibecause
is bound
respect
is
a
the
is
senses
and
manner
is
impressed,a
of the
principal
which
of
or
later to
the
effect of
and
express
the
only bridge which connects
done
by body or speech. Karma
and
in this
an
is
school
act
is
impressed
; it is called
; this latent
the
is
It is called
rupa-contact
itself in karma
cause
latter
of their respective
latent energy
unconscious
tremely
ex-
differ from
senses
form
are
the
designated as avijnaptirupa.
result
entirely
principal
paramanus,
five
ceiving
per-
the
it is latent
or
of the
The
of fire
capable of
become
substratum
the
which
without
agent
an
substratum
materials.
to
is
senses
of
combination
another
performed
five
The
minute, while
and
pure
one
other
energies. The
objects arouse
subdivisions,namely,
two
auxiliarysense.
consists
senses
has
sense
the
of the
vijfianaswould
object. The essence
of the
and
counted
element
of the
which
sense
beings by
each
Each
of
These
also
are
thought {yijndnd);
material.
thirst.
and
indriyas(senses)can
an
forms
the other
predominates over
after grasping the external
none
our
physical frame
active
also
the
are
the
so
therefore
they
becomes
wind
of blue, yellow,
the
under
had
colours
The
straight,and crooked.
its object the four elements
heaviness, cold, hunger
roughness,lightness,
qualitiesrepresent the feelingsgenerated in
the
material
of them.
(samsthand)
appearance
"
their aggregate
sightgrasps
and
red, white,
material
senses
remembered
permanent
The
and
consciousness
"
123
energy
effects and
is
effect of karma
is considered
twofold, namely,
that
as
Buddhist
24
[ch.
Philosophy
that
to
avijnaptikarma
phraseology sub-conscious
and
rupa
each
to
in future
The
wills
to those
mind,
as
these
are
are
is called
it thinks
because
or
activity
itself
expresses
but
directlyknown
called avijnapti.
not
known, they
are
modern
sponding
activity.Corre-
which
state
Vasubandhu,
manas
(cetati),
cittam,
because
vijfiana
and
(manvate)
it
be
(nirdisati).The discrimination
may
nation),
nirdesa (naturalperceptualdiscrimi(1) svabhava
because
it discriminates
of three
kinds:
(2)
sub-conscious
which
says
call in
sensation,feeling,
thought
actions
thoughts and
similar
are
similar
should
we
ideas, feelingsand
conscious
is another
there
what
are
nirdesa
prayoga
and
future),
(actual discrimination
present,
as
nation
(reminiscentdiscrimireferringonly to the past). The senses
only possess the
to manovijfiana.
mrdesa,the other two belong exclusively
past and
svabhava
nirdesa
(3) anusmrti
criminates
diswith
its specific
sense
vijfianasas associated
its particular
teristics;
object and perceivesits general characthe
the six vijfianas
what
combine
is known
to form
as
Vijftanaskandha,which is presided over
by mind {mano). There
dharmas.
Of the three asamskrta
are
forty-sixcaitta samskrta
of the
Each
dharmas
akasa
(ether)is
establishingit as
in
omnipresent
permanent
(niriipdkhya,
non-rupa).
the freedom
essence
The
thing,other thingsare
on
they
non-existent
are
one
made
have
dharma,
Its essential
called
they
are
visible
them
because
non-collocative
is
characteristic
the
is
being of
because
asamskrta
the
absent.
were
pratisamkhya nirodha,
bondage.
are
but
not
and
hence
have
dharmas
caused
I fix my
when
then, not
seen
conditions
final
because
which
third
The
aprati-
dharma,
the non-perception of
samkhya nirodha, means
Thus
by the absence of pratyayas or conditions.
attention
substance
immaterial
asamskrta
second
obstruction,
from
would
asamskrta
deliverance
from
everlastingness.These
the
no
of
negation
solution.
production or dis-
nature
consists
rightmindfulness, rightrapture1.
rightlivelihood,righteffort,
1
150
Mr
A.
Sogen
mentions
D.), Harivarman,
the
who
name
founded
of another
a
school
Buddhist
known
as
Hinayana
thinker
(about
Satyasiddhischool, which
v]
anism
Mahay
125
Mahayanism.
It is difficult to
its rise.
But
there
is
and
B.C.
400
elements
splitthemselves
thoughts and
labelled as Mahayana
were
first inception. We
hear
are
late
as
the
300
as
in later
the
Mahayana
days
time
in
of works
number
sutras,
be
to
came
taking their
to
way
of
A.D.
100
of which
some
and others
(ifnot earlier)
Mahayanasutras, also called
B.C.
100
These
generallyall in
Nothing is known
Buddha.
the
in about
Mahasanghikas
probably some
gradually on
A.D.1.
Vaipulyasutras,are
given by
which
least
at
400
or
ideas
the
as
into
up
various
regarded as
probably as old as
are
that
took
Mahayanism
time
the Theravadins
of
which
think
to
reason
from
separatedthemselves
what
preciselyat
say
in
the
form
about
form
some
seceded
of instructions
their authors
of Sanskrit
or
and
the Theravada
from
school.
word
The
it is contrasted
such
as
translated
vehicle
no
small
as
{mafia
means
refers to
Hlnayana
with
vehicle
is
by Sanskrit
1
the
of doctrines
sort
same
available in Sanskrit
are
and
generally
are
vehicle)and great
this translation
by
"
vehicle). But
and
meant
by Mahayana
his Mahay dnasutralamkdra
as
I have
and
Theravada,
words
(ktna= small,ydna
what
expresses
of
The
Mahayana.
great, ydna
schools
the
yana2.
Hlna-
gives
those
never
come
of his
across
name
writers.
Quotations
the
on
and
of these sutras
references to many
karikas
Mddhyamtka
of
are
found
of these
Nagarjuna; some
(translatedinto
Astasdhasrikdprajndpdramitd
in Candrakirtti's
are
mentary
com-
the following:
Chinese
Mdradamanasiitra,
RainardJisulra,
Ratnacuddpariprcchdsutra, Ratnameghasiitra,
Ratndkarasiitra,
Rdstrapdlapariprcchdsutra, Lankdvatdrasutra,
Lalitavistarasutra, Vajracchedikasiltra,
Vimalakirttinirdetasutra, Sdlistambhasutra,
Samddhirajasutra, Sukhdvativyuha, Suvarnaprabhdsasiitra, Saddharmapundarika
into Chinese A.D.
(translated
255), Amitdyurdhydnasutra, Hastikdkhyasutra, etc.
2
The
way,
word
Yana
in which
contexts
is
rather than
vehicle
Samddhirdjasutra, p.
The
There
word
is
Yana
no
Lankdvatdra
generallytranslated
the word
is
reason
as
old
occurs
the
suggest that it
consideration
career
means
of
numerous
or
course
or
(Lalitavistara, pp.
as
the
why this
word
should
p.
be
(careerof
vehicle,but
as
to
Karundptmdarika,
seems
in
"ravakas
or
taken
of saints before
the
different
sense.
the Theravadin
coming
of the
We
hear
in
Buddhists),
Buddha),
(careerof
the
Buddha
gods),
us
the
why
reason
called
He
Mahayana.
instructions,attempts, realization,and
the
the
whereas
Hlnayana
that,
says
goal of
of the ultimate
from
considered
called
was
was
professed,
he
other, which
school
one
[ch.
Philosophy
Buddhist
126
time, the
religion,
Hlnayana
occupies a lower and smaller place than the other called Maha
Hlna
as
(small,or low).
(great)Yana, and hence it is branded
of the fundamental
This brings us to one
points of distinction
ultimate
The
between
good of an
Hlnayana and Mahayana.
of the
adherent
the ultimate
whereas
creed
consequence
of that
the
they undertook,
attempts
had
be done
could
prepared
business
short
only a
to
work
So the
salvation.
and
of work
from
may
point of
that
seek
the
received,
achieved
were
Hlnayana
man
salvation,and
own
Mahayana
in
this
adherent
was
in
adherents
Hlnayana
yana
Maha-
lower, and
they
adherents.
lives,whereas
in three
results
attaininghis
to
its followers
that
the
Mahayana
in
but
and
tion,
salva-
or
professed the
salvation
own
instructions
that of the
than
narrower
the
the
nirvana
own
who
those
their
beings. So
of all
salvation
goal of
to seek
not
was
his
is to attain
Hlnayana
also be
view
called hlna, or
lower.
This
\ difference
in the
schools,is
of the two
creed
the
from
point,though important
point
not
so
of view
from
of the
the
point
philosophy. But there is another trait of the Mahayanistswhich distinguishesthem from the Hlnayanists from the
of
of
view
I philosophicalpoint
things
|
void
of
were
at
non-essential
of all
and
indefinable
all
that
character
and
bottom, whereas
impermanence
Mahayanists believed
The
of view.
Lthat.
erroneously thought that Nagarjuna first
voidness
of Sunyavada (essencelessness
or
It is sometimes
doctrine
preached the
of all
either
take
appearance),but in realityalmost
preach this doctrine or
definitely
of those
some
Nagarjuna, we
Brahmayana
In
one
careers
sutras
(careerof becoming
one
were
place Lankavat"ra
and
which
career
(Lankavat"ra,p. 68).
and
says
no
allude
in all
which
Mahayana
it. Thus
to
distinction
ordinarily
but
sutras
if
we
probabilityearlier than
Nagarjuna expounded
of
Brahma), Tathagatayana(career
that
career,
all the
these distinctions
is made
are
Tathagata).
between
only
for the
the
three
ignorant
v]
Mahay
with
as
Philosophy
ana
all the
an
the
Buddha
Subhuti
saying
(feeling),
samjfta (concepts) and
all maya
(conformations) are
(illusion)1.All
dhatus
cessation.
is not
quietlyaccepted!
was
vedana
that
samskaras
skandhas,
127
The
different
the
from
dhatus
skandhas,
and
to
the
the
absolute
and
as
void
pure
ayatanas, and
J
;
this \
absolute
no
and
process
of
(asasvata)but
saint's endeavour
all
consider
the
eternal
It should
(sdsvata)
be the
object
and
(tatkatd)
has to establish
(bodhisattvd)
in the
saint
"
th.aX.nzss"
(pdramitd), benevolence
virtues
character
of
is neither
void.
pure
The
void.
virtue
truth
put himself
all the
in
pdramitd),
to
things as
himself
is
The
cessation.
no
non-eternal
nor
of dharmas
cessation
the
(ksdntipdramita),
the
(stlapdramitd),
(ddnaof
virtue
of
tenacityand strength
of meditation
the
virtue
(dhyanapdra(viryyapdramitd) and
that he will
mitd). The saint (bodhisattva)is firmlydetermined
forbearance
help
however,
there
are
the
saint
; and
of
this
The
work
who
one
is to
but
is to
him
help
absolute
The
is
on
his
difference
is
Madhyamika
between
Sunyavada
only the
in
holding
only passing
1
3
afraid
attaining for
illusorybondage.
proceeds
prajnaparamita
true
(yah anupalambhah
that
is rather
there
appearance
"unyavadins
were
of
all
phenomena,
doctrine
and
of
appearance
agree
ableness
The
it3.
the
or
fundamental, but
the
is not
in
his
paramitas,though in realitythere
salvation
in realityand
who
no
one
of all appearance
is not
while
tion
salva-
no
of
career
prajnaparamita ityucyatey.
Mahayana doctrine has developed on
that there
reality,
his
attain
attain
In
bondage,
no
well, yet he
too
proceeds
nirvana.
is the
sarva-
sa
Sunyavada
The
to
cessation
dharmandm
is
it but
knows
strength of
the
on
no
of
beings, there
no
high truth,
attain
to
all
is
of souls
infinite number
an
virtue
is
one
no
akin
more
the
and
Vijfianavada.
Vijfianavada(the theory
phenomena
of
truth
to
lines,viz. that
two
of
method.
in
consciousness)
Both
of tnem
anything,everything
dream
or
magic.
in
Astasdhasrikdprajndpdramitd,p. 16.
Ibid. p. 177.
Ibid. p.
Ibid. p. 177.
21.
But
Buddhist
128
Philosophy
[ch.
interested
themselves
in
preached by the Sunyavadins,
by their theory of
explaining the phenomena of consciousness
beginninglessillusoryroot-ideas or instincts of the mind (vasand).
been the greatest teacher
to have
A"vaghosa (ioo A.D.)seems
the Tathata
of a new
as
type of idealism (vijhdnavddd) known
the truth
tdrasutra, we
earlyworks
of the
of the
think
of the
quotation in
from
of the Lahkdvatdrasutra
The
Vijftanavadins1.
Vijftanavada school
attributed
of
was
Lahkdva-
being one
as
to
Asariga (400 A.D.),
are
the
Mahay
last
Chinese
and
Hindu
not
writers
seem
an
first
at
late
of
liberal
in
Asanga,
no
the
to
access
Sarvastivadin, but
his
originalsare
is known
to
Thus
is said
have
to
standard
himself
(499-569) tells
converted
was
life,by Asanga.
Paramartha
as
was,
in his
wrote
have
the
excepting
name
also,viz. Yogacara, and it does
by another
improbable supposition that Asanga's Yogdcdrabhumi
was
name.
responsiblefor the new
Vasubandhu,
brother
younger
us,
who
works
Tibetan
sdstra
a
readers
to
these
all
in
is available
one
of
None
to
who
Vasubandhu,
work
of the
Sarvasti-
commented
navada,
Vijfta-
of
number
upon
navada2.
Vijfta-
Mahayana sutras, such as Avatamsaka, Nirvana, Saddharmapundarika, Prajndpdramitd, Vimalakirtti and Srimdldsimhandda, and
compiled
Ratnatraya,
least
Mahayana
some
century
possessionof
have
We
any
two
or
work
of whose
system
(550A.D.).
1
Dr
'
Takakusu's
of
but
we
of this school
after him.
Sunyavadaformed
the
Mahayana.
The
in
not
are
the
damental
fun-
powerful
most
a brief account
Nagarjuna (100 A.D.),
be given in its proper
place. Nagarjuna's
was
commented
by Aryyadeva, a disciple
(383 A.D.),Buddhapalita and Candrakirtti
Aryyadevain
S. C. Vidyabhushana
"A
Vijhdnamdtrasiddhi,
for at
Vijftanavada continued
as
Vasubandhu,
that
all schools
will
(verses)were
his, Kumarajlva
of
of great fame
of this doctrine
karikas
of
after
already noticed
principleof
exponent
school
The
etc.
sutras, such
addition
upon
to
this commentary
belongsto
lifeof Vasubandhu,
about
wrote
300
"y. R.
at
a.d.
A. S.
1905.
Buddhist
130
held
He
the aspect
"
birth
of
the
death
of the
nature
is uncreate
of
appear
under
"the
would
no
be
be
nature
absolute
transformation
thatness
soon
of
of
or
that
which
is
that
which
is
bhutatathata
thought of,there
spoken of, there
thought of, "this
is neither
nor
that
that
which
non-existence,
nor
that
it is neither
overcome
disappear and
form
of
nothing but
are
has
in
out
when
their
not
can-
and
"thatness."
as
of
totality
is
existence
is neither
that
which
speaks
nor
is neither
that
which
thinks
nor
is the
which
is
is at
is not
at
which
and
and
existence
which
that
existence
once
once
is
This
stage of thatness."
existence,nor
is
existence,
non-
ence;
non-exist-
that
plurality,nor
"
soul
one
attribute
no
speech
the
there
language. They
subjectneither to
are
"thatness"
which
that
could
we
things in
explicable.They
or
They
that
tial
essen-
objects." "All
pointed
understand
you
If
{samatd). They
somehow
Its
would
in any
{bhutatathata).This
as
spoken
the
to destruction.
nor
means
thingssimply on account
incipient and unconscious
nameable
not
are
sameness
only be
can
As
of
world
bhutatathata
as
cycle
All
external.
adequately expressed
possess
it
of
the
as
things{dharmadhdtu).
individuation
signs of
trace
fundamental
soul
of individuation1.
forms
the
distinguished
the aspect
our
this smrti
"
and
beginningless traces
memory
The
all
of
totality
be
aspects may
{samsdra).
oneness
of the
two
and
{bhutatathata)
thatness
as
and
soul
in the
that
[ch.
Philosophy
which
is
that which
is not at once
nor
unity
unity and plurality,
and
that it is
plurality.It is a negative concept in the sense
and
beyond all that is conditional
yet it is a positiveconcept
at
once
in the
it holds
that
sense
all within
it.
be
It cannot
hended
compre-
distinction.
It is
or
by any kind of particularization
intellectual categoriesof
of our
only by transcending the range
the comprehension of the limited range
that
of finite phenomena
be comprehended by the
we
can
get a glimpse of it. It cannot
call
consciousness
of all beings,and we
thus may
particularizing
it
negation, "sunyata," in
invented
people of
audience
1
to
to
"
ponder on
Its
"confused
be too
called Rastavara
melody
"smrti"
because
subjectivity"
of such
Buddhist
European
term
truth
classical,mournful, and
was
translate
to
The
sense.
the misery,emptiness,and
ventured
the readers
to
instrument
city.
the
have
Suzuki's
seems
musical
this
works
to be
in the
smrti
as
used
sense
sense
Lankavatara.
as
word
to
of
which
convert
means
the
non-atmanness
in the
is that
of life."
Suzuki, p. 35.
in
preferenceto
vasana
of
The
vasana
word
is not
untamiliar
"subjectivity"
sense.
Asvaghosds Absolutism
v]
131
itself
manifests
completely holds
all
called
affirmation.
because
it is not
eternal,permanent,
as
thingswithin
it. On
yet there is
But
that account
trace
no
and
immutable,
it may
of affirmation
in
be
it,
the
But
the
immortal
Though they
when
the
affirmation
absolute
soul
it is called
with
each
other.
dualityeither. Thus
relative aspect by its selfassumes
a
the all-conserving
mind
{dlayavijhdna).
identical
not
are
coincide
mortal
the
and
they
are
not
ment.
principles,
(1)enlightenment,(2)non-enlightenit is
Enlightenment is the perfectionof the mind when
free from
the corruptions of the creative instinctive
incipient
and
the
of
all
all
is
It
{dharmaunity
{smrti). penetrates
memory
is to say, it is the universal
dharmakaya of all
dhdtu). That
It embraces
two
the
Tathagatas constituting
"When
ultimate
foundation
starts
of existence.
from
mental
this funda-
had any
thought that consciousness
ginary
imareal origin,
for it was
a mere
merely phenomenal existence
of the
the influence
creation
of the perceiversunder
said to be
multitude
of people (jbahujana)
delusive smrti. The
are
lacking in enlightenment, because
ignorance {avidyd) prevails
of
there from
because
succession
all eternity,
there is a constant
smrti (past confused
working as instinct)from which
memory
been emancipated. But when
they have never
they are divested
of this smrti they can
then recognizethat no states of mentation,
viz. their appearance,
change and disappearance,have
presence,
They are neither in a temporal nor in a spatialrelation
any reality.
with the one
soul, for they are not self-existent.
"This
rupted
high enlightenment shows itself imperfectlyin our corphenomenal experience as prajfia(wisdom) and karma
stand
underwe
(incomprehensibleactivityof life).By pure wisdom
truth,it should
not
be
"
that when
9"2
[ch.
Philosophy
Buddhist
132
which
and
the
itself.
of
all modes
Though
products
and
consciousness
mentation
are
is
ignorance,ignorance in its ultimate nature
non-identical
with
and
identical
enlightenment; and therefore
sense
sense
destructible,though in another
ignorance is in one
be illustrated by the simile of the
it is indestructible. This may
mere
and
water
the
the
can
the
waves.
the
the
the mind
stirred
are
be
to
waves
both
When
the
identical
the
wind
non-identical
the
wind,
the
ceases
the
in its
but
the
of
motion
Likewise
same.
and
is pure
nature
own
Here
ocean.
and
by
up
remains
water
the
in
up
stirred
are
same.
subsides, but
waves
when
said
The
remains
water
which
waves
be
water
with
of
stirred
up
essence
enlightenment
by
or
the
"is
nor
out
pass
affectional
world
of
mind
death,
calm,
and
immutable.
unfolds
of
may
in
The
"Non-elightenment
relation
with
cut
ever
off from
intellectual
modes
any
truth
again
other
to
has
forms,
bring their
no
enlightenment a priori?
that
in order
existence
to
of its
But
in
events
that
they
disappear
both
well
with
favourable
virtue
the
of relativity
{jheydvarand),as
implicatesitself
is such
are
the
or
the hindrances
nature
conditions
some
thereby
truth
they neither
it,and
it is in its true
itself wherever
induced
into
enter
It is for
since
tathagata or
be
by
(i.e.
dlayavijndnd) which
and
and
are
it,nor
birth
The
(klesdvarand)and
the
from
whilst
tranquillized,
absolutelyunobtainable
destroyed."
are
is
unmolested."
remains
outward
any
phenomenal
neither
as
wisdom
mentality
in the
that
all
form
beings
maturity.
own
aside
from
its
enlightenment aprioi'i
to non-enlightenment, and
as
spoken of only in contrast
enlightenment is a non-entity,true enlightenment in turn
loses
its
tion
rela-
is
too.
significance
are
distinguishedonly
in mutual
of
They
non-
v]
Theory of world-construction
action),
producing misery (duhkhd)\ (2) by
ego or of a perceiver
; and (3) by the creation
which
does
exist
not
the
by
in
unreal
arise in succession.
being
conscious
The
affected
second
first
the
by
third
between
continuous
is
phenomenon
of
the
of
an
world
ditioned
perceiver.Conof
kinds
phenomena
intelligence
(sensation);
is
mind
the
becomes
the
clinging.Through
well
the
retention
and
there
disagreeable,
as
ment
phenomenon is an attachideas (samjiia),
to
etc.
names
or
By clinging the mind
hypostatizesall names
whereby to give definitions to all things.
The
fifth phenomenon
is the performance of deeds
(karma). On
of attachment
account
of
clinging. The
external
an
of the
world
sensations,agreeable as
of
appearance
of
six
external
retains
a
world
the
phenomenon
phenomenon
intelligence,
memory
in
as
disagreeable,
succession
external
of the difference
The
The
itself,
independent
133
to
fourth
names,
sixth
phenomenon
is the suffering
due to the fetter of deeds.
Through deeds suffering
curtailed of
arises in which
the mind
finds itself entangled and
forth through
its freedom."
All these phenomena have thus sprung
deeds, productive of individuality."The
avidya.
The
a
relation
identityand
mere
of pottery which
Likewise
their
the
various
entity.
this
between
be
may
though
undefiled
transient
Therefore
truth
illustrated
different
forms
Buddha
all
by
and
that
is in
simile
one
sense
of all kinds
of the
clay1.
same
come
teaches
the
all made
are
(andsrava)
avidya
and
all
one
and
beings
eternityabiding in Nirvana.
It is by the touch of ignorance(avidya)that
are
this truth
the
same
from
all
assumes
all the
different
names
are
Compare
Chandogya,
vi.
i.
4.
Buddhist
34
awakened).
The
second
vijhdna) in
the
sense
evolves
which
that
is evolving-consciousness
(pravrtti-
name
in the
representation-consciousness
reflects the
images
When
the
objects of
and
without
in the
as
as
as
loses
or
had
evil,which
in the
recollects
to
been
by
the
also
things
by
gone
the
with
so
mirror
the representation-cons
instantaneously
and
three
the
in
consciousness
experiences and
karma, good as well
past, and
whose
be
mature,
sense
the
all
of any
fails to
in
awakening
retains
in the
never
clean
succession-consciousness,in
{manas)
sown
future, and
Therefore
come.
it
even
(manas)
ego
particularization-consciousness,
different things defiled
painfulor agreeable,it
or
is
name
(manaskdra)
As
is
name
between
continuouslydirected
of attention
never
is
fourth
fifth
The
pure.
the
it represents them
that it discriminates
that
sense
The
is
third
it is
five senses,
effort.
sense
well
the
world.
it
description,
of all
disturbed, there
The
that
sense
external
is
world.
external
an
mind
the
when
that
sees
[ch.
Philosophy
that
retribution,
it in the
it
present
unconsciously
imagination anticipatesthings
domains
(kamaloka,
domain
of bodilyexistence
feeling riipaloka,
of incorporeality)
are
nothing but the self
"
"
of
domain
arupaloka,domain
of
manifestation
the
mind
are
particularization
mind
in itself
is not
differentiated.
all
things and
the
of the
self-particularizations
conditions
in the
however
we
come
free from
to
the
mind.
The
all attributes
conclusion
that
established
and
mind
when
is
the
of things is produced
disturbed,the multiplicity
mind
; but
is
of things disappears.
quieted,the multiplicity
the ignorant mind
By ego-consciousness(manovijhana) we mean
which
by its succession-consciousness
clingsto the conception of
I and Not-I and misapprehends the nature
of the six objectsof
The
in the external
world
produced by
memory,
the mind
becomes
Theory of Good
v]
oblivious
are
sign of becoming.
Non-enlightenment
this is annihilated
annihilated
and
But
of
but
mind
the
them
of
been
d'etre
the
"
of
the state
its modes
not
mind
calm
relation
of the
that
there
Asvaghosa
says,
(suchness),Asvaghosa
acquire one
avidya (ignorance),
subjectivemind),
the tathata
they are
purity because
Determined
by suchness
work
and
On
of defilement.
of this
account
of its
of memory,
And
the
result
And
ignorance perfumes
this
smrti
the
birth
and
longing
death
and
perfumes
are
enabled
of suchness
we
also
in
Further,
them
various
mentally
loathing on
suchness.
to
On
believe
whose
as
deeds
well
are
of
account
essential
recognize that
part of
all
we
are
nature
to
of the
produced.
are
done,
of
and
this
loathe
suffer
we
ness
"such-
perfuming
the
perfuming
misery
in turn
are
we
ourselves
immaculate;
in the world
of
This
influence
possessionwithin
and
world
perfuming
blessingof Nirvana.
the subjectivemind
is pure
phenomena
stood.
is misunder-
bodily." Again
as
this
in
suchness
external
of individuation
after the
the
that
an
in consequence
seek
to
raison
truth
account
on
subjectivityis caused
and
yet
perfumes ignorance.
misunderstood
being
perfumes ignorance,and
individual
the
in its turn
modes
miseries
can
d'etre of
becomes
various
by clingingto
no
hand
other
perfuming, the
(reciprocal)
account
have
agreeable,they
nor
ignorance
This
subjectivityappears.
power
as
smrti.
produces
On
of
it
of
all forms
wear)
we
ignorance. On the
purity. Nevertheless
with
which
stance
according to the nature of the subis likewise
perfumed. Suchness {tathata)
caused
all defilements
by the perfuming
of
power
an
odour
free from
dharma
pure
do
which
interperfuming of
"By perfuming we mean
is
(viz.those
offensive
neither
the other
or
with
clothes
worldly
of their own,
odour
says
Thus
our
ruffled
un-
of
interaction
"
that while
an
were
"
elements.
is also
like
karmavijnana (activity-consciousnessthe
represented by the senses)and
visaya(externalworld
these
also
are
"
the annihilation
mean
It becomes
only.
world
interrelated
an
no
When
samsara.
external
does
which
of
all
annihilated.
describingthe
In
conditions
all winds
have
waves
raison
this annihilation
when
sea
is the
the
with
annihilated.
the
135
of the
things which
Evil
and
and
nothing
Buddhist
36
but
the
those
which
actions
should
virtue
of
means
rightlyunderstand
liberation,can
perform
thus
we
accordance
in
are
Since
{alayavijndnd)and
mind
of the
illusorymanifestations
no
realityof their own.
can
truth, we
practisethe
the
have
[ch.
Philosophy
with
the
dharma.
We
nor
cling to objects of desire. By
particularize,
merable
disciplineand habituation
during the lapseof innu-
neither
of this
As
asarikhyeyakalpas1 we
get ignorance annihilated.
is no longer
ignorance is thus annihilated,the mind (alayavijiidnd)
disturbed,so
to
as
individuation.
subjectto
be
the mind
As
is
no
defilement,their products,and
annihilated, it
spontaneous
of the tathata
or
is said
that
mental
the
attain
we
disturbances
and
Nirvana
all
are
various
that
thatness)in
its purityunassociated
with
any
kind
of disturbance
which
of
that
there
are
who
some
do
believe
not
in
it,while
others
do,
the
in one's
difference.
in
is caused
this,
loathe the
to
nirvana, to
one
cultivate
to
it and
is enabled
instructions
to
inherent
an
and
compassion {karuna) of
oneself
of
is
embraced
being which,
own
(maitri)and
vas,
There
misery
the
to
bring
to see
of birth
it to
all Buddhas
Bodhisatt-
and
and
death,
to
(kusalamida),
maturity.
and
In
can
attain
consequence
Bodhisattvas
to
believe
uate
to habit-
all Buddhas
of merit
root
perfuming principle
protected by the love
Buddhahood
ceiving
and, re-
induced
and
This
of
virtue,and
thus
it is that
sometimes
Technical
name
for
very vast
period of time.
Buddhist
138
Philosophy
[ch.
the stage of
deeds,
others
treat
of
numbers
individual
the
the
by
meant
philosophy
at once
it
or
be
to
seems
The
tathata.
as
This
doctrine
absolute
an
that
of the
fact
that
it
life,
idea
the
as
be
to
seems
of the
many
is
"thatness"
Asvaghosa
to
was
that
guess
Vedanta
learned
there
much
which
creed
of
an
traditional
explained
as
Madhyamika
Candraklrtti,the
or
an
the
creed
in the
of
in
and
of
interpretations
pratltyasamutpada
school.
As
I have
to
no
access
to
on
the Chinese
depend entirely
on
Suzuki's
more
Vijfianavada
Nihilism.
known
of
Nagarjuna
According
to
{pratitya)reasons
translation
of
as
dependent
starts
the word
one
origination{utpdda) of
the
means
"
doctrine
Dv
the word.
which
be
to
seem
Nagarjuna's verses
explaining the
{abhdva) depending
ti"stra,
I had
doctrines
to the
ori"inntionXll?2Ill"0''7r'7^^
two
the Tairthikas
Lankdvatdra1.
Sunyavada
commentator
kdrikd"
"Madhyamika
Buddhist
in
unchangeable self
unspeakable reality
truth.
of Buddhism
The
attract
early
Lankdvatdra
The
to
the
favourably
so
compares
Nagarjuna's Madhyamika
profound philosophy of Asvaghosa
faithful to the
than
influence
Upanisad
interpretedby Sarikara.
as
truth
in his
scholar
Brahmin
was
view
Considering
of Lankdvatdra.
eclipsedthe
ultimate
the
the
with
in agreement
more
interpretationof Buddhism,
the
world.
unchangeable realityas
the ultimate
this tathata
the
perfumes
realityonly as a make-believe
who
had a prejudicein favour
(heretics)
(atman). But Asvaghosa plainlyadmitted
with
is
is what
of
this transcendent
this,that
nihilistic idealism
is easy
admitted
as
This
cling
not
illusorily
appeared
with
do
and
being.
main
through limitless
adequately the
come,
sentient
out
as avidya veils
quintessenceof all thought and activity;
perfumes it,the world-appearance springs forth,but as the
character
this
to
work
to
the
good
of
of
existence
activityof
thatness
pure
in ages
principleof
to
wish
selves,and
own
of mankind
salvation
universal
their
as
the
and
existent
non-
causes
ASvaghosa's Sraddhotp"da
expressions as
they appear
in his translation.
v]
Pratityasamutpada
(hetupratyaya). According
each
means
and
means
But
other
originationof each
he
of
disapproves
interpretationpratltya
individual
destructible
every
the
the
to
139
and
and
pada
pratityasamutdestructible
every
these
both
dividual.
inThe
meanings.
second
Pali
the
in which
meaning does not suit the context
Scriptures generally speak of pratityasamutpada (e.g.caksuh
pratitya rupdni ca utpadyante caksurvijnanam) for it does not
the originationof each
and every
destructible
mean
individual,
but the originatingof specificindividual
phenomena (e.g.perception
of form
with
the
by the operation in connection
eye)
depending upon certain specificconditions.
The
if
take
we
we
the
case
that
see
knowledge
and
interpretthe
there
should
depend
example
visual
it would
so
the
upon
cept,
per-
visual
between
contact
eye, and
the
of the
be
not
If
latter.
we
is false,for
origination
bv
any
for
of
would
Toothers,
be
cannot
the former
maxim
that
origination,
e.g. that
physicalsense,
that
intelligible
happens,
of any
Thus
thing
neither
can
itself
originateby
nor
For
o
that
without
further
any
the other
one
other
Since
tfcould
together. A
all
to be
so-called
to
come
"
also be
not
for then
being,then depending
into being
from lightwe
thing
that
into
comes
thing could
is said
it
qualification
thing
could
not
originatefrom
originatedby
also
things could
acknowledged
could
come
that
not
into
on
on
anything
any
could
itself
combination
depending
or
the
Buddha
ness!
dark-
by others,
of both
originatewithout
being at all times.
wherever
have
of them
any
cause,
It is therefore
spoke
of this
an
dependent originationis
thus a real law, but only an
not
due
to ignorance
appearance
lost (amosadharma) is
is not
{avidyd).The
only thing which
and
of knowledge
nirvana; but all other forms
phenomena
(samskdras) are false and are lost with their appearances
(sarva-
senses
stricken
ferred
re-
samskdrdsca
with
ignorance.
This
mrsdmosadharmdnak).
objected to this
It is sometimes
doctrine
that
if all appear-
Philosophy
Buddhist
140
ances
false,then
are
bad
good
or
case,
then
There
then
are
no
no
be
it may
exist at all.
not
and
works
do
they
[ch.
should
be
trouble
not
truth
works
neither
are
all and
of the appearances.
any
one
carefully
cannot
what
{citta)\
as
what
such
does
no
He
who
real,works
It
and
who
thus
knows
{samsdra)
existence
also he
and
of
non-existence
or
that
perceived cannot
any
said
be
nature
exist,
that which
all; and
at
to
present, and
future,nor
past, nor
ness
conscious-
discover
cannot
one
to
of all appearances,
suffers
illusions,
though
births
with
originationnor to extinction.
prehend
knowledge {viparyydsa)does not com-
his false
falsehood
and
of rebirth
be
subjectneither
through
the
search
be said to have
is
nature
may
him
For
themselves
exist is neither
not
it cannot
has
the
Thus
howsoever
and
cyclesof
about
himself
trouble
not
falsehood.
or
nor
do
they
the
cycles of
false these
appearances
thinks
but
rebirth
them
{samsdra).
produce
can
be
to
all
Like
"J\
sorrow.
in
the
what
moment
them
their
comprehension
of all arguments
that
we
they are
call "our
phenomena
When
being
be
again
may
that
Sunyavadin
other
own
sages
people regard as
to
manner
help
of all appearances.
tending to
show
argue,
them
It is of
to
no
the falsehood
come
use
deal
and
reasons,
to
to say,
in
for
with
right
spite
of all appearances,
testified
have
no
the doctrine
is,"what
true
essence.
of
is
pratltyasamutpada is described
reallymeant
is that
as
"this
only be
indicated as mere
after another, for they have
one
appearances
Nihilism
no
true
essence
nature.
or
(sunyavdda) also means
just
this. The
true
meaning of pratltyasamutpada or sunyavada is
that
in all phenomena
this,that there is no truth, no essence
things can
v]
Essencelessness
As
appear1.
the
phenomena
have
they
essence
no
not
mean
negation,for
pure
position.It simply
intrinsic nature
The
heat
and
the fire
and
what
nature
depends
or
anything else,and
out
which
If
exists.
affirm
the
not
so, he
but
in
going on.
change could
this the
or
itself
which
of
speak
also
second,
as
which
not
is
can
the
depend
be
cannot
pointed
that
say
of its own,
on
we
not
can-
If
(parabhdva).
cannot
it
we
quently
conse-
If anyone
that
first
they
are
negation (abhava\
not
anything positive,we canon
in
there
is
the
no
relation
suffers
to
and
moment
arose,
for it
process,
was
cause-effect
between
is also
(B.T.S.)"P"
things;
the
not
continue
comes
appears
as
the
It cannot
had
same
connection.
temporal
as
In
the
fact
tion
determina-
suppositionthat
there
howsoever
Ibid. pp.
stroyed
de-
anywhere,
go
valid, for
to
neither
first moment
not
we
moment
of them.
5"-
next
can
nor
the
so-called
changes
momentary
that which
anywhere
of
process
But
being
as
process
permanent.
which
be affirmed
later is wrong.
See Madhyamikavrtti
are
nothing
from
second
is that
destroyed
anywhere,
come
perceive a
reply
appears
(samsdra) cannot
priorand
self which
be the
to
said to be
nature
reference
are
there
so
goes
the
no
process
That
change
being
and
does
when
suffered
the heat
said
not
we
even
conditions,
does
it
thingsthat
momentary
nor
process
that
Madhyamaka
with
are
anywhere
a
both
be
existence
his stand
takes
of
they appear,
justifya process.
which
thing
any-
its own;
be
may
things to
of
after
as
alone
or
be affirmed
not
hardly speak
so
any
that
of many
for those
of
have
hold
of
cannot
we
kind
of
To
there
essence
thus
{sunya)
some
fire;for
cannot
essence
of other
doubt
realitysince
It is
be
no
anything
no
speak
and
such
no
essence
to
we
anything as positive,
assert
anything of anything as negative.
in things positiveand afterwards
discovers
believes
from
conditions
independently by
thing has
affirm
cannot
can
since
stands
of
essence
thing. That
of anything
nature
or
the
many
of the
essence
essence
on
void
of the appearances
none
the
are
be
to
is relative
or
be said
The
They
go.
{nihsvabhdvatvam).
own
essence
any
cannot
true
of their
Madhyamaka
has
that
means
that
neither
are
nor
93-100.
is
we
Buddhist
142
search
may
soul
the
is
takes
and
that
presuppose
another
up
but
undergo
unity it cannot
would
for that
five skandhas
find the
we
the
at
[ch.
Philosophy
abandons
identical
same
if
Moreover
progression,
or
process
any
soul
the
self.
no
character
one
which
moment
is
inconceivable1.
But
and
no
the
is then
all afflictions
not
theory is
which
or
anything
as
nirvana
which
phenomena
in
nirvana, but
existed2.
never
of state
of
anything
as
that
phenomena,
has ceased
In
are
like the
Nirvana
all
that the
say
in the
positivestates
cease
they
rope
positivething or
any
sort
any
joint
things are
or
and
(satnskrtd)
causes
phenomena
illusorysnake
be
cannot
combined
of all
essence
either
being (bhdva),for
products of
and
is
of
final extinction
Madhyamaka
of the
conceived
all
exist
to
absence
the
the
as
definition of nirvana.
be
cannot
is described
this the
(klesay.To
to such
agree
which
nirvana
liable
are
decay
to
destruction.
communicated
after
one
be
can
being in a state
another, but beyond that
as
of them.
affirmed
produced
it be
can
and
determined
existent
of
change
no
be
to
truth
existence,or
they
Nirvana
is
be
to
appear
destroyed, but
be
cannot
the
merely
cessation
M.V.
vdnatn,
and
found.
is not
appear
a
the
even
mirage
or
It is easy
bondage
or
197). In this
knowledge
to
and
that
see
the
that
Even
dream,
there
state
so
are
See
Ibid.
emancipation;
all
62 and
201.
all his
and
false
101-102.
have
is
is
known,
ceased
to
phenomenon,
teachings3.
phenomena
Madhyamikavrtti (B.T.S.),pp.
pp.
himself
in this system
nothing which
phenomena
the Buddha
the
is
there
are
cannot
like
exist
shadows,
any
like
the
comingy
process
sometimes
non-existent.
or
and
essence,
Phenomena
sometimes
as
Ibid. p. 194.
'
Causal
v]
is
one
win
trying to
is to be considered
that
there
Thus
it is
would
have
no
conformations
no
on
even
been
; but
the
so
depending
It
by
of the
that
that
akasa
there
find
we
four
body
body, it
that
is
It is
solid, it is due
is due
there
is made.
man
becomes
the
elements,space
fire that
to
to
there is
respiration;it is due
is
man
allotted
souls.
to
them.
It is by
attachment
is
he
as
done
they have
that
(pratyayopanibandhd).
(samavdya) of the
(yijndnd)that a
wind
to
is mind-consciousness.
there
that
or
am
samskaras
combination
is fat in the
digestion,it is due
to
so
reason
(prthivl)that
there
"
the
as
another
consciousness
earth
to
water
from
combination
the
idkdsd) and
due
an
conglomeration
on
It is
on
antecedent
be viewed
can
consciousness,and
no
ignorance
said
be
can
is known
pratltyasamujpada
the
been
generating the
"we
are
being
the
avidya." But there being avidya,there come
with other categories
This character of
too.
on
it
and
It is this false
have
be said of the
and
produced by
samskaras
would
there
it cannot
samskaras,"
143
egoism that
considered
avidya. When
deeply it is found
the slightest
of any positive
trace
existence.
if there were
no
ignorance (avidya),there
conformations
(samskaras),and if there were
that
seen
real nirvana1.
a
as
is not
conditions
But
is.
of these
none
of the functions
any
of these
None
ignorance that
that
elements
are
real substances
are
think
considered
to
be
beings or
or
these
are
the
(rdga,dvesa, moha)
from
the
from
that
These
on
behind
phenomena
non-existent, and
See
Ibid.
them
all
therefore
(sdsvatavddd)or
1
that
no
or
truth
nihilism
three
can
comes
as
the
said
be
is
(ucchedavdda),and
no
so
all2.
either
existent
The
or
eternalism
it is for this
reason
this passage
209-211,
quoted
in his Bhamati
on
pp.
from
Salistambhasutra.
Sankara's
Brahma-
*utra.
on.
^T'
rx
essence
of them
of either
affirmed
AvC"
(sparsd); VhvJ"*^vm*(
contact
there
ground
to
(saddyatana),
(trsnd) and
river,but
of
be
senses
desire
comes
be
cannot
the
proceed the
together of those
feelings,from
flow
truth
or
coming
the four
these
{ndtnarupa),from
form
and
with
These
thoughtlessness
proceed
vijnana and
elements
bring about name
these
; from
Vacaspatimi^raalso quotes
^4!U*\^WMUl
^JVfcTt \
vKv^aJ^
*^"
,
%-~*\v"-
^"v"
"U
Buddhist
144
is called
this doctrine
that
and
Existence
Philosophy
the
middle
doctrine
have
non-existence
[ch.
only
phenomena,
{inadhyamakdf.
relative
truth
{sam-
but there
is no
true
vrtisatyd)in them, as in all
or
anything else. Morality
reality(paramdrthasatyd)in them
plays as high a part in this nihilistic system as it does in any
Indian
other
juna's Suhrllekka
Tibetan
the
6.
below
I quote
system.
translated
as
translation.
that riches
Knowing
unstable
are
and
the moral
no
7.
for
morality
moving
void
the
and
poor
friends
is the
is
for there
and
earth
spotless,
is of the
immovable.
and
8. Exercise
patience, energy,
reached
Wenzel
by
from
stanzas
some
meditation,
the farther
shore
likewise
and
of the
virtues of charity,morality,
sea
of
prince.
View
as
lust, indolence
15.
Since
for anger
nothing
; the
is
Buddha
so
difficult of attainment
patience,open
as
door
no
has
shall
pronounced that he who renounces
anger
saint
who
suffers
rebirth).
never
anagamin (a
degree
look
Do
after another's
not
21.
wife; but if you see her, regard her,
according to age, like your mother, daughter or sister.
who
has conquered the unstable,ever
moving objectsof the
24. Of him
six senses
and him who
has overcome
of his enemies
in battle,the
the mass
attain the
wise
praisethe
29.
Thou
of
an
first
as
who
the
knowest
greater hero.
the world, be
conditions,gain
loss,happiness and
and praise,
for they are not objectsfor
as
not
and
If you
endowed
in like
5a
The
say
Brahman.
"I
not
am
you
aggregates
1
See
the
form,
not
thereby will
will understand
do
you
the voidness
arise from
does
not
of the other
desire,nor
Mddhyamikavrtti (B.T.S.),p.
understand
from
160.
dwell
in
am
me
four aggregates."
time,
nor
from
Buddhist
146
[ch.
Philosophy
stopped (abhutaledge
All our
phenomenal knowparikalpa-vasana-vaicitra-nirodhdj1.
truth {nihsvabhdva)and is but a
is without
or
any essence
There
is nothing which
creation of maya,
a mirage or
a dream.
of the )
be called external, but all is the imaginary creation
may
mind
which
has been
accustomed
to create
(svaatta),
imaginary 7
from beginningless
time. This mind
by whose moveappearances
these creations
take place as subject and
ment
object has no
in itself and is thus without
existence
any origination,
appearance
and extinction(utpddastfo'tib/iahgavarjjani)
and is called the alayavijftana.
The
itself is said to be
reason
why this alayavijftana
without
is probably this,
existence, and extinction
origination,
that it is always a hypotheticalstate which
merely explainsall
ence
the phenomenal states that appear, and therefore it has no existunmanifested
instincts
of
imagination
are
'
in the
affirm
any
We
do
external
in which
sense
specialessence
but of
own
our
of appearance.
the
the
four
for
There
things as
of these
reasons
ripplesof
is used
term
and
we
could
not
of it.
not
tendency
takes
the
in a lake,
as
experiences(pravrttivijnand)
and these are manifested
as
sense
experiences.All the five skandhas called pancavijndnakdya thus appear
in a proper
synthetic
form.
None
of the phenomenal knowledge that appears
is either
identical or different from the alayavijftana
not
canjustas the waves
be said
the
ocean
is also
to
our
sense
be either identical
dances
dancing
citta it collects
on
as
it
in
waves
or
so
different
the
citta
in its diverse
were
from
or
the
the
ocean.
As
alayavijftana
As
operations{yrtti).
all movements
it
{kartnd) within it,as manas
the fivefold
and
as
synthesizes(vidhiyate)
vijftanait constructs
perceptions{vijfldnen
vijdndtidrsyam kalpatepancabhiky.
It is only due to maya
that the phenomena
(illusion)
appear
in their twofold aspect as subjectand object. This
must
always
be regarded as an
whereas
in the real
{samvrtisatyatd)
appearance
they existed {bhdvd)or did not
aspect we could never
say whether
exist8.
1
*
Lahkavatdrasutra, p.
44.
Asanga'sMahay dnasutrdlamkdra,
pp. 58-59.
^9)
v]
Vedanta
Vijnanavadaand
147
All
name
sutra
substance
no
thatness
as
This
{tathatd)'.
been
had
described
state
voidness
as
and no
essence3.
origination
designatedas tathagatagarbha4.
It may
be supposed that this
no
ultimate
truth
comes
Ravana
doctrine
of
vatara
of the
doctrine
also
"
"Our
Vedantic
Buddha
"
unqualified
an
atman
and
Asvaghosa;
the
of
doctrine
How
Brahman
or
find in Larika-
we
can
you
say that
the atman
other
doctrine
heretics;it
of
asks
Lankavatara-
as
tathagatagarbhawas not the same
schools of philosophers,
for those heretics
consider
the atman
as
eternal,agent, unqualified,
vading
all-perand unchanged?" To this the Buddha
is found to reply
your
thus
of
doctrine
the
to
near
in the
is not
the
is in consideration
same
the
as
of the
doctrine
fact that
the
of
those
instruction
stance
philosophywhich considered that there was no soul or subthat
in anything {nairdtmya)would
frightenthe disciples,
I say that all things are
the tathagatagarbha.This
in reality
should not be regarded as atman.
Just as a lump of clayis made
of all
into various
nature
shapes, so it is the non-essential
phenomena and their freedom from all characteristics {sarvavikalthe garbha
that is variouslydescribed
as
palaksanavinivrttam)
This explanationof tathagathe nairatmya(essencelessness).
or
tagarbha
ultimate
order
the
truth
and
in
i
s
to
as
reality given
inclined
creed those heretics who are superstitiously
attract to our
to
believe in the
So
far
as
atman
the
doctrine5."
of the
phenomena
{vijndnavddins)
agreed to
appearance
was
concerned
the doctrine
There
was
pratltyasamutpadawith certain modifications.
them an external
pratltyasamutpadajust as it appeared
1
Asanga'sMahdydnasutrdlamkdra,
Lankdvatdrasiitra, p. 70.
Ibid. p. 78.
Ibid. p. 80.
p.
65.
IO"2
of
with
in the
Buddhist
148
[ch.
Philosophy
internal
and
an
"
"
There
mind.
is
{snehd)that
smoothness
it is the
movement
but
it is the
of
substance
that
constructs
of
of
construction
sense
the water
constructs
construction
sense
the external
constructs
of
water,
no
as
external
an
activityor
fire;it is the
the external
sense
stance;
subthat
energy
tion
construc-
substance
of air.
menal
Lankavatarasiitra, p. 85.
Lankdvat"rasiitra, p. 87, compare
and
the conventional
world
the term
in almost
the
"
vyavaharika"as used of
sense
by "ahkara.
same
the
phenc
v]
Voidness
relation,but
the
real
none
of these
truth
of all phenomena
characters
(paramdrtha)
speech-construction.
can
may
be
never
be
149
said
referred
to
be
true;
to
by
such
The
from
be viewed
nothingness (sunyata) of things may
and hence
aspects (1)that they are always interdependent,
no
specialcharacteristics by themselves, and as they cannot
seven
"
have
be determined
in terms
be determined
they cannot
of others,for,their own
nature
being undetermined, a reference
to an
other
definable
hence
is also undetermined, and
they are all inessence
{laksanasiinyata)
; (2)that they have no positive
since they spring up from a natural nonexistence
(bhdvasvabhdvasunyatd),
(svabhdvdbhdvotpatti);
(3)that they are of an unknown
since all the skandhas
type of non-existence
(apracaritasunyata\
vanish in the nirvana; (4) that they appear
nected
phenomenallyas confor their skandhas
though non-existent (pracaritasunyata),
have no reality
in themselves
nor
are
they related to others,but
yet they appear to be somehow
causallyconnected ; (5)that none
of the things can
be described
as
having any definite nature,
they are all undemonstrable
;
by language (nirabhilapyasunyata)
be any knowledge about them
(6) that there cannot
except that
in themselves
"
"
which
which
in the
time
nor
two
in which
of
things which
imagined to
negation (nirodha)are
are
neither
existent
(space)and
akasa
nor
non-existent
nirvana
are
only
be existent
by fools.
This view apparentlycomes
into conflict with the doctrine of
this school, that the realityis called the tathagatagarbha (the
womb
of all that is merged in thatness)and all the phenomenal
of the clusters {skandhas),elements
{dhdtus\ and
appearances
veil it with
fields of sense
to
operation (dyatanas)only serve
and this would
to the assumption of a
impurities,
bring it nearer
universal
soul
attempts to
reality.But the Lahkdvatdra
explain away this conflict by suggesting that the reference to
the tathagatagarbhaas the realityis only a sort of false bait to
afraid of listening
to the nairatmya (nonattract those who
are
soul)doctrine1.
as
the
Lankdvatdrasiltra,
p.
80.
Philosophy
Buddhist
50
attain
[ch.
their
The
may
The
first
tydryyajndnddhigamdbhinnalaksanatd.
second
that
means
existence
know
the
either
to
like
destruction.
or
distinctive
or
of all
nature
The
the
is
means
all external
the
The
tion,
origina-
no
that
should
one
said
things are
their existence
is
merely
beginninglessdesire
the
perceivingthe manifold.
means
mind.
This
brings us
of
right comprehension
the
things.
from
which
those
been
have
Buddhism.
Theravada
Lahkdvatdra
of in the
dhyanas spoken
four
different
third
produced by
is
which
fourth one,
the
The
one's
there
essence
non-existent,for
which
mirage
no
in which
sense
(vdsand) of creatingand
to
imagination of
things have
as
be existent
the
of the
creations
but
things are
all
that
means
described
These
dhyanas
in connection
called
are
be
to
seem
with
(1)
bd/o-
and
(4) tathdpacdrika, (2) arthapravicaya,(3) tathatdlambana
first one
is said to be that practisedby the sravakas
gata. The
and
the
It consists
pratyekabuddhas.
doctrine
that
there
is
concentratingupon the
(pudgalanairatmya),and that everything
soul
no
in
miserable
and impure.
transitory,
things in this way from beginning to end
is
When
the
consideringall
advances
sage
on
till all
what
The
full consciousness
that
that
may
be
said to
vicayd)the
The
thought
is called
on
third
that
dhyana,
there
is
there
there
doctrines
is
of other
of the
none
in which
self
no
nor
the
that
mind
there
realizes
the
are
The
the
and
mind
last
or
the
into the
heretics
that
the
sage
(pra-
that
the
appearances,
is
prehension
com-
dharmas
there
that
for beginners).
is also the
subjectof
of all
nature
the
only
not
arthapravicayadhyana,for
the
the
self,but
no
nor
that
where
state
is
these
exist, and
here
concentrates
there
neither
This
appears.
advanced
is the
have
thatness
it has
for
thatness.
fourth
state
of
dhyana
thatness
incomprehensibilityof all
is that
is such
phenomena
in which
that
is
the
the
lapse of
nothingness
perfectlyrealized;
Ultimate
v]
and
nirvana
is that
themselves
in
and
be
knowledge
called
called
suffer
all root
death, for
desires
destruction, so
have
This
nirvana
of all these
said
that
that
see
there
phenomena
world
the
emphasized
that
is
no
is maya
is
this,that
seem
to
is
to work.
This
and
it cannot
that
either
death
of the
sravakas
call that
to
or
state
the
(in the
heretics
no
it is
is meant
ground.
be
originate,stay, and
ground)
When
maintain.
no
cause,
of
sense
illusion,what
or
there
ledge
know-
things(samskrtd)
satisfied
cause
other
as
general characteristics
misery) they are not attached to
judgments1.
of all
we
from
is different
with
rebirth
any
it is different from
that
the
Thus
the mind
it will not
(vdsand)manifesting
destruction.
and
destroyed and
are
perceptions,
making
be
cannot
in which
goal
The
destroyed
be
to
mena
pheno-
are
mere
constructions
realityfrom
separate
of the
course
also
spoken
illusion,but
construction
of
as
that
for
(cittavimukta),
of illusion has
which
here
it is illusion
is cut
there
is
no
off
or
ceased.
detached
itself when
It is therefore
from
of
construction
the
the
mind
imagination
(sarvakalpanavirahitatri)*.
Sautrantika
Dharmottara
(847 A.D.),a
Perception.
of
Theory
of
commentator
Dharmakirtti's4
Lankdvatdrasutra,
This
sutra,
account
as
other
no
and
accounts
varttika
with
antecedent
or
p.
to
accomplishment
2
ioo.
work
of
may
of
career
Ibid.
is collected
of all that
be had
in such
man
p. 109.
mainly from
Vijfianavadaschool
the
of the
the
books
Lankdvatdra-
is available.
as
Kumarila's
Hindu
Sloka
deals
more
Asanga'sMahdydnasutrdlamkdra
{Bodhisattva)than with the metaphysics
saint
system.
point of view.
calls
himself
an
adherent
of
Buddhist
152
desires
[ch.
(samyagjiidnapurvikd sarvapurusdrthasiddhiy.
have
to
Philosophy
accordance
with
the
presentationof any
knowledge, we get a thing as presented by it we call it right
knowledge. Right knowledge is thus the knowledge by which one
to acquire (arthadhiacquire the thing he wants
can
practically
gati). The process of knowledge, therefore,starts with the perceptual
When
in
proceeding,
on
presentationand
represented by it and the
with
ends
the
fulfilment
of the
attainment
of
the
thing
practicalneed
by
it
Thus
there
are
(arthddhigamdt samdptah pramdnavydpdrah).
in the perceptual acquirement of knowledge
three
moments
final realization
endeavour
following the
(3)
and
our
our
is also
be called
to
with
it,
prompting in accordance
of the object in accordance
with
Inference
direction
of knowledge.
it also
rightknowledge, as
serves
practical
our
tions
by representing the presence of objects in certain connecIn perception this presenand helping us to realize them.
tation
this is brought about indirectly
is direct,while in inference
need
through
the
realization
philosophicalworks
in
for the
men.
the
realization
knowledge
because
knowledge, therefore,which
Any
by
only
of the
rightknowledge.
objectrepresentedby
All
will
sought
lead
not
it could
is
cussed
is dis-
to
us
be called
not
illusoryperceptions,therefore,such as the
conch-shell
as
yellow or dream perceptions,
perceptionof a white
not rightknowledge, since they do not lead to the realization
are
doubt
of such
It is true no
objects as are presented by them.
that since all objectsare
the object which
was
momentary,
ceived
perthe
at
which
was
which
started
realized
realized
the
(nilddau ya
eva
of other
santdnah
that
realization
undesirable
and
commentary
same
as
that
blue
of the
existents
series
same
paricchinno nilajhdnena sa
right knowledge
of any
thing,it must
eva
tena
desirable
be
is
an
thing
noted
that
invariable
or
the
cedent
ante-
retarding
it is not
meant
of Nyayabindu%
from
the opinionsof two
other commentators
"antabhadra (seventh century),are found in Nyayabindutikdtippani,
of
Nyayabindutikd of Dharmmottara,
us.
But
first perceptionof
the
not
Brief extracts
Vinitadeva
to
later moment.
realization
it is said
of the
the
perception was
nllajhdnam pramdnamy.
prdpitah tena
of any
at
with
by
When
of
moment
Ny"yabindutlkatippani,
p.
n.
but
their texts
are
not
available
Buddhist
54
the
to
Philosophy
[ch.
(purvadrstdparadrstancdrthamekikurvadvijndnam-
sense
In
asannihitavisayam purvadrstasydsannihitatvdt).
all
illusory
which
is affected either by extraneous
perceptionsit is the sense
If the senses
not
are
or
by inherent physiologicalcauses.
verted
perbound
the
to
are
objectcorrectly.Perception
they
present
the
of an
thus means
correct
presentationthrough the senses
object in its own
uniqueness as containing only those features
which
its and its alone (svalaksanam).The validity
ledge
of knoware
consists in the sameness
that it has with the objectspresented
by it (arthena saha yatsdrupyam sddrsyamasya jndnasya tatpramdnamihd). But the objectionhere is that if our percept is only
is a thing which
similar to the external objectthen this similarity
and thus perceptionbecomes
presentation,
is not different from the percept which
invalid. But the similarity
as
being similar to the object. It is by virtue of their
appears
that we refer to the objectby the percept {taditi
sameness
sdrupyam
perception of the objectbecomes
possible.
tasya vasdt) and our
of blueness
It is because
have an awareness
that we
we
speak of
having perceived a blue object. The relation,however, between
is different from
the notion
the
of
of
similarity
indefinite
causation
the
but
the
of
awareness
of
determinant
determinate
of
similarity
we
know
the
the sense-datum
determinant
with
and
thus
by
the
the
object(pramdnd) we come
that our
has this particularform
to think
"blue"
awareness
as
between the knowledge and its
(pramdnaphald). If this sameness
objectwas not felt we could not have spoken of the objectfrom
the awareness
(sdriipyamanubhutam vyavasthdpanahetuh).The
similar
and
it is this
to itself,
object generates an awareness
correspondence
so
that
lead
can
us
to
the
realization
of the
object
presented by rightknowledge1.
1
See
also
pp. 340
and
409.
It is unfortunate
Nydyabindutikd, Nydyabindutikdtippani
(St Petersburg,
1909),no other
with this
doctrine
interesting
of
are
perception
available to
us.
works
dealing
Nydyabindu is probably
v]
Inference
Sautrantika
According
by
the
to
theory
and
of Inference1.
of Buddhism
doctrine
Sautrantika
Dharmaklrtti
155
Dharmmottara
as
scribed
de-
is probably the
which
of systematicBuddhist
available to
only account
logicthat is now
in Sanskrit,inference
us
(anumdnd) is divided into two classes,
called svarthanumana
knowledge attained by a person
(inferential
mind
or
ference
arguing in his own
judgments),and pararthanumana (inthrough the help of articulated propositionsfor convincing
others in a debate). The
validityof inference depended, like the
validityof perception,on copying the actuallyexistingfacts of
the external
so
world.
it is
as
external
Inference
knowledge, depends
fact thus
its resemblance
upon
to
the
(sdrupyavasaddhitannllapratltirupam
inferred
sidhyati).
The
that
be
it may
be
It is
only
conditions
that
the
and
reason
the
exist,but
above
the
the
the
connection
criterion
writers
to the
desire
of existence,
as
Buddhistic
me
no
know
not
and
It is
established.
where
present in all
cases
absent
it does
it should
(niyama)
be
can
where
not
be
is essential
establishing
This unfailing
for
for inference2.
found
in two
types
arthakriydkdritva(practical
rightknowledge) Later on it was regarded
and the profuse references by Hindu
Ratnakirtti's works
we
criterion of
doctrines
prove.
The
word
As
the Pramdnasamuccaya
of Dirmaga is not available in Sanskrit,we
can
hardly
be
what
from
the
anything of developedBuddhist
can
Nydyalogic except
got
bindutikd
2
it does
to
on
Nagarjuna and
of
by Dr E. J. Thomas
there.
philosophicalsignificance
to
be
necessary
in which
as
thing
(svabhdvapratibandha)is
kirtti'scommentary
out
that
law
exists
where
case
such
is tested
reason
should
reason
inferred
This
our
in every
the
where
cases
be
should
is made
unfailingconnection
thing to be inferred
unfailingcondition
fulfilment of
has
the
it is necessary
case.
natural
one
absent
when
an
enough that
thing to be
not
inference
an
inferred exists,and
exist.
as
which
by
reason
of Dharmmottara.
tasmdt
gamyeta
Buddhist
156
of
in the
the
is
thus
genus;
tall and
speciesis
infer the
in the
identical
latter from
The
is that
second
which
stands
the
as
fire which
the
has
reason
of the
with
the
to
inference
be
natural
it of
the
the
the
of the
could
one
this is called
(tdddttnya).
nature
from
from
Thus
effect
the
smoke
the
ground
The
of
connected
naturallyindissolubly
this is the
unless
no
case,
of
identityof
is made
second
of
with
the
of
inference
svarthanumana
difference
the
between
pararthanumana,
the
has
inferential
has
process
and
pararthanumana
as
characteristics;the
this,that
is
two
mines
deter-
premisses but
nection5.
inseparable con-
the
known
is
cause,
of
series
all essential
in
the
effect with
{avinabhavaniyamd)
connection
the
species in
the
svabhavapratibandha
The
not
type
of
essence
through
lihga (reason) which
the
(svabhdvapratibandha),
connection
of
inseparability
directlyby
main
genus,
inferred.
be
inferred, and
all inference1.
of
inference
agrees
small
nature
vice versa\
former.
inseparable connection
or
The
is
indissoluble
nature
ground
the
are
is warrantable.
This
genus
be
of the
is inferred
cause
reason
even
; the
identityof
it may
produced
they
the
genus
not
of
the
is that
nature
where
inferences
as
but
connection
these
thing
the
former
that
him
pine;
latter
with
the
unfailingnatural
the
tained
con-
qualityof pineness
being
treeness, for the former
of
essence
because
trees
to
out
it is
because
contained
speciesbeing
is
reason
called
pines are
useful to point
part of the
the
tree
as
that
be
is
pine plant
forms
it may
of
nature
for
think
to
come
may
the
inferred
be
thing to
stands
reason
where
first is that
The
cases.
[ch.
Philosophy
in
be
to
the
case
of
put verballyin
premisses.
Pandit
Ratnakara"anti, probably of
A.D., wrote
1
na
hi yo
yatra svabhavena
pratibaddhahsa
na
or
the tenth
Antarvyaptisamarthana
named
paper
the ninth
tarn
tury
cen-
in which
apratibaddhavisayamavaJya-
meva
na
vyabhicaratltinasti
The
"
the
cases
(3)vipaksasattva(itsnon-existence
The
Buddhists
it has smoke,
admitted
like
which
thing about
kitchen
where
in
propositions
but
unlike
lake.
the
syllogism,
e.g.
The
sadhya did
not
exist).
v]
Inference
tried
he
show
to
which
cases
the
concomitance
of the
of the
lingawith
sadhya (probandum); or
is not
between
the
the
of the
characteristic
of the
whereas
has
which
kitchen,
as
that which
and
that
This
has the
which
view
the
has
of the
nature
concomitance
(antarvydpti),
the concomitance
between
the thing
outer
as
possessing sadhya, is known
as
viz.
former,
inner
such
between
the
concomitance
the
smoke
has
characteristics
the
words
is known
the
in other
fire but
placescontaining
concomitance
that which
placescontaining the
characteristic
of
those
the cases
with
linga or reason
that which
sadhya (probandum) but between
characteristics
etc.,and
between
is not
the
possess
the
possess
that
157
later Buddhist
It may
Yamaka
the
"was
Buddhist
as
of the
the
so
pabbato
{ayam
"
found
are
of Asoka
process
whatever
dhumavd
"
which
of
logicalpremisses
dhumavd
so
early
as
the
"
is
this
therefore
up
Kathdvatthu
the
as
Is A
B1
Yes.
Adherent.
Is CD}
Opponent.
No.
Adherent.
But
Hence
antecedent
thapana, because
established
be B
can
your
then
be
(you
affirmed
first
of A
is
answer
have
should
but
said)C
is D.
of C is false.
refuted.")
of the
the
for the
consequent
because
(thdpand).
{pdpana).
if A
That
papana
aggimd
and
of
evidence
time
the
Opponent.
The
the
the
least
the
of terms"
that
evidences
at
on
logicat
points out
yo
that
back
go
Aung
Buddhist
upanayana
arguments
"Adherent.
The
remark
to
distribution
( Yo
fiery)were
method
follows
the
the udaharana
is
that
further
He
fiery is smoky),
hill is smoky) and
that
here
(200 B.C.).Thus
with
conversion.
place
logic probably
points out
conversant
such
of
out
Kathdvatthu
the
as
of
of
form
some
be
not
doctrine.
purpose
of the
it is got
of refutation.
hypotheticalmajor premiss
from
the
antecedent.
And
is termed
the
con-
Buddhist
158
is termed
elusion
Philosophy
because
ropana
the
[ch.
regulationis placed on
the
Next:
opponent.
"If D
be
Then
But
should
be
can
been
have
affirmed
you
(therefore) That
of C.
derived
derived
of A.
of A.
affirmed
of A
but
not
of D
C is
or
wrong."
with
former
the
latter method
But
But
method
of
and
hypotheticalmajor
opponent's
second
is
answer
established1."
re-
of Momentariness.
to
the
prove
momentariness
the concomitance
discovered
of
by
by
in presence
hence
accepting
the
doctrine
of
Existence
is defined
only alternative.
producing anything (arthakriydkdritva).The
the
as
the
the
and then
the
(anvayavydpti),
difference by proving that the production of effects
the assumption of things being perbe justified
on
manent
of agreement
not
the
reverse
(950 A.D.)sought
method
could
the
first,
{sattvd),
by
all existence
we
methods
C is D.
Doctrine
The
Ratnaklrtti
In both
is B.
method
indirect
this
if
contrasted
as
C is D.
Therefore
By
method,
get
we
is B
If A
indirect
or
method, anuloma.
direct
or
is derived.
consequent
in the
patiloma,inverse
is the
This
momentariness
the
as
form
capacity of
of
the
first
ever
by anvayavyapti may be given thus: "Whatexists is momentary,
by virtue of its existence, as for example
of which
cussing
diswe
are
jug; all things about the momentariness
type of argument
the
existents
are
said
be
that
existent
effects
is not
at
the
which
jug
are
therefore
has
been
for
momentary;
present moment;
are
no
for those
future;
1
Mrs
the
and
See
which
the
are
second
introduction
Rhys Davids.
to
past and
done
is
now
chosen
the
the
example of an
producing certain
as
an
is
jug
it cannot
and
future
future,for
could
impossible,for
It cannot
momentary."
not
be
that
or
the
be
that
these
it is
first is
done
if it has
held
any
producing
impossible,
again in the
capacity to
(Pointsof Controversy)by
Momentariness
v]
effects
produce
might as
the
well
at
at
of
and
will
different
the
at
production varies
those
moments
two
Since
past and
of the
so, and
hence
future,for
the
the
fact that
of
name
things
it cannot
jug
the
it is not
the
were
nature
thing at
have
not
the
evidentlydo
in the
in the
past and
capacity and
the
this
moment
present
has
jug
same
the
not
the
at
two
produced
is
existence
not
capacity
until
itself
to know
being
only
or
of
definition
the
there
the
and
there
even
of
means
for it is demonstrated
certain
does
not
conditions
an
produced
there
infinite
affirm
the
existence.
be
is the
and
until
no
another
be
can
says
effect
the
in
this
of
agreement
knowledge
of concomitance
of
at the
has
can
impossible
producing effects
if all things were
perceiverto observe
permanent
there
of
could
there
is the
and
concomitance
To
be
cannot
The
in presence,
permanent
hardly
inference.
the denial.
in presence,
the
that
capacity of
making
require any
and
capacity
will be
chain, it
Moreover
in agreement
effect
being
no
as
of agreement
concomitance
knowledge
in
even
concomitance
absence,
has
that
repliesthat capacity(sdmarthyd)
Ratnaklrtti
of any
to
would
momentary
change,
this view
known
producing effects,and
of
demonstrate
any
tariness
momen-
if
infinitum. Since
ad
another
be
cannot
with
the
known,
that
anything
and
known,
or
be
cannot
The
bhedah).
which
is but
(arthakriydsakti),
existence, is universallyconcomitant
capacity of
that the
there
the
also the
(ksanikatvavydpta).
Nyaya school of philosophy objectsto
The
any
the
has
jug
effects
capacity of producing
as
the
moments,
with
that
well, proves
another,
thing could
duce
pro-
(saktdsaktasvabhdvataydpratiksanam
moments
as
future
identical
is not
the
capacity as
other
for
different,
at
at
even
at
that
then
moments,
contradictorycapacities.
the jug does
not
produce
in it two
work
be
must
one
if it does
it. So
If it is held
different
at
59
capacity of producing
the
not
moments.
case
effect
any
produce
supposition that
the
prove
be
necessitydo
does
in that
as
so,
not
has
of
must
moment
contradiction
should
Whatever
time
any
doing
cease
one
different
not
moment.
present
anything
it must
or
denied,
agreement
for
knowledge
in other
succeeding moment
this
observation
observer,
in
be
in
under
of the
conditions
absence.
This
holds within
is what
this alone
and
capacity,and
proved cases
indeed
all
being; seed
thus
and
the shoots
momentary,
long
yet
we
their
as
is
not
existence
or
at this when
all that
was
capacity
observer.
permanent
any
being
preceding moment,
of
(sattva)is
it was
observed
could
be
that
defined
of
producing shoots,
and
has
of seeds
existence
so
the
fact which
the
effects,
the
capacity
capacity should
if this
even
arrived
we
but
was
"
of
definition
Buddhist
The
find and
we
[ch.
of the
conditions
the
experience of
itself the
in
Philosophy
Buddhist
160
but
nothing
there
is no
could
have
capacity of producing
vicious infinite1. Though thingsare
concomitance
between
thingsonly
forms
apparent
the
different
not
are
(atadrupa-
is based
Another
objectionraised
the
is
of any
concomitance
vyapti or
The
this,that
not
identity.
on
for
wait
(e.g.seed) must
cause
similarityand
extreme
on
fire and
things (e.g.the
two
it
of other
number
produce
can
effect
the
the doctrine
must
fail. To this Ratnathe shoots)and hence
(e.g.
klrtti repliesthat the seed does not exist before and produce the
effect when
joined by other collocations,but such is the special
that it produces both
effectiveness of a particularseed-moment,
collocations
the
conditions
or
well
as
the
as
effect,the
became
endowed
specialseed-moment
causal
is to be sought in other
effectiveness
How
precededit,and
on
attention
draw
a
of
number
to
is
being
it
he
is valid
important
not
Ratnaklrtti's
least
as
sixth
the
early as
or
miilasiildhau
root
infinite regress
awaiting
is saved
to
there
and
free from
enlarge
be
the
he
the
upon
tries to
harmless
if
to
reveals
number
whatever
has
fallacy.
any
explained
seventh
that
inference
we
part of
second
that
show
infinites was
did
not
known
mulaksatikarimdhuranavastham
11
matter
not
wishes
to
a
the
duction
pro-
suppose
the Indians
passage
which
clearly(Nydyamailjart, p. 22) :
The
the
vicious and
distinction between
The
to
which
one
in which
arguments
of effects could
that
says
special
moments
perceptualmoment
moment
produce
may
as
causal
one
such
Ratnaklrtti
dependent.
was
fact that
the
momentary
is
It
which
objects,so
of effects. Thus
at
with
shoot.
be
is
no
tvarucydpi nanavastha
that has
solved
harm
hi dusanam.
to
be
destroys
in
gone
the
regress
nivaryate."
through in
root
and
though one
order
is hence
may
not
to
vicious, whereas
be
willingto
have
if the
it.
Buddhist
62
past does
time
long
existingfor such
perceivethe book
memory),
that
the
referringto
the
"that
refers
refers
to
feelingof identitywhich
due
to
confusion
is adduced
between
in the
seen
is before
which
book
the
to
book
is evident
It
senses.
that
arisingin
book
the
(i.e.
perceived by the
"
but
present moment,
book"
of memory
book, I
this is that
I say
been
self has
permanent
When
at
eye
as
book
"this
is thus
at the
same
book"
The
eyes.
my
be
"that
past, whereas
my
with
cannot
that
prove
long period.
is the
book"
"this
not
[ch.
Philosophy
to
prove
manence
per-
object of memory
an
present
by the
identityand
This
senses1.
moment
is true
of
only
not
of external
objectsbut
recognitionof
permanence
also of the perception of the identityof self,for the perception of
results from the confusion
of certain ideas or emotions
self-identity
all
arisingin
with
memory
similar
ideas
But
since
memory
of the
world
sufferingdissolution
are
things appear
to
Our
hair
nails grow
have
the
hairs
new
and
and
persist,
hair and
same
similar
ones
the
these
and
often
so
these
impression that
the
nail that
to them
old
have
ones
being
similar
it is
one
all
been
have
we
our
around
bodies,
the
perceiving the
our
others
moment,
destroyed
forth,and
the
thingssucceeding in
and
that
think
we
same
moments2.
yet it
flame
of old
they
leave
it is that
similar
series
produce
has
the
seems
all the
all external
are
preceding moments,
the
1
same
See
and
no
it appears
destruction
to
has
us
taken
that
things have
place.
to
been
p.
30,
and
flame
as
us
while,
so
objects
are
the
the
remained
of the Buddhists,Nydyamanjarl,
pratyabhijflanirasa
to
moment
and new
ones
being destroyed every moment,
but so long as
being generated at every succeeding moment,
of
similar to those
objects of the succeeding moments
are
us
we
next
thing which
Just as
and
same
yet
be noticed.
persisting.So
were
are
often
before,in place
sprung
every
and
yet
had
we
destruction, but
cannot
cut, but
are
destroyed
rise into
and
on,
destruction
and
ii the
impression as
though things are
and
v]
Causal
The
Doctrine
of Momentariness
of Causal
It appears
the Buddhist
that
thing or
Doctrine
point of
view
as
call
we
characteristics which
influence
the
and
63
Efficiency (Arthakriyakaritva).
characteristics1. What
diverse
Efficiency
found
are
to
affect,determine
or
other
the
conglomeration
being of things means
the
influence
that
called
be
is to
new
characteristic,
Existence
one2.
new
that any
the work
it exerts
other
or
conglomeration does
or
other
conglomerations. This in
Sanskrit is called arthakriyakaritva which
translated
literally
the power
of performing actions and purposes
of some
means
kind3. The criterion of existence
or
being is the performance of
certain specific
that a certain
actions,or rather existence means
effect has been
That
(causalefficiency).
produced in some
way
on
"
which
has
Compare Milindapanha, n. i.
Compare TarkarahasyadTpikd
Nydyamanjari, V.S.
siddhi by Ratnaklrtti
edition, pp.
"
The
445,
Simile.
Chariot
A.
of Gunaratna,
S.'s edition,pp.
also the
etc., and
paper
24,
28
and
Ksanabhanga-
on
Buddhist
Nydya tracts.
3 This
of
word
the
"arthakriyakaritva"is different from the meaning of
meaning
the word
found in the section "sautrantika
as
we
theory of perception."But we find
the development of this meaning both in Ratnaklrtti as well as in Nyaya writers who
referred to this doctrine.
With
Vinitadeva (seventhcentury A. D.)the word
arthakriyasiddhV
the fulfilment of any need such as the cooking of rice by fire {arthameant
sabdena
prayojanamucyate purusasya prayojanam ddrupdkddi tasya siddhih nispattih
in Six
"
"
the word
that, means
a
half
art ha
means
need
; the need
accomplishment).With
later arthasiddhi
means
of
man
Dharmottara
such
cooking by
as
who
action (anusthiti)with
But
desirable objects (heyopadeydrthavisayd).
with
logs,etc. ; siddhi
flourished about
reference
to
century
undesirable
of
and
and
Ratnaklrtti
It means
arthakriyakaritvahas an entirelydifferent sense.
it
is
and
action
such
as
or
regarded as the characteristic definition
producing any
event,
of existence (sattva). Thus
he says in his Ksanabhangasiddhi, pp. 20, 21, that though
in different philosophiesthere are different definitions of existence or being, he will
karitva
accepted definition of existence as arthakriyaopen his argument with the universally
Hindu
of causing any
writers after
action
or
(efficiency
event).Whenever
Ratnaklrtti refer to the Buddhist
doctrine of arthakriyakaritvathey usuallyrefer to this
doctrine in Ratnaklrtti's
sense.
II
"
Buddhist
64
which
produced
is
different
each
into
being of
So
effect which
effects
the
time
be
existence
no
with
in each
means
its combination
with
other
the
The
of
has
then
could
we
produced
said
on
that
is
hold
are
permanent
when
even
of
the power
the
not
as
to
which
each
each
close
And
Indian
on
as
duction
pro-
other
some
existed
which
power
power
as
there
would
be
there
be
exerts
should
also
regarded
a
in the
new
as
power.
doctrine
of
relation
some
discussion
are
of
of
relation
problem of
of
on
which
the
Diverged.
Systems
These
individuals,(4) the
specific
the
the
such
must
that
examination
our
of
moments,
Problems
the substance
be
and
naturallybrings
to its views
briefly
referring
favourite
were
subjects of
and
no
should
one
perceive the
unit
moment
Ontological
circles of India.
cause
power
by Ratnaklrtti.
Different
without
it
have
can
with
should
We
existence.
of existence
Some
cannot
place.
power
such
why
reason
existences, i.e.existents
shown
momentariness
We
the
We
adhered,
at different
power
existingat
definition
This
of
new
momentary,
asserting
in its
no
associated
exerted.
define
of
unit
units
many
was
effects and
producing
different
be
power
no
effects there
impressions or
entityto which
amounting
if it had
Any
thing itself
in
by
it existed.
exerted
of
time.
the
be
should
other
than
the impression
meaning of existence
us; this impression is nothing else but the power
of the
notion
have
not
of
come
is known
minds;
our
has
effect
new
why they
one
but
the
us
accessories,justifies
that
in
coming
things. If things
similar
a
case
of
reason
once
produced
be
may
is associated
moment
would
there
permanent
were
is
of
produced
correspondinglynew
new
identical
that
effect thus
and
cannot
moments
Each
be identical.
cannot
[ch.
produced again.
be
produced cannot
us
by objects at
never
future,for
the
repeated in
be
was
now
Philosophy
Buddhist
philosophy
ontologicalproblems
all philoin almost
sophical
of attributes
the relation of
and
qualities
inherence,(5)the
or
Problems
Ontological
v]
of power
relation
the
on
of
real,and
permanent,
was
illusions
due
difference
between
the
only
earlier
effect
the
One
antecedent
which
and
this
this
happening,
individual
there
is
that
there
are
and
come
is
such
of the
the Sautrantika
of any
In the external
world
are
of sensation
Our
world.
assemblage
no
as
parts
by
"that
whole,
to
According
the
next
whole,
hold
again
which
alone
individuals
the
and
moment
individuals
sensation,force
as
or
are
of
said
separate substances
of inherence.
is
believe
but
there
In the
of sensation.
simple
units
denies
is no
the
objectiveworld
also there
representinga unit of
being and dying the next
reals,each
or
in the
Following
sensations.
the
existence
(samavayd)
there
unit
individual
many
attribute,risinginto
exist
call
we
Corresponding to each
separate simple unit in the objective
a
thing is thus the perception of the
atoms
thus
in the existence
attributes;what
its
as
sensations.
inherence
to
are
points of
but
Buddhism
that
there
perception of
of these
did not
Buddhists
capable of producing
there
substances
moment.
unit
there
(atoms) as
1910.
reality
than
Buddhists
fingersas
apart from
substance
is but
substance
five
my
tary
momen-
is determined
of
the
The
it is the
of its
of wholes.
die
whole1."
"
its momentary
more
relation
nor
that
know
are
are
the
being and
thing as
There
nothing
illusorily
appear
universals,for
no
go.
is
cause
permanent
no
change
in the existence
rise into
no
is
effects.
such
no
unit
believe
neither
so
destruction
one
On
parts which
atoms
thus
change,
but
determination
not
is the
it,it
the
activityis
the
into
cause
There
cause.
causal
was
certain
through
any
no
was
former
the
effect because
the
by
happened."
does
Buddhism
to
the
undergoes
another
the
there
that
transformed
alone
cause
impermanent
that
be momentary,
determined
called
but
held
of the
is called
that
were
historyof
The
everything to
been
has
when
transformation
abide.
existence
such
as
effect,except
stage which
holds
can
and
cause
the effect.
changes became
the history of
Buddhism
all effects
ignorance, Samkhya
to
held
effect,Sankara
and
cause
(saktimari).Thus
the power-possessor
(sakti)to
relation
165
in which
substance,
of any
relation
for since
such
tion
rela-
the
butes
attri-
there
are
no
Buddhist
Nydya
tracts,Bibliotheca
Indica, Calcutta,
Buddhist
66
believe
of
existence
in the
Philosophy
[ch.
separate from
power-possessor
the
power.
Brief
of the
survey
was
of
noble
four
the
and
sorrow
muppdda
world
existed
eternal
was
death
after
the
of sorrow,
lead
to it ?
not,
or
Great
were
emphasis
doctrine
that
laid
was
there
Suttas.
definitions.
and
scripturesfrom
essentialness
and
Aryyadeva, KumarajTva
from
whether
older
doctrine
the
world
was
soul
permanent
of them
as
appearances
Tathata
position of
the
and
could
he
tathata, but
entitycould
examined
at
doctrine
it
seems
explaining
idea that
and
to be
The
to
but
being
no
be
oscillated
all
the
called
such
manent
per-
which
mixture
with
Sunyavada,
as
he
any
nothing but
phenomena.
of
existed
If
from
reality.
or
This
that
to
These
apart
the Tathata
observed
was
be
to
appearances.
something
to
dhammas.
me
not
if there
Vijfianavadadoctrine
appears
rollary
co-
whether
non-essentialness
consistentlysay
exist.
all the
absolute
could
one
preached by Asvaghosa
was
this
not
less
or
and
related
essence,
non-essential
Sunyavada
other
no
Brahminic
of all these
background
took
have
which
doctrine
the
dhammas
they
preached.
things appeared
non-essential
non-
by Nagarjuna,
If
death,
with
Mahayana
to be
more
were
all
in
of the
non-eternal, or
being mutually
as
appear
about
and
void
mere
their appearance
between
thinking
of
elaborated
after
exist
not
pafifta
contained
doctrine
Buddhism.
or
early
of the suttas
began
and
of
legitimateway
of
eternal
did
or
and
up
and
not
was
B.C. the
in
Abhidhammas
evolution
the
200
Tathagata
The
Candraklrtti,is
and
the
existed
Tathagata
With
taken
was
as
which
of all dhammas
voidness
doctrine,which
The
paticcasa-
heresies
the materials
about
time
some
whether
soul.
philosophy
new
any
enumerations
think
What
cessation
of
slla,samadhi
on
no
was
the
no
the
was
doctrine
The
considered
us
say
what
non-eternal, or
or
hardly give
This
paid
was
systematic metaphysics.
to
cause
could
attention
more
offered
Buddhism.
and
was
Thought.
in and
came
only to explain how sorrow
view to the solving of a metaphysical problem. The
of ultimate
metaphysical problems, such as whether
discussion
the
than
the
what
was
with
not
truths
what
sorrow,
of Buddhist
period of Buddhism
In the earliest
to
evolution
also
of the
carefully
an
attempt
everything
was
Bttddhtst
v]
non-essential
howdid
generated by
phenomena
beginninglessvasana
the
which
difficulty
is felt with
be
must
appearing
doctrine.
regard
realitywhich
some
The
sort
some
that
as
admit
them
the
that
in the
it.
ideas
all these
Vijfianavada
of such
the existence
to
The
mind.
doctrine
generating
admitted
with
compromise
Tathata
the
is
led
the
(desire)of
to
givean
to
are
as
167
it originate?
Vijfianavadaproposes
answer,and
there
Schools
could
They
not
Brahminical
was
of
doctrines
a
heresy,but they said that this was
compromise
doctrine
however
to the heretics; in truth
intelligible
to
assumed
Vijfianavada
in the doctrine
literature
that
not
in
on
the
point. These
time
same
to
and
three
the
him.
scanty and
from
reality
that
we
Vijfianavadacould give
developed almost about the
answers
doctrines
the
Tathata
But
doctrine
the
of
Sunyavada
fourth
Kumarila
century
A.D.
systematiclogicand
logicians.Dinnaga
the
In
samuccaya.
activityof two
(known also
external
Hindu
Hindu
great
Vaibhasikas
other
and
the
and
of
also admitted
took
criticize the
to
doctrine
the
third
or
the
study
of
of the Hindu
from
as
schools
with
of
this
Buddhism,
and
the
Sautrantikas
they
were
existence
one
this
time
Yasomitra
forth
the
conflict
and
illustrious
names
number
of
(commentator
the
of the
existence
with
Samkhya
world.
external
find the
Both
Sautrantikas.
generally in
of the most
Pramana-
accepted
of the
doctrines
logicalactivitywe
thought Nyaya-Vaisesika
the
(420-500 A.D.)was
such
to
Vaibhasikas)
as
schools
thinkers
From
Buddhist
association
world,
have
Sankara.
Buddhists
some
the
to
hostile criticisms
these
started
and
began
continued
which
develop probably
Vigorous disputeswith Sunyavada
of Hindu
in any
independent work
Vijfianavada doctrines
the
B.C.
200
till the
philosophy, after
with
ceased
Asvaghosa practically
and
originatedprobably about
We
The
the
the
same.
The
of
is very
us
(thatness)and
the
was
is available
are
also non-essential.
make
the
which
Vasubandhu
of this school.
great
of Vasubandhu's
Buddhist
work),
Buddhist
68
(writer of Nyayabindu
Dharmmaklrtti
"antabhadra
have
in
of
and
interested
mainly
were
doctrine
of
the
in
Samkhya
with
of
problems
non-Vaibhasika
and
with
up
till the
time
Sarikara
For
Hindu
Vedanta
external
world
in
external
world
were
behind
all mental
admitted
with
of
the
of
hear
much
time
the
Sarikara
denial
of
ontological problems
doctrine
momentariness.
of
any
disputes
new
were
After
disputes
the
Theistic
which
the
with
the
The
Vedanta
the
of
so
their
their
Ramanuja,
doctrine
the
on
with
we
their
do
From
different
of
manent
per-
quarrel
views
century
Vedanta
the
Sautrantikas
Buddhists.
the
of
only reality
their
to
the
permanent
forms
accordance
twelfth
world.
all had
and
and
the
the
the
by
even
the
they
regard
in
were
thought
denial
of
their
between
external
was
world
soul
mainly between
the
Sarikara
with
of
help
Buddhist
in
illusory,but
was
existence
disagreement
existence
external
the
the
of
They
realistic,and
less
Brahman,
of the
their
with
of
These
and
times.
permanent
With
were
and
etc.
denying
physical phenomena.
Samkhya
momentariness;
Hindu
the
the
the
doubt
in the
did
or
sense.
no
and
and
more
some
existence
Nyaya
different
was
earlier
mainly
and
they
Nyaya
terms,
soul
of
strating
demon-
non-Sautrantika
in
points
admitted
background
of
consisted
permanent
Sarikara
of
in the
they
and
class-concepts, negation,
Buddhists
this
nature
as
side
theories
of
Buddhism
the
momentariness,
negative
of
notice
Sarikara
to
thought
Buddhist
regarding
of
the
nature
efficiency.The
thought
On
earlier
Hindu
of
doctrine
any
of
the
of causal
Buddhists
These
part, connotation
soul, but
of
series.
ontological
attracted
permanent
doctrine
Indica
in discussions
the
to
schools
agreed
course
contributious
Tracts^ published
the
the
regard
hardly
of whose
efficiency {arthakriyakdritvd)
denying
whole
(950 A.D.),
Nydya
of existence.
nature
interested
relation
causal
Dharmmottara
A.D.), Ratnaklrtti
some
and
Buddhist
Bibliotheca
the
in
635 A.D.),Vinltadeva
Santi,
Six
perception, inference,
the
of
in the
[ch. v
Nyayabindu),
847
Ratnakara
published
Calcutta
writers
Nyayabindu
of
Asoka,
been
of
(commentators
(commentator
Pandita
Philosophy
the
not
this
systems
school
Madhva,
etc.
of
of
J aina Philosophy
The
170
neither
they
reached
have
Tlrtharikaras
for
care
have
nor
regarded
are
any
Two
There
white
cloths)and
agreed on
peculiarto
the
of
Tri"ala
who
owns
fourthly that
no
from
woman
the
reach
the
canonical
works
these
had
been
immediately
the
Digambaras
Svetambaras
is
due
as
of which
there
schisms.
The
to
had
Digambaras
they
themselves
that
under
alone
in
that
to
monk
Moksa,
that
assert
origin of
The
been
already
of
to
schism
and
Mahavira.
as
Digambaras
The
Moksa3.
after
such
embryo
reach
cannot
Svetambaras
of the
attributed
the
tenets
of Devananda
womb
clothes
wears
can
that
deny
lost
they
on
food, secondly
property and
any
and
of Jainism2.
Svetambaras
the
as
death,
Jains,Svetambaras (wearers of
(the naked). They are generally
are
removed
their
of
sects
live without
not
the
by
Digambaras
was
but yet
worldly affairs,
Jains and are worshipped1
fundamental
Tirtharikaras
Mahavira
influence
Digambaras
all the
the
at
Sects
main
two
are
moksa
"Gods"
as
[ch.
say
that
and
preserved the originalpractices,
have
Bhadrabahu,
Tlrtharikara,there rose
the
from which
principles,
(a.d. 80). The
Digambaras having separated in early times
from
the Svetambaras developed peculiarreligious
of
ceremonies
their own,
though
It may
works
those
and
there
have
the
in later times
another
if
Svetambaras,
had
See
Btthler's
be noted
about
only
gacchas,and
1
history,
literary
in minute
the most
splitinto
schools
of
minor
these
developed
These
were
is the Kharatara
gacchas.
of
Jainism differingfrom
details of conduct.
important of
many
that there
in this connection
84 different
books
canonical
the
except
we
Both
sects
of
called
Gaccha,
Jains have
'(i.
Jain Iconography
A, xxxii [1903]p. 459" of J.Burgess, and
from
Mathura," in EpigraphicaIndica, II.
sculptures
"Specimens
Jina
"
Digumbara
of
and
of
which
different ecclesiastical
is
one
See Gunaratna's
commentary
on
R. E.
Jainismin Saddarianasamuccaya.
vi]
Literature
J atna
171
from
such
Hemacandra,
The
those
as
The
and
the
transmitted
known
works
of the
for
the
as
the
oldest
are
Jains.
eleven
of these
names
the twelve
Dasavaikdlika,
that
assert
{Uttarddhyayana, Avasyaka,
Digambaras however
Pindaniryukti). The
originalworks have
which
pass by the old
lost,and
all been
names
call the
of the
and
language
later works
commentaries
besides
Jaina
has
these, the
grown
Jains
One
texts
Maharastri.
of the
their
faith
written
of these
later
this chapter
which
on
Jaina works
syakabhdsya, Jaina Tarkavdrttika, with
Siddhasena
Divakara
sacred
of
of
treatises
the
And
contain
Sanskrit.
dent
indepen-
is Umasvati's
of the most
is based
that
glosses
texts.
these
upon
it is best
and
and
Prakrit
in
Santyacaryya, Dravyasamgraha
Syddvddamanjari of Mallisena
and
also been
oldest
the
The
Ardhama-
was
Jaina Prakrit
largeliterature
round
up
possess
systematic expositions of
have
Many commentaries
treatises.
sacred
of the
the
that
spurious.
are
Anu-
and
Mulasutras
these
present works
now
Bhagavatz, JndtadharAnuttaraupapdtikadasds,
and
were
Arigas are
The
canon.
but
time
eleven
The
Aiigas.
some
of
kinds
originallytwo
were
Purvas
be
to
gradually lost.
there
Jains
fourteen
the
Literature
other
and
the
to
continued
yogadvdra
about
in the
Canonical
books,
Purvas
legends
etc.
According
sacred
Mahavlra
important
are
Visesdva-
commentary
Nemicandra
of
(1150 A.D.),
(1 292 A.D.),Nydydvatdra of
of
(533 A.D.),Pariksdrnukhasutralaghuvrtti
of Prabha-
Aturapratydkhydna, Bhaktdparijnd,Tandulavaiydli,
Ganivija,Mahdpratydkhydna, Virastava.
Nttitha, Mahdntiitha, Vyavahdra, Dafafrutaskandha, Brhatkalpa, Pancakalpa.
CatuUarana,
Samstdra,
Canddvlja, Devendrasiava,
3
[ch.
J aina Philosophy
The
172
of their
literature
There
Prakrit.
that the
in
own
in the
both
are
dramas.
The
authors
Jaina
originaltreatises
well
as
million
but
India
Southern
the
"vetambaras
are
to
and
necessaries,
Digambaras
shave
have
regarded
are
very
the
the head
sometimes
as
They
an
beg
of the
India.
it,is restricted
additional
keep
tail of
hair
cover
outfit of
clothes.
clothes,use
no
a
cloth to
it2. The
enter
The
brooms
(cdmaray.
cow
to
alms-
clothes,a blanket,an
"
the hair
essential
vinces,
pro-
head-quartersof
ground, a pieceof
of the
should
chieflyin
found
Central
and
insects should
remove
getting rid
of
hard.
or
little less
Western
outfit,but
hairs
or
is
are
Jacobi describes
he must
similar
Jains.
The
Punjab.
same
latter method
as
to sweep
peacock's feathers
monks
the
Northern
speaking lest
when
is the
nuns
these
broom
of the
Jains to logic
and
over
scientific literature
the
their number
and
works,
many
of the
Digambaras
in the
monk,
India
Gujarat and
in
are
outfit of
bowl, a stick,a
of
also
also all
be found
his mouth
of
biography,metrics,
contributions
The
Rajputana
Eastern
The
half.
to
grammar,
Characteristics
General
Some
bare
branches:
The
poetics,philosophy,etc.
deserve
specialnotice1.
Yasastilaka
the
contributed
also
have
commentaries,
as
in its various
of India
than
and
Sanskrit poems
Dhanapala's Tilakamanjari)\]"ti\z.
and Kavya style and
Purana
hymns in Prakrit and
also many
There
also very
are
numerous.
Jaina
Sanskrit
The
secular
(e.g.Samardicca-kahd,
Upamitabhavaprapanca-kathdin Prakrit,and
Somadevaand
Sanskrit
both
prose,
tales
moral
Logic.
and
poetry
also many
are
Indian
Vidyabhusana's
to
be mentioned
here
It may
dates
for these
indebted
am
The
rite. The
sleep only
three
duties
hours
of
and
monks
spend
the rest
of the time
should
1
9
try
to
See Jacobi'sarticle
See
in
approach
the
ideal
Jainism,E. R. E.
Saddarianasamuccaya,chapter IV.
on
of conduct
3
See
of the
monks
Jacobi,he.
cit.
Mahavira
vi]
by taking
required
the
themselves
upon
deliver
to
viharas).The
livingbeing
thus
etc., and
has
them
thrust
the
north
of
He
was
first entered
which
do
Digambaras
believe
as
twelve
of
years
and
He
married
preach
for
two
forty-
bodhi
years
before
some
years
The
Fundamental
died
Buddha
and
of
and
the
monk.
Buddhists).
mission
perAfter
he
attained
He
lived
moksa
480
Jaina
daughter
with
a
attained
parents
Varddha-
meditation
in about
Ideas
His
had
became
he
Tri"ala.
story the
name
and
Yasoda
and
more,
miles
Devananda
This
the
him
of
Tlrtharikara
already seen.
gave
of the
and
lady
Trisala.
his parents
self-mortification
{kevala, cf.
omniscience
have
Parsva
Ksattriya
the
Brahmin
of
we
of
embryo
Nandivardhana
of his brother
it carefully
remove
of Siddhartha
the
womb
her.
by
its very
to
(modern Besarh, 27
of the
the
to
(Vlra or Mahavira).
mana
will
Jains,was
son
that
womb
worshippers of
the
were
of the
the second
the
not
He
of Vaisali
native
transferred
then
was
out
of Mahavira.
maintain
Svetambaras
The
destroy any
to
into commerce1.
prophet
last
and
Patna).
Buddhist
from
them
the
clan
Jnata
not
in
texts
like the
life carried
troublesome.
Life
Mahavira,
sacred
the
are
The
hurting it.
bars
monks
has
insect,however
an
the
of the laityin a
shaped the conduct
kill any livingbeing,
layman will intentionally
No
without
being
monastic
in
and
measure.
even
sermons
been
has
last consequences,
not
and
particularvows,
and
explain
upasrayas
great
173
to
pation)
(emanci-
B.C.2.
Ontology.
various
to assume
shapes and
thing (such as clay) is seen
of a jug, or
to undergo diverse
changes (such as the form
have
that the Chandogya
and we
seen
Upanisad held
pan, etc.),
that since in all changes the clay-matter remained
permanent,
A
that
alone
were
but
on
and
true, whereas
was
the
appearances,
See
Jacobi'sarticle
See
Hoernle's
translation
Ajlvakas, E.
The
the
the
R.
E.
on
changes
of which
nature
Jainism, E.
of
the
of
cannot
form
be
and
state
rationally
R. E.
Svetambaras, however,
later.
was
article
527 B.C.,
demonstrated
is true, and
clay-matter)alone
the
substance
unchangeable
The
explained.
or
[ch.
Jaina Philosophy
The
174
the
forms
changing
(e.g.
mere
are
(ndnia-rupay. What
other sense-qualities,
have no real
or
call tangibility,
visibility,
we
toms
phanexistence, for they are always changing, and are like mere
illusions of the senses,
of which
and
name
by the lightof
conception can be made
alone
hold that changing qualities
can
no
Buddhists
The
objectsof
mere
that
is
there
be
behind
substance
unchanging
no
reason.
ceived
per-
them.
specific
quality,what we
perceive as clay is but some
quality. Apart from these qualities
perceive as jug is also some
the Upansubstance, which
we
dp not perceive any qualitiless
and unchangeable. The
isads regard as permanent
permanent
What
we
and
as
there
do
so-called
there
the
existence.
possiblyof
of the
alone
some
offer.
and
there
no
was
Upanisads too,
that
it
not
was
elements
truth
of
but
(3) that
old
some
qualitiesare
There
are
they
false
said
the
that
all
in
that
change
views
changes
contain
given
as
of
there
in
are
of
collocations
qualitiesappear
are
generated ;
qualities
new
some
truth
whole
tion
solu-
illusoryappearances.
extreme
represent two
of them, however,
Both
the
and
substance
that
merely
but
also
Buddhists
the
as
of
change
Buddha
and
the
only
had
true
neither
can
regard each
mere
not
it
not
substance
permanent
exist,as
and
was
true
not
they adhere,
contemporaries of
qualitieswere
it
Further
which
to
should
the
were
held
They
true
was
know
ignorance,
qualities.Qualities
of
inferred.
nor
senses
qualityas a new
The
Jains we
to
does
passing qualities.We
momentary
fiction of
mere
substances
are
substance
pure
perceived by
passing collocations
the
that
imply
not
for the
be
only
are
is thus
substance
unchangeable
destroyed.
It is true
that
qualities
been
lost,some
it which
has
is
new
brought in,and
ones
The
permanent
clay has
See
become
remained
Chandogya,
vi.
1.
there
is
some
lost in
some
permanent
part in
form,
in still
Pluralism
Relative
vi]
another
form.
thing
is said to
when
unchanged qualitiesthat a
be permanent
though undergoing change. Thus
gold is turned into a rod or a ring,all the specific
of the word
under
the connotation
"gold"
come
It is
of
lump
qualitieswhich
are
and
with
each
ones
are
new
this,that
by
of these
virtue
such
change
is always
of such
permanence
the
case,
truth
some
to
comes
the
entityas representedby
permanent
lead
qualitiesas
lost and
are
qualities
the
being
successivelychanged,
are
of its
some
acquired. Such
there
forms
the
continue, though
to
seen
175
to
us
call it
substance
in
spite of
of
The
notion
ones.
gaining new
of some
new
{dhruvd) accession
old qualities
some
(vyaya)1.The
of the
grounds
of
of
Jainism
of Vedantism
extremes
two
is thus
Buddhism
and
on
Relative
of
Pluralism
(anekantavada).
and
This
of
Upanisads
the
conciliation
re-
experience.
common-sense
Doctrine
The
solution
and
the
pluralism
of
the
or
lutism
abso-
Buddhists.
(na-ekdnta\ or in
Jains regarded all things as anekdnta
other words
they held that nothing could be affirmed absolutely,
and
true
all affirmations
were
only under certain conditions
as
The
as
of
i.e. a
substance
and
atoms
same
composite
1
See
of atoms
{kald). It
the
and
as
is
of
{dravya)
sense;
collocation
time
not
gold jug
in every
not
speaking
Thus
limitations.
any
gold jug, we
is of the
so
and
it is
both
Again
of earth-atoms
dravya
dravya
not
in the
and
in the
treatment
it is
of space
dravya
sense
in the
and
term
that
sense
a
{dkdsa),
space
sense
not
its existence
collocation
of the
in the
atomic
Janasamuccaya.
as
sense
it is atomic
and
of
such
one
dravya
not
in
that
see
nature
substance
dravya only
is thus
time.
other
sense
that
at
a
or
one
it is
that
it is
of Jainism in Saddar-
not
composite of
only in the
atoms
earth, and
not
it is made
that
is made
made
and
that
other
modification
of such
up
of metal-atoms
Its
being
in the
true
and
not
the
Jains
of
number
jug
be
the
and
is
in
to
we
firstly
say
be
"this
is
but
a
being
characteristics
See
in
thing only
we
of
in certain
restricted
negative
"the
say
riches
affirmed
Doctrine
has
man
positivebut
anything may
relations
in other
such
no
in
other
or
riches
relation
poor
in
not
the
be
very
different
it. The
standpoints
infinite determinations)
Gunaratna
are
view
book"
of
about
notice
may
anything
qualitiesas
manner
of
we
similar
in the
relation
some
framing judgments
us,
of
positiverelation
thing,and again
other
cannot
when
possesses
The
In
been
in the
which
be
can
man
Thus
of any
thing
from
as
all true
are
but
poverty
possibleas
poor
negative way.
same
of
affirmed
riches." The
affirmed
by Yajftadatta.
is again only
shaped as a jug
affirmation
an
hammered
Such an ordinarything
particularsense.
infinite number
of
to be the object of an
of qualities
of an infinite number
possessor
in
found
will be
and
cannot
again
above
true
are
infinite
senses
not
sullied
un-
All
sense.
affirmed
affirmations
from
and
and
It is
been
It
thus possess
infinite
an
things (yastii)
vastu),each of which
qualities{anantadharmatmakam
only be
a
melted
proceeding in
Thus
on.
of
has
has
sense
iron-atoms.
gold as
collocation
in the
true
condition.
conditioned
the
so
natural
Devadatta
all affirmations
that
say
limited
certain
can
that
sense
stone.
of
not
the
clay or
as
again
and
melted
and
of atoms
pot and
in the
goldsmith
up
sense
as
gold
as
unsullied
made
is
gold-atoms
gold-atoms in
of
the
of earth
of
not
shaped by
and
sense
up
again
up
gold
as
any
[ch.
water-atoms.
being constituted
Its
J aina Philosophy
The
176
the
them
we
different
Nayas.
things there
do
from
unified
not
in the
look
it,but
perceivedas having
two
qualitiesand
manifold
as
are
no
at
rather
ways
istics
character-
thing; thus
when
its characteristic
the
qualitiesor
separate existence
open
from
and
also
[ch.
Jaina Philosophy
The
178
of
as
well
The
and
times
in the
remain
Thus
ways.
"book"
yet it has
for
exist
go
been
make
to
and
the
of
concept
Samkhya
which
past
does
the
of
characteristics
true
The
of
as
nayas
above
Jains hold
the
and
each
have
we
at
of
will
characteristics,
everyday
our
the
Buddhist,
said
it is these
of
perience,
ex-
which
are
each
at
tions
colloca-
new
be
may
regarded
as
things1.
but
are
such
as
broad
points of view, or
infinite in number.
are
classification
effects
produce
to
the
thing in
tion
conglomera-
mere
there
already said
only a
of the
thing is a
moment
things,and
four represent
that
but
past and
time
existence
be
new
notion
our
that
may
qualitiesand
aspects of looking
The
which
At
moment.
essence
are
rearrangement,
some
"book"
in the
holds
future,but
new
and
Its atoms
be
can
believe
not
in the
of
well.
as
All these
well.
as
thousand
or
given
any
of
way
first view
The
view
for
of the
essence
of these
none
book
in
us
general traits,shared
some
displacement
in the future
the
up
to
specialtraits
some
existing as
time
some
doubt
no
been
serviceable
are
has
has
future, but
which
while, changes
all the
specialtraits,which
some
as
tried
to
of these.
the
interpretand
The
Samkhya,
systematize
gards
experience from one of the above four pointsof view, and each refrom his point of view as being absolutely
the interpretation
of all other pointsof view.
This is their error
to the exclusion
true
{naydbhdsd),for each standpoint represents only one of the many
points of
from
view
from
point of
any
limited
under
which
conditions.
view
thing can
are
thus
be looked
in
true
Infinite numbers
of
at.
The
limited
tions
affirmaand
sense
affirmations
may
or
things from infinite points of view. Affirmations
therefore
judgments according to any naya or standpoint cannot
be
made
be
absolute,for
1
The
of
other
points of
even
contrary affirmations
standpointsof
view,
are
paryaya-naya,
which
of the
selfsame
fabda-naya, samabhirudha-naya,and
very
evambhuta-naya.
guistic
lin-
See
vi]
Syadvada
be
things may
truth
of
each
the absolute
therefore each
from
and
which
be
To
and
view
is
doctrine of
characteristics
affirmation
as
be
"may
Syadvada
of
holds
under
is
of
is
false in another.
Syadvada1.
Syadvada.
that
since
the
most
contrary
sense); all
affirmations
indefinite
are
(syddavaktavya);all
false in
inconceivable
or
affirmations
are
are
true
as
well
as
indefinite;all
affirmations
true
are
and
sense;
some
in
sense
judgment
absolutely
no
which
and
vations
reser-
some
of infinite
all affirmations
as
Doctrine
correctness
phrase sydt
only relative,
is
There
absolute.
sense
ceivable
incon-
the
preceded by
point of
The
view.
guarantee
some
in any
not
view.
should
points of
other
only conditional,and
is thus
will indicate
somehow,
from
true
pointof
affirmation
This
(may be).
be
to
affirmation
from
made
held
179
some
sense
false in
well
as
false
false and
some
definite
in-
as
as
well
indefinite
in
some
it
sense
might
cloth
by
form
of
but
of the
there
is
lump
of
clay or
jug,
limited
"The
kind
of existence
as
that
jug is" thus means
jug-existenceis affirmed
or
pillar,
other
existence
form
that
mean
any
or
the
also
and
defined
absolute
determined
a
limited
and
not
by
the
kind
of
existence
in
See
etc.
The
180
of characteristics
[en.
Jaina Philosophy
or
another
from
(of all
point of view
objects).Thus
other
be
say, may
it is
it means
of
or
negation of being (sydnndsti);
and
way
that
say
"the
naturallyindicates
the jug is
that
"
"
there,"and
saying
be
in
some
aspects
and
in
here
this
that
some
if
the
affirmations
put
hold
either
on
of the
do
that
in
finallythat
hold
that
no
in its own
of the
above
its
such
and
the
and
understood
nature
characteristics
if we
put emphasis
is not."
jug
the
as
Both
the
are
either
side
we
try
of
true,
thingsthat
are
not
of
cannot
we
true,
"
both
are
four
these
is
emphasis
contradictoryjudgments
of the jug or of the existence
is the nature
thus
are
it may
limited
again
be
sense
that
only,and
alternatives
seven
good1.
point of
1
that
see
sense
The
own
opposite
two
We
jug is,"
we
derive
another
three,
is true
holds
"the
two
the
side of the
jug is,"but
"may
these
that
is not."
jug according
if without
emphasis on
Combining
some
(i)
unspeakable, or
jug
say
all affirmations
untrue,
indefinite.
well
is not
indefinite,
unspeakable and inconceivable
affirm both
can
we
being and non-being
how
it. Thus
"the
be
"may
the
on
jug
Combining
of the
thing,and yet
and
true
as
the
the
ment
judg-
is
jug
avaktavya, for
but
may
side. But
comprehend the
regarding the jug, we
same
say
good
to
the
may
side,we
is not."
that
the
jug is,"and
the
sense
sense
put emphasis
we
other
be
"may
thus
some
some
of the
affirmation
jug
in
that
"
it is
here," which
is
and
there"
may
quite another
in
jug
means
false of
the
that
say
constitutingbeing,we
on
the
be that in
that
sense
that
that
"may
may
"this
is not
jug
place and
sense
we
"this
proceed
means
is here) also
(i.e.
see
we
only of
is true
in
so
I may
is"
jug
an
of the
affirmation
an
point of view
of being,looked
affirmation of non-being
one
Jains say
view
asserts
that
the
for each
one
(technicallycalled
other
Indian
commentary,
pp.
any
saptabhahgl)
systems each
of them
and
the
166, etc.
from
only
vi]
RelativityofJudgments
of
point
view.
is such
and
do
They
that
the
truth
of
holds
senses
good only
(upadhi). It is
which
is
perceive that
not
assertion
any
in
certain
thus
181
the
of
nature
reality-
merely conditional,
is
conditions, circumstances,
impossible
make
to
or
affirmation
any
the three
or
in
all
all their
There
judgment.
judgments
doctrine
for any
judgment
such
mind
in
as
as
used
wrongly
judgments
of
to
and
any
naya
every
by syadvada.
there
The
are
as
validityof
If this is borne
only conditional.
judgment according to any naya,
any
solutely
If,however, the judgments are made ab-
as
false
are
every
sense
kind
positionor negation,
absolute
and
indicated
are
making
is rightlyused.
nayas
any
some
is therefore
according to
other
for
and
in
the
when
the naya
equallyavailable
valid
are
according
judgment
universal
with
alternatives
all
permutations
is no
the naya
many
to
categoriesof logic,are
other
and
partlyexposed
to
any
the
of
case
and
should
other
systems,
be
therefore
and
then
are
such
{naydbhdsd)\
The
attain
that
be useful
task
of
attain
with
1
the
The
See
sutra-vrtti
It is
purpose.
and
The
our
above
main
test
purpose.
The
view
earliest mention
in Bhadrabahu's
2
in his commentary
sought by men
examining the nature
pramdnd).
to
Dharmottara
which
to
its value
that
says
to
Buddhist
Knowledge,
of
of
to
for
us.
fulfil some
on
Nydyabindu
purpose
or
end
in
also
Jains
knowledge
of the doctrine of
(433-357B.C.)commentary
Pramana-naya-tattvalokalamkdra
ch. I.
(AsiaticSociety),
are
of the
general agreement
Buddhists2.
They also
in
(Benares),p. 26;
also
Pariksa-mukha-
The
82
is not
knowledge
that
say
for
ourselves
adapt
for
good
is
lead
to
avoid
and
us
light and
has
this
what
of such
proximity
to
we
produced, as
it
It is
for
enough
conditions
have
us
of
do
we
does
not
specialfitness
little to
know
of
concern
but
with
do
for
to
how
in
us
we
enquiry
which
makes
Those
to
our
as
the
conditions
them
can
they
under
other
nature
of
ditions
con-
of the
them
sible
pos-
confer
such
perceivablehave
which
purposes
we
that
which
consist
is
certain
that
under
to
nection.
con-
purposes.
that
aware
knowledge
render
this
an
cognition
guarantee
only
are
that
objects under
no
what
seeing
serving our
external
can
presence
relevancy in
with
have
The
us.
us;
little
case
thing,whereas
things as
on
in the
eye
we
conditions
of
for
it2.
it
the
We
us,
things
The
is bad
acquire
to
know
we
not
special fitness
in
try
directly
what
the
that
them.
knowledge
conditions
avoid
it
knowledge (such as
help
no
know
such
knowledge
certain
of
to
assume
generate
be
can
and
concerned
not
are
this,that
to
is bad1.
in
The
sake.
own
capacity,for by
environments
our
production
the
to
full
of
alone
Knowledge
us.
[ch.
for its
anything consists
is good for us
and
get what
to
us
be valued
to
of
validity(prdmdnya)
helps
Jaina Philosophy
only
but
in the
suppose
external
and
that all
our
determinate
notions
characteristics of the
thing are
experience,but
derived
are
jHdnd). Experience
a
us
correct
other
shows
that
crude
data
sense
knowledge
true
on
the
{nirvikalpa
one
hand
and
most
is for this
prominent
that
reason
means
of
Pramdna-naya-tattv"lok"lamk"ra,
p.
16.
See Partkfd-mukha-sutra,
its vrtti,and
ch. 11.
and
not
indeterminate
characteristics.It
their^
immediate
form, colour,size
indefinite and
reveals
of
II.
Q, and
knowledge is~our
serving our
also
purposes.
tljeconcluding vrtti of
Knowledge
vi]
Of
knowledge
course
the
us
the
good
but
since
communicates
faithfully
it
of the
nature
attainment
renders
objectsaround us, it
good and the avoidance
of
immediately bring
directlyand
cannot
want,
we
183
serving our
and
direct,immediate,
most
So
purposes.
it should
long
held
be
as
which
When
in
snake, the
also
The
it
What
and
first
at
was
thus
found
is
of its
Thus
the
with
under
perceived as
is
is
the
thus
error
by
experience.
m\
here./
error
the
in
faithful
found
mis-
j
\
knowledge
True
be
to
sentation
repredicted.
contra-
association
imparted directlyin
when
sists
con-
contradicted
on
and
correct
and
exists.
rope
consists
afterwards
never
exist
environments
later
was
snake, i.e.
the
illusion of
Snakes
and
therefore
this,that
in
be
is meant
snake
gives such
object as
organs
otherwise
called
which
what
in
been
have
the
The
relations
existingis
knowledge
distinct,and
in that1.
false. Falsehood
is that
exist.
not
perceived where
representation of objectivefacts
therefore
in which
untruth
no
snake
then
not
was
it does
snake
the
perception of
which
is
exist,there
this,that
in
where
if
knowledge is that
they do not exist.
snake
perceiving a
ropes
False
rope
for the
for
indispensable means
dicted
knowledge is uncontra-
any
true.
as
us
evil,possible;for
of
to
actions
our
to
is not
knowledge
so
and
clear
vivid
is then
and
non-perceptional(parokfa2).
of
Theory
The
difference
main
Perception.
of the
theory of perceptionlies,as
have
we
Buddhists
the
Jains from
in the
in this,that the
already seen,
to
also in
the
objects of
actuallyexist
our
judgment
in other
do
as
spatial,temporal
not
relations. When
of existents
2
See
is not
the rope.
This
the
"
the
this
"
as
"
the
for
rope
objects themselves
snake, the snake
the
this is
of relations
kinds
other
or
actually exist,but
I mistake
with
actuallyexists though its relationing
this,that knowledge
snake
"
does
not
misrelationing
(sat)
.
Jaina-tarka-varttika of
ch.
Pramananayatattvalokalamkara,
Siddhasena,
I.,
ch.
I., and
vrtti
Pariksa-mukha-sutra-vrtti,
by
ch.
Santyacarya,
I.
The
184
from
within
before.
it
if
as
Jaina Philosophy
by removing
also not
Objects are
mere
veil which
[ch.
had
been
covering it
forms of knowledge (asthe Viare
actuallyexisting.Knowledge
a
jftanavadinBuddhist thinks)but
of external objectsby perception is gained through the senses.
be distinguished
exterior physicalsense
such as the eye must
The
from
the invisible faculty or power
of vision of the soul, which
alone
deserves
senses.
But
the
the
of
name
Jains think
only aware
of five kinds
five senses,
it is better
itself those
before.
the
The
the
with
of
is
I look
of
by
five such
cognitive
experience we are
knowledge corresponding to the
that it is the "self" which
gains of
our
removal
by
the
of
covering,on
could
knowledge
distinct
account
involve
thus
not
the
though
sense,
itself
reveal
not
perceptiondoes
separate and
with
in association
sense-knowledge
of external
any
before
hence
myself
rise
with
association
place in
that
of
in
manas
only
can
in
When
with
in
the
reveal
not
they
eye
the
visual
an
way
the
its
; I say
that
type
existence
manas
arises,this
the
also
its existence
through
see
that
I have
eye).
As
it is unwarrantable
the
apart from
Jains discard
ledge
know-
my
with
(associated
separate
is not
self. Proceeding
existence
given
in
is unnecessary,
purpose1. Perception of
indriyam bhautikam
over
knowledge
have
veil
the
into
and
rose
realityexperience shows
hypothesis of
serve
the
ledge
know-
looking at
the
into
come
it the
condition, and
of
act
is
example,
an
at
covered
The
visual
the
take
To
looking
visible,and
self alone
of
similar
but
part of it which
that
eye.
Before
fitness has
whereas
sense,
that
the
rose.
is removed.
knowledge
assert
with
is made
rose
experience does
Tanna
such
in association
the visual
only
the
rose
happens
through
not
that
see
in me,
was
means
soul
is in touch
and
me
rose
could
rose
in the
generated
with, or
of
since
have
soul is in touch
such as eye, etc. The
particularsense-organ
all parts of the body, and visual knowledge is that knowledge
associated
of
that
say
which
sense-knowledge
which
to
of
We
sense
if
as
process
exercise
of the
senses
existence
the
to
different kinds
those exterior
of
of
sense.
an
perience,
exas
object means
ca
indriyam...anupahatacaksurddidetesu
caksurddini upakarandni.
karmaksayopaiamastendsthagitagavdksatulydni
such as
Jaina- V"ttika-Vrttii II. p. 98. In many
the five senses,
however,
places,
eva
kirn lu dtmd
dtmanah
are
of
dhigamasutra, ch.
mentioned
senses
11.
as
they
senses,
possess.
etc.) But
and
livingbeings are
(See Pramdnamlmdmsd.
this is with
reference to the
sense
organs.
The
denial
inference
do
we
with
of the
of the existence
that
conclusion
than
five
propositions as
inseparablyconnected
variable
(sahabhavd) or as in-
is
that the reason
They who know
either as coexistence
the probandum
antecedence
(kramabhdvd) will from
above.
five
the
proceed through
not
the
[ch.
Jaina Philosophy
The
86
hill has
propositionsis rather
for representingthe
jump to the
syllogism consistingof
got fire. A
for
explaining the
actual
hill
to
matter
mind
of the
state
statement
mere
in the
(e.g.smoke)
reason
the
in
child
making
an
inference1.
of persons
rightknowledge, for these are the utterances
have
lived a worldly life but afterwards
by right actions
who
us
have
right knowledge
conquered
all
passions and
and
removed
all
ignorance2.
Knowledge
The
Buddhists
had
anything depended
That
1
which
As
could
affirmed
produce
that the
effect that
the
upon
Revelation.
as
effect
any
on
proof of
the existence
it could
produce
us
on
existent,and
was
of
us.
that
regards concomitance
Dasavaikalikaniryuktiwas
in favour
to
(i)PratijHd (e.g.non-injury
to
who
ten
an
inference
adhere
(4)Hetu
of
to
non-injuryare
vibhakti
do so are
who
the only persons
(those who
live in the highest
can
and even
places of virtue),
(5) Vipaksa(buteven
one
by doing injury
by
may
prosper
attain
is
the
merit
revilingJaina scriptures
with Brahmins), (6) Vipak?a
one
as
case
may
pratisedha (itis not so, it is impossiblethat those who despiseJaina scriptures
should
be loved by gods
householders
as
or
should
they
do
deserve
anka
(9)Asankdpratifedha (thiscannot
so
honour),(7) Drstdnta
like to cook
not
it could
not
themselves
should
(the Arhats
for fear of
to
persuasive statements
the
from
insects),
killing
(8)A"-
for them),
certain houses
unexpectedly,
them), (10)Naigamana
istherefore
(non-injury
take food
which
are
formal
often actuallyadopted in
irrelevant.
introduced
When
Vatsyayana
in his
Nydya-
propositionsas
against the doctrine of ten propositions
held by other logicians,
as
he probably had
this Jaina view in his mind.
'
See Jainatarkavdrttika,and
with Gunaratna
on
Jainism.
Pariks"mukhasutravrtti^ and
SaddarSanasamuccaya
Theory of Being
vi]
which
could
production
fact
In
non-existent.
not
187
of effect
was
them
effect
the
is the
or, what
substances
new
The
moment.
every
may
Jains urged
be regarded
only
that
the
as
the
the
in
produced
and
that
that
moment
found
of such
all of
not
to
seen
and
moment
succeeding
Buddhists
at
same
each
each
new
being
of effect
unit
for
fallacious;
be
to
perience
ex-
changing
is
gold ornament)
How
whole
as
mere
rings
ear-
in the
face
thing vanishes
renewed
being
aside
so,
point of time,
found
that the
leaving
Hence
moment?
This
its form
parts (e.g.
things are
new
is
undergo change.
assert
we
that
other
of
that
object is
an
sponding
by a correexperience we
ground.
momentary,
while
permanent
experience can
an
its
part of it (e.g.gold in
bangles) are
or
the
unit
object as
things are
some
remain
to
every
all
therefore
is indicated
have
we
exactly the
is not
shows
every
When
analysisof
us
of which
of the
existence
theoretical
reason
existence
experience.
suppose
the
that
the
thing
of
thing,acknowledged a succession
All things were
thus momentary.
same
at
each
abstract
and
"
from
experience
ones).
all
indicated
The
by it,not
limitations.
The
Jains hold' that
arthakriydkdritvathe Buddhists
on
their
became
enquiry
on
one-sided
the
acquiesce in
truths
reservations
proper
formulating the
in
the
doctrine
and
of
first showed
at
of
evidence
signs of starting
they
experience,but soon
reveals
at the
as
own
the
to
same
the
us
time
in their
clear-cut features
that such
subject. Knowledge
self.
We
do
not
of the
knowledge
is thus
perceive
external
is part and
felt to be
in
an
world
certifies
parcelof myself
expressionof
experience
that
my
knowledge
The
88
[ch.
J aina Philosophy
is
us
Looked
in
from
at
experiencesare centred
to us
somehow, our experiencescome
self. Knowledge
being a character
point of
this
ourselves,for determined
as
modifications
self,it shows
of the
of the
and
of
should
be
of
in
the
as
thus
be made
be
the
the Mlmamsa
it
ality
materimaterial.
quality of
formless
Nor
objectswhich
itself become
as
self
does.
by copying
would
regarded
conscious
Samkhya
of the
then
independent
between
as
copy
think,for
object,knowledge
should
Knowledge
of the self
knowledge
regarded
the Sautrantikas
reveals,as
should
element
knowledge
our
manifestations
distinction
unconscious
an
own
itself as
No
senses.
our
all
view
view
the
that the
self
proved by knowledge itand psychologically
{svatahprdmdnyd) is wrong. Both logically
validityof knowledge depends upon outward
correspondence
{samvdda)
knowledge
with
there
be
of
may
reference
to
facts.
in
correspondence
brings us
svatah
divided
consideration
principleof
to
erroneous
of the
appears
as
think that
be
It is
on
living
is
us
This
by experience. But
unwarrantable
thesis,
hypoof
our
self. This
own
Jaina metaphysics.
Jivas.
shows
that
the
the
of this
all
things may
be
non-living(ajiva).The
the body, and it is most
from
life is either
account
an
revelation
experience
the living(jiva) and
life is entirelydistinct
body*.
to
in
of
that
Jains say
into
has
by previous
been
produced
abhydsdnabhydsdpeksayd)1.
it is certified
as
The
The
right belief
paratasca
exists
knowledge
knowledge appears
to
where
cases
of validitywithout
psychologicalascertainment
objective facts (prdmdnyamutpattan parata eva
it generates
for
those
jhaptau svakdrye ca
The
objectiveworld
that
But
is
product
or
the
that
life-principle
principleis
the
soul.
The
property
the
body
soul
is
directlyperceived(by introspection)
just as the external things
It is not a mere
are.
symbolical object indicated by a phrase or
1
Prameyakamalamartanda,
See Jaina
Vdrttika, p. 60.
pp. 38-43.
vi]
Souls
This
description.
is
189
the
directlyagainst
Mlmamsa
authority Prabhakara1.
possessed
of
The
view
soul
of
the
in its pure
great
is
state
infinite
ledge
perception{ananta-darsand),infinite know{ananta-jndnd),infinite bliss (ananta-sukhd) and infinite
It is all
(ananta-viryay.
power
perfect.Ordinarilyhowever, with
the
from
are
These
beginninglesstime.
substances
which
matter
and
size
{madhyama-parimdnd)
nor
atomic
Jivdstikdya. The
has
or
space
which
they
smaller
Jains
wherever
as
the whole
they
only
The
The
the
come
of
to
inner
an
two
that
one
of
of
The
hell,and
namely
sense-organ
See Prameyakamalamartanda,
The
p.
The
it
pure
knowledge
prepared,
souls
possess
of all
etc.
In
infinite
things in
touch
and
and
taste.
smell.
vision
possess
in
all
these,namely
in addition
virtue
is that
of which
to
these
they
are
33.
Jains distinguishbetween
was
possess
by
manas
darfana
gods
among
possess
class
vertebrates
The
higher animals
the
sense-organs
smell.
and
plained
ex-
The
room.
touch, taste,
possess
feel
once
plants,which
of
foot,
is often
higher
next
sense-organs
touch, taste,
denizens
The
touch.
it
lamp illumines
of
number
of
at
can
of the
corner
the
of the
body
a
the
in which
nail
the
and
according to
body
the
occupies
body
elephant and
that
the
{yibhu)
expand
the
in which
one
limited
is called
that
of
sensation, it
occupies
to
in
to
class consists
possess
higher
of
jtva
souls
remember
the
to
lowest
five sense-organs.
men,
soul
jivasaccording
sense-organ
next
the
the
which
addition
of
manner
being
room
though remaining in
of worms,
Next
the
similar
possess.
the
to
that
dimensions
(bigger
cause
any
in which
divide
Jains
any
be
may
this
these
from
manner
time
They
all-pervasive
anything
the
to
life).It is well
soul
the
there
it. The
at
ant
that
lives,so
according
occupy
in the
of
pervasiveness; but
some
in them
able
innumer-
(lokdkdsa\have
neither
are
account
on
realityoccupy
astikdya means
word
themselves
contract
the
it is
(anu);
in
world
and
accumulating
infinite in number.
are
They
mundane
our
been
souls
eternal.
are
space-pointsin
has
and
cloth.
The
190
{santjnin)while
called asamjhin.
the
rational
called
and
Jaina Philosophy
are
lower
[ch.
animals
have
no
reason
they
Of
elementary
lives
invisible.
The
are
plants each
some
plants,each
is
of which
and
invisible,
whole
The
are
is
each
in that
like
whole
of
of
livingbeings. Those
and
out
come
contiune
their
the
is
small
and
world.
closelypacked
reached
by
the
Moksa.
has
singlenigoda
one
clusters,
treme
experiencing ex-
nigodas furnish
The
will
nigodas who
long
of progress
an
to
of all the
down
to
be empty
never
for
supply
sufficed
the Nirvana
samsara
with
But
beginningless past
the
course
subtle
over
very
and
in the world
of the
all
forming
have
it is evident
be
also
may
common
liberated from
been
present. Thus
the
fraction
caused
vacancy
have
that
souls
that
common.
of the world
those
in
replacethe
in
powder.
in
nutrition
all
have
of souls
space
of other
souls, which
distributed
are
nutrition
only;
plants.
are
but
case
are
lives
is full of minute
place of
small
infinitesimally
souls
is embodied
they
case
filledwith
box
one
embodied
plant
of infinite number
pains. The
of
of
lives
soul
respirationand
soul
colony
and
having respiration
them
of
universe
groups
or
of one-organ
body
as
only one
habitable
in the
exist
is the
aggregation of
an
in which
Plants
last class
of life such
functions
the
either gross
are
development
through
successive
stages1.
Karma
It is
born
gods, men,
as
noticed
is the
the
of
account
on
in
Chapter
Those
soul
which
or
are
sullied
obscure
by
or
demerits
denizens
that the
in it of karma
presence
pure
their merits
animals,
III
Theory.
cause
matter.
the
of hell.
of the
The
different
right knowledge
that
the
We
have
embodiment
of
already
of
soul
perfectionsof
natural
kinds
jlvasare
of karma
details
matter.
(jndna)
called
are
obscure
right perception
jnanavaraqiya^ those which
{darsana) as in sleep are called darsandvaraniya, those which
1
See
Jacobi'sarticle on Jainism,E.
R.
vi.
pp.
31 ff.
Effectsof Karma
vi]
obscure
those
four kinds
which
of karma
there
the
of the
rightattitude
addition
In
mohaniya1.
four kinds
other
are
produce pleasureand
thus
obscure
rightconduct
faith and
towards
these
the bliss-nature
191
of karma
to
which
with
soul
by
determine
action
of which
obstruction
the
when
there
it prevents
to do
is a desire
it. These
the
doing
of
good
called
respectively
are
instance
and
pours
into contact
with
karma
substances
viscous
into
of
bondage
sticks
matter
to
soul
transforms
itself into
and
there
sticks
the
eightclasses,as
cause
which
karma,
eight different
in
acts
matter
bhava
have
we
and
the
it is
According
by coming
These
like
act
This
matter.
accordingly divided
already noticed.
sorrow.
soul
and
ways
dravya
This
good
as
karma
or
bad
is the
karma
respectivelyas
karma-matter
of the
soul
gives us
of
of
the
we
are
dravya-lesya. According
result of the
in accordance
effect of karmas
of veil which
at
obscuring any
was
time
any
By
our
and
thus
generating
The
external
them
all
Jains acknowledge
(2) sruti
in
objects which
being
but
five kinds
(testimony),
(3)avadhi
we
karmas
own
as
of
coloration
karma
any
actions,it
the knowledge
constantlygettingby perception,inference,etc.,
knowledge is removed
a corresponding nature.
within,
the actual
kind
particular
the
bhava-lesyaand
been
that
is but
called
it is called
by
has
matter
are
are
that
the
we
deserved
which
particularkind
a
knowledge
veils
have
to
over
our
just that
have.
All
generated from
ordinarily said to be
sense
one
are
mere
have
with
coexistent
external
ditions.
con-
of
knowledge
(thought-reading),
(5)kevala-jndna (omniscience).
The
192
the effect of
After
is
produced, it
once
This
of
process
karma
new
is
matter
might
karmas
accumulate
is called
the
then,
nirjard. If
is
matter
matter, but
thus
no
gradual purging
make
karma
some
off the
should
matter
is,while
is
matter
{karma-vargana)
particularkarma
discharged and purged from off the soul.
purging
[ch.
Jaina Philosophy
the
as
karma
and
purging
processes
place of
its
birth
new
and
there
contractingin accordance
or
In
the
ordinary
results,and
proper
audayika
karma
such
be
soul
karma
is said
to
Moksa
is attained.
good
be
in the
with
men
There
whom
active
some
some
of
account
on
is
soul.
karma
karmas
The
are
certain
(karma-vargand).
is called
soul
fourth
this
state
The
asrava
distinguishbetween
The
sth"nas
in
Asrava
of
ordinary
Nirjara.
and
karma
sorts
influx
that
of
of
Jainism.
are
fourteen
four
channels
the
which
that
state
neutralized,
is annihilated,some
souls
the
infra-atomic
These
have
suffer
to
five stages
The
are
karmas
enter
into
and
the
the
karmas
passes
and
insects.
or
like
the
are
But
the
which
all the
Jains
actually
technicallycalled
those in which
passionsare
destroys all
his karmas,
and
fourteenth
he
still practisesyoga
of
controlled,
stage he is divested
of all karmas
guna-
growth
thirteenth
but
births
re-
channels
soul, just
pond.
and
all
particlesof matter
particlesinto the
are
produced by
represent the
developing soul
in number.
karma
these
soul
annihilated,the
the
vented
pre-
exist,and
When
it is from
a
be
{ksdyopasamika)1.
Karma,
It is
the
to
its
in the
be
to
however
it still continues
the
latter.
produces
is said
may
aupasamika state of
only prevented from operating but
is not
of the
effect and
stage the
body, expanding
new
dimensions
takes
By proper efforts
taking effect,
though
this is said to
the
state.
from
and
with
course
at
assumes
at
the
at
the
of dust
of
dust
there
soul
the
from
that
material
and
with
them
view
the
of
its
body during
the
view
point
bad
of
bondage
the
according to
karma
soul
of karma
karma
of
refers
mentioned, namely
the
infinite
of
knowledge
karma
varanlya
of
the
what
the
souls
that
is wrong,
ayu
soul
and
of
intense,middling
of
soul
which
of
stay of any
duration
the
of the
nature
karma
and
inrush, by
by
the
these
1
actual
are
See
thought
stoppage
Varddhamanapurana,
XVI.
kinds,
bondage
of karma
which
The
already
the
obscures
detail,dar"ana-
in
which
is
the
soul.
The
sthiti.
fatuates
in-
so
right from
of any
tenure
Again
to
and
or
its
the
oppose
duration
a
the
indicates
of the
karma
third
formance
per-
stay
be
may
principle
different parts of
the
The
themselves.
due
varying intensityare
the
passionsof the soul,whereas
as
jfianavaraniya,
etc., are due to
of the
soul
modes
kinds
two
Ibid.
karma
of
of
matter8.
of karmas
of control
inrush
the
with
of inrush
modification
of
to
particlesattach
p. 181.
of
karma,
tends
respectivelycalled bhavasamvara
Gunaratna,
four
general knowledge
produces the feelingsof
refers
of karmas
dravyasrava) are
actual
is of
infinite
which
this
karma
specificcontact
Corresponding to the two
srava
point of
papa (good
and
determines
is called
of
nature
the
by
kasayas
different classification
the
karma
the
one
distinguishwhat
Pradesa
to
as
mild, and
or
division,anubhaga.
the
to
soul
regarded
which
antaraya
in the
looked
{pradesa).
things
which
which
karma,
right actions
karma
of any
all
the
fail to
they
when
sense
bondage
soul, mohaniya
karma
particularlife,nama
which
karma
brings about
for the
some
extension
of
karma
the
in
pain
soul
obscures
which
it becomes
atoms
eight classes
jfianavaraniyakarma
soul, vedanlya
pleasure and
karma
the
to
stickingof
duration
{prakrti),
and
the
of punya
this
with
the
is sometimes
only
the
means
stage1." From
is
with
over
in accordance
that in
(sthiti),
intensity{anubhdga)
nature
karma
with
of
another
nature
all
samsara
From
karmas)2.
the
infinite number
being
of
matter,
besmeared
person
completely covered
at
with
karma,
of
body
the
on
karma
[ch
is besmeared
influx
"The
says:
particlesof
kind
particular
who
person
Gunaratna
of the
contact
of
body
the
on
Thus
oil.
so
Jaina Philosophy
The
94
(bhavaopposing this
contrary
karma
and
8
and
nature
and
particles,
dravyasamvara4.
Nemicandra,
33.
vi]
Self-control
The
bhavasamvaras
195
of non-injury,truthfulness,
(1) the vows
and non-acceptance of objects
sex-control,
stealing,
abstinence from
are
tracks in order
of the use of trodden
desire,
(2)samitis consisting
to avoid
ceiving
gentle and holy talk {bhdsa\ reinjuryto insects (iryd),
alms (esand),
etc.,(3)guptis or restraints of body,
proper
ness,
speech and mind, (4) dharmas
consistingof habits of forgivetruth, cleanliness,restraint,
humility,straightforwardness,
abandonment, indifference to any kind of gain or loss,
penance,
and supreme
sex-control1,(5)anupreksd consistingof meditation
about
the transient character
of the world, about our
helplessness
without
the truth,about the cyclesof world-existence,about our
for our
own
responsibilities
good and bad actions, about the
of
difference between
liness of
of
karmas
and
body
our
karma
which
have
already entered
with
the
it,about
of those
destruction
soul,matter
soul,about
the
the influx
of attaining
difficulty
ciples
knowledge, faith,and conduct, and about the essential prinof the world2, (6) the parisahajaya consistingof the conquering
of all kinds
of
and
the substance
true
its stoppage
the unclean-
non-soul,about
and
and
the
feelingsof
of
the
physical troubles
of various
discomforts
of
right
or
conduct.
Next
karmas
to
or
this
we
to
come
nirjaraor
their destruction.
rather
This
the
purging
nirjaraalso
off of the
is of two
that
dravyanirjara.Bhavanirjara means
particlesare
change in the soul by virtue of which the karma
of these
the actual destruction
destroyed. Dravyanirjara means
karma
particleseither by the reaping of their effects or by
called savipaka and avipaka
before their time of fruition,
penances
all the karmas
When
are
destroyed moksa
nirjarasrespectively.
kinds, bhavanirjaraand
or
liberation
is effected.
Pudgala.
dharma
is divided into pudgaldstikdya,
ajlva(non-living)
stikdya,adhartndstikdya,dkdsdstikdya,kdla, punya, papa. The
word
pudgala means
matter3, and it is called astikdya in the
The
that
sense
1
3
means
it
occupies
space.
Taltvarthadhigamasiitra.
is entirely
different from
This
an
individual
or
Pudgala
is made
up
2
the Buddhist
sense.
With
of
atoms
Ibid,
the Buddhists
pudgala
person.
13"2
Thejaina Philosophy
196
which
states, gross
(such
karma
matter
the
as
eternal.
and
size
without
are
things we
as
which
Matter
sullies the
soul).
All
are
colour.
and
different
all eternal
and
formation
of
The
different
and
to the
atoms,
the
to
diverse
of
mutual
simple
in others
contact
the
at
atoms
atom
(anu).
is due
of the
of their inner
of
degrees
held
together by
the
to
nation
combiment
arrange-
inter-atomic
take
place by
whereas
points (yugmapradesa)
two
only
are
The
combinations
(ghanapratarabhedena). Some
space
(such
things
atoms.
an
modes
modes
different
of
existence
subtle
substances
cubical
geometrical,sphericalor
of the
all have
they
in two
material
are
The
exist
may
us),and
around
see
[ch.
points of
the
tractive
at-
force
Two
and
dryness.
It must
there
no
the
was
actual
contact
gross
constant
old
noted
that while
between
contact
and
essential
as
combine
compounds
the
be
with
other
and
alike
is not
atoms
in
an
by
our
which
perceptionof
mind
atoms
similar
in the
appears
so
(as the
as
blue, what
blue,or
happens
it is due
blueness
lose
is
or
hard
this,that
four
are
of
atoms
all these
however
grossness
perception
of
the
to
the
is it due
to
the
thing.
atoms
to
of their
There
breadthwise
accession
in the
hardness
the
liable
some
is generated in
a
These
produce
however,
ones.
the
thus
spatially
lengthwiseand
knowledge
gross,
and
think) nor
supposes),but
that such
a
new
Buddhists
scattered
perception of
they
fire,and
property of grossness,
atoms,
which
are,
perception of
the
imposed upon
is
They
thought that
Jains regarded
by experience.
The
character.
error
the
compounds
acquire
the atoms
testified
as
qualities(gunas)
the Buddhists
us
as
When
is
a
there
of
bined
com-
given
thing
have
of the
acquired the property of blueness and on the removal
darsanavaranlya and jftanavaranlyaveil,there arises in the soul
the perception and knowledge of that blue thing. This sameness
all
qualityin an aggregate of
which
it appears
as
one
object (e.g.a cow)
or
generality
technicallycalled tiryaksdmdnya. This samanya
thus neither
an
imposition of the mind nor an abstract entity
{samdna-rupata) of
atoms
by virtue of
is
is
the
accession
of
vi]
D karma
maintained
(as
cession
Naiyayikas) but represents only the acsimilar qualities
by a similar development of qualities
forming an aggregate. So long as this similarityof
of
of atoms
by
the
qualitiescontinues
to
continue
to
be
for
we
some
permanent,
we
developing tendencies
relative
the
old
whole
remain
of
sameness
and
not
are
the
in
qualities
atoms
of
accession
destruction,but
substance
time
looked
are
the
the
loss of
thing as
This
time.
some
Akasa.
Adharma,
dharma
the
eternal.
are
of
conception
and
in the
technicallycalled urdhvasdmdnya1.
from
Dharma,
sound
thing
resultingin the
According to
ones,
for
same
of
spite of
in
of other
less the
is
them.
and
same
(dravya) they
The
and
accession
or
atoms
qualitiesin
momentary
more
of
aggregate
an
of similar
qualitiesand
may
If the
of
permanence
Jains things
some
197
adharma
and
they
other
in
mean
is devoid
of
with
; it is conterminous
in
Jainism
is
systems
of
the
mundane
universe
astikdya
(lokdkdsa) and pervades every part of it. The term
is therefore applied to it. It is the principleof motion, the accompanying
makes
which
motion
circumstance
possible,
or
cause
like water
to
of
the
or
circumstance
or
cause.
the
they
are
to
dharma.
Hence
in the
region
liberated
because
to
Adharma
they
at
the
of the
is not
is also
do
cannot
extremity
necessary
regarded
See Prameyakamalamartanda,
Dravyasamgrahavrtti, 17-20.
necessary
or
matter
without
so
of the
perfect rest.
the
soul
to
as
pp.
the
mundane
souls,there being
liberated
attain
the
make
rest
the
is then
They
is indifferent
(preraka)
solicitous
or
fish at
passive condition
fish,i.e. it
active
an
water
move,
move,
of
compel
cannot
souls
there
not
is
water
movement
cannot
Dharma
motion.
if
water
fish wants
The
moving fish.
no
cannot
help
to
its
; but
move
presence of
world (/oka)
dharma,
the
there
move
motion-element,
similar
if
; but
move
dharma2.
136-143 ; Jainatarkavarttika,
p.
106.
pudgalas
helps jlvasand
could
if there
move
there
regarded
were
found
be
to
moving
region of
in the
The
substances
the
liberated
of
but
and
other
been
formed
trans-
the
jlvas
would
they
be
(moksa), which
motion
entitywhich
required
absent
was
entity which
subtle
pervades
the
transcendent
region
allows
the
subsistence
of all other
jlva,pudgala.
It is not
adharma,
of veil
absence
it. On
the
(/oka) and
positiveentity
on
souls.
dharma,
as
that actual
two
Jains
since
of liberation
time
is that
akasa
these
some
have
not
if
rest
jlva or
of
help
in them
extraneous
an
(aloka)which
such
negation
mere
help of
the
Moreover
conceived
it was
universe
souls
liberated
the
the
category
mundane
the
this could
motion.
at
even
; thus
undesirable
was
the
having activityinherent
as
at
the
by
activityof
realization
exterior
actual
into
substance
remain
felt
been
inner
which
entity,without
extraneous
the
its exterior
required for
atoms
could
or
have
to
that
notion
of their
No
at rest.
necessity of admitting
The
probably
categories seems
account
dharma,
no
were
themselves
keep
to
adharma.
no
were
[ch.
Jaina Philosophy
The
98
which
of
account
its
obstruction, or
or
other
helps
penetrate
inter-
to
it is called
character
pervasive
ness,
empti-
mere
things
of
akdsdstikaya}.
and
Kala
Time
(kala) in realityconsists
which
never
of the
modification
of
of
Sam
mix
with
one
accession
or
qualitiesof the
of
another,
Kala
atoms.
of
and
dharma
of
motion,
and
slow
moments,
the moments,
is the time
called
kala
modifications
as
kala
as
of
in
so
other
etc.
hours, etc.,are
required by
an
not
atom
bring
akasa
the
the
change
changes
of the
mation
transfor-
perceived as moments,
is the
Kala
also
thus
Dravyasamgrahavrttit19.
not
its
own
only
aids
cations
modifi-
dravya (substance),
its paryayas.
traverse
of the
appearance
allows
movement.
1
about
action
It is thus
to
happening
helps interpenetration
Time
forms.
help
particles
the
qualitiesand
new
things,but
hours,
which
This
samaya.
many
but
innumerable
helps the
qualitiesin things.
new
unchangeable
so
also
those
does
a.
ay
The
a
unit
unit of samaya
of space
by
vi]
Rules
of
Conduct
99
Jaina Cosmography.
According
end.
or
Loka
Jains,the
is that
world
the denizens
(where
which
place in
of hell
reside).The
three
the
urdhvaloka
no
but
movement,
no
beginning
is eternal,without
urdhva
adho
to the
dharma)
air.
dharma
the
motionless
remains
is
all movement
and
therefore
this lokakasa
The
to
goes
makes
(dkdsa). Surrounding
only space
layersof
which
no
universe
mundane
and
(therebeing
there.
Jaina
Yoga.
of moksa
(salvation).
Yoga according to Jainism is the cause
This yoga consists of jnana (knowledge of reality
sraddha
it is),
as
(faithin the teachings of the Jinas),and caritra (cessationfrom
of ahimsd
caritra consists
doing all that is evil). This
(not
taking
life
any
(speaking
in such
mistake
by
even
is true,
as
way
unmindfulness),
or
good
and
sunrta
pleasing),asteya
not
(not taking anything
given),brahmacaryya
(abandoning lust for all kinds of objects,in mind, speech and
for all things)1.
body), and aparigraha (abandoning attachment
which
These
follow
the
been
has
customs
of
good people,should
good family,should
forth. These
1
Certain
are
external
follow
just what
rules
the
should
we
of conduct
customs
are
also
marry
of
country and
the
expect from
called caritra.
good girlfrom
good
any
These
are
so
and
Iryyd (to
path already trodden by others and illuminated by the sun's rays, so that
be taken
while walking to prevent oneself from
treading on
precaution
may
proper
and
well
insects,etc., which maybe
bhdsa
the
pleasantly
(to speak
lying on
way),
danasamiti
to all beings), isana
in
the proper
monastic
(to
manner),
(tobeg alms
inspectcarefullythe seats avoiding all transgressionswhen taking or givinganything),
in such a way
to
as
utsargasamiti(totake care that bodily refuse may not be thrown
satisfied within
all false thoughts, to remain
injure any being),manogupti (toremove
go
by
the
oneself, and
hold
all
people
kayagupti(absolutesteadiness
counted
in
to
be
and
the
same
fixityof
Dravyasamgrahavrtti 35.
in
the
and
mind), vaggupti (absolute silence),
of
kinds
caritra are
body). Five other
Jaina Philosophy
The
200
the
virtues
made
is laid upon
stress
brahmacaryya, but
virtues
of sunrta,
the
asteya and
follow
brahmacaryya
laries
The
is ahimsa.
of all these
root
of the
householder
honest
[ch.
are
to
is
virtues
is called
expected
anubrata
ordinary householders
from
(small vows).
But
those
who
and
this
struggling
are
emancipation must
practisethese virtues
according to the highest and strictest standard, and this is called
mahabrata
(greatvows). Thus for example brahmacaryya for a
for the
householder
cessation
be
requireabstinence
are
and
from
livingbeing
Many
of
oneself
which
other
are
being
mere
it would
and
sex-
the
cause
rigour and
of
any
carefulness
kind
of
to
injury to
way.
duties
minor
be
entail
in any
based
from
it would
mahavrata
prevent
any
according to
would
sex-thoughts,sex-words
from
abstention
standard
according to mahabrata
adultery,whereas
Ahimsa
would
to
from
anubrata
the
according to
absolute
acts.
of
attainment
the
upon
out
are
imposed
cardinal
householders, all
upon
virtue
activities within
ahimsa.
of
a
These
restricted
area
advisingpeople to
from
take
parties,
theatres,or reading sex-literature,gambling,etc),
(4)siksd-
whatever
look
we
way
for
[ch.
which
anything,on
we
depend, we
can
is called asaranabhavana
This
Jaina Philosophy
The
202
(themeditation
helplessness).
Some
are
karma
of the
done
in another
all other
on
these
life. We
blood, and
that
think
body
the
bones,
(meditation of
the
that
and
is made
I commit
of
(decay
of the
and
and
to
things,the flesh,
karmas
should
passions are
me,
but
if
think
that
contrary
virtues,then
all evil
the
(meditation of
of the
the
falling
be-
(inrush of karma)
asrava
of
influx
and
karma)
leads
matter).
practiceof
the
the
(samyama),
removed,
the
on
already accumulated
of karma
control
the
asravabhavana
control
destruction
Again one
(virtues)of self
of defiled
transgress the
(cessationof
samvara
destruction
and
the
evil).By
the
comes
anyatvabhavana.
is called
befall me,
will
one
is therefore
deeds
sinful
and
up
friendshipand compassion
only will good {subha) accrue
then
the fruits
reap
are
think
To
some
suffer,
world, some
our
by
To
in this
by
another
born
truthfulness
to
the
nirjara
dharmas
ten
(siinrta),
purity
of greed (akiiicanata),
(sauca),chastity(brahma), absolute want
asceticism
(tapas), forbearance, patience (ksdnti), mildness
or
(mdrdava), sincerity{rjutd\and freedom
emancipation from
all sins (muktt) can
alone
of the
help us in the achievement
the only supports to which
highest goal. These
can
are
we
look.
It is these which
uphold
the
world-order.
is called
This
dharmasvakhyatatabhavana.
Again
of
the
nature
diverse
and
one
should
of
the
conditions
of
think
of
influence
men.
the
of
karma
These
and
Jaina cosmology
two
producing
in
are
called
also
all the
lokabhdvand
bodhibhdvand.
When
by
the
continual
becomes
and
mind
full of peace
take to the
The
are
he
performance
of
dhyana
or
meditation
perfectequalityof
that without
interdependent,
so
dhyana
samatva
or
the
then
he should
by deep
mind
there
is
and
no
tration.
concen-
dhyana
samatva
Anti-theistic
vi]
and
without
there
samatva
is
Arguments
mind
think
should
order
In
dhyana.
no
203
to
of maitrl
make
the
(universal
of
towards
all
things. Emancipation
final extinction
of
course
of the
mind
of
yoga
materials.
of the karma
and
different
is hence
or
Pataftjali
Jaina
The
Naiyayikas
effect,it
an
this agent
the
of
is Isvara
Naiyayika
an
effect"?
of parts
up
been
this the
to
world
what
is meant
in
is of the
be
should
which
the
"made
up
and
does
nature
is made
causes
regarded by
is liable to
which
parts, then
the
is
by being
of
a
as
anyone
If it
the
also be
class-concepts(sdmdnyd)
and hence
regarded as effects,
"that
means
which
the
of
nature
by "effect,"
(1) that
of
(2) the coinherence
(4)that
that
the
"
he
or,
Hindu
intelligent
agent
an
Does
made,
If it
(akdsd)has
as
To
by
is of
he says
it
created
world
when
mean
purification
traditional
the
mean
existence
eternal.
the
as
vatri).
Again,
means
(God).
{sdvayavd),or,
non-existent
having
been
from
the
to
plete
com-
Atheism2.
that
assert
have
must
leads
Buddhists1.
of the
even
is thus
Jaina yoga
disciplinewhich
moral
only as
comes
which
has
parts,"then
regarded as "effect,"but
"space"
Naiyayika regards
the
even
eternal.
of the causes
of a
"coinherence
Again "effect" cannot
mean
thing which were
one
previously non-existent," for in that case
could not
of the
speak of the world as an effect,for the atoms
elements
Again
1
of
if "effect"
means
Yogaidstra,by Hemacandra,
regarded
"that
edited
as
which
eternal.
is
by Windisch,
Morg. Gesellschaft,
Leipsig,1874, and Dravyasamgraha,
2
See Gunaratna's
Tarkarahasyadlpikd.
regarded by
in
anyone
Zeitschriftder
edited
as
Deutschen
by Ghoshal, 191
7.
man
the
God
suppose
that
another
creator
if God
infinitum. Moreover,
with
change
do
and
time
we
not
the world
But
contained
as
thought
apply
be
must
contained
And
changes
of colour
whole
is
world
is
cause
causation
effect of
an
but
has
is similar
If it is said
old houses
this
we
and
not
the
will
effect,well
in
then,
know
of any
made
then
one,
the agency
of God
been
from
from
to
that
the
this
the
that
the
has
or
these
ruins
were
for both
sense
duced
pro-
which
sense
by God,
effects,
are
If it is
cases.
that
it has
of its
been
infer
you
and
duce
pro-
seeing
also effects of
infer the
being made
vicious circle (anyonydsrayd).
it the
to
seen
on
are
have
smoke.
also
is present in both
we
Because
infer
could
these
beings
from
been
ever
that
exactly
from
effect that
an
human
justifiedin
be
do
would
he
human
human
If it is
is not
will
so
inference.
no
intelligent
agent,
is such
some
one
For
whole
nobody
as
of time
course
made
lead
different
so
mean
produced by
vapour,
is
as
smoke,
to
not
as
and
cause,
is
world
of the agent
invisibility
by
this does
effects
by intelligent
agents.
do
world
the
supposed to be.
the analogy of
on
intelligent
be regarded as imperfect as
the
water-
ruined
these
and
being by virtue
they also undergo
effect has
possible,
though nobody
an
and
created
that
God
as
those, this
to
that
is
to
then
"effects,"
times
argument
But
of
type
inferringfire from
such
that
is similar
water-vapour
inference
every
regarded as
he might also
the
of
cause.
If it is held
beings.
diverse
at
for
be "effects,"
sake
he is
then
liable
be
heat.
by
intelligent
one,
argued that
ad
on
would
"effect." And
an
so
but
cannot
plants,etc., are
also becomes
He
atoms
whole
in
space
and
another,
he
diverselyoperating
even
an
as
trees,
this
us
new
to
creates
as
to
even
in him.
of that.
Let
made
has
his creative
to
it such
within
would
that
he
for when
space,
activity.
know
that those
things which happen at some
happen at other times are regarded as "effects."
exists always. If it is argued that things
a whole
reference
Moreover,
to
even
he
and
him
create
[ch.
also liable to
was
to
that
is liable
which
"that
means
apply
thinks
are
it would
then
made,"
been
having
a
Jaina Philosophy
The
204
having
you
have
Anti-theistic
vi]
an
Again, even
if
agent, then
such
seen
never
that
should
that
namely,
consider
the
impossible,for
body. If you take
as
the
had
these
is said
that
in
sought
Does
his
that
case,
he
to
cannot
be
he
he
is
Let
God
to
be
the
he
any
world
existence
be
cannot
you
the
without
may
do
for
the
world
through
laws
with
mercy
them.
If it
have
you
an
which
matter
the
world?
also
potter may
in both
same
and
God
that
argument
but
so,
have
personal
order
will?
that
and
exists.
Well,
in
the
create
Does
cases.
that
Well,
does
is impossible,
will without
not
moral
he
been
whim?
the
in
that
prove
and
by the past
enjoy pleasure,and if
that
it is
pains and
work
which
actions by past deeds
a blind destiny(adrsta)might take
creation
as
mere
purpose.
play,then
If it was
he
due
like
the
must
he
in the
world
actions
of
men
blind
men
God.
child
of
who
it
Is it
suppose
and
nothing
that they
vicious
destiny,then
place of
to his desire
to
Then
led to do
are
take
then, we
take
would
independent.
Well
be
he
of men?
actions
is not
only happiness
bodiless
there
case
Did
world.
creation?
to
that
activity.Did
In that
immoral
order
took
of argument
will and
and
the moral
a
sake
his
by
and
that
If it is said
that
or
by physical movement
any
that is impossible,
for there
case
that
a
body. If you suppose
In any
movement
guided by
without
then
knowledge
any
the world
produce
suffer
to
found
create
the very
was
produce
by knowledge
again grant
there should
else.
of effects such
will be
to
kind
some
all-creator.
create
through
them
of
is the
natural
is
sake
for the
existence
in accordance
he
fields,it
this
with
kinds
by God,
the abstract
creation
no
made
of
us
can
associated
behind
(cakraka),for
of movement?
be
in the
existence
omniscient,
can
have
we
If it is held
body.
of other
abstract
Does
kind
always
instances
also
abstract
for there
other
the
granted
the
produce
body.
without
for
prove.
mere
world, for
is
agency
are
circle
it be
Let
is
corn
these
body,
by
of agency
general condition
only,
the objection will be that
intelligent,
growing
intelligent
agents
no
argument
you
of
shoots
have
created
was
the
agent
this is
of
should
agent
an
205
creator
intelligent
any
we
should
we
Arguments
such
If He
took
did
things
punishing certain
favouritism
harbour
favouring others,then he must
If the creation took
and hatred againstothers.
behalf of some
on
is the good of
nature, then, what
place simply through his own
people
and
The
206
admitting him
being
into
of its
out
instruments
to
for the
Admitting
could
you
qualifyhim.
no
body, he
Thus
you
must
be
this nature
But
If there
nature.
could
there
of
knowledge
of
aware
but
omniscient,
knowledge
perception,and
have
inference
any
of
also
were
too.
who
miser
wife
and
were
that
say
that
if there
for fear
retired
were
in
many
spiteof
his nature
to
one
way
and
creation
be
the
in the
how
he
organs
have
any
will,then
and
of
one
in which
cannot
not
are
God
is
have
any
have
any
can
without
struction.
de-
character
sense
perception
that
duction
pro-
varied
result
he
will.
so
it is the
is used
he
cannot
the
supposition
this
inexplicable,
into
of
the
Gods
all the
God
omniscient
of
moral
God,
there
could
were
many
Gods,
of
opinion. This
incurringexpenses
forest. When
act
could
you
order
be
explain
the
or
be
story of
the
ants
Gods
would
there
is like
of
law
societyof
then
even
sons
and
bees
can
harmoniously,the suppositionthat
they would
virtues
that
have
ascribe
you
on
way
God
to
be
is
of
to
he has
for the
of
Moreover
no
doctrine
one
kinds
If it is said
an
the
differences
quarrels and
a
without
If there
You
wish
since
knowledge
suppose
has
cannot
either.
things merely by
karma.
exists,
you
But
the
also. Even
all
he
as
he
which
beings,and surely we
knowledge. You
say that
of
create
God
human
to
help
God
is not
there
since
the
intelligenceand
cannot
knowledge.
it is difficult to
all,for
at
of
in his
creation
kind
other
any
such
is eternal.
diverse
and
applied
kind,
that
nature
to
came
could
been
have
he
change
no
will and
is
knowledge
the
of
Destruction
unchangeable
world
experience.
that
of
were
not
the
without
of any
adjectiveswith
say
kinds
God
one
of argument
have
must
of diverse
a
sake
justifythe
never
that
say
accessories
is against all
This
this world.
that
suppose
other
or
rather
may
[ch.
nature.
own
It is preposterous
of any
You
all ?
at
Jaina Philosophy
then
Jainism, pp.
indicate
you
finds that
is to
think
ever
in which-
Thus
he
if
15-124.
it
dispense
Emancipation
vi]
Moksa
The
the
which
motive
avoidance
of
state
also
of
mukti
attainment
the
of
infinite
of the
karma
and
imperfectly
out
that
time
this
veils
In
ordinary knowledge
as
cognition,
of
knowledge
In
parydyd).
the
state
and
the
remaining
as
this
at
in
as
in
meaning
It may
karmas
of
there
yet
be
{anantaviryd),
infinite
by
If
influence
man
under
his
this
not
the
bondage
indomitable
produce
this
of
sway
the
But
the
and
by
he
since
never
can
for
right
action
this
freedom
and
the
is
only
prevent
to
time
of
been
which
repository
throw
him
time
have
karma
man
ways
this
finally liberated.
might
accumulated
various
exercise
an
become
in him
karmas
can
that
the
though
from
suppressed
It is thus
anantavlrya
sufferings, but
highest good.
be
in
power
change
qualities.
that
him
thus
in substance
same
subdue
never
all karma
{bandha).
power
may
karma.
overcome
can
had
man
of
can
or
stage
etc., the
the
determining
though
and
same,
same
here
mention
to
capacity
karma
that
capacity, though
the
power
infinite
him
so
place
the
the
of
repetition
always
change
knowledge,
infinite
constantly
are
in
of
out
be
to
soul
the
the
to
emancipated
the
exactly
appears
the
only
state
man
is
of
all
direct
and
known
continual
in
natural
super-
omniscience
is
stage
But
are
soul
qualities
this
not
suffers
the
stage
its
substance.
soul
suffers
thus
and
reading (manah-
there
samsara
worn
this
at
(sruta),
simultaneously
the
account
only
are
(avadhi),
however
nite
infi-
and
on
object
thought
or
are
In
are.
in
same
others
things
they
as
that
changes
well
all
that
hypnotism
release
of
and
veils
{mati), testimony
or
of
qualities,and
new
it is that
trance
thoughts
perfect {kevalin)
the
in
as
the
{kevala-jiidnd)
acquires
this
state
the
It is
happiness.
samsara
the
for
{anantajhdna)
the
is
{moksa)
happiness,
pure
sullied, and
reveal
thus
in
knowledge
is
purity
of
soul
perception (anantadarsana).
release
for
strive
to
man
the
state
and
pure
and
is the
of
state
(emancipation).
leads
pain
207
from
nally
eter-
secured
of
obstacles
attaining
this
and
his
CHAPTER
THE
AND
KAPILA
THE
VII
and
Buddhism
circles
known
practices
wise
seems
the
of
Buddhism
of
and
Ksattriyas
of
power
birth
of
doctrine
of
for the
the
son,
them
from
the
schools
the
against
some
schools
Nastika
two
sacrificial
with
originated
systems
aversion
of
in
the
in
to
nastika
at
doctrine
against
the
offering animals
certain
in
such
by
the
truth
eternal
of
course
that
accordance
culture
might
we
we
of Vedic
This
realize
may
injunctions
chapter
University, and
my
works.
from
obtain
that,
that
alone
Study
same
in
elevation,
The
it
of
world
we
such
is true, in
in the
the
If
proceed
authority. The
other
system
Indian
has
courses
to
are
been
:s
define
ritualistic
with
the
us;
truth
of
practical attainment
to
on
desired
we
of Palanjali, published by
relation
LS
dictate
accordance
about
as
Vedas
to
so
objects
sacrifice.
the
sacrifices
injurious
the
philosophy
my
other
rain,
The
by following
bination
com-
magical
of
competent
the
on
the
moral
any
with
by
had
etc.
army,
were
objects
suitable
practical welfare.
could
is shown
the
of
shower
"
for
of any
Yoga philosophy
with
much
might
we
our
is based
awaiting publication
two
say
so
huge
refrain
performance
accurate
we
and
action
manner
of
which
that
of sacrifice
effect
objects
revelations
procedure,
in
which
of
not
that
supposed
articles
routing
achievement
detailed
those
the
strong
the
desired
the
producing
a
the
by
sacrifices
the
enjoined generally
were
certain
two
look
these
against
rites,rituals,and
of
were
the
reaction
marked
life,and
That
alluded
only
we
Both
were
in,
sacrifices.
the
The
and
of animal
taking
of
Brahmanas.
the
by
Whether
out
convince
to
indulged
sages.
not
are
metaphysics,
or
arisen
have
to
disciplinesof
at
ethics
were
of
accepted
were
schools
ought
types
Upanisad
for these
Jainism.
of
view
appear
the
but
the
were
probable,
Upanisads
point
of
Yoga
as
very
of
different
two
those
(YOGA)1.
Nastika
ancient
two
philosophical speculations
than
other
of
Jainism
serious
that
us
the
of
examination
SAMKHYA
JALA
Review.
THE
AN
PAT
the
Systems
treated
our
Calcutta
of thought,
in detail
in
would
answer,
untrue
from
which
seeks
departure of
theory of
beings and more
rituals and
far
only so
maxims
of
about
from
refrained
because
degradation,but
should
be
not
world.
their backs
(Buddhism)
the
moral
only
if it
was
of
course
elevation
it
all
dictated
so
of
the
as
"
sacrifice and
of
the
dictates
of
place
no
could
in their widest
absolute
extinction
sacrificial
narrow
or
of
and
sorrow
Vedas.
In the
of
; karma
sorrow
sacrificial karma,
for
performed by
knowledge here
the knowledge
or
and
reality
Such
an
us
not
advance
it meant
had
was
all moral
however
meant
merely
for
followed2d
the
fruit
ever,
how-
systems
all these
were
Happiness
sense.
destruction
unshaken,
was
still the
was
ever
of sacrifice and
karma
universal
most
for
be
and
Karma
and
in the sacrificial
The
in the
or
were
followed
be
to
meant
the
untruth
ultimate
an
happiness,ever
in the Vedas.
personal
obeyed.
sorrows
right conduct
that
be
wanted
and
had
karma
of
sense
and
infinite
person
course
mean
sacrificial
of the
happiness here
rightconduct
of the
must
more
pains
where
or
did not
dictated
had
Vedas
and
more
where
state
Vedas
from
upon
realized.
was
much
so
the
and
followers
systems of Buddhist
The
unchangeable
dissolved
wanted
not
the
spoken,
sacrificial creed
other
untruth
ances
perform-
we
The
not.
or
principles
actual
systems
new
was
or
elevation
moral
our
creed
bad
considered
here
were
that
general action
any
the
for
cared
for the
use
sentient
sacrificial creed
and
sacrifices,
they were
as
late
to formu-
positionof
the
The
man.
sacrifice but
nouncement,
pro-
Buddhism
in
of
particularly
individual
with
busy
answer
definite
the
and
universe,the reality
the
reach
to
an
such
judgment.
from
such
But
view, but
from
is also true
that
[ch.
of
point
another."
from
mind
this
from
is true
untrue
absolute
an
main
Patanjala Samkhya
the
that
or
this
"yes,
The
and
Kapila
The
210
or
the
way,
but
not
actions
immoral
knowledge
of truth
of sacrifice.
already begun
in
the
Upa-
vi
in the
Samkhya
i]
nisads
211
which
Upanisads
had
natural
was
such
to
expect that
of rational
germs
should
we
thinking as
find
might
in the
indicate
Hindu
an
camp
attempt
to
the
harmonize
The
of
Germs
in the
Samkhya
Upanisads.
only
Truth.
true
This
that in the
Vedanta
But
there
was
explained by Sarikara.
another
line of thought which
was
developing alongside of it,
which regarded the world
as
having a realityand as being made
monistic
of water,
up
Svatara
as
fire,and
earth.
There
are
also
passages
in Sveta-
and
it appears
particularlyin MaitrayanI from which
that the Samkhya line of thought had considerablydeveloped,and
of its technical
terms
were
already in use2. But the date
many
of MaitrayanI has not yet been definitely
settled,and the details
1
See
Katha
"
detail in my
ill.
10,
v.
7.
Sveta.v.
Yoga Philosophyin
7,
8,
12,
(". R. ".).
iv.
5, I. 3.
dealt
with in
chapter.
14
"
Kapila
The
212
also not
found
there
of the
Samkhya
are
improbable that
not
philosophyas
relativism of the
and
The
main
this section
and
It is
in such
of the
gave
found
are
that
manner
Upanisads
the
and
all
with
it
the
doctrine
of
Jains.
and
based
on
been
the
Yoga
system
the
The
and
Samkhya
karika,
Samkhya
The
Yoga
their
account
in
khya
Sam-
the
taries
commen-
karika
Samkhya
I"varakrsna.
by
of
with
Pataftjali
of
sutras
sub-commentaries.
written
Literature.
Yoga
the
has
A.D.) was
notion
Samkhya-Yoga
which
in
system
Jainism
exposition of
sutras, and
of the Buddhists
Samkhya
200
or
of momentariness
doctrine
distinct
Jainism,butthe
of permanence
doctrine
the
unites
form
can
get it is
Buddhism
of
results
the
we
[ch.
it
as
this
at
now
we
that
Buddhism
suggestionsto
some
such
thought
Patanjala Samkhya
the
and
of
(about
Samkhya
given by Caraka
this has
A.D.)wrote
before
him
Samkhya
commentary
and
Gaudapada
karika}.
it known
on
Raja
Tattvakaumudi.
as
But
commentaries
wrote
his Candrikd
Narayanatlrtha wrote
the
on
on
Gauda-
The
pada's commentary.
Samkhya sutras which have been
on
(calledPravacanabhasya)
by Vijfiana Bhiksu
of the
sixteenth
century
author
after
ninth
the
fifteenth
century
Samkhya
sutras.
work
on
century.
Samkhya
was
be
to
seems
the
first
man
as
of
of
Aniruddha
VijfianaBhiksu
known
work
some
the
to write
wrote
unknown
latter
commentary
also another
Sdmkhyasdra.
half
Another
mented
com-
of
the
on
the
elementary
short
work
of late
and
originis Tattvasamdsa
(probably fourteenth century).Two
works
on
Samkhya, viz.Slmananda's
Sdmkhyatattvavivecana
BhavaganesVs Samkhyatattvayathdrthyadipana (both later
than
Vijfianabhiksu)of
other
freelyconsulted.
commented
was
commented
real
is called
Tattvavaisdradi,
by Vacaspati MiSra
by VijfianaBhiksu
Yogavdrttika,by Bhoja in the tenth century
and by Nage"a (seventeenth century) Chaydvyakhyd.
Bhojavrtti,
1
on
the same
was
as
Rdjavarttika
Raja'scommentary on the K"rikd
the Karika
has been referred to by
on
quoted by Vacaspati. Raja'scommentary
lost.
Jayantain his Ny"yamafljarl" p. 109. This book is probably now
I suppose
that
i]
vi
the
Amongst
modern
the two
mention
the
by
Natural
with
viz.
Calcutta
the sage
was
called
of the
same
lished
Yoga Study ofPatanjalipub-
on
Atri
other
is the
authoritative
Atreyatantra.Of
of
treatment
speaker
Caraka's
Early
of
treatment
with
of
in any
five elements
such
Samkhya,
and
work
far
so
modern
of the
notice
there
are
proved by
is known
be
cannot
them.
There
any
are
of
students
has
of this
two
and
the
spite of the
knowledge unless
in
of
movements
elements)2. The
five
It is atomic
and
existence
manas
Each
of
the
of five elements
five
senses
but the
sense
as
auditory sense
of touch
may
with
its existence
of the
senses
is in touch
manas
is the
Purusa
viz. the
JJmddhi)arises.
Readers
philosophy.
(dhatus\
definite
the time
should
Samkhya,
been
never
etc. and
akasa, vayu
cetana, called also
points of view, the categoriesmay be said to
fact that
the
as
six elements
prakrti(prakrti,mahat, ahamkara
works
manas
through the senses.
we
for that it
philosophy that
I know
studies
is
know
Samkhya.
historyof Samkhya
it,which
the
of
be
at
second
for
as
other
From
purusa.
School
for the
important
the
Atreyasamhitaor Atreyatantra.Nothing
be
there
these
in Caraka's
works,
Samkhya
Mdtharabhasya1.
It is
is
Hindus
of'the Ancient
Sciences
may
theories
chemical
University.
Caraka's
as
An
dealt
works
two
and
Mdtharabhasya
that
obligationI
an
University,and
mentions
probably the
owe
the
Gunaratna
the Positive
two
my
which
to
213
Mechanical,physicaland
and
Calcutta
to other Indian
my
works
treatises
and
in Caraka
Samkhya
with_^~~X7,
indeterminate
understanding
product
of the
is made
with
preponderance
is here
excluded
pre
CjU* )%
of firstreading.
from
commentator,
says
that
the prakrtiand
been
counted
purusa both being unmanifested, the two together have
Prakrtivyatiriktancodasinam purusamavyaktatvasadharmyat avyaktayarn
Vi^arada's edition of
prakrtaveva praksipya avyaktasabdenaiva grhndti. Harinatha
Caraka, Sarira, p. 4.
as
one.
\^*fyxLs\
Kapila
214
The
of
visual
air,the
preponderanceof
ten
with
bhutas
with
taste
ance
preponder-
the tanmatras
five subtle
the
[ch.
the
light,
of smell
sense
mention
not
of
at all1.
sense-objects{indriyarthd)or
manas,
senses,
the
and
does
the
conglomerationof
preponderance
water
Caraka
of earth.
the
with
sense
Patanjala Samkhya
the
and
and
The
matter,
gross
prakrti,mahat
call
we
taking place through rajas make
up what
is at its height this conglomeration ceases.
the sattva
When
man.
All karma, the fruit of karma, cognition,pleasure,
pain,ignorance,
there is also
life and death belongs to this conglomeration. But
ahamkara
and
the
for had
purusa,
bondage,
of
all illuminations
self
permanent
would
others
is
If the
salvation.
or
responsible.This
it has
no
cannot
to
conglomerations of
is eternal is
the
never
of
one
also paramatmany
self is in
only
can
and
organs
it
to
come
By
manas.
of purusa
and
causes
naturallyand
comes
If
work
itself. The
beyond
cause,
conglomeration
or
action,
place. Knowledge, feeling,
produced
all destruction
for the
this combination.
without
as
reason.
work, this
be
due
are
takes
any
called
sense
birth,death,
no
regarded
without
purusa,
the
with
elements
the other
be
Consciousness
and
ignorance,will,antipathy,
and
be
not
were
cause
consciousness.
its connection
through
atman
recognized,then
not
beginninglessand
would
there
so
cognitionwould
were
be
itself without
been
it not
product
of
All
by
not
without
positiveeffects
but
singlecause,
That
cause.
anything. Caraka
which
identifies the
of
as
forming one
prakrti with purusa
category.
The
vikara or evolutionaryproducts of prakrtiare called ksetra,
whereas
the avyakta part of prakrtiis regarded as the ksetrajfla
{avyaktamasya ksetrasyaksetrajnamrsayo vidtih).This avyakta
avyakta part
and
cetana
are
prakrti or
derived
elements
is
the
complete, we
senses
say
are
entity. From
same
the
{ahamkara)
ego
and
the
is derived
cetana
the
and
one
buddhi,
and
from
and
from
the
ahamkara
produced, and
that creation
has
this unmanifested
when
taken
buddhi
the
this
the
place. At
creation
new
But
some
formingpart
sort
forms
of subtle
of prakrti which
from
the
the evolutes
"
regardedas
viz. avyakta,mahat, ahamkara, and
ffadhdtukt),
elements forming part of the prakrtiwe
hear
which
have
evolved
out
of
of the prakrti.
buddhi, ahamkara,
gross
matter,
having eightelements
five other elements.
of
the
indriyartha,
return
at the
{avyakta),
the unmanifest
purusa
time
the
five
production
of
time
is
etc.
is referred
in it
to
"
as
(prakrtifra-
In addition to these
five
sense
objects
vn]
appear1. This
new
those
in
by
and
cycle. The
which
self,
pain
comes
from
desire
cessation
of
"all
are
but
the
self at this
the
state
of
characteristic.
rooted
the
purusa
sarlra,
2
i.
at
the
time
Yogins.
of the
there
of death
of rebirth
this state
which
indescribable
they become
state
is called brahmabhuta,
is of the nature
is
more
of pure
like
samulahsarvavedanah
sannyase
na
brahmabhiito
bhutatma
vidyate. gatirbrahmavidam
98-100.
no
these
in
perceived2.
be
call this
Brahman
rajas and
manifest
as
back
their
tamas
and
new
are
to
be
birth,
commentary
resolve
of any
fruits have
karma
new
absolute
it is not
being,pure
into
"
again. See
Thus
in any
Cakrapani
on
sense
and
intelligence
annihilation
(alaksanam),
resemblingNagarjuna's Nirvana.
param
positiveexistence
past whose
is
last
finally
become
absolutelydevoid
by the Samkhyas
When
do
and
is the
all. This
know
of
spoken
dawns
sorrow,
longer
no
who
differently
explained
the time
at
can
is
the
the
46.
Though
of Vedanta
that
are
of any
and
karma
has been
passage
and
of
association
knowledge
knowledge
is eternal
exhausted, and
pani as meaning
"
state
and
out
This
This
self
Those
which
that
enjoyed are
1
Brahman.
also
and
indication
the
the
selves,
transitory,rise of them-
self and
the
complete
means
stateofj^^aj^Jtien
true
are
causes,
no
time, and
Brahman,
goal, and
pain.
When
remains
state
self,it is the
the
all affections
when
There
It is the
will
free
own
sense-objects.If
and
sense,
produced by
the
me
renunciation
extinct.
steadilyin
not
to
the
manas,
pleasure nor
produced by
are
belong
of the
according to its
Though all the souls
is settled
not
mined
wish, undeter-
own
again comes
is neither
that
It works
its
to
ciation
asso-
self with
manas
according
in
active
self of itselftakes
the
by
over
there
only become
can
this
again suffer
can
associated
of the
lives
else.
anyone
manas
and
rajas and
never
are
pervasive,
only perceive in particularbodies where
they are
with their own
All pleasuresand pains
senses.
specific
yet they
felt
of
will
two
dissolution
of
or
of
reaps
are
the
in all kinds
rebirth
influence
the
2 1
rebirths
or
can
with
births
through
acts
who
revolution
of
cycle
creation
so
in Caraka
Samkhya
without
Caraka
sign
any
writes
bliss. This
pure
"
of
existence
tasmimkarama-
taccdksaramalaksanam.
Caraka,
Sdrtra
I.
the
of moksa
state
Patanjala Samkhya
the
and
Kapila
The
2 1
about.
comes
kinds
Various
[ch.
of
moral
deavours
en-
with
good people,abandoning
of desires,determined
attempts at discoveringthe truth with fixed
Truth
(tattva)
attention, are spoken of as indispensablemeans.
thus discovered should be recalled again and again1 and this will
the self. As the
of the body with
ultimatelyeffect the disunion
association
shape of
in the
specificnature
no
absolute
as
or
cessation
(jnoksenivrttirnilisesa).
The
thus:
are
features
main
of this
I.
Purusa
with
avyakta
not
mentioned.
the
mind
is either absolute
and
it is
of the
senses
formed
are
of
account
the
Mahabharata
XII.
little he
it may
sketches
of
the
is the
ultimate
be
truth
vasthamavyaktam).
If
man
death.
Caraka
in
discussion,
the
which
postulateof
The
1
Four
and
(4) by
*
he
all
discussion
same
causes
acute
Some
European
caiikha's doctrine
fact that the
as
Samkhya
to
one
to
tries to
that
the
occurs
of
lute
abso-
the
is
glomeration
con-
etc.
But
the
product
such
sense
pupil of
of
Samkhya
Paftcasikha
speaks
applied
term
of
what
from
system
of
in the
describe
not
even
in all
(purusd-
purusa
combination
mere
that
assume
may
Samkhya
system)
does
course
does.
of
all
ceases
objectionintroduces
an
duties and
our
spoken of
remembering
attempt
of
of
of Caraka2.
is the
answer
are
leads to the
cause
in
to
the direct
be
to
being avyakta (a
prakrti)in the state
with
is due
as
literature to
Samkhya
of
as
state
; there
state
the system
founder
supposed
same
with
Caraka
that
of
characterless
or
Brahman
is said
Paftcasikha
elaboratelyas
as
says
he
agrees
(who
Kapila, the
219.
states
{bhautikd).
of matter
Samkhya
of
pupil
system
the
are
its
Paftcasikha
propounded by
Asuri
self with
tanmatras
ultimate
consciousness
in this state, fijr
consciousness
This
5. The
annihilation
spoken Af as
3. The
tamas
good/ones.
the
sattva
existence
6. The
and
Rajas
4.
and
emancipation
the
livingbeing.
which
no
of
self
a
as
of moral
in Paftcasikha
responsibility.
also,and the proofs
remember.
have
doctrines sketched
in Caraka
did not
attract
their notice.
2 1
other
day; it is said
eclipse)cannot
that
be
apart from
seen
do
of
have
we
form
casikha
in
it
sketched
is
school
of
old
be
of
as
the
direct
the
system
of
in
of
Samkhya
the
fundamentally
been
attributed
disciple
there
same
Paft-
to
available
Samkhya
reference
to
to
us
the
parts of Mahdbhdrata
is
in Caraka's
time
definite
modification,which
later
is
not
was
or
regarded
as
view.
Samkhya
says
plausibleview
that
another
which
from
work,
what
he
Isvarakrsna
The
as
of this
is that
verse
(purusa)has experience.It
8
Vassilief's Buddhismus,
Takakusu's
"A
two
wTote
Samkhya,
**
verse
to
for his
in
written
be
very
karikas
to
style different
of his Kdrika
is found
which
seems
quoted
to
in the
{Tarkarahasyadipikd,
p. 104).
in a particular
manner,
is transformed
moon
in
transparent
water.
p. 240.
life of Vasubandhu,"
however, appears
to
be
/. R.A.S.,
1905.
books
krsna
belongingto Isvarakrsna. It appears that Isvarais the Samkhya kdrika and another
one
an
independentwork
which, quoted by Gunaratna, stands as follows :
be traced
;
line from
as
irotrddisamuttha
Pratiniyatddhyavasdyah
If
seems
ioa
cannot
metre
buddhi
study of Parametria's
mentions
rahasyadipikiipp.
anustubh
passage
when
identification by Takakusu,
Gunaratna
seventh
It
A.D.
indebted
was
probably
was
same
100
verse
purport
This
about
was
employs.
be in purport the
on
has
Samkhya
of Isvarakrsna
the date
it
cannot
tered
althat Vindhyavasin
quoting Tibetan sources
thinks
Takakusu
the Samkhya
views2.
according to his own
holds that
and Garbe
Vindhyavasin was a title of Isvarakrsna3
that
an
the
to
non-existent
Wassilief
The
self
moon
during
Asuri
Not
to in other
authoritative
about
earliest form
the
Isvarakrsna's
either
sun
the
so
sun,
new
are
(saririnaJi)
spoken
appears
and
refer
not
referred
proof that
was
which
here
Maulikya Samkhya
and
the
on
probable that
seems
probably
(78 A.D.)does
an
anything
systematicform.
selfs
The
Mahdbhdrata
in the
shadow
the
of the
moon
self
The
prakrti.
But
Kapila1.
(the
body.
the
as
[ch.
204).
(xil. 203,
apart from
seen
know
not
Rahu
as
the
manifestingfrom
We
is described
body
the
apart from
Mahdbhdrata
the
of
chapters
Patanjala Samkhya
the
and
Kapila
The
adhyaksam"
(p. 108).
be considered
vn]
IsvarakrmcCs
Mahdbhdsya
of the two
Samkhya
219
The
Patanjalithe grammarian (147 B.C.)1.
of
passages
the enumeration
are
of
which
reasons
subject
frustrate
with
is not a doctrine concerned
perception. This however
strictlytechnical part of Samkhya, and it is just possible
the book
from which
Patanjaliquoted the passage, and which
probably paraphrased in the Arya metre
by Isvarakrsna
not
a
Samkhya book at all. But though the subjectof the
visual
the
that
was
was
verse
is not
since
such
Indian
of the
one
enumeration
an
is not
of
verse
it has
as
found
which
in
Patanjali'sYoga
known
was
made
to
From
the
orthodox
On
the
are
the purusa
is
We
of
works.
quotation
is
reference
material, and
are
senses
with
is described
books
be
nearer
the
as
Ahirbudhnya Samhitd
and
twenty-eight chapters2.
of
that it was
of
existence
its
Samhita,
which
there
commentary
prakrti,its
oneness,
purusas,
separationfrom
the
purusas,
is
on
no
the
because
its difference
multiplicityof
the evolution
of
Atisannikarsadativiprakarsdtmurttyantaraetc.
(Benares edition. )
indriyadaurvalyadatipramadat,
Patanjali'sMahabhasya,
tamasavrtatvat
about
Mi"ra's
purposefulnessfor
and
khya
Sam-
of the oldest
in the
two
thirtyRajavdrttika (a work
connection
Ahirbudhnya
to
seem
being one
as
information) in Vacaspati
vyavadhanat
I. 19
Buddhism
with
Sastitantrasastra
from
purusas,
purusas,
sketched
have
we
Samkhya.
Samkhya kdrika{j2)says
from
the
that
its connections
This
containing two
it dealt
of Caraka
orthodox
hear
definite
of
is very
its doctrine
the other
the
in the
and
with
agrees
of
view
the
was
IsVara)are to be
Mahabharata\ but we
addition
an
Samkhya
PaficaSikha
hand
one
that effects
on
which
Samkhya
point of
and
the
than
of
it
a
important ; for it shows
the Upanisad ideas and
stage of thought between
Samkhya doctrine as represented by Isvarakrsna.
Caraka
transitional
that the
to
view
-a-
siltras
that
paraphrased by Isvarakrsna.
was
earliest
pretty certain
and
of
system
some
descriptionsof
Isvarakrsna'sSamkhya (but with
of
other
in any
plausiblesupposition is
book
Samkhya
The
here
seen
yet
guard
specialbearing as a safeobjectionsagainstthe Samkhya doctrine of
philosophy,and
against certain
prakrti,the natural and
are
parts of Samkhya,
strictlytechnical
IV.
pp.
i.
3.
108,
no.
The
220
the
and
Kapila
of
the inactivity
categories,
the
and
the purusas
the
[ch.
fiveviparyyayas,
of
of organs
defects
the
tustis,
nine
Patanjala Samkhya
the
eightsiddhis1.
the
But
referred
of the Sastitantra
a
and
it,
different from
Samhitdis
character
theistic
Vaisnavas
and
Sastitantra
of the
content
the
from
itappears
in the
to
given
as
Ahirbudhnya
the Samkhya
in
it that
Samhitd
Ahirbudhnya
of
the
Pancaratra
Kapila's
that
says
of
was
Vaisnava
one.
was
a
Vijflana Bhiksu, the
theory of Samkhya
places of his work
greatest expounder of Samkhya, says in many
and that
theistic,
VijndnamrtaBJ"sya that Samkhya was originally
the atheistic Samkhya
is only a praudhivada (an exaggerated
is necessary
to
that no
supposition of Is vara
attempt to show
points out
explain the world process)though the Mahdbharata
difference between
the
that
former
while
atheistic,
is
the two
between
Sastitantra
the
and
the
by
is theistic.
discrepancy
the original
suggests that
The
Samhitd
Ahirbudhnya
does
Sastitantra
sequently
sub-
was
suppositionis
This
not
the
this,that
is
Yoga
considerablychanged.
important Samkhya
1
latter
of Sastitantra
accounts
revised
corroborated
the
referred to in the
as
and
Samkhya
mention
among
Sastitantroddhdra
but
tioned
doctrine of the viparyyaya, tusti,defects of organs, and the siddhi are menin my
of
account
Kdrikd
of Kvarakrsna,
them
but I have
omitted
The
in the
Samkhya
these have
as
abhinives^.
and
which
(self-love),
These
andhatdmura.
since
is necessary,
to
necessary
that there
worked
dvesa
(egoism),raga (attachment),
asmita
five,viz. avidya (ignorance),
are
of nine kinds
are
prakrtiwill
herself
hurry, salvation
no
by fate
out
also called
are
and
(bhdgya),
will
moha,
as
that
pathy),
(anti-
tamisrd,
exertion
no
(ambhas),that
it is not
life (salila),
the householder's
(megha),that salvation
time
the contentment
mahdmoha,
the idea
salvation
renounce
in
come
tamo,
of tusti,such
bring our
is
ledge)
viparyyaya (falseknow-
littlephilosophical
importance. The
will
be
proceeding
leading to renunciation
from
the earned
money
or
with
ways
of
those
success
who
are
consider
prakrti and
eight in number,
viz.
own
its evolutes
the
self.
The
(i)reading of scriptures(tdra),
rating
(4)corroboreasoning(tdratdra),
(ramyaka),(5) clearance
as
other
workers
of the
same
of the mind
tustisand
the
the absence
of siddhis and
Samkhya goal.
are
the presence
hindrances
of tustis.
in the way
The
viparyyayas,
of the achievement
of
vi
Changes in
i]
(revisededition
lost
was
If
of
believe
we
Samhita
to
Sastitantra
his
probable that
that
and
Asuri
in
with
karika
Samkhya
into
him
originalSastitantra
the
It is
accepted the
parts
as
it. For
rewritten
cosmology which
Samkhya cosmology.
the
work
in
an
atheistic
supposition is
Samkhya, first
which
is
kept
second
a
third
held
in
an
atheistic
way
one,
atheistic
his
doctrine
It
divided
was
schools
is the
This
by
of Vaisnavas
in most
same
the
justifies
theistic.
between
But
tial
essen-
tion
assumpthere
the
Kapila and
only supposition that
then
the
form
one
modification
An
discipleof
are
the
may
modified
reasonable,
modified
it
probably
Kapila's
it
as
passed
Kapila'swork. If this
and
theistic
that
Paficasikha
that
is
the
literature
probably
was
other
ventured
be
was
important respects.
of the
most
points of difference
(Yoga). The
Patanjala Samkhya
few
which
of
form
Kapila's doctrine
that
the
is difficult to
was
know
we
in many
one
fact that
well-known
work
same
Paficasikha
(70) that
of this reference
meaning
when
many
Ahirbudhnya
based
the traditional
differed from
is said
deal
to
came
in the
to
parts the
his teachings,then
on
faithfully
that Kapila'sSamkhya
theistic2. It seems
was
discipleAsuri tried to populariseit. But it seems
assumed
to be
referred
in all essential
composed by Kapila
has
221
Vacaspati'stime.
the
be
doctrine
Samkhya
Sastitantra^. Probably
before
even
the
as
as
have
we
details
three
of which
are
strata
of
lost,but
school of Samkhya,
Patafljala
representedby Paficasikha,and
by
the
the orthodox
Samkhya
system.
doctrine
in the
to have
seems
Samkhya
important change
been introduced
by VijfianaBhiksu (sixteenthcentury A.D.)by his
of gunas
treatment
as
types of reals. I have myself accepted this
of Samkhya
interpretation
one,
and
of the
it must
therefore
have
accepted Kapila
be pointed out
as
the
followed
and
the
that
most
rational
it in
giving a
Patanjalaschool
originallythe
and
philosophical
connected
system
of
Samkhya.
notion
of gunas
But
was
applied to different types of good and bad mental states, and then
they were
mysterious way by mutual increase
supposed in some
hand
and the
and decrease
the objectiveworld on the one
to form
1
Tarkarahasyadzpikd, p. 109.
manavah
sadvimSakam
prahnh sariramih
kapiladibhirucyate Matsyapurana, IV. 28.
2
evam
samkhyam
samkhyatmakatvacca
totalityof
human
of
nation
the
Patanjala Samkhya
A
and
Bhiksu
Vijnana
the
and
Kapila
The
222
and
philosophycompiled by Patafijali
systematicexplanadifferent
two
Venkata1.
writer
[ch.
lines
As
commented
the
by
Yoga
by Vyasa,
on
Vacaspati
of
and
Samkhya
other
The
pada
about
Known
karika, Samkhya
of
Samkhya- Yoga
Samkhya
oldest
the
until
writer
text
The
later writers.
it
allusions
to the
reference
to
have
to
that
the
the
these
that
said
at
karikas
the
the
sutras
was
so
end
these
were
lost to
now
of
the
work.
to
The
and
also
the
as
the
the
number
It may
sutras
of
from
some
dealt with
any
is known
century.
doctrine
and
works
It is not
any
after
from
second
to
It is
that the
excluding
excluding the
the Sastitan-
"
of other
improbable
Samkhya
in the
who
therefore
Isvarakrsna
work
trines
docthat
which
is
later edition
some
{Sastitantroddhdra as
be
A.D.
time
refutations
done
any
made
some
people
earlier
be that it was
philosophywill
of
contain
by
positive evidence
Samkhya
parables.
who
conclusion
fifteenth
karika
by
make
have
to
no
originalSamkhya
Sastitantrasastra
Vehkata's
work
Samkhya
Samkhya
collected
us.
did not
writer
is
(fifteenth
century
written
is
karika
Aniruddha
natural
parables attached
trasastra.
The
pretation
inter-
my
referred to
seems
there
exposition of
an
refutations
late
of the
other
no
probably
But
and
commentaries
works,
Samkhya
sutra.
were
Samkhya
by
upon
Gunaratna
century.
it
give
before
The
not
was
sutra, and
Samkhya
fourteenth
prove
of
Samkhya
flourished
reference
is
number
regards
of the fourteenth
Gunaratna
Misra
as
have
we
siitra
commented
was
to
system.
which
on
Samkhya
century A.D.).Even
made
is
Nothing
Bhiksu.
is necessary
explanation
of the
Vodhu.
sutra, Vacaspati
Vijnana
word
and
doctrines.
or
historicity
their
Samkhya
principlewhich
"
Sanatana
Sanaka, Sananda,
are
together
in his Saddarsanasamuccaya.
by Haribhadra
important Samkhya teachers mentioned
by Gauda-
followed
was
treated them
have
mentioned
volume
by
of the present
vn]
of Samkhya
Interpretations
Gunaratna), but
this is
that
suppose
the
no
to
reason
differs in
in the sutras
found
doctrine
Samkhya
is
conjecture.There
mere
223
any
class
in the
the
category
of
regarded
be
as
of
difference.
atheistic
inclined
more
is
may
in
be
found
cannot
of omission
case
of
Samkhya
his
proved by
some
and
the
could
agreed
to
be
both
could
view
the
to
not
avoid
sutras, but
showing
explanationthat
in
in the
the
he
remarks
own
the
and
purusas
Isvara, by
prakrti at
remarked
that
Samkhya
without
doctrine
Samkhya
the
of
own
for he
these
system
the intervention
of
prakrtiare
the
said
will the
creative
of each
pralaya.
arguments
of the
whose
the
in
Vijhanamrta-
end
atheistic
distinctively
that the
even
of
diverse
end
in the
called
views
the
again began
Samkhya
a
where
merged
process
He
with
more
Puranas,
properly be
not
not
than
the
Brahmasutras
on
bhdsya (an independent commentary
lines).VijfianaBhiksu's
Badarayana on theistic Samkhya
view
in
khya
Sam-
Yoga
or
Sdmkhyapravacanabhdsyay Yogavarttika,and
his
intelligence,
they all form
commentator
to theistic
This
Samkhya.
the
of
class
the
hence
compromise
is,however,
Vijfiana Bhiksu,
was
for
one,
and
intelligence,
This
This
as
from
of pure
nature
Upanisads
one.
karika.
Samkhya
sutra,
in the
distinct
as
of the
were
class of pure
or
the
to
all purusas
spoken
were
sense
intelligent
purusas
As
the gunas.
they
of
used
were
gave
of
an
such
only with
a
rational
Isvara
it could
of Samkhya
explain all facts. VijfianaBhiksu in his interpretation
differed on many
pointsfrom those of Vacaspati,and it is difficult
to
say
who
is
has
this
advantage
that
he has
on
difficult points
on
some
boldly tried to give interpretations
which
silent.
I refer principallyto the
Vacaspati remained
nature
remained
of the
silent
on
the
point. There
nothing,however, in their
of
againstthe interpretation
is
which
would
militate
interpretations
VijfianaBhiksu, but yet while they were
of the
explanations regarding the nature
silent
gunas,
as
to
any
Bhiksu
definite
definitely
The
224
with
forward
came
the
and
Kapila
Patanjala Samkhya
and
satisfactory
very
rational
[ch.
interpretation
of their nature.
Since
before
work
other
Bhiksu,
it is
is found
gunas
that
quite probable
worked
definitely
been
have
not
may
of the
explanation
definite
no
out
before.
in any
this matter
Neither
Caraka
of the gunas.
But
explains the nature
suits exceedingly well all that is known
Bhiksu's interpretation
Mahdbhdrata
the
nor
and
manifestations
of the
therefore
I have
documents.
giving my
speaks of the
in
the
account
as
gunas
of the
nature
being
of the
dullness
of the
of
nature
of the
rajasas
being lightand illuminating,
as
heavy
causing motion, and tamas
and
Kdrika
pleasure,pain,and
describes
It also
tamas).
The
gunas.
sattva
as
of energy
nature
and
obstructing.Vacaspati
that
might
been
have
not
known
before, and
when
the
there was
a real vagueoriginalSamkhya doctrine was formulated
ness
to the conception of the gunas.
as
Bhiksu's
other points in which
There
are
some
interpretation
differs from
that of Vacaspati. The
most
important of these may
mentioned
be
buddhi
the
of the
which
of
virtue
the
(samyoga) of
reflection
first is the
The
with
states
contact
no
here.
buddhi
is
purusa
the
buddhi
it does
that
But
experiencerof
in the
the conscious
buddhi
is
merely
(bhoga) on
connection
actual
Misra
Vacaspati
time, but
and
kind
of the
is that
that their
of the
image,
basis
the
this view
states
and
of that
purusa
there
with
is
no
is open
as
be
can
buddhi,
there
to
person.
if such
states
VijftanaBhiksu
image
specialkind
of
contact
of the buddhi
fitness be
by
said
alone
of
objection
be
to
be
the
an
without
The
the
perience
ex-
any
of
answer
in space
two
only a specific
purusa, though it
in the
appear
as
Vacaspati and
admitted,
formed
trans-
the buddhi.
differs from
buddhi
cannot
proximity {sannidhi)means
that
the
to
and
of
state
is
but
and
intelligized
becomes
purusa
that there
the purusa
in the
the
an
with
of fitness
remains
how
explain
not
caught
state
into consciousness.
state
of
connection
Vacaspati holds
purusa.
any
of the
nature
then
buddhi,
ascribed
says
there
that
is
no
Kapila and
The
226
from
ahamkara
both
the
Patanjala Samhhya
the
VijftanaBhiksu
the tanmatras1.
separationof ahamkara
place in the mahat, and
however
the evolution
and
[ch.
holds
that
of the tanmatras
appeared to me to be more
this interpretation.
There
are
some
reasonable, I have followed
other minor
pointsof difference about the Yoga doctrines between
of much
which
not
are
philosophical
Vacaspati and Bhiksu
take
this
as
importance.
The
word
yoking
as
and
other
but
senses;
used
in this
such
senses
or
like.
the
in various
Rg-Veda
in the
occurs
yoga
Pataftjali.
and
Yoga
it is nevertheless
in
sense
and
Rg-Veda
word
the
that
true
works
later Vedic
in such
was
as
Satapatha Brahmana
As
ideas
these
the
and
and
of asceticism
of the
felt to be
the
flyingpassionswas
spiritedsteed, and thus
the control
appliedto
of steeds
self-control grew
uncontrollable
as
word
which
yoga
began
to be
force
the
that of
as
originally
was
appliedto
the control
of the senses5.
In
Panini's
and
meaning,
in the
the
a
of
sense
word
had
yoga
more
or
less
of the word
its technical
"
"
root
for the
root
yoga6.
See my
Study ofPatanjali,
p. 60 ft.
R.V.
1.
Compare
34. 9/vn. 67. 8/111.27. 11/x.30. u/x.
3/'"30- 7" Satapatha Brahmana
14. 7. 1. 11.
*
It is
and
See
;
Taitt. Brah.
Katha
German
Joch, A.S.
whatever
11.
2.
x.
129;
in.
8. 10;
Brah.
"atap.
xi.
Taitt.
5. 8.
1.
9.
i/m.
2.
i/iii.
1.
4,
senses
are
its horses.
Brh. 1.7.6',Brh.
3. 3 ; R.V.
the horses
are
indriyani hay"n"huh visay"tesugocaran.The senses
their
Maitr.
objects.
2. 6.
they grasp are
Karmendriyanyasya hay"h
ill.
the conative
"
9/iv.24. 4/1. 5.
114.
Latin
geoc,
as
etymologic?
3.
used
is seldom
first sense
imaginary
an
attained
yuj samddhau
(yuj
"yujiryoge" (rootyujir ii
distinguishedthis
concentration)from
connecting). Yuj in the
It is
derivation
1
he
the
of
sense
verb.
time
root
of yujir yoge
and
not
brahmacaryam"
from
V.
yuja
i. 94
samddhau.
shows
that
A
not
sideration
con-
only
vn]
Antiquityof Yoga
the
In
used
with
middle
on
a
veneration.
extreme
One
of the main
path between
the
the
hand
one
Bhagavadgltd
of
austere
discipline
and
the
best
abstract
himself
from
Kautilya in his
of study
sciences
Arthasastra
meditative
of
use
out
tion
abstrac-
of sacrificijal.action
new
should
combine
himself
of the
tried to mark
of duties
course
Vedic
from
features
this word
of
"
"
also
of
227
to
his
in himself
the
duties,and
yet
associated
with
desires.
when
any
The
conclusion.
science
breath
of
had
attracted
earlier
of the
in many
which
the
the
ideas
Yoga
Katha.
It
be
can
is indeed
traced
curious
to
are
notice
Yajurveda,where we
find
where
we
methods, are the only ones
the Samkhya tenets, though the Samkhya
Upanisads
the
of Krsna
there
appear
same
system.
Maitrayani in
ratha
where
different kinds
were
related
as
the
is
country
and
at
the
or
Samkhya
Svetasvatara
that
and
Yoga
associated
of
grown
up
also to
ideas do not
as
Sakyayana and
metaphysics was
of
has
Yoga
to
parts of
in
passage
three
clear references
the
these
and
these
find reference
remarkable
between
conversation
of asceticism
the
other
each
there
But
find that
we
prevalentin
to
the
the
Brhad
offered
brahmacarya
proved
definite system
of
Yoga.
15"2
is premental
in
Kapila and
The
228
and
it
Yoga system
Thus
systematizedby Pataftjali.
it is the
say
into
which
guna
bondage
Sakyayana
through
will,and
the
to
that
the
says:
deliverance
"Here
some
of nature
takes
because
the
subsequently
was
differences
removed,
basis,was
goes
place
he
when
by the
belief,
unmind; and all that we call desire,imagination,doubt, belief,
shame, thought,fear,all that is but
uncertainty,
certainty,
of the qualities
darkened
in
mind.
Carried along by the waves
full of desires,vacillating
his imagination,unstable, fickle,crippled,
the fault of the will has
he
belief,believingI
into
enters
been
its
as
[ch.
Yoga processes,
graftingof the
and
of ideas which
of this school
of the followers
work
the
metaphysics on
Samkhya
the
association
the
therefore that
seems
Patanjala Samkhya
to
quarters
some
the
sees
am
his self
"
with
mind,
the
and
higheststate1/
the
An
when
move,
that is called
"
of such
examination
Dhyanabindu,
tattva,
not
Yoga Upanisads
Hamsa,
as
Amrtanada,
"andilya,
Yoga-
Varaha,
Mandala
and
Brahmana,
in his bhasya on
es
Nyaya sutra, I. i. 29, distinguish
The Samkhya
holds that nothing can
Yoga in the followingway:
into being nor be destroyed,there cannot
be any change in the pure intelligence
come
(niratisayakcetanah). All changes are due to changes in the body, the senses, the
and the objects.
manas
Yoga holds that all creation is due to the karma of the purusa.
Dosas
and
the
of karma.
The intelligences
(passions)
(action)are the cause
pravrtti
souls (cetana)are associated with qualities.
or
into being and
Non-being can come
what is produced may be destroyed. The last view is indeed quitedifferent from
the Yoga of Vy"sabhdfya. It is closer to Nyaya in its doctrines.
If Vatsyayana's
Vatsyayana,however,
Samkhya
from
statement
is correct, it would
in creation
sutra
do
was
not
borrowed
indicate
appear
by Sarnkhyafrom
difference but
an
Yoga.
from
in.
Vyasabh"fya,
(virtiddha).
moral
on
purpose
the
same
agreement between
Udyotakara'sremarks
13, in his
bhasya,I.
ii.6, and
criticizes it
as
tradictory
self-con-
vn]
a
Patanjali,
Compiler
Saivas
yoga;
was
and
Saktas
and
they grew
supposed to
in another
associated
with
the
and
T ,aya Y oga, H
was
are
and
athayoga
Raj ay
consideration
they are
as
have
we
they
with
our
the_Yogawith
which
also
were
The
some
the
cases
Vedantism
of these
practicesin
worship was also
of
these
out
oga \ I n
from
our
present
have
connected
not
leave
to
through
of yoga,
to associate
even
which
feats
four kinds
these
very
Mantra-
supernatural powers.
great attempt
magical
exercises,which
nervous
that there
says
the
as
Hathavop-a
the
as
other
hpa1irig_jtnd
with
direction
produce mystic
Xogatattva Upanisad
MantraYoga,
peculiarform
practices ofelaborate
constant
we
assumed
229
as
present endeavour.
Samkhva,
which
forms
the
subjectof
probably
was
dealing,Patafijali
for he not only collected
the different
most
person
forms
of Yoga
and
gleaned the diverse ideas which
practices,
could be associated
with the Yoga, but graftedthem
all
were
or
the Samkhya
on
metaphysics,and gave them the form in which
down
to
us.
they have been handed
Vacaspati and Vijftana
the Vydsabhdsya,agree
Bhiksu, the two great commentators
on
with us in holding that Patafijali
of the Yoga,
not the founder
was
but an editor.
also brings
the conAnalytic study ot tne sutras
viction that the sutras
do not
show
any originalattempt, but a
also supplewas
mented
masterly and systematic compilation which
the
are
we
and
also
systematic manner
of definition
written by way
materials
that
shows
the
were
already in
Patafijali
only systematizedthem. There was
by fittingcontributions.
the first three chapters are
in which
classification
existence
and
that
missionizingzeal, no
no
now
notable
attempt
The
to
the
overthrow
doctrines
of
in, by way of
they might come
anxious
is not even
to establish
explainingthe system. Patafijali
the system, but he is only engaged in systematizingthe facts
he had
Most
of the criticisms against the Buddhists
as
them.
of the Yoga
doctrines
in the
last chapter. The
are
occur
described in the first three chapters,and this part is separated
of the Buddhists
from the last chapter where
are
the views
other
systems, except
as
far
as
The
Yoga
writer
which
are
centres
of memory
where
or
Tatparyatika
Vatsyayana'sbhasya
concentration
on
is to
Nyaya sutra,
III.
be
made.
ii.43.
See
Vacaspati's
the putting of
criticized;
the conclusion
"itin
another
to
seems
hand
other
some
new
view,
as
than
of
The
of
topics
introduced
with
dealt
in
is also
whereas
51
to
We
the
the
from
Yoga
styleof
is also
chapter seem
second
chapter
that they could
in the
such
preceding chapters.
disproportionatelysmall,
number
The
and
have
with
of this
extent
in other
of the
some
well
only
it contains
as
of sutras
last
repeat what
to
in connection
manner
a
or
three.
the other
last
relevant
the average
point of
internal
an
for
necessary
its
to
of the
are
in the
discussions
felt to be
were
There
the
with
more
said
been
course
metaphysics.
supplementary character
foreignhand) in the style of the
either
sutras, 30-34,
already
has
which
Buddhist
change (due
the
manipulation
chapter as compared
to
is of
subsequent addition by a
chapter
who
anxious
to
was
supply
Patafijali
the
of
evidently to
Yoga positionfrom
for securing the strength of
as
is
most
is
links of argument
well
[ch.
the conclusion
denote
chapter
fourth
The
work.
that
supposed attacks
marked
of the
last
strengtheningof
the
end
whole
to
compilation.There
Yoga
the
that
be
(theword
of the third
of his
the
at
of the
conclusion
*iti n
an
at the end
work)
of any
denote
Patanjala Samkhya
the
and
Kapila
The
230
34
been
similar
chapter
sutras,
chapters is between
55.
have
now
whom
author
the hands
difficult to
are
to
come
There
names.
writer
of
the vexed
meet
of this famous
folded
any
as
mark
conclusion
is however
the
but it is indeec
reverence),
merely from the similarityof
of
great commentary
identifies
theory which
another
on
Panini
called
the
the
Mat
Of
these
is the
one
Dlksita)who
could
The
century.
Vasavadatta
The
other
writer
not
other
which
two
1
are
Weber's
have
is that
of the
Patahjalicarita(Ramabhadra
flourished
cited
in
earlier than
the
eighteenth
"ivarama's commentary
Aufrecht
on
Literature, p. 223
n.
vn]
Identityof Patanjali
the
of
commentator
century
Thus
A.D.
Caraka,
Cakrapani
who
belonged
that
says
231
he
eleventh
the
to
adores
the
Ahipati
Caraka.
Bhoja
that
illustrious
lord
of the
"
says
be
Victory
the
to
of
words
luminous
and
holder
of serpents removed
The
body."
adoration
defilement
from
speech,
of
hymn
by
sidered
Vyasa (which is conto be an
orthodox
interpolationeven
scholars)is also
based upon
the same
tradition.
It is not impossibletherefore that
the later Indian
confusion
commentators
might have made some
between
the three Patanjalis,
the grammarian, the Yoga editor,
and
the
medical
writer
Pdtanjalatantrayand
commentary
to
whom
who
has
Cakradatta
on
is ascribed
been
in
book
the
quoted by
connection
known
in his
Sivadasa
with
the
as
heating
of
metals.
Professor
in
of Harvard
J. H. Woods
University is therefore
justifiedin his unwillingness to identify the grammarian
way
and
the
It
commentators.
of
commentators
yata, Vamana,
This
Patanjalisby
And
an
is indeed
the
Yoga
some
if other
writer
Let
us
now
which
as
person
to
proofs
could
be
the
see
if
may
dravya
same
the writer
us
is described
think
which
the
of
great
this
on
of
point.
the
of
commentators
available
not
two
later
against such
go
grammarian
and
the
person.
to
Yoga.
on
therefore
the
the
Bhartrhari, Kaiy-
silent
are
of these
that
identification
medical
are
as
grammatical
Patanjali's
lead
philosophicconcept
differs and
and
such
etc.
evidence
notice
to
school
point against
slender
curious
grammar
identification,we
Yoga
the
on
Jayaditya, Nagesa,
is indeed
age.
editor
Yoga
think
that
Professor
substance
he
work
was
Woods
contains
not
supposes
{dravya) of
the
two
He
be identified.
they cannot
in Vydsabhdsya in one
place
as
the
thing
anysame
that
the
Patanjalis
holds
being
that
the
whereas
species and qualities(sdmdnyavisesdtmaka),
also
and
the Mahdbhdsya holds that a dravya denotes
a
genus
specificqualitiesaccording as the emphasis or stress is laid on
either side. I fail to see
ideas are
how
these
totallyantagonistic.
unity
of
Moreover,
we
know
that
these
two
views
were
held
by
The
232
Kapila
and
PataftjalaSamkhya
the
[ch.
denoted
words
denoted
words
these
only combined
the
opposes
that
to
is
if he
even
the
of
kind
specific
of
its
not
the
etc.
in
are
that
"yat sasndldhgulakakudakhuraof
nihilo
idea
change
(5.1.
We
view
by
as
any
external
their
us
discover
to
the
two
views
of
can
identified.
of
view,
old
the
about
also
the
ideas
even
warrantable
un-
very
views
personal
convinced
that
the
of the
important points of
examples I may refer
few
3),the Samkhya
1.
but
grammarians
be
it would
There
dictum
of
ex
of time
(2.2. 5, 3. 2. 123),the
of similars into similars (1. I. 50),the idea of
production of new
qualitiesgundntarddhdna
return
as
3) and
the distinction
other
school
of
that
similarity,
in
similar
sdbddnusdsanatn)
of
Yoga"
Indian
unlike
philosophy. There
any
other
work
they
{athayogdnusdsanam
manner
is also
both
and
this
begin
atlia
tions
begins the compilation of the instruc{Yoga sutrd) and "now
beginsthe compilation
"
now
"
of the instructions
It may
be
reconciled, and
judge anything
to
us
which
divergences
traditional
the
there
Patanjaliscannot
apparent
many
only
anything
Mahdbhdsya
works
on
glomeration
con-
warrant
vikdra
2, 5. 1.
may
(a
have
nihil fit
of the
"
dravyam
the
I am
grammarian from them.
writer of the Mahdbhdsya knew
most
the Samkhya- Yoga metaphysics; as a
guna
similaritywith
its
samiihak
of the
the
is
cow
examined
as
for
to
bhdsya.
Vydsa-
I have
exposed and
are
is the
that
in these it is
dravya
which
far
doubt
no
that
able
holding
object
regard
of interrelated
So
been
read
we
with
reminded
are
we
"
ayutasiddhdvayavabheddnugatah
not
of
conglomeration
tail,hoofs, horns,
when
he
that
remember
must
anything
that
as
show
not
we
prove
Moreover,
Mahdbhdsya
in the
of
would
that
sutras.
visanyartharupam"
"
Vydsabhdsya, though
did,
of the
writer
spoken
of
view
does
This
views.
two
"
of words"
further be noticed
1
{Mahdbhdsya).
in this connection
Patafljali's
Mahdbhdsya,
1.
1.
64.
that the
arguments
The
234
far
and
judged
from
the
these
ideas
be
can
as
Alberuni)
shows
from
we
what
that
find in the
in Alberuni
find
we
the way
he
God
of
which
the
and
him
existed, but
name
character
in such
he bestowed
the
not
his
thought comprehends
as
they
The
name
of
anything
soul
The
thing.
that
way
exist
cannot
and
Vedas
them.
on
of God
timeless
the
over
inspiresmen
his
proves
his
speaks, hands
and
idea
Following the
retains
[ch.
supplied by
some
change
copious extracts
had
undergone
sutra.
by cogitationwhat
obtain
could
he
that
Yoga
to
the
Yoga
Patanjala Samkhya
Kapila
perceives
tical
is iden-
qualities.Meditation
with
and
him
The
idea
idea
The
beatitude
of
of soul
givesfour
He
the
object of
this
vairagya; the
his favour
I
in the
alchemy.
As
or
same
as
in the
is
spoken
with
him.
state
one
avdksakha
below),
doctrines
the
the
and
as
an
i.
Upanisad
eternallyemancipated
of God
with
purusa,
that
the
34, but
absorption in
as
the
the
The
Yoga
omniscient, and
sutras
the
of
and
rasa-
the
being
or
urddhvamula
branches
and
root
the
are
different
from
comes
God
upper
branches
the
II. 1, 45.
the
I. 23
liberated
the
an
upwards
roots
are
as
seek
to
is almost
view
the
stands
view
(cf.Yoga sutra,
IV.
fashion,
Veda,
and
23-29
second
and
with
tree
nourishment
Yoga
salvation,
The
is conceived
Its
of
God2.
liberation
II. 25
Brahman
is
in the
as
introduction, namely
place
one
trunk
have
we
of salvation
new
(a
of the
worship
regards
in
asvattha
Brahman,
of
speaks
tation
stages of medi-
four
other
unity with
is the
sfitra.
and
abhyasa (habit)of Patafijali,
Yoga sutra,
The
after
stages
attainment
is
yana
four
of ways
is
third
fourth
The
29).
kinds
abhyasa
the
Yoga
the
at
the
He
same.
follow
the
to
find in
we
is also the
Then
first is the
of which
for
as
same
(miraculous powers)
unity of God.
corresponding
the
sutra.
is the
metempsychosis
eight siddhis
on
is obtained1.
modes
three
is
pun
differenl
of interpretation.
forces ; th(
and
through it
Cf.
Yoga
11.
1.
salvation.
No
argument
is given in the
Yoga
sutras
of
vn]
Patanjaliof Kitab
object of
the
worshipper
Patanjal
the
is to leave
235
and
tree
back
go
the
to
roots.
The
difference
of this system
he has
of
become
God
has
from
that
risen here
of the
Yoga
such
to
is
sutra
importance
absorption
an
the
any
connection
lost
with
God
as
find
we
and
in the
Yoga
Yoga
defined
absorption in
; (6) the very significance
is lost
{cittavrttinirodha)
are
of Brahman
mental
(7) rasayana
the
been
has
sutra
the
states
as
is introduced
(alchemy)
as
one
new
of the
of salvation.
means
From
this
we
of the
Sutr"~m
probably
stands
doctrine
that
direction
it could
mentions
that
he
be
Sivadasa
and
into
easilyassimilated
Tantra
rasayana
as
after
and
Nagarjuna
in connection
with
and
and
was
who
alchemical
the
later
As
by
refers to
his
Mahdbhdsya.
the
author
probable
is very
the
same
probably
been
has
quoted by
matters
and
spoken
the
this work
which
had
or
attained
attain
and
time
account
is the
practically
cannot
2
at
Alberuni, in his
which
one
not
was
called
"
Patanjala." The
same
any
from
this
with
pani
Cakra-
tator
commen-
can
infer that
of
it
was
bably
pro-
written
Vydsabhasya was
great sanctityor authority. Alberuni
when
the
of the book
as
we
yama
Patupatadartana
in
not
of
and
salvation.
that
runs
some
gives some
which
sagaras,
probable that
of
ilpdtanjalamahdbhdsyacarakapratisamskrtaihv
line
of this work
It is also very
way
ments
develop-
with
by Nagesa as "Carake Patanjalih."We can also assume
degree of probabilitythat it is with reference to this man
Cakrapani and Bhoja made the confusion of identifyinghim
the writer of the
it
Yoga
in such
by
salvation, it
such
as
which
doctrines2.
Patanjala tantra,
v/rote
there
fication
modi-
Patanjali'sYoga
channel
from
of
means
of
through
new
Saiva
was
Tantra,
link
transition
Vedanta,
who
Vedanta
this
basis
the
on
entered
sutras
flourished
person
of
the
as
of the
of
doctrine
Yoga
the
that
fairlyassume
can
Sarvadarianasamgraha.
the
and
Kapila
The
236
the
400
or
of
years
by
the
Christian
six
and
era;
in
this
that
two
list with
replaced by
heresies
logicand
world
Now
asana.
given
in the
either
people who
have
elements
new
from
school
Dhyana
we
the
from
believe
both
class
of
inclusion
that
tarka
were
through
or
external
the
From
the Samadhi
thinkers
as
called
aiiga in
given in
an
the
been
there
the
with
of
find
we
sixty-two
eternal.
were
one
the
degrees
that
iti
prana-
has
that
logicalschool
fairlyassume
can
three
of
to
as
paring
Com-
sutras
of
not
"
Maitrayana
tarka
and
know
we
souls
belonging
44
samadhi1.
account
sutta
individual
as
and
Sasvatavada,
samadhi,
to
come
III.
the
Yoga
added,
the
association
list in the
meditation
and
whole
from
and
tarka
been
Brahmajdla
reasoning had
as
of the
that
it may
accessories,namely
or
angas
pratyahara,dhyana, dharana,
yama,
or
of
this book
within
Pataftjali
when
consisted
Upanisad
and
Pataftjali
that
Vydsabhdsya quotes
he refers to this Pataftjali.
Pataftjalih,"
it in
The
meet
conception of Yoga as we
that
improbable
be
time,
with
him
other
some
the
at
as
probablywritten
was
Pataftjali
of
book
the
also described
[ch.
Pdtanjala Samkhya
trine,
Maitrayani Upanisad represents the oldest list of the Yoga docwhen
the Samkhya
in a process of being
and the Yoga were
cussion
of dismethod
the Samkhya
grafted on each other, and when
did
substitution
stand
not
of
as
method
for tarka
independent
of the
The
Yoga.
shows
that
Pataftjali
Yoga had developed a method
separate from the Samkhya.
introduction
of ahimsa
(non-injury),satya (truthfulness),
the
The
asana
in the
list of
aparigraha
brahmacaryya (sex-control),
asteya (want of stealing),
(want
as
deemed
marks
greed)
of
the
period when
had
become
not
them
mentioned
literature of the
Beginning
1
and
yama
sauca
ment)
(content-
(purity),santosa
the
Buddhists
as
Hindus
from
disputes between
so
is also
in such
keen.
Hindus
introduction
as
equally significant,
a
prominent
dealing with
the
The
the
the
form
in
and
the
of maitrl,
we
any
do
not
other
tion.
subject of emancipa-
Acarahgasutra,
Uttarddhyayanasutra
dhdrand
tarkah
samadhih
"adahga ity
vi
i]
Yoga
and
Buddhism
237
the
the
Jains had
that
mainly on the
Yoga discipline
basis of a system of morality indicated
by the yamas, and the
opinion expressed in Alberuni's Pdtanjal that these cannot
give
salvation
marks
the divergence of the Hindus
in later days from
the
of Yoga
is its
Jains. Another
important characteristic
Its treatment
of sorrow
in connecthoroughly pessimistictone.
tion
with
same
been
Tat-
the
statement
that
as
founding
of the
four
their
of the
scope
sacred
truths
the
suffering,
originof suffering,
the
Yoga is the
Buddhists,namely
of the
removal
of
of
and
suffering,
of the
to
of
removal
ideal
and
of
earthlytangiblereality.Yoga
avidya
is the
ignorance
of the four sacred
truths,as we have in the sutra
anitydsuciduhkhdndtmasu
nityasuciduhkhdtniakhydtiravidyd"
(11.5).
The
ground of our existing is our will to live (abhinivesa).
range
"
"This
is
ourselves,that
and
off
us
for the
been
never
literature
at
The
is to
chapters) were
Buddhism
had
Hindus
far
and
My
sense.
show
is true
is
the
composed at a
not
developed,
the
Buddhists
in
Yoga
time
and
and
to
and
used
proper
the
the
Jains had
in the
has
Hindu
these
pointing out
when
cuts
as
which
other
any
sutras
be,
of Buddhism
idea, and
in
be
kinds
other
will
the
coined
when
will to
we
with
much
know,
sole aim
that
of
Buddhist
I
as
blend
as
term
suit the
to
accepted, so
in this
being to
negation
our
be, that
will to
we
least2." This
first time
in this section
the
extend.
of the
Yoga
for
fondly will
we
of existence
being
that
besettingsin
our
things
three
(first
later
forms
of
quarrelsbetween
not
reached
such
drogyam
samyogo
heyahetuk,samyogasydtyantikt nivrttirhanam
Vydsabkdsya, II. 15
2
Oldenberg'sBuddhism1.
hanopdyak samyagdarSanam,
As
this
to
think
is
which
evidence
no
the
them
The
and
many,
like the
They
do
or
contained
the
relation
and
soul
mind
birth
had
all would
exact
sukha,
devoid
the
See
every
thought,ch.
that
both
mental
is but
Das
11.
was
Souls
matter.
are
are
manifested.
are
But
with
associated
phenomena
born
and
is however
the
with
in the
happen
the
it
death
are
the
of
one
The
K"riki,
See Citsukha's
soul
philosophy. Unlike
is described
this that
it does
another
does
for
name
not
Vedanta
in
againstthe other
even
by Samkhya.
I.
18.
Tattvapradlpika,iv.
On
the
individual
of
to
souls
it
of soul ;
nature
(jiva) are
Indian
systems admitted
such
as
of this identification
the doctrine
soul
the
(dnanda)3. Bliss
relation to other
Indian
lute
is abso-
pleasure and
constitute
the
consider
bliss
being
as
differs from
view
not
and
intelligence
ananta-
its nature
Samkhya
most
of Patan/'aJi,
Appendix
a
thoroughly
must
one
Samkhya
denied
difficult of comprehension,
very
characteristic;but
the Patafljalis
as
sphotawhich
ciples,
prin-
two
(cii).The
of pure
to
S. N.
may
Purusa.
or
prakrti and
secondly, according to
1
the mind
understand
to
nature
Samkhya
belongs
rather
been
have
consciousness
of the
with
the
been
in
Vedanta, firstly
be
they
or
of soul
and
any
pure
we
admits
now
in which
of
believe
and
always all-pervasive,
soul
and
it
principleof
are
whatever
nature
in order
Jaina
there
died2.
and
the
that
it not
have
The
but
body
all would
one
Yoga
identifyingthe
of Soul
have
we
root
bodies
in the
interpretedas
of
grasp
prakfti,the
between
and
many,
philosophy as
is such
are
writer, I
the
Since
B.C.
of
way
Doctrine
Yoga
largerbody,
not
disposed
am
not
smaller
century
Yoga
another.
one
chapters of
in the
the
the
and
Samkhya
souls
from
[ch.
being identical1.
as
Samkhya
The
second
stand
can
with
grammarian Patafljali
take
first three
the
placed about
be
must
sfitras
of
borrow
to
of earlier Buddhism
true
date
the
that
Patahjala Samkhya
like
not
held
be
only
can
the
and
Kapila
The
238
systems of
seems
to be
the doctrine
Sphota
see
my
of
Study
vn]
Analystsof Knowledge
illusorymanifestations
but
of
soul
one
or
239
consciousness
pure
the
but
indeed
are
material, but
the
coming
some
sense
and
are
and
as
such
but
the
things.The
the
they
be
to
of
limited
their
in
and
or
these
in
as
some
nature
and
images come
photographs of external
considered
which
are
sense-data
prototypes,
ought
and
is called
matter-stuff,since
often
data
sense
of which
going
they
the
go,
things,
material,
sense
are
'd
the
as
experience
consider
the
distinct
from
In
beneath
which
the
has
we
have
in all
said
every
act
veil.
Samkhya
of
but
So
real nature
thus
as
by
the
principle
the
it is like
Form
Tattakau?midz,$\
Tattvavaisdradi,
and
by
one
motion
are
Yogavdrttika,IV.
I. 4,
II.
far
of
6, 18,
20;
found
or
as
beyond
of the
an
image
the subtle
as
outside
forms
mind-
immersed
and
moves,
minated.
light and are illuspecialcharacteristic
all knowledge would
the
the characteristics
22;
matter, and
painted canvas
knowledge. The
which
without
light,
our
self. The
our
before
one
of other
distinct,transcendent
gets printsfrom
canvas
"self"
our
partialremoval
is behind
sheet
assumes.
have
karma
be
it is
such
we
that
lightwhich
know
veiled
so
cognitions,
like
are
as
to
self cannot
as
Our
it is with
of self is that
and
the
self
seem
only
is because
that
picturesappear
is like
images.
detect
not
other
some
which
merely compositions or
images, are
be blind.
is
the
was
meant
that
knowledge.
darkness;
soul
the
says
knowledge,
the
our
knowledge
substance, and
in
but
picture of
knowledge we
that
whose
principle,
or
form,
mental
no
had
of
there
the
mute,
Jains
matter
do
Upanisads
consciousness,
ideas,and
analysiswe
knowledge
no
infinite
the
knowledge,
the
that
and
pure
of mental
of
know
the mind
pictorialforms which
all speak of
nothing but this light. We
the
things,yet
as
of
change,
no
self is
of
forms
forms
the
illumines
but
atman
or
We
person1.
ordinary ways
our
The
soul
of
of matter, and
Vydsabhdsya, I. 6, 7.
far
so
Patanjala Samkhya
limited
mere
there
but
matter;
as
same
is
knowledge
as
the
and
Kapila
The
240
is
form
other
some
and
[ch.
it is the
movement
principlewhich enlivens
which
they become
scious.
con-
knowledge-forms, by virtue of
This
indeed be
(cit)cannot
principleof consciousness
of this principlein
separatelyperceivedper se, but the presence
indicated
of knowledge is distinctly
forms
all our
by inference.
these
principleof
This
impurity1. The
no
in relation
produces
and
of
knowledge
knowledge
of
but
that
the
it
appearance
and
so
motion,
no
form, no
no
quality,
of the
knowledge-stufftakes place
is illuminated
consciousness
as
by it,
of itself as undergoing all changes
knowledge-stuffwhich
subtle
movement
it,so
to
has
consciousness
illumined
been
item
is
sort
by
the
self
the
only
far
so
the
self,as
part of the
the
as
So far
consciousness.
pure
image is concerned, it is
blind knowledge-stuff.
the
or
the
The
Buddhists
had
parts, and
the
about
brought
the
as
the
not
revelation
analysed knowledge
had
held
that
conscious
the
knowledge
of self but
its diverse
into
coming together of
This
states.
of
content
is
stituent
con-
these
to
the
neither
illusorynor
into touch
Coming
of the
with
the
as
thus
be
and
It is
involved
content
this
; it is concrete
the image.
dent.
transcen-
of subtle
stuff,which
would
otherwise
importantto
note
the
that Samkhya
viz. the
events
has two
relatingelement
of
knowledge,
(buddhi)which is the form of the mind-stuff
in
but
and
aimless
remained
connection
with
knowledge-composites
have
may
abstraction
an
Cognitiontakes place by
the
or
terms
to
as
the two
such
the
representing
pression
ex-
happenings
denote
awareness
and
aspects
and
(cit),
sense-data
in the latter.
of
the
and
242
The
Kapila
thought;
thus
the
do
extend
not
images
have
and
movement,
more
but
in space,
[ch.
Patanjala Samkhya
of
thought
or
less clear
limited,separate,
are
forms.
cut
The
have
images
The
they
represent space.
of thought (sattva)in association
can
plasticelement
and
the
and
lucent
trans-
with
revelation
{rajas)would have resulted in a simultaneous
of mass
of all objects;it is on
account
or
tendency of obstruction
closes
(tamas) that knowledge proceeds from image to image and disThe
buddhi (thought-stuff)
things in a successive manner.
movement
holds
within
and
the
by
stores
of the
at
knowledge
thought
characteristic
the
of
of
only
is a factor of obstruction
matter
gross
matter
made
are
that
all its
picture
one
revelation,demonstrates
there
gross
of the
reflection
and
to
actualityin
though
as
knowledge,
time
arena
view
the
moment,
ness,
dark-
in utter
were
our
veil,by
or
if lost at any
as
it
as
before
comes
darkness
This
purusa.
comes
in
knowledge
hidden
are
idea
that
the
immersed
knowledge
actual
removal
lightof
or
it all
as
Thus
mass.
three
of
up
manifests
which
both
elements,
plasticityof intelligence-stuff
(sattva),energy-stuff(rajas),and
mass-stuff
two
(tamas),or
predominant
are
in gross
Feelings,
the
and
matter
Ultimate
first two
the
the last
Of these
of obstruction.
factor
the
in
thought.
Substances1.
is the position
question that arises in this connection
feelingin such an analysisof thought and matter.
Samkhya
Another
of
holds
that
the
three
think
should
of
find
Even
knowledge
the
are
which
never
of evolution
a
life the
the
stage where
1
Kdrikd,
shock
with
as
Gaudpada
we
go
and
of
and
The
do
not
its
of
at
give rise
Narayanatirtha.
image.
act
of
down
relations
lower
till
feeling,
an
lower
manifestations
knowledge.
keenness
an
as
precede
actions
crude
of
image, and
an
than
which
we
undeveloped
first moment
feelingmass
matter-complexes
12,
the
than
automatic
have
If
ourselves.
and
feelings.As
the level of
less is the
at
elements
with
concomitant
rise to
mere
the
evolution
as
probably
are
of
scale
matter
comes
ordinary
our
as
more
of
crude
the
into
composed
more
comes
it is felt
that
in
it is
It
we
being parts
percept
any
which
it
appearance,
we
thoughts as
our
of
consciousness.
our
that
constituents
feelingsubstances.
are
of
analyze
sensations
characteristic
of
feeling
the scale
last there
to
feeling
The
vn]
reactions
but
to
of
243
Feelings thus
physical reactions.
mere
Guqas
consciousness,whether
we
look
mark
the
at it from
in
point of view of evolution or of the genesis of consciousness
at a certain
ordinarylife. What we call matter
complexes become
call feeling-complexesat
stage feeling-complexesand what we
a
certain
stage of descent
reaction.
matter
The
selves,the ultimate
matter
made
are
sink
feelingsare
matter-complexes with
therefore
the things-in-themmere
of which
substances
up.
into
consciousness
Ordinarily a difficulty
might
and
gross
be
felt in
be
substances
of which
the ultimate
taking feelingsto
gross
made
and thought are
accustomed
matter
are
more
up; for we
but if we
remember
to take feelings
as
being merely subjective,
the Samkhya
analysis,we find that it holds that thought and
matter
but
are
which
The
different
two
are
in
modifications
essence
but
three
of certain
subtle
stances
sub-
types of feelingentities.
that we
principalcharacteristics of thought and matter
have noticed
but the manifestations
in the preceding section are
of three types of feelingsubstances.
There
is the class of feelings
class of feelings
that we
call the sorrowful, there is another
that
call pleasurable,
and there is stillanother
class which
is neither
we
of ignorance,depression
sorrowful
nor
pleasurable,but is one
iyisdda) or dullness. Thus corresponding to these three types of
three
manifestations
The
These
three
called guna
Gunas1.
types of ultimate
subtle
entities
are
technically
of
is
no
in
separate existence
of
qualities;it
holds
that
each
What
quality is but a unit of substance.
call qualityis but a particularmanifestation
or
appearance
but
do
subtle
not
a
quality,
quality
entity.Things
possess
every
unit
of
Yogavdrttika,II. 18; BhavaganesVs Tattvaydthdrthyadipana,pp. 1-3; Vijndndmrtabhdsya, p. 100; Tattvakaumudi, 13; also Gaudapada and Narayanatlrtha,13.
l6
"
244
the
signifiesmerely
object we
holds
to
fine and
subtle
entity,the
quality. This is
also
but
of
entities
which
as
called
by
interpretedby
qualitiesof external
the
soul
These
of
sense
is chained
down
also be
may
ropes
that
because
they
if it
called
as
gunas
the
are
selves
them-
be
also
may
are
entities
manifest
entities
as
objects
they
subtle
as
us
ultimate
modifications
various
qualities.These
or
in the
gunas
matter.
their
the
is
by
gunas
which
of
only
not
is
mental
called
thus
were
true
there
; any
Samkhya
unit of quality,
corresponding
new
every
be,
of which
reaction
subtle
reacts
but
qualities,
and
it may
substance
many
each
corresponding to
that
however
possess
[ch.
Patanjala Samkhya
in which
manner
seems
see
the
like
ropes
thought and
things of secondary
indestructible,they
to
were
and
importance, because though permanent
and
continually suffer modifications
changes by their
groupings and re-groupings,and thus not primarily and
mutual
ably
unalter-
constant
souls
be
subtle
borne
in
substances
or
stuff)and
types called
sattva
are
plasticity
as
in certain
agree
called
with
their three
a largernumber
(e.g.
rajas or tamas,
smaller
number
or
and
of
when
united
united
substances
larger number
rajas and sattva
and
varying proportions),
with different qualities
come
another
are
of sattva
as
of
characteristics
the sattva-gunas
substances
guna
or
are
gunas
acteristics
char-
main
into
in different
those
of tamas
behave
as
behave
which
called tamo-gunas.
in different
with
proportions
and
this,different
being. Though
of
lesser number
substances
substances
result of
or
self-shining
which
those
stances
sub-
of subtle
infinite number
entities,it
entities
substantive
are
of
These
subtle
these
to
inclined
be
may
(mass-stuff).An
tamas
we
qualities.These
in accordance
above
which
units
but
they
abstract
described
as
classes
that
not
senses
applied
as
mind
and
infinite in number,
in whatever
so
with
on
in
substances
attached
to
one
vn]
Prakfti
ever
and
one
in
substances
thus
by
which
is
their
that
it is
is
is
as
of the
mutual
is
other
of the
said
is called
either
to
exist
themselves.
of all characteristics
indefinite.
of all
mother
of
breaking
is
mutual
which
state
no
serves
be
cannot
but
purpose,
the
is however
things. This
It
being which
equilibrium
of
state
for it
non-exist
to
hypotheticallythe
take
equilibrium,in
an
of the
prakrti1.This
or
It is
guna
substances, and
manifest
gunas
pounded
com-
of the
each
gunas
not
are
guna
absolutelydevoid
so
245
gunas
opposition create
characters
which
the
this state
qualitiless
simple homogeneity.
it were
non-being. This state
of the
it is
equal
state
stage in which
one
varying proportions. In
is opposed by each of the
none
This
only
Equilibrium of Gunas
as
which,
place.
Prakrti
believes
Samkhya
such
was
had
mutual
later
state
its Evolution.
and
of dissolution
disintegratedinto
disturbance
the
and
of disunion
prakrti,and
as
pounds
com-
guna
had
by
their
prakrti. Then
equilibrium the
an
in the
arose
in which
state
state
opposition produced
on
"
being there
into
came
result of that
of
process
took
Prakrti,the
gunas,
thus
of
perfecthomogeneity
gradually evolved and became
state
incoherence
and
and
more
of the
minate,
deter-
more
differentiated,
heterogeneous,and coherent. The gunas are
always uniting,separating,and unitingagain2. Varying qualities
of essence,
and
energy,
the
indefinite
in varied
mass
their mutual
through
from
and
interaction
indeterminate
qualitatively
or
determinate.
qualitatively
the world
never
there
of
these
effects,
diverse
in the
is is due
element
the
is due
resistance,
stability,
to sattva.
in any
others
to
Yogavdrltika,II.
Kawnudi,
19, and
rajasand rajasalone;
tamas,and
latent,though
diverse
with
moments
of
particularguna
phenomenon becomes
definite
or
tendencies
The
become
the
And
coalesce. Thus
to
which
presence
Pravacanabhdsya,
13-16; Tattvavaifdradi,II,
20,
IV.
be
predominant
in that
manifest
their
to
all matter,
manifestation
all conscious
happens
energy
I.
and
phenomenon
is inferred
by
their
Yogavdrttika,IV.
13, 14^
61.
The
246
Kapila and
the
[ch.
PatanjalaSamkhya
is patent, energy
example, in a body at rest mass
of conscious
manifestation
sublatent. In a
latent and potentiality
and the mass
is
moving body, the rajasis predominant (kinetic)
of the groupings of
All these transformations
overcome.
partially
the state of prakrti
in different proportionspresuppose
the gunas
the startingpoint. It is at this stage that the tendencies
to
as
conscious
manifestation,as well as the powers of doing work, are
by the resistance of inertia or mass,
exactly counterbalanced
When
this equiand the process of cosmic
evolution
is at rest.
librium
is once
destroyed,it is supposed that out of a natural
of all the sattva
reals for themselves,of rajasreals for other
affinity
ent
at differunequal aggregation of sattva, rajas,or tamas
When
is preponderant in any particular
moments.
one
guna
collocation,the others are co-operant. This evolutionaryseries
of the prakrtito the final
beginning from the first disturbance
transformation
the world-order, is subject to "a definite law
as
arises
an
which
it cannot
overstep."In
the words
B. N.
of Dr
Seal1,
"
the process
consists
succession
is neither
parts, but
ever
in the
from
parts
to whole
nor
from
whole
to
the
less determinate,
relativelyless differentiated,
less coherent
whole
more
to a relatively
differentiated,
The
coherent
whole."
more
determinate,more
meaning of such
evolution
is this,that all the changes and
in
modifications
an
the shape of the evolving collocations
reals take place
of guna
within
the body of the prakrti. Prakrti
finite
consistingof the inreals is infinite,
disturbed
does
and
that it has been
not
that
mean
that
the
from
whole
of
it has
been
and
disturbed
upset,
or
the
themselves
another, and
togetherfirst in
so
on.
But
such
one
a
form, then
change
in
in the
another, then
formation
of
Dr
should
not
be
ofthe
Ancient
Hindus,
191 5, p. 7.
Prakrti
vn]
the
For
truth
second
is that
stage is the
stage which
had
as
stage is made
is made
form
the
the
aggregate
new
as
first
the
stage, the
good by
new
to
good by
of the second
forth
; this
of the
aggregation of some
deficiencyof the reals of
result of
reals of the
second
247
one
gone
its Evolution
and
of
deficiency
stage
from
the first stage and
that of the
refilling
first stage from the prakrti.Thus
the
by a succession of refillings
where
to its last limit,
proceeds,tillwe come
process of evolution
real evolution
there is no
of new
chemical
substance,but mere
and physicalchanges of qualities
in things which
had
already
evolved.
Evolution
the
in Samkhya means
{tattvantaraparinama)
development of categoriesof existence and not mere
changes of
of substances
or
chemical, biological
mental).
qualities
(physical,
Thus
each
of the
stages of evolution
category of being,and
and
to
the
as
and
more
permanent
entiated
differ-
more
coherent
it is said that
of
offers scope
remains
new
vivekd).
and
Pralaya
how
But
or
knotty point in
the
disturbance
is such
inherent
of
to absolute
is so
connected
teleologyor
blind
the purusas,
with
purpose
and
there
sufferance
Equilibrium.
of the gunas
of the diverse
Prakrti
rather
sum-total
an
of the
freedom
and
or
transformations
mukti.
return
take
of
this manifold
world
brings about
their
equilibrium.This equilibriumhowever
is not
of utmost
tension; there is intense
passivestate, but one
but the activity
here does not lead to the generation of
activity,
of new
this course
new
{visadrsa-parinama)\
thingsand qualities
mere
the
Kapila and
The
248
[ch.
PatanjalaSamkhya
for
ceases
reference
with
ever
to
the
liberated
soul.
stillthe
Thus
purusas.
that
there
there
should
of the
for the
be
karmas
of the
suspension of
end
This
of
had
purusas
all
it,it is the
the purusas
is but
demanded
experience,for
another
period
inherent
same
experiencesof
is disturbed.
state
the
pralaya. At the
prakrtithat wakes
was
world
when
by
which
way
of
of
pose
pur-
suitable
its
quiescent
looking at the
demands
which
that a state of
prakrti,
should
and a state of world-framingactivity
pralaya should cease
which
in the gunas
begin. Since there is a purpose
brought
them
the state of equilibriumalso preto a state of equilibrium,
supposes
inherent
teleologyof
that
so
demands.
about
the
it also may
Thus
the state
of
the
be broken
inherent
pralaya and
work
again,and it is this
be regarded from
another
up
purpose
broke
then
natural
change
point
of
view
for the
it up
prakrtithat
in the
may
transcendental
the
as
creative
firstevolute
of the sattva
from
state
1
which
The
all the
Yoga
Ahamkara.
prakrtiis generatedby
This is
(intelligence-stuff).
in which
of
equilibrium
of the
and
the
answer
the
stuff of sattva
is of
for
prakrti
course
new
has
indeed
sprung
preponderance
predominates. It
different. It believes
it is
forth ; and
thus
holds
of the
(God).
the
and
Kapila
The
250
Patanjala Samkhya
[ch.
of the sattva
preponderance
helps(sahakdri)the transformations
and the tamas
preponderance. The development of the former
preponderance,as is easy to see, is only the assumption of a more
and
of
character
determinate
more
the
buddhi,
for
we
remember
of a sattva
resultingtransformation
preponderance. Further development with the help of rajas on
the
the line of sattva
development could only take place when
that buddhi
itself has
buddhi
mind
as
kdrika
the
itself in
determined
of the
development
been
buddhi
ahamkara.
on
ahamkara
This
The
specificways.
represents
sdttvika
the
first
or
vai-
development
to
thisness.
The
of the
The
ahamkara
or
ego
which
general consciousness
of the
function
is therefore
ego
experience as mine.
abhimdna
tion).
(self-asser-
takes
called
of vision,
the five cognitive senses
again come
of speech,
touch, smell,taste, and hearing,the five conative senses
and
the generative
handling, foot-movement, the ejectivesense
the prdnas (bio-motor force)which
help both conation and
sense;
From
this
but
cognitionare
aspects
and
ahamkaras
by
of buddhi-movement
senses
are
related
the
into
and
sense-evolutes
other
buddhis
knowledge
for each
apart
thus
with
is
forms
their
so
far
knowledge
sense
all buddhis
associated
is
in the buddhitattva.
separate from
as
So
groups.
and
the
general mind
concerned,
Even
there
there
come
(ego)
of ahamkara
group
microcosm
buddhis
they had
which
from
subjectto sense-influence
individual,but
from
the individual
to
vidual
indi-
life. The
as
similar
far therefore
as
ego, it is different
{kdrana buddhi)
is a community of
however
each
buddhi
and
from
the
buddhi
buddhi, and
again
must
for
as
buddhi
senses
are
in their
mark
that
functions,they
are
in this connection
exhausts
partiallyexhausts
related
remember
of buddhi
so
the
and
doctrine
modes.
of
We
refilling,
ficiency
giving rise to ahamkara, the degood by prakrti; again as ahamkara
its part in
is made
itself in
Evolution
vn]
is made
ciency
good by
prakrti.
The
Tanmatras
stadia
251
the
buddhi.
are
always
and
the
the
this state
side
in which
which
made
the
good
higher state
Paramanus1.
Thus
each
from
refilling
other
the
by
of the
constant
finallyfrom
The
from
refilling
each
of Infra-atoms
the
has
to
be
make
succeeds
tamas
helped
itself preponderant,
in
coming
over-
in the
There
has
as
mahat
been
to whether
ahamkara.
evolution
controversy
some
here
does
not
the
which
Bhutadi
bhutadi.
of all
The
second
chemical
stadium
reals
tamas
mahat
the
the mahat
or
the
marks
but
characters
Yoga
from
or
remember
that
but
emanation,
creasing
in-
evolving whole.
the
differentiation
its stage
through
absolutelyhomogeneous
is
physical and
out
integrationwithin
in
regroupings of
takes place within
Thus
coming
and
Samkhya
if we
intelligible
becomes
mean
differentiation
between
generated from
are
situation
regroupings of tamas
generation of the tanmatras.
for the
proceed
the tanmatras
The
so
was
and
as
inert,devoid
except quantum
or
mass.
tanmatra
These
tials"
"potenimpingent, radiant, instinct with potentialenergy.
arise from the unequal aggregation of the originalmass-units
tion
with an unequal distribuin different proportionsand collocations
of the
more
than
or
viscous
and
In
possess
cohesive
the
radiant
tanmatras
and
energy;
possess
thing
some-
they
possess
others powers
of
penetrability,
heat, others again capabilityof
attraction2.
relation
with
potentialsof
colour,taste, and
mass
of them
others
pressure,
intimate
of
quantum
physicalcharacters, some
impact
{rajas).The
originalenergy
smell
those
physical characters
they
also
the
accepted in this section and in the next many of the translations of Sanskrit
expressionsof Dr Seal and am
largelyindebted to him for his illuminating
in
Hindu
as
Ray's
Chemistry. The credit of explaining
expositionof this subject given
of
Samkhya physicsin the light the text belongs entirelyto him.
1
terms
I have
and
Dr
Seal's Positive
Sciences
of the
Ancient
Hindus.
and
lodged in
words, the potentials
subtle
like the
matter
by
transformations
act
stimuli
sensory
as
the
thereof
particles
driya but
the
This
bhutadi
rupa
the
produces
as
before
atoms
It is
senses
home
brought
of
exist
to
grasped by
these
five
tanmatras
to
is also
have
can
to
the
to
ksiti,ap,
similarly
infra-atomic
or
which
have
of
only
grouped
be
must
constitute
power
; the
unit of tamas
the tanmatras
senses,
particularform
existence
new
affectingour
the classification
that
point out
tejas,marut
senses.
and
is
vyoman
chemical
thus
five different
corresponding
the
five
elements,
was
this,that
bhutadi
from
difference of tanmatras
is
the
with
senses.
the
the
to
five
also conceived
of the
exist
to
as
with
five
the
the
are
may
be
existence
of
qualitieswhich
In accordance
existence
substances
ultimate
potentialstates
ground of the
or
five
forms.
gross
The
follows:
from
sound-
or
(smell-potential)
tanmdtra
our
affecting
particularqualityand
said
gandha
objectsas
upon
five
of the
bhutadi
from
of tamas
unit
in this connection
all gross
based
not
of
the
The
they
important
of
(the
tanmdtra
is generated
(colour-potential)
tanmdtra
{paramdnu)
atoms
potentialpower
regrouped in
and
akasa
or
unit of tamas
accretion
minutest
infra-sensible {atin-
be
may
the ap tanmatra
or
(taste-potential)
again by its union with
ap tanmatra
tanmdtra
units
of
union
the
similarlyby
from
sabda
the
The
tanmatra.
formed.
stimuli
in the
though
first
generated by
rasa
or
Next
generated directly from the bhutadi.
which
is
(touch-potential)
sparsa or the vdyu tanmdtra
the
akasa
collocations
matter,
gross
sensory
tanmatras
potential)is
comes
as
undergo peculiar
before they can
must
matter
other
In
aggregates.
anudbhuta)1.
not
the
Of
groupings
new
their
particles
in
"potentials"assume
these
atoms
of gross
[ci-i.
Patanjala Samkhya
the
which
peculiarforms
of the
and
Kapila
The
252
the
bhutadi
with
Dr
There
the
generated from
are
with
sound-potential,
of
rudiment
as
matter
The
combine
touch-potentials
to generate the
vibratoryparticles
(sound-potential)
accretion
the tanmatras
various ways
Hindus.
in which
Samkhya
Hindus.
for some
account
and
of it see
Dr
atoms
were
plained
ex-
Seal's Positive
Evolution
i]
vi
potentialsand
253
light-and-heatpotentialscombine
The
vayu-atom.
of Atoms
sound-potentialsto produce
with
touch-
tejas-atom. The
the
combine
with
taste-potentials
light-and-heatpotentials,touchpotentialsand sound-potentialsto generate the ap-atom and the
combine
smell-potentials
to generate
preceding potentials
The akasa-atom
the vayupenetrability,
possesses
mechanical
heat
pressure, the tejas-atom radiant
the earth-atom.
impact or
light,the ap-atom
atom
and
viscous
aka"a
attraction. The
cohesive
the bhutadi
link from
the
with
the
to
attraction
have
we
and
forms
seen
and
tanmatra
the
from
earth-atom
the
the
transition
tanmatra
to
atomic
formless
is the
tamas
the
"
in
mass
is not
and
all-pervasive,
occupiedness (dvarandbhdva) or
indeed
with
associated
negation, a
mere
When
vacuum1.
element
this tamas
bhutadi;
prakrti or
it
gives
it is
mere
is first
energy
the
rise to
un-
sound-
it
occupies limited
avisesa
for the
of them
to
form
of evolution
in the
the
on
atomic
such
them
1
to
which
started
in the
B. N.
the ether
atoms
new
that
which
Dr
as
atomic
determinations
the
existence
five atoms
further be
cannot
in the
tions
differentia-
or
categoriesof
newer
and
they
technicallycalled
prakrtireaches
determined
so
that the
It is thus
called
are
course
its furthest
limit
the one
the atoms
side and
on
production of the senses
other.
Changes no doubt take place in bodies having
constitution, but these changes are changes of qualitydue
of
not
aka"a
Being
atoms.
are
category of existence.
new
spatialchanges
to
of
senses
for
visesa,i.e. determinate,
as
of vayu
further
formation
eleven
possible.The
are
originalkarana
five tanmatras
the
indeterminate, for
or
in the
up
space.
and
ahamkara
The
held
development
for the
medium
the
and
everywhere
newer
was
positionof
and
atoms
category of existence
different
substantially
and
of the physicists
in others
Chemistry,
or
their re-arrangement.
the
says
to what
p. 88.
from
"Akasa
may
could
the
duction
intro-
But
these
be
formed
combined
corresponds in
be called
the
to
some
are
by
atoms.
respects
proto-atom (protyle)."
The
254
The
take
that
changes
certainlydeserve
noticed.
But
constitution
before
we
go
on
of
things
to
this,it
ing
accord-
hended
compre-
interpreted.
or
Principle of Causation
them?
when
from
When
the
tanmatras
of
have
atoms
the
Energy1.
prakrti supply
of other
have
tanmatras
some
some
and
the
can
mahat
from
mahat
deficiencyin
Conservation
by the formation
in its evolutes
made
from
and
raised,how
is
question
ficiences
atomic
to
which
The
the
[ch.
will be better
to
Patanjala Samkhya
place in
be
to
the
and
Kapila
made
de-
evolutes
evolved,or
evolved, how
be
tanmatras
the
the
can
good by
the
prakrti?
into
curd, and
remains
the
changes
energy
and
cause
effect
stage when
the atomic
place in
that take
is the
again,what
Or
while
same
only
are
Samkhya
on?
so
more
of effects
Energy. The sum
potentialform. The grouping or
and
is
(material)cause
rather
or
exists
of
appearance
of the
an
effect
sculptor'sart) is only
and
the
concomitant
(nimitta-kdrana,such
block
by
its passage
of
sum
alone
What
same
causes
changes,
of
the
is called
the
is efficient in the
This
Energy
set
conditions
into
causal
power
free
are
duction
prois the
(iidbhutanecessary
activity2."The
manifestation
the
of the
latent powers
cause
the
as
in the
power.
of the
material
(such
marble
in the
statue
of the
the concomitant
so-called
the
forth
But
forms
new.
which
power
vehicle
the
the
only
the total
constantlyevolving,
collocation
anything
form
(or potential)
unmanifested
to
of
is
of the
manifestation
creation
without
but
gunas,
the
brings on
this
that "as
less evolved
or
gross
says
world
the
ultimate
in
one
transformations
of
the
figure
of
efficiency
the
from
to actuality
potentiality
conditions
efficient cause
or
(sahakdri-sakti)
the sculptor's
as
art)is a sort of mechanical
help to this passage or the transition8. The
help or instrumental
than
from
prakrti thus means
this,that
nothing more
refilling
by the inherent teleology of the prakrti,the reals there are so
to be
transformed
collocated
as
have
collocated
been
1
2
to
form
into mahat
the
bhutadi
as
or
those
the
of the mahat
tanmatras.
IV.
Vydsabh"sya and Yogavdrttika,
3 ; Tattvavaifdradf,IV. 3.
8 Ibid.
Chemistry, p. 71.
Ray, History of Hindu
p. 73.
Conservation
vn]
however
Yoga
causes
of effects. When
sum
of material
sum
is that
is
As
the
of
owner
obstructingmud
the
the
(such
other
and
manner
barrier
the
is removed,
in
and
the
equilibrium in
themselves
evolve
Change
It is easy
as
to
of atoms
unless
barrier
the
present collocation
instrumental
of the
difference
five atoms
is different
from
these
that
in
barriers
of
state
exist
removed,
the
by
energy
reals
of arrest
other
some
formed
arrangement
or
form,
of
the
tion
colloca-
the
The
simply this,that
a
it is easy
in which
whichever
direction
its
of atoms
grouping
which
that
any
its
vyoman.
change,
From
in
and
of
equilibrium,and
that
extraneous
by
formation
The
against any
said
formation
the
is
flows
in
removed
are
change
not
another
exist.
this
Isvara, the
already
things are
in infinite directions
have
by
in another.
barrier
inherent
in
was
their state
ksiti,
marut,
ap, tejas,
the
or
milk
collocations.
new
caused
thing and
one
of atoms
collocation
of
the
example
accordingly for
will of
thing
removed
gross
for
atoms
could
could
All
between
of
or
be
collocation,
the barriers
as
we
in any
corresponding
form
to
causes
etc.
inherent
cause.
collocation
an
forming
other
Thus
prakrtileave
what
from
of itself
flows
inherent
in
out
constant
formation
the
remove
instrumental
any
the
soon
into mahat,
see
collocation
as
of
state
to
the
prakrti,guided by
the
has
also
So
of
one
If
collocates
and
of curd.
the formation
from
milk-atoms
state.
from
only
barrier
flows
the
energy
corresponding manner
the
to
liberation
water
or
into
collocation.
milk
in the
on
has
the
the
the
collocated
which
level
efficient
collocation
that
determines
of arrest
state
the
sculptor'sart) remove
against its transformation
from
in the
arrest, disturbs
water
transferring
lower
or
when
of
(gunasannivesavis'esa).
barriers,whereupon
field,so
energy
energy
brings
collocation
same
of
sum
is added
the
removes
the
as
collocation
the
which
adjacent field in
an
basis
fresh
of the
another
field to
in
equilibrium,and
with
together
energy
255
more
condition
effectuating
imparted
relativelystable
the
to
the
conditions
stimulus
this
explains
Change
vividly on the
of the liberated potentialenergy.
The
potentiallycontains the energy manifested
transformation
material
and
of Energy
collocation
keeps
that
to
that
see
all the
other
helps
the
correspondingobject.Provided
removed, anything could be changed
of
formation
could
be
the
that
Yogins
any
line
of evolution
follows
"a
natural
definite
which
barriers
has
evolutionarycourse
lines where
not
in
of
deer
curd
can
tdpabandhd).
path which
of
out
come
The
is the
milk, this
evolutionary
barricaded
is not
by
form
the
of those
grows
of
in the
rainy
(kdldpabandha)\
(dkdrdpabandhd) ;
(nimit-
causes
follow
only
limitations
of these
are
is limitation
grow
thus
can
stepped"
over-
thus
saffron
of
limitation
course
any
time
of
the
there
and
Thus
paddy
or
only, this is limitation of season
cannot
beget men, this is limitation by
season
words
Bengal, this
kinds
be
exclusion
the
to
by
powers
cannot
removed,
be removed.
not
(desdpabandhd); certain
countries
path
and
like Kashmere
in countries
be
thing.
of events
course
in other
or
other
anything out
which
law
cannot
take
to
make
thus
the normal
{parindmakramaniyama)
some
into any
acquire the
can
and
barriers,
which
it is believed
And
[ch.
PatafijalaSamkhya
the
and
Kapila
The
256
that
natural
or
obstructions1.
whole
at
the collocation
what
it
the
at
was
of atoms
previous
perceived
they are
changes are perceivable,
or
quality; but
dharmaparindma or changes of dharma
or
unperceived the changes are continuallygoing on.
When
change
virtue
and
these
of appearance
of which
these
we
At
evolution
new,
old
call it
we
latent
or
present and
Vydsabhdfya^
It is well
construction
old
laksanaparindma and
object of the world
or
new,
avasthdgoing
is under-
manifested
to
be
present, when
past. Thus
changes
of
sub-
it becomes
potential,
it is that
the
thing
called
are
future,
past2.
as
every
aspect by
past, and
or
This
sub-latent
order of moments
the
another
ceived
per-
or
it is said
manifest, and
of time
moment
future,when
again
from
call it present
may
every
viewed
be
may
called
respectively
are
parindma.
as
moment
any
moment.
as
is
Tattvavaifaradi
to note
an
and
Yogav"rttika,III.
in this connection
that
14.
Samkhya-yoga
admit
does not
of the mind
the
mind
grasps
(buddhi-nirm"na).
the
The
phenomenal changes.
time
requiredby
an
the existence
represents the
It is hence
atom
to
move
The
point of
one
asatkaryavada.The
vdda
against the
as
remains
cause
these
the
illusoryimpositionsof
mere
Maya1.
true
relatively
are
that
its effects is
Vedanta
ever
views
view
Samkhya
and
and
from
is
cause
technicallycalled
the
what
unreal
mere
the
called
view
same,
[ch.
Patanjala Samkhya
satkaryavada is true
view
itself into
transforming
the
that both
holds
Jain view
that from
and
Kapila
The
258
another
continually
parindmathat
vivarttavdda:
call effects
we
and
of
appearance
but
are
and
name
form
"
Atheism
SSmkhya
that
Granted
number
of reals
whence
comes
this fixed
of
first disturbance
denies
there
the
inherent
an
This
which
barriers
effect
any
or
the
prakrti? Samkhya
the
other
any
exterior
influence,
reals should
of the
movements
into
cause
Isvara(God) or
is
so-called
equilibrium of
their movements.
guides all
that
of
of the
of any
of
of the
order
fixed
the
the existence
holds that
and
order
transformation
the
prevent
Theism.
Yoga
the
effect,the
and
cause
and
be
in such
that
manner
the
on
"
mental
and
faculties,
on
in fulfilment
of
take
hand
buddhi
objectiveplane
the
demands
and
the
on
other
finallyrouses
liberation
them
from
causes
Both
as
this
tendency
here
the
tendency to be
guides all the movements
the
world
to turn
back
the association
us
asks, how
the Vedanta
and
as
infinite modes
is this
disorder, renders
Yoga
place subjectiveexperiences
(purusdrthatd)that
which
of
mind
or
the
things. It
all
plane,citta
from
of
the
the
on
of
changes
of the
of service
changes
to
the
one
the
jective
of ob-
purus;
of the reals,restrain*
the world
prakrtiand
of
the blind
the Samkhya
fit
that
and
seek
to
attaii
its gratuitousservice
samsara.
tendency
of the
theories of causation
correctly
speakingas
some
are
non-intelligent
sometimes
commentators
discerning
loosely
have
i]
vi
prakrtican
how
service
bring
the
to
what
it
can
too
from
evolutionaryorder
can
that
all
universe,
its
remove
this blind
of the
harmony
of evolution
evolutionaryprocess
equilibrium? How
259
and
course
how
purusas,
itself to the
this order
forth
it determine
can
lend
Theism
Yoga
barriers
own
the
of
prakrti
regulatethe
state
tendency
and
so
suffer
pains according to
their bad
karmas, and happiness according to their good ones?
There
be some
must
intelligent
Being who should help the course
of evolution in such a way
that this system of order and harmony
be attained.
This Being is Isvara.
Isvara is a purusa
who
may
had never
been subjectto ignorance,afflictions,
or
passions. His
be touched
body is of pure sattva
quality which can never
by
all
and
all
He
has
is
He
a perknowledge
ignorance.
powerful.
manent
wish
that
by
which
the reals
double
those
(apavarga) should
will of Isvara
follow
gunas
barriers
in the
the evolution
of the
interest
must
men
be
of the evolution
course
of the gunas
may
best
serve
of
the
that
barriers
the proper
naturallyan
of evolution
course
intelligent
and
removed
are
Isvara
the
for the
has not
created
the
is
and
brought
about.
This
acknowledgement
of Isvara
its denial
Buddhi
The
the
can
the
and
Purusa.
ligence,
question again arises that though purusa is pure intelthe gunas
are
non-intelligentsubtle substances, how
latter
purusa
is pure
impurity and
into
come
what
the
former?
without
intelligence
inactive
service
with
touch
or
need
can
such
any
Moreover,
touch
of
have
of
purusa
has
is anticipatedby Samkhya, which
difficulty
for its answer
already made room
by assuming that one class of
the purity and
the gunas called sattva
is such that it resembles
the
gunas?
the
of
intelligence
This
Tattvavais'dradi,IV.
the
3;
purusa
to
Yogavdrttika,I.
very
24;
and
much
high degree,so
Pravacanabkdsya,
v.
1-12.
17"2
so
that
it
Patanjala Samkhya
of
intelligence
reflect the
can
the
and
Kapila
The
260
the
and
purusa,
[ch.
thus
render
if they were
to appear
transformations
telligent.
inas
non-intelligent
volitional
Thus
all our
or
thoughts and other emotional
transformations
of the
operations are reallythe non-intelligent
its
buddhi
citta
or
having
reflection
of the
preponderance; but by
the buddhi, these appear
largesattva
of the
in
purusa
virtue
if
as
existence
The
self (purusa) according to Samkhyaintelligent.
Its
not
by self-consciousness.
directly demonstrated
of inference
is a matter
on
grounds and
teleological
grounds
of
they
Yoga
are
is
noticed
The
responsibility.
moral
the buddhi
from
being separate
as
beginninglessignorance there
of buddhi
states
are
regarded as
further
are
buddhi
that
This
buddhi
of the
who
says
purusa
the
is somewhat
and
the
realize
that
the
Buddhi
resembles
the
the
buddhi
distinction
is what
the
root
experiences.
is intelligized
by
the
upon
1
9
As
result
in
the
is meant
from
and
transparency,
modifications
the
purusa
Yogavdrttika,I.
non-apprehensionof
the
which
of the
be
the
the purusa
of cit
its
not
bound
is itself a mode
own.
fails to
buddhi,
becomes
on
cannot
purusa
of the
the
and
down
the
that
This
as
non-
of buddhi
Samkhya,
and
is
4.
analysisof
are
in
notion
purusa
are
buddhi
and
by avidyd (non-knowledge)
experience and all misery3.
and
of the purusa,
with
buddhi
person
may
the
the
therefore
reflection
buddhi
the
Bhiksu.
real
have
we
of this
of the
transformations
its transformations
TcUtvavaifaradl
This
purusa
with
supposed
of the buddhi
superimpositionof
of purusa
be
the reflection
purusa,
purusa
of
experiences1. Whatever
who
itself from
of all
purusa.
of the
buddhi
notion
the
give us
of the
association
to
the
by Vijnana
to
It is to
mystical.
buddhi
differentiate
reflection
objected
is
cannot
person
explanation,it seems
that
superimposed
abiding
an
in the
purusa
situation
the buddhi
it is then
of
the
undergoes
that when
of the
changes
preted
specialfitness (yogyata) that it is interThis
explanation of
experience of the purusa.
such
has
Vacaspati of
VijfianaBhiksu
image
the
with
changing
buddhi
experiences of
the
directly
Through
the
These
reflection
the
and
confusion
be
cannot
modifications.
conscious.
buddhi
of the
the
as
is
interpretedas
they are
association
in the
with
associated
so
self
illusion with
things (e.g.the
Samkhya.
snake
and
It is the
vn]
and
Ignorance
holds
Yoga
and
the
buddhi
261
that
slightlydifferent view and supposes
only fails to distinguishthe difference between
not
purusa
Illusion
buddhi
its
but
positivelytakes
but
that
It is
the
own.
impure, sorrowful,
of
difference
the
no
and
self
it-
transformations
non-perception of
positivelyfalse knowledge, that we take the
which
it is not
(anyathakhydti). It takes
as
the
the
be
to
purusa
changing,
buddhi
the
to be
objectiveprakrti or
changeless,pure, happiness-begettingsubject. It wrongly thinks
buddhi
be the self and
to
and
regards it as pure, permanent
capable of giving us happiness. This is the avidya of Yoga.
associated
buddhi
avidya,and
with
the
same
If in the
in the
by
of the
of
proceeds
the
is rooted
out
attach
The
it and
easily get
rid
creation
they
of
by
the
in order
process
with
there
is
of the
avidyas
buddhis
rise of true
and
also
the
knowledge,
is forever
is
avidya.
submerged
it. When
become
the
manifest
with
pralaya.
of
avidya
the
at the
associated
themselves
before
When
samsara.
this
buddhis
associate
attached
were
of
Thus
person
fails to
buddhi
dissociated
the
from
it,and
that
that
external
an
and
characteristics
some
buddhi
and
the
of Citta.
internal
objects have
to
by Vacaspati) holds
touch
old
the
Process
said
been
is the
individual
the
is associated
buddhi
sleeps with
an
of mukti.
Cognitive
evolved
also
avidya
the
course
state
It has
touch
it cannot
this is the
into
buddhi
emerge,
which
to
purusas
same
place,the
such
by
the
the
next
is dominated
purusa
pralaya takes
purusas
virtue
after birth
purusa,
prakrti,and
the
What
birth
meantime
beginning
with
when
with
through the
objects. At
senses
the
the
buddhi
of
first moment
indeterminate
consciousness
in which
be
This
is called
thing
cannot
noticed.
comes
this
the
particulars
nirvikalpa
moment
by
associates
cause
illusion which
the
must
be
consists
in
differentiates,integrates,
through
the
senses,
and
theory of
(non-apprehension)
theory
anyathakhydti(misapprehension)
the
rope)
positivelymisapprehendingone (e.g.
distinguishedfrom
which
manas
received
sense-data
of illusion ; it is therefore
of illusion of Yoga
for the other
character; the
the
snake). Yogavdrttika,I.
(e.g.
8.
The
262
Kapila
and
the
by the purusa
experience of
buddhi,
and
times
in
as
and
associated
the
person.
take
may
from
this
perception,which
with
The
it becomes
activityof the
directlycomes
into
At
first moment
the
but
the
at
of
second
It is evident
it is
the
the
touch
the
other
at
the
that
says
synthetic
buddhi
the
the
senses.
perception is indeterminate,
and
clear
of
being only
as
determinate1.
is reduced
manas
sire,
de-
facultyof
the
and
and
the
senses,
called
often
citta
in
of
substances, and
sattva
another.
to
and
buddhi
functions
does
not
but
for
is
the
admit
any
performs the
1
senses,
the sense-data
time-order
is
like trees
in
buddhi
bhavati"
as
up;
the
with
for it is
for the
this
modified
sciousness
con-
by
its
Samkhya
the
Vedanta
category
its diverse
body.
objectstakes placethrough
by the
senses
if
they
are
of
ments
move-
of the
sense-functions
the external
are
of
(vitalbreath)to keep
operation of
body and by
and
of the
endeavour.
moral
it were,
kept
vayu
of
life-functions
buddhi
is
and
vdyus (bio-motorforce)in
through
of colours,etc.,
the
defective.
however
assumes
flows
is reflected
on
4.
it by the senses,
to the external
through the senses
objectsand assumes
taih
indriydnyevapranalika cittasaficaranamdrgah samyujya tadgolabahyavastusiiparaktasyacittasyendriyasdhityenaivdrthdkdrahparindmo
their forms:
kadvara
being
are
tasmimha
imastah
The
and
directly,but the
perceivedby the senses
of the citta or the buddhi.
scheme
Generallyspeaking Yoga holds
in which they are reflected,
the
buddhi
a
re
objects faithfully
copiedby
lake
body,
body
modes
spatialqualitiesof thingsare
the
called
all
of the
the contact
As
the
over
separate prana
are
acts
all
life of
different
which
buddhi,
explaining experience
spread
that
the
of buddhi
The
existence
experiences of a person.
postulatedfor explaining the illumination
body living.What
are
conscious,
tent
con-
one
the
and
The
constantly becoming
is to be
purusa
is
These
are
purusa
interpretedas
or
denies
importance
regarded
imagination.
Buddhi, including ahamkara
The
ahamkara,
senses,
objects through
it becomes
this view
on
and
doubt
with
moment
that
minimum
to a
touch
the
simultaneously.VijfianaBhiksu
fear
of
view
intelligized
successivelyand
Vacaspati, and
mind-organ (manas), and
differs
when
[ch.
interpretedas
of the
action
place sometimes
of sudden
cases
Patanjala Samkhya
out
*'
Tattvakaumudl,
27
and
30.
Instinct
vn]
Apart
rather
from
citta
the
perceptionsand
(vasana)1. These
same
Every
as
and
man
animal
lives. It is knotted
passes
into
He
attached
of the
life
to
such
of
these
to each
might
as
samskaras
which
he
took
The
like
of
delightfor
senses
of
become
of
like those
of
previouslifeand becomes
It is by the revival
a dog.
if the
occurred
be
cannot
and
instincts
when
active
was
one
any
sankhara
Ka^ika
11.
of
meaning
in three
probably preceded Buddha
from
a
new
quality
generating
distinguished
ii.
on
16), (2) conglomeration
Panini, VI.
which
All
in sub-conscious
Upanisads
do
our
states
(smrti).The
word
not
in
which
are
can
2,
not
to
yet
across
come
of samskara
predicated.
the
samskaroii
Brhadaranyaka,
any
in Hindu
may
(Yoga
mention
of
it and
meaning
iii. 1,
VI.
of the
use
literary
in
is used
second
philosophy is altogether
cognitive,emotional or conative
be reproduced as
conditions
so
"vas"
suitable
sutra,
far
as
24)
to
seems
I know
it is not
it,and
life. See
it
be
The
later word.
mentioned
in the
identified in
of which
IV.
lie dormant
samskaras
are
Vydsabhdsya^ TatlvavaUaradt
and
9.
But
are
Only
sub-conscious
innate
sense
generally
vasana
in the mind.
the
Pali
in the Muktika
occurs
to
are
IV.
mentions
Moggallana
root
Vydsabhdsya they
find scope
under
acquired in this
be
suggest that
word
3, 4, viii. 8, 5, and
experienceswhether
and
vasana
pitakas. Abhidhanappadipikd
from
the
Upanisad. It comes
samskara, and
have
could
impermanence
means
objects experienced.
memory
xvi.
meaning
The
in Sanskrit.
different. It
IV.
were
as
of
anything
improving. I
in
who
sense
passions which
any
in
Kausitaki,
pleasure
any
karma,
6, Chandogya,
or
any
(Panini,VI. i.
such
senses
for almost
stands
through,
time, or
as
which
impressionsby
root
lived
thing
(3)adornment
in various
is used
aggregation, matter,
which
number
have
Panini
by
a
samskarah,
aggregation,and
sankhara
appear
dog
man
which
life,
that there
some
is used
(i)improving
(Satautkarsddhdnam
earlier
If
net.
birth
particular
has
man
samskara
word
different
exist
different
previous infinite
his
lives the
of all those
tendencies
represent the
life that
in the
of births in
collected
vasanas
of his
some
able
suit-
thus
citta has
vasanas
rebirth,the
in
under
man.
as
of
of
with
pressions
im-
root
In all these
tendencies
or
tendencies
or
revived
are
The
previous dog-lifewere
habit
of
and
it the
instincts
animal.
some
the man's
suitable
vasana
The
But
as
forgetsthe experiencesof
enjoyment in the manner
tendencies
or
had
have
collision
by
revived,and
births,are
dog.
instincts
dog
must
man
within
infinite numbers
had
always followinghim.
was
itself the
born
buddhi,
life-functions,
the
samskaras
had
man
within
any
263
associations.
Desire
as
the
and
those
states
samskaras
Yogavdrttika,n.
13.
not
The
264
Kapila
and
the
has
moulded
so
effort
any
such
any
undesirable
roots
on
the
and
idea
fact that
be eradicated
the
completely by
tendency, which if made
it is therefore
might
experienced
citta
of the
revival
Apart
from
these
citta possesses
which
the
conative
revival
habit
will
the
without
of
that its
necessary
sufficiently
strong
the
that
of samskaras
formation
naturallystop
samskara
the
to
in the
were
[ch:
these
nature
even
by its own
safeguard against the
tendency
or
they
given shape
part. To
our
already left
as
reproduce them
will try to
citta
be
Patanjala Samkhya
should
of
trary
con-
its
by
own
previous undesirable
of the
samskaras.
by
objects. There
by
to
which
it
in the very
essence
method
of
which
practice,
of mind
to the
Merit
of
citta,and
exclusion
form
substance.
As
tamas
Tamas,
we
be
must
all intellectual
of
is imbedded
sorrow
it,and
have
we
fear that
the
at
greater than
the
pleasures,and
keenness
the
that
capacityof realizing
of
For
sorrow.
all is sorrow,
unless
and
man
Tattvavaif"radi
and
and
that
the
enjoy it,for
we
pleasure,
solicited
have
is thus
sorrows
binations,
com-
degree
had
we
all
pain
in all
some
of temporary
the
much
pleasuresonly strengthenthe
the
and
man
our
is convinced
the
greater is his
experiencesare
all full
that
whether
pleasures,
generated by
by enjoying heavenly experiences
ordinaryworldly experience or
through the performance of Vedic
1
fraughtwith
total of
wiser
that temporary
degree
some
when
we
the
the world
hold
Buddhists,
in states
sum
The
sorrow.
citta
it.
know, represents
we
when
even
of
the
previous moment
sorrow
in the
its movements,
with
present in
even
may
we
of
operationsare
painfulfeeling.Moreover
had
involved
in
like
Yoga,
is sorrowful.
are
its Dissolution1.
and
the
experience
continue
of others.
Sorrow
and
or
courses
the
Samkhya
its
their
to
{sakti)of citta,
characteristics
demerit
or
relation
into
change
consists
activity{cesta)
potent power
These
direction.
one
any
reserved
itself and
restrain
volitional
brought
are
senses
is also the
can
persistin
the
are
sacrifices,
Yogavdrttika,II.
15, and
quite unable
Tattvakaumudi,
1.
to
the
Patanjala Sdmkhya
final
prakrti. This
from
purusa
and
Kapila
The
266
being
purpose
[ch.
attained
the
In
that
liberation
all the
that
should
its samskaras
be
habits
old
should
is transformed
of
all
longer
to
hold
the
to
on
top, gravitatesback
mountain
practiceis necessary.
arranged that by generating
of
course
so
and
better
modes
advances
has
when
At
give
buddhi
the
final liberation
the
its purest
This
is
is
impotent
hurled
any
from
practiceof livinghigher
be
what
had
thus
the
assumes
he
as
good
reaches
perfectionand
form
of
the
yogin
the
As
adopted
Continuing
its subtler
on
removed.
life may
he
mind
the
is in its ultimate
buddhi
takes
in
up
be revived
prakrti1. To
steadying
is still better.
Karmas
ordinary
to
and
life,
of
to
(allsamskaras,
stone
all
destroy the
not
a graduated
being sufficient,
This graduated practiceshould
into the
alone
samskaras, knowledge
old
like
and
purusa,
buddhi,
purusa.
true
it
into
the
arise,but
of
experience
destroyed never
kevala
the
that
enough
buddhi
nature
sufficient.
not
of
for all
once
be
it is not
and
knowledge differentiating
purusa
is necessary
philosophy is
mere
and
the
purity.
and
purusa,
place.
Yoga
divided
are
into
four
classes:
(i) sukla
or
white
which
external
in the
world
Both
the former
and
involve
avoid
and
because
devoid
are
actions
Samkhya
(those inner
and
all
sorrows
at
with
S"mkhya
see
fruits
any
taking the
pleasuresor pains).
as
sins,for
some
and
self-abnegation,
it is difficult to work
lives of insects2.
buddhi,
of
of
acts
have
this state
been
purusa
karmas
Kaivalya (alone-ness),
to grow
up again
absolutely
uprooted, never
remains
karikd, 68 and
Vyisabhdfyaand Tattvavaii"radi,
as
All
IV.
7.
for
ever
alone
Yoga sutras,
I v.
without
34.
any
tion
associa-
Modes
vn]
from
proceed
the
asmita, raga,
We
five-fold
dvesa
and
afflictions
abhinivesa.
have
while
in this form
remaining
of
forms
four
objects
of
sense
and
experiences
our
"
mine
"
further
Asmita
asmita, etc.
"
"
or
transformations
really belonging
as
to
of the gunas.
Raga
the
"
will to
be.
be
experiences to
be
to
our
to
mischief
that
our
; because
these
might
always try to
proceed, as is easy to
from
identification
false
and
the
performed
particularmode
birth,and
to
We
the buddhi.
karma
The
modification
the
on
teleologyof
the
by
each
vicious
so
with
together
from
as
birth
in the
modification
tendencies
leaves
of
lie
in).
{klesd)of
to
purusa
its stain
according to
in the
by the permanent
brings sufferance and a
action
five,
buddhi,
karma
of obstacles
the removal
consists
our
buddhi
for the
ordained
all
in the buddhi
or
performed
it is
in accordance
mode
our
These
These
The
the vicious
thus
and
love
or
the
course
will of
it
virtuous
pleasure.
one
The
karmas
and
buddhi,
as
of karma
when
prakrtiand
of its evolution
that
actuated
karma
the
are
These
purusa.
suffer.
to
transmigrate with
to
we
we
mischief.
lie inherent
which
perform
Isvara
of it
it is hard
aspect in which
it is called
karmas
; because
because
with
and
our
family
our
abhinivesa, permeate
karma
think
avidya,which
root
buddhi
of
love
against any
their
of
it
ment
attach-
or
we
own,
own
our
the
"
antipathy
for life
our
also
and
them,
preserve
see,
be
to
be
us
or
qualities
or
because
work
feel great
we
befall
desire
the
to
the
aversion
means
body
our
own,
life and
in the
proceed
possessionsto
our
own,
attached
We
to
the consequent
means
life
thinking of worldly
the
means
other
itself in the
manifests
to
avidya,
{klesas\namely
meant
sists
already noticed what was
by avidya. It conin
to buddhi, in thinking it
generally
ascribingintelligence
and
leading to happiness. This false knowledge
permanent
as
to
267
of Ignorance
performed
when
life is ordained
him
according to
for him
to
suffer
1
the
for the
in the
time
person,
the evolution
or
for
enjoy
Vyasabhasya
the
and
of
cumulate,
present life will generallyac-
giving their
such a body
prakrtias
is made
shall make
fruits thereof.
Tattvavaifdradi,
fruits comes,
II.
The
3-9.
such
ready for
it possible
karma
of the
Kapila and
The
268
particularkind
the
determines
Patanjala Samkhya
the
[ch.
of future
birth
bad
certain
done
requiresa dog-lifeand
In
he requiresa man-life.
in abeyance and the man
and then be born again as
all his
if we
But
can
actions
life.
duce
prohas
realization
good
he
actions.
the
the
for the
fruits of which
such
the
cases
ignoranceand
remove
previous unfulfilled
karmas
for
are
the other
afflictions,
lost and
ever
cannot
again be
revived.
karmas
when
which
the
mundane
has
He
of
to
course
have
cakrabhramivaddhrtasarlrah).
samskdravasdt
ripened (tisthati
Citta.
The
in the
word
sense
Yoga
which
of the restraint
in Vedic
formerly used
was
of the
senses
literature
in
by Patafljali
is used
The
citta which
has
the concentration
of the former
type is called
pramudha (ignorant).There
is another
kind
of citta,as with
all ordinary people, in which
concentration
is only possiblefor a time, the mind
remaining
steady on one thing for a short time leaves that off and clingsto
another
This is called the viksipta(unsteady)
thing and so on.
stage of mind (cittabhumi).As distinguishedfrom these there is
advanced
an
steadilyon
stage of citta in which it can concentrate
an
objectfor a long time. This is the ekdgra (one-pointed)stage.
ksipta(wild) and
There
of the
is a stillfurther advanced
and
is called the
Yoga
The
1
is to achieve
cittas
Samkhya
have
holds
stage in which
absolutely
stopped.
are
latter type
that
This
the conditions
five processes
both
the cognitivestate
itself and
{svalah
pr"manyam
svatah
validityand
not
on
of
invalidity
The
(valid
{vrtti\(i) pramdna1
any
correspondence with
apramanyam).
stages of citta.
contribution
depend
cognition
external
facts
of Samkhya
or
to
upon
objects
the
doc-
Tendencies
vn]
Good
of
Evil
and
269
or
mind
; the
and
towards
This
that
draws
attention
towards
the
Thus
alternate
towards
bad
that
with
bad
and
in the
towards
flows
both
well
as
samsara
with
It is like
ways,
river,as
sin and
towards
midst
lost in man,
it in the midst
moral
come
of
vicious
the liberation
as
good
good thoughts
there
habits
thoughts and
of
good states,
good (liberation)
final
our
states
our
(samsara).
in accordance
and
of
use
teleologyof prakrtirequiresthat
The
man
tend
to
tends
often
bad
are
make
to
regarded as good.
it sometimes
good.
have
we
should
state
be
must
which
states
whichever
mukti,
The
tendencies.
it is
and
the
Vydsa-
towards
it should
the
produce
tendency.
of many
will and
habits
will to be
bad
thoughts
good thoughts,
come
good
also
bad
is therefore
innate
never
as
an
the subjecthas
on
samanyatodrstatypes
of inference,and these may better be consulted in our chapter
on
Nyaya or in the Tatparyatika of Vacaspati. Samkhya inference was
probably from particularto particularon
kinds of inference
the ground of seven
kinds of relations according to which they had seven
'
sdmSvasvamibadhyaghdtadyaih
matranimittasamyogivirodkisahacaribhih.
khydndm saptadhdnumd" (Tdtparyatikd,p. 109). Samkhya definition of inference as
known.
definitely
Vatsyayana such as
What
been borrowed
from
the
littleVacaspati says
pmvavat,
sesavat
and
'
is
"
sambandhddekasmdt
pratyaksdcchesasiddhiranumd-
nam."
1
however
makes
the
absolute
by
and
other men,
and
of sorrows,
beasts,etc.)and adhidaivika
ghosts)the objectof
all
our
endeavours
inflictedby demons
(generatedby the injuries
{purusdrthd).
Kapila
The
yo
is of
motive
still the
gradually grow
He
other.
must
to
natural
that
but
course,
and
irresistible
(sakti) stored
power
it in such
use
Purificatory
Yoga
The
way
of
purpose
Practices
meditation
Yoga
the
that
and
in his
up
this
be
of
(Parikarma).
is to
towards
thoughts
gradually
may
the
steady
be
disappear altogether.But
loftymeditation, it is necessary
mind
on
liberation,
and
more
at last
be
can
tendencies
vicious
weakened
before
that
more
mind
the
it should
purged
should
and
absolute
sexual
nothing
These
truthfulness
strict
absolute
{satya)ynon-stealing (asteya\
(brahmacaryd) and the acceptance of
restraint
which
that
but
is
absolutely necessary
called yama.
collectively
are
abstinences
of
body
unmoved
all
bearing
and
practiseexternal
privationsof
remaining
These
heat
silent in
and
philosophy (svddhydyd)
pranidhdnd).
Again
side
{aparigraha).
by
side with
cleanliness
inner
habit
also
must
one
and
of
has
is
final realization1.
her
so
path
followingsuch
[ch.
tendency may
stronger and stronger and ultimatelyuproot the
liberation for
succeed in this,since prakrtiwants
has
he
citta,and
this
Man
mind.
Patanjala Samkhya
effect of
follow
to
of the
tendency
the
concomitant
the
course
and
and
of
these
by
tions
ablu-
mind,
the
cold, or keeping
the
meditation
on
I"vara
called
collectively
To
(Jsvarathese
are
niyamas.
also to be added
certain other moral
such as pratipaksadisciplines
and upeksd. Pratipaksa-bhavana
bhdvand, maitri,karund, muditd
that
are
whenever
bad
of
Most
with
vices
our
originated by
are
To
fellow-beings.
our
abstinence
habituate
not
may
the
mind
to
remove
our
these
unfriendly relations
the
practiceof
be
and
therefore
sufficient,
keep itself in positivegood
one
beings
think
should
as
this,we
can
practise karuna
1
See
be
never
my
or
mere
should
relations
The
fellow-beings.
our
all
to
think
ourselves
with
of
to
So too one
displeased with them.
kindly feeling for sufferers,mudita
"-Yoga Psychology,"
Quest, October, 192
1.
vi
i]
or
or
last
of the
indicates
one
the
mind
{yairagyd) and
objecthe
Yoga
has
become
to
and
of
he
; when
qualitiesit
their
Higher
than
these
ananda
state
the
of the
concentrates
on
on
the
buddhi
samadhi,
1
which
called
in which
the
Vacaspati,however,
is denied
by
Bhiksu.
mind
thinks
of
the
and
matras
tan-
nirvicara.
with
In the
its functions
stage buddhi
all
which
Next
the
states.
called the
of samadhi.
of their
called
asmita
divested
therefore
is without
that ananda
the
objects on
are
savitarka
with
one
asmita
it is
the
as
the
remembrance
and
stages there
all these
Of
objects,
on
is called
ananda
substance
pure
unifying
asmitd.
concentrates
qualitiesit is
causing pleasure. In
senses
and
of their
concentrates
for
choice,
own
of this
states
it
qualities,
when
mind
he should
unifying concentration
the mind
savicara, and
the
such
varieties,
savitarka,nirvi-
two
with
are
being
At
easier
his
vicdra, dnanda
each
and
notion
any
makes
four
are
its
it becomes
he
course
five tanmatras
is called
of
have
names
the
on
without
last
formances
per-
its dross
greatly reduced.
path, and
There
vicara
and
chances
the
Isvara
case
of
But
mind.
his
remembering
the
of
the
advance.
posture (asana)and
When
tarkaysavicdra,nirvicdrax.
In
by
purged
each
at
are
namely vitarka,
vitarka
stage
in heaven
mind
pure
in his
anything
concentration
these
the
worldly pleasures
is,however, preferablethat
in that
success.
choose
{samadhi)
It
obstacles
the
attain
can
note
any
Meditation.
firm
chooses.
Isvara,for
on
of
him
of others.
take
not
all
to
promised
are
disturbances
external
by
many
as
The
fix it
disinclined
{prajna)attained
mind
the
When
any
should
yogin
and
sacrifices,
wisdom
(yirya)and
on
upeksa
faith,confidence
ruffled
beings,and
liberation
attain
all
men.
all such
to
the
becomes
of Vedic
made
that
of vicious
vices
When
271
The
and
Meditation
Yoga
tions.
modificathe
mind
samprajhdta
to
this
comes
asamprajnata or nirodha
object. By remaining
any
asmita
have
also two
other varieties,
The
272
continued
to the
due
Patanjala Samkkya
[ch.
old
potencies(samskaras) or impressions
experience of worldly events tending towards
stage the
in this
long
the
and
Kapila
of experiencing inner
any process
objectiveworld or towards
thinking are destroyed by the production of a strong habit of the
the true knowledge, when
the
nirodha state. At this stage dawns
the
buddhi
becomes
being
able
no
quiet place
on
is,however,
to
may
purusa
concentration
and
disturbance,
hill
in
or
found
be
in
after that
and
forest.
yogin
One
of
the
citta not
to
to
prakrti.
that
see
should
select
main
obstacles
respiratoryaction.
constant
our
has
one
the
the
back
longer returns
any
practisethis
to
be
there
the
the purusa,
as
pure
bind
to
order
In
as
This
practiceof pranayama.
Pranayama
for
then
it
while
and
in
consists
in taking
a
breath, keeping
retain breath
steadilyfor
practiceone
giving it up. With
may
and
When
there is no
need
even
hours, days, months
years.
be retained
of taking in breath
or
giving it out, and it can
has
for
steady
the
stopped by
be
to
of the
main
obstacles
practisingconcentration
in a steady posture, holding the breath
by
all other thoughts,and fixingthe mind
on
The
of
process
fix
first it is difficult to
At
thought
After
dhydna.
begun by sitting
excluding
object{dhdrand).
pranayama,
any
steadily
any object,and the
repeated constantly in the mind, this is
to be
has
is
is removed.
on
practicein dhyana
sufficient
the
mind
same
called
attains
the
one
making itself steady; at this stage it becomes
there is no
with
its object and
is
change or repetition.There
of subject,object or
consciousness
no
thinking,but the mind
of
power
steady and
becomes
samadhi*.
As
the
on
to
already described
yogin acquiresstrengthin one
still higher stage and
so
on.
though
the
wisdom
His
is
as
the
yogin
is called
stages of samadhi.
he
As
powers
is firm
of
is offered to him
onwards
progresses
his
faith and
bring
with
purpose
and
he
not
does
hope
them
even
relax.
ledge
{prajfld)also increases at each step. Prajfiaknowclear as perception,but while perception is limited to
It should
**
concentration
movement
six
This
Miraculous
positionof Indra
in the
the
(vibhuti)and
powers
temptations,but
many
by
miraculous
practice increase.
in the
objectof thought.
have
We
attains
he
the
with
one
be noted
Yoga
"
sense
of the mind
that
"
or
the word
samadhi
meditation."
by
by which
into its
the mind
It
cannot
means
becomes
passingstates.
that peculiarkind
one
with
of concentration
there
is
no
VIII
CHAPTER
PHILOSOPHY
NYAYA-VAISESTKA
THE
Criticism
Buddhism
of
standpoint.
Nyaya
had
Buddhists
The
and
substance
things,
each
the
on
another
and
that
be
to
due
the
cause-collocation
the
elements
such
of
result
against
the
whiteness
of
other
of
the
and
blackness,
should
state
the
iron
Moreover
e.g.
clay
and
there
was
would
causes,
Again
brought
at
into
and
this
is
be
such
jug),
as
the
for
the
for
than
of
say
of
the
iron
similar
of
material
causes
wheel,
jointly produce
material
the
is
milk)
that
testimony
the
the
specific
that
effect
of
of
the
is
the
concomitant
distinguishing
moment.
one
cause-collocation
between
and
of influence
coordination
their
atoms
the
potter, and
causes
exercise
whiteness
cause
on
doctrine
separate
of
the
the
for
effect-collocation
not
difference
no
the
as
as
separately
the
elements
of
forming
unintelligible;
is
experience
against
jug), instrumental
room
the
could
we
regarded
there
no
of
(e.g. the
cause
elements
maintain
more
elements
properties
be
for
the
forming
the
take
curd
of
cannot
and
but
corresponding
ball,
sahakdri,
of
the
other
of the
and
uncontradicted
curd);
not
whole
action
joint
constituting
cause
cannot
the
universal
our
elements
the
that
supposition
to
cause-elements
effect
as
the
to
location
col-
effect-collocation,
hard
individual
part of the
manifestation
The
becomes
the
as
the
on
the
if
But
collocation
operandi
modus
composing
it
of
action
rise
giving
on.
cause-collocation
the
elements
of momentariness
and
the
and
supposition
joint
in
so
the
generates
composing
the
generate
to
and
another
to
momentary;
are
itself
of
permanence
collocations
exhausts
milk
representing
it is said
all
that
and
effect,
of
convictions
sense
and
collocations
group
common
cause
ground
of
group
all
upset
attribute,
the
from
Samkhya
and
are
(e.g.the
hardness,
in
lump
qualities
in
experience.
{updddna,
{nimitta
stick
etc.
in
the
effect, and
and
the
mental
instru-
such.
very
being,
moment
it cannot
in
exert
which
cause-collocation
its influence
to
produce
is
its
vi
ch.
Criticism
ii]
effect-collocation. Thus
cause-collocation
to
produce
it is born
elements
causal
How
produce
remain
and
thing which
effect ?
any
when
is
they
take
the
its influence
to exercise
moment
the
can
275
being it would
into
coming
at least another
the effect.
after
moment
after
of Samkhya
destroyed the
The
truth
is that
properly collocated
are
the effect is
Samkhya assumption
of the potentialcause,
within
already existent
of the
oil
series of
before
even
alreadyexistent
was
that it is thus
The
stone.
that
oil
in the
can
of the
action
effects
and
that
but
are
the
and
effects,
the
also
effect,is
that
causal
the
causal
entity holds
that thus
baseless.
Samkhya
sesamum
and
sesamum
instrumental
cause
the effect is
for the
movement
be got from
actualized
duction
pro-
that
says
the
not
and
with
from
not
them
the
consists
in
in
or
actual ?
of the
of
the
jug is not
jug must
that
which
the
of
can
the
the
jug
that
The
as
it has
now
mean
its actual
admitted
is made
up
was
the
of
The
before.
in the
If
state
it is
this does
of the
atoms
clay by
virtue
lump
of which
agents, such
of other
influence
it,but
admit
we
in the
the actual
same
course
manifest
potentialstate
state; thus
the
existent
inherent
become
non-existent
as
up, of
jug
potency
itself to
expose
same
made
the
that
potentialstate
be
clay is
mean
clay.
does
What
meant
not
before,and
potentialstate
as
it
the
the
into a jug is not the same
as
being transformed
said
should
rather have
the jug. Had
it been
effect,
we
so, then
that the jug came
of the jug. The
out
assumption of Samkhya
that the substance
the same
and
attribute
have
realityis also
potter, for
against
all
attribute
experience,for we
belong to substance
Samkhya
holds
all
perceive that
and
preposterous doctrine
not
to
that
and
movement
attribute.
buddhi
Again
is different
18"2
Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy
The
276
[ch.
from
ledge,
Samkhya does not accept this patent fact and declare that knowall belonged to buddhi.
Then
and willing,
again in
feeling,
order to explain experience it brought forth a theory of double
reflection.
is the
and
down?
infinite
ashamed
of
number
as
soon
once
Prakrti
supposes)
Samkhya
she
him
emancipate
bound
the
that
guarantee
will
and where
prakrtiis non-intelligent,
(prakrti)will not bind the wise again
Again Samkhya
Why
being
utilized
is
and
purusas,
who
will leave
she
the
(duhkha) and
their
is all
by
cosmology
series of
They
reason.
of
all
enjoyment by
delicate
girl(as
no
of the
purusa
is discovered.
soul,and
the
testified
never
series of
with
what
substances?
material
as
the
mahat, ahamkara,
assumptions
are
come
be-
purusa
for
presence
a
{sukha\ sorrow
of
(moha) are but the feeling-experiences
impudence could Samkhya think of these
Again
is
the
Again pleasure
blindingfeelingthrough ignorance
as
did
for all ?
tanmatras,
by experience
hopeless and
foolish
nor
blunders.
careful reconstruction
experience thus call for a new
and
in the light of reason
experience such as cannot
in other
found
systems. (See Nyayamanjari, pp. 452-466
The
phenomena
be
and
of
490-496.)
Nyaya
It is very
be
to
found
trying to
probable that
in the
find out
in sacrifices and
Vaisesika
and
the
sutras.
earliest
disputationsand
the
rightmeanings
also
the
adherents
Nyaya
in the
in those
beginnings
debates
Nyaya
Vedic
disputationswhich
texts
took
are
scholars
amongst
of the
of different schools
of
for
use
tween
place be-
of
thought trying to
defeat one
another.
I suppose
in
that such disputationsoccurred
the days of the Upanisads, and the art of disputationwas
regarded
then
of
and
it probably passed then by
even
as
a subject
study,
the name
oivdkovdkya. Mr Bodas has pointed out that Apastamba
who according to Buhler
lived before the third century B.C. used the
word
1
sense
Apastamba,trans, by
of Mlmamsa1.
The
Buhler, Introduction,p.
word
and
xxvn.,
Branch
of
Nyaya derived
Bodas's
article on
J.R.A.S.,vol.
xix.
the
vni]
the root
from
and
The
words
Science
nl is sometimes
could
of Nyaya
explained as
277
that
by
which
sentences
be
and dandaniti
cattle keeping etc.),
and the
agriculture,
(polity),
of the philosophies as
enumeration
Samkhya, Yoga, Lokayata
and Anviksikl, supposes
that the Nyaya sutra
not in existence
was
of
in
name
in
Vatsyayana
from
the
of
time
he
pointsout
Nyaya
as
in
that
holding
was
the
that
same
He
that
while
as
the
latter
well
in
statement
only means
metaphysics.
as
Nyaya
which
to
sutra
I.
known
was
referred
was
familiar
distinguishesNyaya
logicas
the science
not
as
to misunderstand
seems
Vatsyayana
appears
is this that
Kautilya'stime.
thinking
Anviksikl
the science
What
in
Nyaya
to
as
i.
in his
Anviksikl
by
the
first two
pramdiia
terms
of
(means
cognition)and
prameya
like the
termining
of demeaning of Nyaya as the means
rightmeaning or the rightthing is also agreed upon
Upanisads.
the
The
old
means
of
anviksikl
logicalproof)with
the
etymological meaning
and
this
scriptures).
Vatsyayana of course
logicalside of Nyaya is concerned
Kalidasa's
also Mallinatha's
2
it has been
Prof.
Kumarasambhava
gloss on
"
Jacobi's
The
"
known
pointsout
it has
of the word
by
that
the widest
tion
percepso
far
scope
as
for
nydyaistribhiriidTranam,,r
it.
earlyhistoryof Indian
Philosophy"Indian
Antiquary, 1918.
The
278
itself
He
beings,all
all
it includes
as
Kautilya
quotes
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
and
lightilluminingall sciences
capacityas dealingwith the
the
seems
I do
salvation.
to
way
actions,and
their
that
show
to
Philosophy
in this
is the
[ch.
capacity Nyaya
of all works.
means
In its
not
of
addition,for
later
this
self
Vatsyayana himprthakprasthana (separate
In fact
designatesthe logicalportion as a
of Vatsyayana or
branch). But I do not find that any statement
Kautilya can justifyus in concluding that this addition was made
after
doubt
no
put
the
of
be
to
seems
to
support
in the
Kautilya
even
one
named
it
This
it is not
as
Nyaya
combination
improbable
is
popularityof
the
sufficient attention.
that
that
seems
the
out
as
in
authenticityof
many
that
unmistakable
are
and
interpolated,
and
Japan
Vena
composed
of
science
of
as
of
that
and
of the
the other
Nyaya
branches,
two
rather
logicor
and
external,
he
was
mingled Nyaya
Asiatic
Society
collect
to
certain
not
He
sutras.
Buddhist
Haraprasada
the
Nyayasutroddhara,
as
signs that
relates the
Mirok
four
Vacaspati's time
were
of
philosophiesside by side
presumption that probably
even
there
or
tilya
Kau-
of the
one
as
Mahamahopadhyaya
fact that
article in the
an
says
importance
people. None
on
that the
not
1905
the
Anvlksikl
was
another
and
the
Sastrlin
metaphysics
of the
one
to increase
attract
of that
reason
The
resource.
lead to the
to
seems
last
by counting
Kautilya's time
of debate.
the
as
adhyatmavidya
as
and
matter
satisfied
not
was
the
on
would
lend
the Vedas
or
(religious
scriptures)
it,and Vatsyayana had to seek the support of
dharmasastras
any
stress
more
further
many
tradition
and
of
the
from
Yoga.
He
as
to
points
sutras
China
also
tat prayojanam
is led to act is
(that by which one
arabhate
sarve
tenanena
abhipsan jihasan va karma
sarvaica
vidyah vyaptah tada"raya$canyayah pravarttate
prayuktah pravarttate
pr"ninah
sarv"ni
beings,all their
depend
on
karmani
one
tries to
actions,and
have
all
or
to
flyfrom
included
sciences, are
are
i.
1.
prayojana,and
all these
u]
vi
Date
thinks
of
that
in
Hindu
have
of
the
were
which
made.
The
of the
for the
Jacobi'sattempt
basis
of references
before
The
that
whereas
about
sense
of
the
and
50 A.D.
logic in
regarded
of the
subjectthat
fit in somehow
to
Nyaya
under
sutras
the
I.
fixingof
the
the influence
the
existed
Nyaya
least
in the
second
sutras
make
On
that
But
some
there
of
century
allusions
are
the
A.D.
present
Bodas
Candrakanta
1
that
made
was
his
Nyaya
originalpart
Patanjali(140 B.C.)
the
Nyaya
as
early
written
that
and
think
time
some
Badarayana's
not
sutras
were
the
Nyaya
Pdnini, p. 157.
to
me
say
fourth
the
as
lead
also
to
venture
may
were
Anvlksikl
as
we
We
sutras1.
form
some
Tarkalamkara
advanced
not
of the
doctrines
sutras, whereas
Goldstucker's
have
we
points out
Vaisesika
any
his treatment
wrote
which
sutras
give
Aksapada
both
reasons
to the Vaisesika
ground he thinks
Badarayana's Brahmalater.
other
be
must
not
from
date
form
some
in the
suppositionwhich does
far as Dr Vidyabhusana
so
of the
written
Nyaya
does
of
"
least
says
in
this
written
I.
,
about
were
70. 42-51,
at
sutras
ana
67
and
that
be later
must
Gautama
by
Aksapada
that
ascertainment
Goldstiicker
Nyaya.
B.C.
the
on
value,except
word
it. Thus
step towards
century
its
Aksapada
date
of Aristotle
proved
the
sutras
of the
I.
the
his idea
with
has
that
cult,
diffi-
help,and
Mahay
assumption. It appears
requireserious refutation,at
of the
of
use
Mahabharata
not
fixingof
of any
the
written
was
sutras
that
says
in support of his
reasons
be
Sunyavada
interpolations.He, however,
as
the
Nyaya
correct, since
part of Nyaya
earlier
B.C.
550
is not
proofs
still more
sutras
of the
to
such
when
late
the
time
makes
hardly
all references
probable,but
very
unmistakable
are
Nyaya
date
These
ones.
the
sutras
can
who
Hindu
some
Sunyavada naturallyloses
to
suppositionthat
Nagarjuna, which
written
of the
fix the
to
the
than
of the
references
Prof.
on
originalpart
Buddhist
ascertain
can
we
be
to
seem
the hands
at
Buddhist
the
against
scholar
279
of
the hands
at
interpolationof many
date
the
by
sutras
additions, one
two
another
this learned
clue
no
additions
and
arguments
suggestionsof
we
underwent
sutras
Buddhists
some
put
the
of the Nyaya
to
Nyaya.
written
sutras
contends
fore
bewere
in his
The
280
It
Nyaya.
sutras
to
seems
of the Vaisesika
one
80
A.D.) also
it
that
It is certain
sutras
of other
the sutra
of those
show
than
is earlier
There
doctrine.
are
for
later on,
see
written
was
be
should
there
give us
at
seems
is
the
subjectby
refute
to
the
some
acquaintance with
views
premisses3. The
ten
inference,
of the
the technic
old school
an
to
seems
We
have
Vaisesika
Nyaya
those
and
inspectionof
closer
confirm
such
suppositionin
in the
us
convinced
sutra
have
those
been
in the
Vaisesika
that
as
kdrikd
Caraka
Sutrasthana
had
verses
quotes
as
that
the
some
gunas
heaviness, etc.,
sutra
seems
But
that
this
(I.i. 6)
this is
reference
enumeration
which
leaves
to
is not
out
be
to
the
well-
some
six
Vatsyayana's
Bhasya on the Nyaya sutras, 1. i. 32. This is undoubtedly
Jaina view as found in Da"avaikalikaniryukti as noted before.
found
gunas,
section.
a
reference
to the
4
Nyaya
sutra
(I.
Bhasapariccheda
of the
enumerated
remarkable
sality)
begin with the guna "para" (univer"prayatna" (effort)
together with the sense-
qualities{sdrthd). It
enumeration.
such
of the
Vaisesika
the
which
with
known
writer
represented
very
of Caraka's
that the
or
that
previous section
examination
of Vaisesika
end
Mimamsa,
supposed
be
that
older than
?
tradition
Nyaya by
An
cognition,and
with
But
seen
which
of Mimamsa
sutras.
Caraka
him.
of
sutra.
35-38) leaves
compendium
School
associated
much
so
Old
an
in the Mimamsa
are
Lahkdvatara
in
represent
Vaisesika
represent
before
shall
we
this sutra
any
Vaisesika
The
atomic
only quotes
of his medical
of inference4.
Does
way.
the
to
Thus
that
also
sutras
doctrine
sutras
held
do not
it
foundation
Vaisesika
that
says
who
Vaisesika
that
even
schools.
that
states
Vatsyayana
which
he not
the
supposing
are
probably pre-Buddhistic2.
the logicalpart of the present Nyaya
sutras
that
the
was
thinkers
to
allusions
Vaisesika
the
that
physics1. The
quoted by Asvaghosa
weightiergrounds, as
other
earlier than
were
Vaisesika
was
makes
sutras
the
on
[ch.
Philosophy
perfectlycertain
Caraka
sutras
physics is based
sutra
(which as
be
to
me
before
written
were
Vaisesika
that the
of Vaisesika
edition
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
I.
i. 5, and
Vaiiesika sutras
ix.
it. 1-2,
4-5, and
in.
i.
8-17.
The
282
that
systems
sutras
trace
we
can
well
as
oldest
Philosophy
that
as
lead
think
to
me
and
have
we
[chl
any
of discussion
methods
probably the
are
Vaifesika
a-
considerations
the
and
work
ay
have
we
These
view1.
Ny
that
in all
these
probability
pre-Buddhistic.
are
begins with
explain virtue, udhafma." This
Vaisesika
The
is to
and
of Mlmamsa
irrelevant
of the
that which
says
that
this.
He
know
we
Mlmamsa
begins his
seems
sutra
the
main
of
nature
any
other
padartha2.
He
then
object
duty
Jaimini
system
This
of Vaisesika,
purpose
its
the manifest
by defining "dharma."
sutras
to
know
is we
unlike
that
that
the statement
first
at
scription
de-
viz.,the
defines
dharma
as
(of Vedic
his book
deeds) which
with
are
the
remarks
performed
those
that
for
injunctions
ordinary human
motives
known
not
to
the Veda
us
must
after
and
also
be
regarded
that
the
as
the
(unknown
adrsta
virtue)
due
dharma
to
(merit
direct
any
that Kanada's
that
actions
method
only
can
number
good
of
be
cannot
of adrsta
"vetasvatara
1.
explained
be
up
to
explained
at
certain
while
extent
all except
(unseen virtue)produced by
the
on
a
sumption
as-
The
dharma.
i. 1.
"
I remember
Dharmam
The
sutra
"
Tadvacandd
dmndyasya
prdmanyam
(1.i.
and
simplyreadingthe
repetitionof
vi.
ii. 1.
later Nyaya
X.
ii. 9) ha
of IsVara
"
this U
saga-
"
ragamanopamam
*
verse
"
anywhere
Sutra
x.
(God)
must
in the text
ii. 8 is
only
vin
descriptionof
is the
the
of
means
explain
cannot
the
deeds.
magnets,
in V.
ii. 13 and
mind
soul
after
and
movement
be
Vaisesika
and
on
the
are
of
adrsta.
by
in fact
Kanada's
the
distinction
the
due
of
rebirth
the
all with
we
adrsta.
to
and
does
this, Kanada
deeds,
but
and
of
he
in
is
(moksa)
the
leading to
describes
acts
in
the
some
works,
good
such
experience
depend all
of
as
or
of fire and
air,
philosophy.
in
experienceregarding
the
bad
holy
issues
graver
adrsta?
or
atoms
physicalphenomena
other (V. ii. 2),
or
way
facts of
to
founded
known
which
on
motion
leads
of
are
continuation
even
what
speak
of Vedic
fasting,
holy
of adrsta
actions,leaving all
not
student
as
vitallyinterested
are
But
(the
enumerated
Salvation
natural
affected
are
which
the
plants,the
worlds,
substances, qualitiesand
sinful
adrsta.
philosophygivesonly some
metaphysics
foetus
the
bodies,
of contact
unexplained by
are
fortunes
our
kinds
movement
non-production of rebirths.
between
the drsta (experienced)
those
and
of the
the
other
binations
com-
and
These
animals
of
other
categoriesthat
adrsta.
to
all
which
ii. 17
V.
hold
the
to
(by
motion
side
originalmovement
annihilation
the
(experience) and
and
which
due
fire,the
of
In
and
of
contacts
construction
death
drink
be
to
the
towards
plant bodies,
in
water
atoms
taking
all
All
of
life-process
the
its
and
said
marks
drsta
death,
produced by
annihilation
of
performance
the
of needles
of
adrsta.
to
of
out
motion
upward
development
Upaskdrci)are
to
circulation
due
irrelevant, but
is not
movement
place),and
food
of
the
movement
be
283
our
proceeding
the
taken
to
substance
which
i. 15
V.
ii. 7 the
said
assimilation
said
adrsta
combining
are
the
facts
many
ii. 7
have
that
proving
In
IV.
of air, the
of
categories of
supposition of
of Vedic
V.
Vaisesika
Antiquityof
In
or
of
answer
to
virtuous
or
ablutions
{sndna),
prescribed
time
life
performing
of
the
sacrificial works
stars, the
according
prescribed hymns
to
the
(mantras)
(VI. ii.2).
He
food
leads
described
being
that
what
which
is pure
is
and
what
is
impure
food, pure
trary
purified(VI.ii. 5) the consacrificially
he says that the taking of pure food
adrsta.
He
also
described
how
-Vaifesika
Nyaya
The
284
[ch.
Philosophy
chapter
to our
will show
Mlmamsa
on
validityof
in any
to
Of
creator
or
first and
the
of discussion
as
all adrsta
depends
upon
that
Vaisesika
had
the
is
Vedas
were
1-2).
But
reference
no
sutras.
written
by anyone
days of the
represented in
Isvara and
in accordance
atomic
was
the
the
with
or
the
dissension
taken
place
that
no
the
at
superiorto
reference
at
As
can
very
non-theistic
well
never
were
the
as
in
period,whereas
probably
was
is
there
no
that
assume
i.
conflict with
any
later Mlmamsa
is
what
reference
the
that
i. 1 8, VI.
(11.
us
the Vedas
later
to
due
of the
time
believed
we
The
probably
is
Kanada
that
Vedas,
Mlmamsa.
dispute with
doctrine
Vaisesika
movements,
atheistic
authority of
formulated
Vaisesika
adrsta
as
the
any
is
mentioned,
is
no
subject
any
Isvara
persons
there
suggests that
written
as
some
fact that
the
Mlmamsa
by
form
not
as
no
to
of the ego.
the notion
But
had
reallynone
It is probable
fact that
Vaisesika
the
Vaisesika.
in the
assume
may
perceptionof self in
the second
points do
direct
Kumarila)
these
and
the Vedas,
to
actions
of all
Vaisesika
was
philosophers.
As
of the
of sound, but
non-eternality
of the
chapter he
of sound,
eternality
know
from
of the
which
proof of
the existence
is the
distinctive
writers1.
of self. The
Next
Mlmamsa
comes
traditional
II.
in favour
view
the
ii.33
of the
as
we
question
Nyaya
view
is
preted
concludingsutras II. ii. 36 and 37 are in my opinionwrongly intersutra
the
by "ankara Miira in his Upaskara (11.ii. 36 by adding an "a/*" to
and therebychangingthe issue,and II. ii. 37 by misreading the phoneticcombination
samkhya bhava" as samkhya and bhava instead of samkhya and abhava, which in
of sound as
opinion is the rightcombination
here) in favour of the non-eternality
my
1
The
last two
**
we
Philosophyin
vm]
Vaisesika
the
285
sutras
seat
this is
III. ii. 4
existence
of
soul
the existence
activityand
of
is first inferred
by
of its
reason
pleasure,pain, etc.,in
III. ii.6-y
this
is
therefore
suggested that
authority of
the
on
Vaisesika
in
"I"
proof of
what
10-18, also
i.
IX.
representeda
that
lead
of
salvation.
salvation
perception as
think
to
me
Vaisesika
with
(I.i.
it goes
Then
the
on
it turns
comes
the
final
"
"
to
self
depend
self,and
only
thus
additional
an
ii.
{ahani)(ill.
as
the
of
specialexcellence
that
1)
the
of the
to
on
fact
that
back
to
result
dharma,
say
the
of real
of
the
of
purpose
according
plaining
ex-
it is
to
salvation
the
that
second
supplemented
Vedas.
ostensible
it leads
Vaisesika
sutras.
dharma
and
the
which
thought
in the
Then
not
of the
self is
prosperity(abhyudaya) and
which
accepted
this
therefore
grounds
depends
Vedas
the
Mimamsa
{dharma)
attained.
are
in
Vjiis^ikamtras begin
by
have
to strengthen the
virtue
To
be
11).
Philosophy
The
is to
directlyperceivethe
can
we
of
existence
school
metaphysics
soul
considerations
These
we
and
already find
we
of
scriptures(agamd).
{aham\
of the
inference
the
existence
is given that
for the
the scriptures
on
the
conclusion
feelingas
our
the
to
us
sutra
{nihsreyasa)
validityof the
prosperityand
and
that
says
knowledge, produced by
characteristic
features
of
cept
(dravya),quality (guna), class concategoriesof substance
and inherence
(visesa),
(sdmdnya), particularity
(samavdya)1.
the
The
dravyas
and
mind.
are
The
are
space,
soul,
qualityof belonging to
separations,contact, disjoining,
upward movehigh genus or to species2.Action {karma) means
measure,
Upaskdra notes that vi"esa here refers to the ultimate differences of things and
not to species. A
special doctrine of this system is this, that each of the indivisible
element
features of difference.
of even
the same
has specific
atoms
2
of
heaviness
the well known
oiliHere
(gurutva),liquidity
qualities
(dravatva),
demerit
and
merit
ness
(adharma) have been
(samskdra),
{sne/ia),elasticity
(dharma),
1
altogetheromitted.
These
are
all counted
in later Vaisesika
commentaries
and
com-
Nyaya-Vaiksika Philosophy
The
286
downward
ment,
three
The
movement.
contraction,expansion
movement,
[ch.
and
horizontal
of dravya,guna
qualities
common
and
karma
that
are
and
dravyas
and
the
karma.
produced by
the
its effect,but
effect.
the
inhere
Gunas
dravya,
themselves
by
not
devoid
the
of guna,
contact
cannot
contact
remain
at
time
is
is the
disjoining.Dravya
or
its
in
material
is dissimilar
The
karma.
and
disjoiningare
not
being
by
than
more
numbers
Upward
contact.
Contact
of
cause
if there
second
is
no
there
pendiums.
reals
substances
or
Yoga
It must
It is
If karma
only when
have
It must
extensive
in motion
it is meant
be
may
not
of
duce
pro-
contact
Each
is not
of
karma
produced
tacts
con-
many
result
of
many
heaviness, effort
and
result of karma.
karma
that
In
is not
the
karma3.
there
is
may
not
first book
the
Kanada
but
effect,
no
be
the
Guna
means
the
next
relative
in Vai^esika
be
may
effect. He
in VaiSesika
that "guna"
Samkhya-Yoga.
there
first says
to
cause
that
says
the
qualitiesand
would
that
under-
subtle
not
be akin
to
what
I.
i.
call dharnia.
would
should
karma
be noted
in
the
also the
species(vtsesa)are
as
be
may
and
(sdmdnyd)
genus
Karma
it does
result
disjoiningare
chapter of
cause,
though
even
and
is the
result of
movement
dravya
In the
dravya
colour
thing
one
non-
general effect
dravya.
one
is the
causalityof
the
denying
than
thing2. A
and
than
more
of
the
dravya
in this that
guna
more
For
is the
Dravya
to
by
with
one
dravya.
one
cause
effected
connected
of
cause
karma1.
without
even
Karma
dravya.
the
is
(samavayi)
cause
are
than
more
independent
an
of
produced
or
and
gunas,
is also
(vegd). Karma
cause
disjoining.Karma
or
one
and
dravya alone,
in
further
possess
of
cause
cannot
object,inheres
necessarily
destroy either
not
and by
destroyed both by the cause
is destroyed by karma.
Dravya possesses
is regarded as the material (samavdyi) cause.
and
in
is not
are
gunas
guna
does
karma
But
gunas.
Dravya
Karma
and
karma
other
gunas
use
the
karya ceases
is related to
noted
of karma
or
that
more
more
things were
one
that "karma"
as
than
meritorious
we
moving.
in this
or
12.
one
sense
vicious action
which
is the
cause
the
more
of rebirth.
viii]
Philosophyin
be both
may
The
genus.
{satta)in
with
of
says
and
is hence
that
as
the
ultimate
is
genus
of which
virtue
action
mate
constitutingthe ulti(independent of any percipient).
exists
this he
287
sutras
continuityonly
but
species,
Vaisesika
indicates
universals
and
genus
the
being
as
things appear
existent;
only relativelybe regarded as relative genera or
may
genera
be regarded as a separate category, since it
species.Being must
is different from dravya, guna
and karma, and
yet exists in them,
and
has
no
is and
identical
or
genus
must
entity in
all other
being
in the
special characteristics
different objects in which
it inheres.
The
specificuniversals of
thingness {dravyatva),qualitiness(gunatva) or actionness (kar~
nature
as
no
being
also
are
the
was
first
In the
in all.
same
Earth
substances.
and
found
in ether
liquidity,and
touch; air,touch;
book
Kanada
but
smoothness
of
none
(dkdsa). Liquidity is
touch
from
itself inhere
in
other
The
is eternal2.
and
of
these
called
from
has
sdmdnyato
inference
(asrnadvisistdndm)
It should
known
was
at
Substance
the word
"
be
a
noted
time
to
that mercury
be
which
possesses
II.
i. 13 has
of
name
be
water
mentioned.
inferred
be
may
Since
this
is
not
(dravya)
type of inference
known
for
ferred
thing in-
substance
air
by
inferred
does
quality,and
characteristics
"vdyu"
is
derived
different
from
accounting
for
of others
admitted
is not
Caraka.
adravyatvena"in
certain
existence
later than
is that
and
be
can
of air is of the
from
The
drsta.
scriptures.The
the
motion
substance, it
imperceptible things
of
qualitiescan
specialquality of
etc.
horns, tails,
possesses
any
touch; water,
liquids
naturallyliquiditself1.
characteristics
the
with
(snigdha)\ fire,
is
only when they are heated, while water
be seen, yet its existence
Though air cannot
touch, just as the existence of the genus of cows
from
deals
because
second
colour,taste, smell,and
possesses
of the
chapter
us
the
It should
as
"
be noted
that
adravyavattvena."
The
288
of
giving
the
that
Nyaya
of
giving
would
has
(ether).Akasa
there
be
is
being
second
that
smell
of
notion
like
one
As
is eternal
when
not
are
absent
is
it is
that
touched,
like air.
first
space
notion
or
is eternal
tries to
of
cause
things,be-
this
or
much
so
to
appears
or
He
not.
the
existence
third
book
of soul
arises
only
in
seen
discusses
and
bered,
remem-
one
way
definitely
the question
gives his
the
some
reasons
discussion
with
it is eternal.
is
from
sound
which
is not
then
concludes
of the
resembles
is
seen
non-eternal
that
are
which
is
have
particularfeatures
these
thing
fire,
things. Space
doubt,
the
seen
a
proving
reasons
of
but
what
non-eternal, but
chapter
is
when
when
or
of
when
attribute
rightlyseen
of the
inference
As
givesthe
quickness. It is
from
One
one.
either
seen,
another,
of other
this
which
eternal
far away
so
the
before,or
seen
it is
(a
quality. And
eternal
as
in
general way,
such
sound
that
number
The
in
some
in
appears
to show
entirelydevoted
the
fact that
there
to the
must
in which
some
"
Upaskara in interpreting
samjilakarma" in n. i. 18, 19 as
makes
it
dvandva
while
a
Upaskara's
Upaskara
compound.
genitivecompound
time
being
seen
it
attribute
whether
of
sound
be
of all non-eternal
cause
not, he discusses
grasped,whether
be
and
since
can
simultaneity,and
that this is
Like
when
or
but
or
under
coming
other
of
notion
thing is
of akasa
diverse
sun.
it is
is defined
is the
Time
notion
this.
to
nearer
Time
in the young,
being.
supplies the
things which
substance
occupied
un-
hypotheticalsubstance
inheres, because,
of which
into any
enter
in
only
book
Kanada
chapter of the second
is a specialcharacteristic of earth, heat
youth
the
the
as
of
invented
is one2.
of water.
coldness
and
sound
It is
akasa
so
the
In
prove
one
admitted
be
find
we
to
us
substance
some
is akasa.
substance
rest
movements
thing can
characteristic
the
not
must
to
that
that
lead
not
quality of
the
quality)is
fact
of the
account
space,
in which
[ch
one
ilosopky
to
names
by us)1. On
Ph
Vaiiesika
I have
differed from
seems
interpretation
to
be far-fetched.
He
wants
to
twist it into
an
existence of God.
*
This
argument
for the
it is said
then
inference?
good of turning to
lending its aid to
comes
body
alone
the
that
that
say
is
pain, and
by speciallimitations
the
strength of
which
is
and
there
this way
and
this
no
book
yet it is many
is also
proved
by
its
cause.
it is said
should
cause,
that
on
effect
the
When
speak
we
that
considered
be
effect,for
Air
{vdyu)
made
up
can
of anything
is
of parts, because
{rupasamskara
form) in
in
it. 'Colour
is thus
and
specialqualifications
with
it has
"
the
to
in all. But
is visible
Colour
colour
there is colour
when
not
in its unmanifested
colour
think
we
is
it is great and
actualityof
the
when
anything else.
production of pleasure,
the
fourth
of the
compounded.
colour,though
self and
one
inferred
be
can
ignorance (avidydy.
(mahat)
of the
because
that
proves
is
yet has
non-eternal, it
as
also
place
the
individuals
chapter
existent, but
take
only
soul
Yajftadattathe
or
is removed
regarding
as
is the
scriptures1.
{nityd).It
eternal
is
first
the
In
the
doubt
refers to
cognition,the
what
Yajftadattagoes,
or
goes
Devadatta
by
the
difference
no
Devadatta
but
of "I"
Devadatta,"
am
periences
ex-
whether
is meant;
"I
such
The
same
doubt
notion
there
As
the
we
the
there
directlyperceived in
Yajftadatta"or
am
When
self is
if the
that
"I
as
[ch.
Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy
The
290
touch
not
is
only
visible
only
In
conditions3.
is also
explained.
the quality
Number,measure,separateness,contact, and disjoining,
of belonging to a higher or lower class,action, all these as they
abide
in
number
sutras
of those
etc.
the notion
But
eye.
differed here
"
from
not
also of genus
of
The
eye.
th(
perceivedby
quality(gunatva)
the meaning
I have
"
avidyd
eternalityof the
This
of the need
regarded
differed here
"
is what
meant
originally
also because
they are
scriptures,
being and
of
colour
are
no
the
"
limitations,and
sutra
have
to
I have
trasamarthyat ca
which
visible
are
to
mean
as
one,
though for
the
sake
of many
enjoined by
the
many.
also in my
that
was
we
do
meaning
not
know
from
the
of any
regardsthis
Upaskaray which
which
reasons
lead to the
non-
atoms.
is meant
in Vais"sika
has many
word
bhutarupavattva.
collection (samavdya), production(udbhava) and
elasticity,
see
Upaskara iv. i. 7.
hibhava). For the last three senses
The
senses.
not
It
means
being overcome
anud-
inertia,
{an id-
viii]
Philosophyin
perceivedby
are
and
sound
and
manas
291
senses
perceived by
are
the
by
etc.
all the
Vaitesika sutras
the
one
cognition,pleasure,pain,
sense,
number
the
by
etc.
visual
and
the tactile
sense)1.
In the second
in three
exist
earth,etc.
be any
cannot
acts
produced by
specialkinds
with
specialkinds
it is said
and
sense,
elements
radicle
from
ovaries
and
those
of the
or
of the
even
when
which
one
of
are
wise
other-
are
in accordance
atoms
All combinations
of dharma.
of atoms
due
are
that
the
soul
in
of
state
the
flail in
not
due
to
the
and
effort,
in touch
soul;
for
the
the
with
with
it is due
due
the
to
hands,
flail is not
the
to
in the
impact
flail is due
of the
uprisingof
impact
due
to
of the
the
the
so
the
of the
case
and
with
its contact
to
movement
But
threshing pot
contact
is due
hand
the hand.
with
hand
Such
of the
movement
its contact
to
of dharmas.
objects.There
combine
may
that the
(upastambhaka). Bodies
combination
the
book
of different
the central
as
fourth
forms, body,
kinds,those produced
two
of the
compounding
the atoms
three,but
of them
chapter
is
movement
upliftingof
its contact
flail. On
with
the
the
of
account
The
of needles
movement
towards
magnets
is due
to
unknown
an
This
sika sutras
portion has
been
of Kanada.
It
taken
must
from
be noted
Misni
of number
on
the
Vaih-
according to
Vai^esika is due
to mental
sense.
19
"
The
292
Ny
ay
Vathsika
a-
[ch.
Philosophy
tions
said
It is however
moksa
self,manas,
is in contact
with
steady and
regarded
The
whole
of the
Vedic
to
of the
proper
persons
the
things,how
dharma
and
place as
In
are
eternal
of
cause
is visible.
the
mind
becomes
aka"a
are
of the
work
generated by adrsta,
death
to
thing
time.
in earth
called
with
it is of atomic
size.
Space
and
time
are
up
of many
have
that
tively
rela-
small
(atomic) and
of small
is not
great size
those
anutva
beginning
while
great and
size of
manas
its
made
different from
since
all-pervasive);
has
thing'sbeing
In accordance
are
The
things non-eternal.
heat
be
may
eternal
qualitiesin
the
size is invisible
a
moksa
how
and
soul.
that
in non-eternal
is therefore
same
gifts
that
showing
to
often
it is said
and
(great)there
or
of the
book
atom
same
atman
great
space,
(the atoms).
Visibilityis due
at the
and
body. Time,
passions are
Atomic
eternal
former
is devoted
qualities
produced by
causes1, but
mahattva
of the
the
in which
is that
which
therefore
contact
to
tact
con-
result of the
seventh
change
due
are
no
not
adharma
the
things
in the
book
sixth
performances,which
takes
in the
is
rebirth,and
no
the
alone, by
pain
no
injunctionof
of
how
is
is
there
inactive.
as
made
self
the
there
there
pain
objects.Yoga
and
senses
of adrsta
the absence
of
are
that with
and
The
big.
Akasa
the atoms.
(the supremely
of the
great
also considered
measure
as
being
size
"supremely great" (paramamahat). Atomic
and the mind
(parimandala) belonging to the atoms
(manas) and
the supremely great size belonging to space, time, soul and ether
measure
(akaia) are
regarded
In the second
and
chapter of
separateness
other
are
qualities.There
the appearance
1
I have
eternal.
as
to
is
of number
differed from
be
no
the seventh
admitted
number
in them
book
as
it is said that
entities
in movement
is false.
Cause
distinct
and
and
unity
from
quality;
effect
of this sfitra.
the Upask"ra in the interpretation
are
viii]
Philosophyin
neither
The
one,
Contact
of
be
may
due
effect of another
contact
293
have
nor
notion
Vaifesika sutras
the
the
to
action
and
contact
disjoiningin
of
is
so
and
one
the
things,or
two
or
is neither
disjoining.There
effect since
of taste, colour
cause
described
neither
action
of
in
which
through
is different
the
made
in this connection
thing
to
of
help
mind
but
which
All
the
with
other
any
or
The
main
to
"these
two
related
are
that
effect,cause,
notion
is the
the
above
can
be
kinds
before
keeps
cause
as
the
is also
of the
connected
anything
as
serve
effect,"and
or
trary
con-
as
liriga(reason).
with
is associated
and
of
directlyperceived
in contact,
as
will
"this
one
kind
It is said
thing, as
point
is another
inseparably connected,
as
in
the
is described.
term
things
is existent
which
memory
which
to
existent
there
negation
Even
from
negation is
that
as
which
another;
non-existence2.
the
that
book
ninth
be attributed.
and
non-existent
and
In the
(asat) is defined
non-existent
non-existence
existence
touch1.
qualitycan
nor
be
may
way
and
non-existence
become
may
cause
this,"or
since
this may
gism
produced through premisses,there may be a formal sylloVerbal
the above
condition.
from
propositionsfulfilling
False knowledge (avidyd)is
inference.
without
cognitioncomes
also be
due
the
to
observation
of
defect
of
due
wrong
to
the
expectant
knowledge (vidyd).
this is true
impressions.The
In
tenth
the
pleasureand
doubt
1
and
Upaskdra
here
elements,
specific
2
In
explainsthat
but
dhvamsdbhdva
negation of
ydbhdva
this cannot
each
other
kinds
it is intended
be found
(generalnegation).
have
other),
are
senses
opposite
it is said
not
that
related
produced by
to
those
in the sutras.
of non-existence,
(negationafter
in each
that the
mal-
and
non-observation
or
senses
prdgabhdva (negationbefore
destruction),and
been
described.
anyonydbhdva
The
fourth
one
duction),
pro-
(mutual
is sdmdn-
294
A
dravya
The
Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy
may
be caused
with
of its contact
because
(motion) is also
Karma
is also
in the
inheres
effect is also
of the
fire is also
Works
have
Vedas
in the
and
cause
The
cause.
cause.
tact
Con-
contact
which
in the
A
cause.
cause.
the
according to
visible effect
no
since it inheres
it inheres
of the
cause
the
another
cause
since
cause
by
[ch.
direct
injunctionsof
them, they
because
of
cause
have
in the
Philosophy
scripturessince they
and
prosperity,
validity.
the
are
the
Nyaya
the
sutras1.
of the sixteen
Nyaya sutras begin with an enumeration
of rightknowledge (pramdna), object of right
viz. means
subjects,
lustrati
knowledge (prameya), doubt (samsaya),purpose (prayojana),ilThe
instances
{drstdntd),
accepted
conclusions
(siddhdnta),
points of opponent's
thorough knowledge
attained.
In
is attained
the
sutra
successive
defects
{mithydjftdnd),
/ma\
and
{nigrahastkdna),and
of these
second
the
by
defeat
ultimatelyof
the
hold
that
by
is
highest good {nihsreyasa),
it is said
that
salvation
disappearance
false
knowledge
birth (jan(pravrtti),
(dosa),endeavours
kinds,
and
inference
Upamana
from
is the
sorrow.
effect
to
cause
Then
of
(apavarga)
of
of
means
(purvavat),effect
characteristics
common
knowing
the
{sesavat)
(sdmdnyato drstd).
to
cause
with
anything by similarity
well-
any
\ known
thing.
6abda is defined
here
order
This
and
testimony of
reliable
of later
day Nyaya
the two
systems
the
as
in the
It is curious
(foreigner),
may
as
be
to
an
possible.The
lightof
notice
general treatment
later writers
and
that Vatsyayana
as
authority(apta)'
sutras, supplemente
This
little additions
follows
from
the
those
expounds
of Nyaya- Vai^esika
commentators.
says
authority).
apta (reliable
that
an
arya,
rsi
or
mleccha
vm]
Philosophyin
Such
testimony
and
are
be
to
Nyaya
sutras
295
things which
may
beyond experience. Objects of
may
which
said
are
tell
the
self
about
us
{atman\ body,
be
perienced
ex-
ledge
know-
sense-objects,
senses,
understanding (buddki)ymind
births,
(manas), endeavour
(pravrtti\reand
enjoyment of pleasure and sufferingof pain,sorrow
salvation.
Desire,antipathy,effort (prayatnd),pleasure,
pain,and
knowledge
indicate
the
existence
the
senses
upholds movement,
as
arisingout of the
senses
and
tejas,vayu
qualitiesof
objects of the
at any
occur
Endeavour
Dosas
body.
to
men
when
the
sense
five
elements,
such
prthivl,ap,
as
above
The
that
these
sound
are
also
are
the
cognitions cannot
many
of mind
{manas).
what
is done
means
by speech, understanding, and
(attachment,antipathy,etc.)are those which lead
moment
and
vice.
from
cessation
through
attainingwhich,
is called pray
settle
to
for
or
Pain
is that
pain
is called
of similar
confusion
wants
etc.,one
of
the
senses.
one
virtue
Ultimate
from
akasa
the
and
contact
derived
are
of the self.
one
suffering2.
causes
Doubt
apavarga3.
arises
or
conflicting
qualities
opinions
of the
giving up
which
alternatives.
two
which
himself
sets
one
for
That
to
work
ojana.
both
the
(drstdnta)is that on which
and the expert (pariksaka) hold the same
common
man
opinion.
of
four
Established
conclusions
texts
kinds,
or
(siddkanta)are
viz. ( 1 ) those which
are
accepted by all schools of thought called
school
held by one
the sarvatantrasiddhanta; (2)those which
are
Illustrative
or
similar
example
schools
but
opposed by
which
also
called
naturallyfollow
opponent'sviews
proceeds then to
show
which
are
refute
the
being accepted
1
2
Here
own
I have
followed
the
granted by
uncritically
that
consequences
the
pratitantrawill
conclusions
other
adhikaranasiddhanta\
called
others
(4) those
a
follow
of the
debater, who
and
thereby
opponent's intellect
premisses
The
are
to
five:
Vatsyayana'smeaning.
finds
that when
here
one
Vatsyayana comments
wishes to avoid misery,and findingbirth to be associated
and thus is emancipated.
3
is no
to emphasize that there
Vatsyayana wants
cessation from pain.
4
here.
I have followed
Vatsyayana's interpretation
bliss
in
salvation, but
only
The
296
ay a-Vaitesika
Ny
[ch.
Philosophy
the
come
enumerated
been
have
second
The
against the
doubt,
doubt
of
means
which
always
was
book
held
in the
first sutra.
deals
with
that
it is held
doubt
validityof
of
the
objections
refutation
In
the
happening
there
happen,
things regarding which
since
not
two
arises
ferentiatin
special dif-
the
when
between
objectors,probably the
the
could
the
between
characteristics
to
nigrahasthana,which
refutations
the
doubt
that
proved).
tarka,nirnaya,vada, jalpa,vitanda,
difference
arose,
Certain
been
of certain
of
of
has
which
(hetvabhasa),chala, jati,and
fallacies
the
definitions
conclusion
the
in
pramana
two
and
general
particularlyof
generated before
there
would
be
of
notion
no
succession
our
of valid
means
of valid
means
existence
from
same
instruments
of
1
dyam
at
of
cannot
Just
as
say
from
instruments, one
objectswe
can
of
other
things
ca
Sabdah
themselves
may
that
the
be
the
kinds
vious
pre-
instruments,
ence
previousexist-
are
regarded
as
the
rightcognition
of
right
objects
to
anlarhile
no
are
infer the
can
infer the
there
diverse
musical
objectsof knowledge1.
things (e.g.the senses, etc.)which
of right knowledge with
reference
Yathdpahdtsiddhena fabdena
sddhanam
all.
he
different kinds
of those
knowledge
our
of those
The
knowledge
of different musical
of sounds
so
then
knowledge
dtovind
v"dyate
venuh
The
298
Ny
Vaiiesika
a-
ay
are
of
in terms
also understood
well) and
as
corn
for the
tradition
sambhava
and
The
said
if
"
be
abhava
the
thing is
there
is
bushel
contains
same
understood
contained
measure
in verbal
included
are
these
as
of
in the
within
is
four
corn
and
pramanas
arthapatti,
recognized,but they
mentioned
is then
in great detail.
where
any-
inference.
pramanas
sound
in it is
eight gallons of
testimony
pramanas
eternity of
eternityproved
(when
as
(non-existence)
separate
is included
included
of
theory
the
[ch.
accept arthapatti(implication),
to
lower
that
that
abhava
validityof
to
know
we
understand
we
the
higher measure
Philosophy
before.
refuted
The
the
and
are
non-
The
of
(samdnaprasavdtmikd jdtih).
third book
begins with the proofs for
sameness
The
the
self
with
its
in
which
us
each
that
there
specific
object,but
own
produced
It is said
atman.
or
of the
no
things as having
the
eyes
together
there
fruit
as
no
could
for the
If it is said
by
manas
as
self and
sense
1
be
not
to
the
reminded
senses
experience of
that
the
would
not
be
According to Vatsyayana, in
takara, however, thinks that there
the
is
explained
two
one
would
eyes
visual
we
sense
be
have
the
a
two
effected
purpose
same
for
name,
by
unless
soul,then
which
sour
another.
be
well
as
being
tion,
recogni-
no
recognizedby
cognize;
if
ness
If conscious-
instrument
as
united
been
taste.
serve
of the
if there
to
have
quarrel over
and
there
recognize
images produced by
could
require some
sensations
again
things1; moreover
by the sight of
sour
would
separate instrument
perceptions could
its
sensations
be
of the
be
only
entity
self then
able
also
not
could
one
it would
as
two
there
unity of
the
men;
only,then
manas
co-ordinate
of
be
; the
of
the
knower
no
cognizer then
permanent
(mind), then
entitythe
admitted
before
perception could
visual perception
one
belonged
would
them
seen
other
some
were
would
one
in visual
were
one
self,no
is associated
different
the
permanent
of
sense-cognitionsand
object as distinguishedfrom
existence
senses
exist
must
the
the
different
works
this
which
it
manas
is
though
work
senses.
in both
the
of the
Udyoeyes.
viii
Philosophyin
Another
show
for the
argument
this could
and
no
and
desires
due
be
and
held
is also
by
some
refuted.
touch
earth, etc.,can
of which
earth
elements
but
of
only one,
objects.The
that
find
not
and
of smell
only
can
grasp
is made
the
tinctive
dis-
(cognition)and
is
difference between
no
consciousness
our
be called.
two
with
are
Samkhya
diverse
assumes
these
The
explained on
the senses,
and
atman
reflection
catch
from
forms
in
the
position
sup-
external
tion
explana-
antahkaranas
of
elements
of the elements
organ
in
it may
name
manas
four
non-phenomenal consciousness,
denied, and
of
the
smell,taste, eye,
of buddhi
antahkarana
Buddhist
the
sense
smell.
distinction
phenomenal
by whichever
of contacts
of
features
though the
it
qualities,
four
cit. We
is also
visual
Incidentallythe
sense
distinctive
Thus
the
the
respectivelyby
the
contains
but
one,
made
cognitiveacts
The
is the
possesses
ether
that
in
experience
earth
epistemology
it is
skin
made.
and
therefore
the
the
buddhi
ksiti element.
attachments
that
Samkhya
cit (pure intelligence)
it is
the
All
their
to
desires,
some
senses1.
with
desires.
due
are
of the
only grasp
which
is born
all other
are
they are
infants
are
and
which
this,that
also
The
is
explained.
in
without
infants
up
so
be
not
of soul
creature
born
in
previous existences.
The
body is made
299
previous experiences,and
to
desires
is material
to
every
to
seen
are
that
argued
and
sutras
pain
due
Moreover
is
one
be
not
previous lives.
by
admission
view
Nyaya
senses,
and
the
the
external
objectsthat may
lie near
it, that there were
productions of
really momentary
crystalsand no permanent
crystalcatching different reflections at
world
just as
crystaldoes
different times
is refuted
coming
1
of the
in of
It is well
of the
savihita
where
cases
case
to
are
the
for it says
momentary,
but it can
momentariness
that
elements.
(Caraka) regarded
the
Samkhya
But
the
senses
as
was
of milk
qualitiesand
remember
coloured
by Nyaya;
transformation
new
gross
from
that
only be agreed to
actuallyexperienced.
curd
into
disappearance
did
believe that
not
Samkhya- Yoga
bhautika
or
be
it cannot
view
there
is
no
of old ones,
but
the
stituted
con-
senses
were
representedin
Atreya-
The
300
VaUesika
Nyayadestroyed
is
old
destroy the
and
Desire
these
Manas
if it
be
cannot
borne
The
another.
recollections
then
by
two
the
to
conscious
conscious
was
No
ones.
either
belong
can
the
curd
The
originatesanew.
with soul {atman) takes place within the body
of manas
contact
which
ledge
is outside
the body; knowin that part of atman
and
not
the object for
or
belongs to the self and not to the senses
New
when
even
they are destroyed knowledge remains.
tions
cognimilk
old
the
and
[ch.
Philosophy
the
body
for it is
dependent
actions
done
cannot
one
reap
of recollection
causes
by
the
(manas).
self. Again
upon
it would
have
fruits of the
the
of
None
mind
the
to
or
soul.
the
to
taneous.
simul-
be
can
to be
actions
part of self
of
given
(3) repetition,(4) sign,
on
follows:
are
and
caused
which
as
that
of the
and
pain causing
of
memory
that
through
In
destruction
the
the
fourth
it
(defects),
As
in
that
such
as
the
soul
(atman)
of karma.
book
is said
defects
other
from
manas
the
of
examination
moha
raga
Buddhist
of
course
(ignorance),is
(attachment) and
at
the
dvesa
dosa
of all
root
(antipathy).
is not
man
reference
things
no-cause
The
on
the
have
always
found
is made
be the
doctrine of
ground
that
the
doctrine
Nyaya
see
sutra
according to
of those
who
his efforts.
say
is
thingsare
eternal
thingsproduced
m.
that
(ammttta), for
impossible.
no-cause
which
that all
always
success
being by
cause,
some
we
that
to attain
to
into
come
would
view
ii.44.
is next
and
all
then
refuted
destroyed.
The
doctrine
that
all
other
of the
things are
things,and
merely
the
the
what
that
The
for
of other
be
may
for
men,
Buddhists
even
by many
sorrows,
As
there
is no
pleasures.
hold
time
the
man
and
sometimes
who
in the
to
that there
are
wholes,
or
are
pleasureshere
sorrow
their relations
substances
are
some
of
who
no
karmas
take
301
(sunyavadin Bauddhas)
virtue
by
are
parts but
which
there
though
sorrow
they
fruits of
fruits of trees
Even
nihilistic Buddhists
qualitiesand
refuted.
then
Vaisesika
i]
vii
and
there,birth
means
enjoys pleasure is
mistakes
one
who
man
mented
tor-
is in
pains for
less
deep dream-
who
attains
sleep,so there is no affliction {klesd)in the man
this state is attained all efforts
once
(salvation)1.When
apavarga
for ever, for though efforts were
(pravrtti) cease
beginningless
with
they
us
there
with
attachment, antipathy,etc.
to
discussions
short
are
all due
were
regarding
the
{ahamkdra) ceases
knowledge
of whole
(dosa); about the nature
of atoms
nature
{anus) which cannot
the
in which
way
of the
and
true
be
egoism
of defects
causes
parts and
further
Then
about
divided.
introduced
the
cussion
dis-
of the
Vijnanarealitywhen
any
is mentioned
as
leadingto rightknowledge.
The
whole
is devoted
(nigrahasthdna)and
Caraka,
When
sutras
we
Nyaya
of purposes
in the
later addition
kinds
of refutations
Vaisesika
and
Nyaya
former
met, whereas
have
to be a
(jati).
sutras
the
compare
find that
we
futilities
seems
of different
enumeration
the
to
which
the
with
sutras
two
sutras.
latter
Vaisesika
different
three
or
the
is much
streams
geneous.
homo-
more
of materials
relatingto debates
large amount
as
a
practicalart for defeating an opponent would lead
that it was
probably originallycompiled from
suppose
The
treated
to
one
and
used
were
by Hindus
existing treatises which
in
fit to hold their own
Buddhists
alike for rendering themselves
when
debates with their opponents2. This assumption is justified
other
some
1
2
used
with
Vatsyayana
A
to
notes
reference
certain
get
force, and
to the
Suvarnaprabhasa sutra
preparationsfor improving
took
the
has known
who
shows
that the
their voice
worship of SarasvatI
Buddhist
in order
to be
IV.
mind
i. 63.
missionaries
able
to
who
(goddess of learning),
they
in bringing readilybefore their
supposed would
help them
in need at the time of
and ideas of which
they stood so much
to
Brahman,
argue
they
debates.
The
302
found
disputationsas
Nyaya
work
works
other
no
are
in
Nyaya
Philosophy
which
have
of
description of some
and
drstanta, prayojana, pratijfla
vitanda)
definitions
the
such
others
of those
given
definitions
where
the
some
other
are
viii. There
treated
the
the
of these
categories (e.g.
closely
very
follows
There
are
Nyaya sutras.
jalpa,chala, nigrahasthana,etc.,
of
of two
that
the
in
definitions
the
as
those
literature,excepting
Caraka's
matters.
[ch.
(78 A.D.),ill.
Sanskrit
early
with
sutra
of Caraka
Caraka-samhita
and
sutra
the
in
medical
the
in
found
Vaitesika,
( jati)quibbles(chala),etc., relatingto
futilities
the
compare
we
Nyaya-
differ
authorities
logicalcategories mentioned
There
more.
Caraka
in
are
(e.g.pra-
opponent's refutation
siitra
not
are
in
found
found
in Caraka.
There
forms
in the
slightlyvariant
in
Caraka, upamdna
Caraka
of these
treatment
leave
we
fifth
there
book,
in
sutras
is
to
other
some
earlier,whereas
was
It does
been
the
work,
whole
Nyaya
not
use
which
the second
sutras
technical
terms
century
to
terms
which
some
other
unknown
schools
of
disputation
compilation
the
A.D.
of
embodied
are
Another
could
stream
polemic againstthe
Sautrantika
thought
to
have
flowing
doctrines
Buddhists,
the Samkhya,
Vijftanavada Buddhists, the nihilists,
and
Nyaya
the
contained
not
is that of
attributed
the
Nyaya sutras
sents
repreof
atmosphere
disputationshad
hotter
were
of these
these,Caraka's
compilation of
more
and
the
fore
there-
seems
Caraka
seem
could
of
between
It
sutras.
both
Of
the
is much
Caraka
great agreement
that of the
plain that
Nyaya sutras.
nigrahasthana of the
jatiand
earlier work.
when
but
earlier than
which
of
anything
find in the
we
the
later work
necessitated
in this
what
in
and
sutra
know
it is
the
are
e.g. aupamya
to
seem
subject,and
than
the
and
indebted
were
works,
two
not
terms
some
disputationsin
varieties
on
of Caraka
treatment
of
terms
the
out
does
this
on
less technical
simpler and
If
work
Nyaya
the
are
Nyaya
which
arthaprdptiin Caraka.
about
in the
{nigrahasthana)mentioned
the
which
we
the
Carvaka,
find
no
does
know
Like Vaisesika,Caraka
the threefold division of inference {anunot
tn"na) as purvavat^ fc$avat and sdmdnyatodrfta.
vm]
Nyaya
further allusion
had
seen
with
elsewhere.
The
Vaisesika
Vaisesika
sutras
sutras
them
Nyaya
and
sutras
The
points.
most
on
is the
and
have
we
already
ultimatelyagreed
with
dispute
in the
as
303
Mimamsa
Vaisesika
in the
the
question
of the eternality
of sound.
of the doctrine
The
question of the
of knowledge (svatakpramdnyavada) and the akhyati
self- validity
sutras
discussion
points of
alluded
never
methods
an
as
of illusion of the
doctrine
are
same
alien
between
in the
to
{Nyaya
sutras,
these
element;
Mlmamsists,
later
Nyaya
form
Mimamsa
the two
later
and
The
sutras.
and
found
not
are
which
ii. 38-42
IV.
over
Nyaya,
advocacy
46)
in Vaisesika
of
also
seems
and
chief
Yoga
be
to
in
not
are
keeping with the general tendency of the Nyaya sutras, and the
Japanese tradition that Mirok added them later on as Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasada Sastrl has pointed out1 is not improbable.
Vaisesika
The
sutras,
knowledge
self
(atman),
also
adhere
under
the
of
inferringthe
for
reason
Vaisesika
with
same
more
in the
questions of
classifications
definition.
purvavat,
as
Vaisesika
The
(V. S.
III. i. 7-17,
when
thing
inherence
so
it,or
lead
These
on.
ii. 1-2,
knowledge
and
efforts
to
but
are
the
they
the
non-
is almost
Nyaya
sutras
of
inference
gives three
samanyatodrsta, but no
and
do
Nyaya
know
not
another, or
in
is said
when
of
tions,
classifica-
of
inference
to
be
it is in
third
of another
collections
of these
instances
or
Inference
inference
mere
the
of
it inheres
when
The
Nyaya.
4-5).
with
is in contact
in
of effect may
IX.
of
only be perceived
(conglomeration etc.).
from
sesavat
sutras
ceptional
per-
can
manas
or
question
and
sense,
of
and
of
samskara
the
On
does.
colour
with
as
proximity
objects of
existence
definition
technical
give a
close
samskdra
of
simultaneity{ayaugapadya)
the
the
doctrine, that
conditions
special
The
and
ii. 1, describe
III.
the
produced by
as
senses
the
to
and
i. 18
ill.
thing ;
kind
of
made
relation
one
kind
effect,and
instances
specific
ence
of infer-
either
sutra,
in the
III. i.24, no
between
hetu
Nyaya
doubt
and
sutras
assumes
in the
or
the
Vaisesika.
knowledge
Vaisesika
of concomitance
sadhya (prasiddhipurvakatvdtapadesasya),
1
J.A.S.B.
1905.
The
304
the
the
term
Vaisesika
but
Nyaya
sabda
pramana
and
referred
other
Vaisesika
such
pramanas,
include
them
Vaisesika
the
do
not
Nyaya
sambhava
arthapatti,
as
within
sutras
applies not
The
know
to
seem
them
to
be
the
and
person,
of
three
which
is not
is
even
know
sutras
of
aitihya,but
by them,
at
The
Vedas.
only
and
admitted
pramanas
more
separate
sutras.
of
Nyaya.
(foreigners).Upamana
right cognition in Nyaya
of
in the
to
later
mleccha
means
be
to
the
rsi, dry a
connotation
scriptures{sabda) as
count
as
[ch.
seems
it in the
the
says
as
know
we
the
and
Vaisesika
they tacitlyadmit
to
Vatsyayana
regarded
not
sutras
but
kinds
do
sutras
pramana,
Vedas,
vyapti as
the term
Philosophy
known,
not
prasiddhipurvakatvaof
loose than
With
vyapti is
technical
but
ay a-Vaiiesika
Ny
but
all1. The
the
sika
Vaise-
"bring the
to
absent
are
absence
in the
believe
sutras
in
clothes
some
there
is thus
sutras
about
an
of
say
nothing
visesa
and
samavaya
materialityof the
been
important
in
the
But
senses.
with
VIII.
Vaisesika sutras
the
this
5-6
can
do not
marks
it is
the
Vaisesika
perception,
to
is different. The
subjectsof
much
pains
to
Vaiseska
prove
hardly
mention
be
the
name
regarded
of"
Nyaya
karma,
dravya, guna,
main
take
Vaisesika.
ii.
; so
categoriesof
sutras
finds that
Nyaya and
as
being due
matter
form
Nyaya
the
of abhava
which
The
discussions3.
be
the
he
argued that
directlyperceived2. Though
between
handling
about
brings them
can
the acceptance
sutras
The
and
agreement
marked,"
not
are
non-existence
or
question
which
the
to have
to
this
sufficient.
as
Isvara,"whereas
his existence
on
eschatological
Nyaya sutras
try to prove
grounds. The reasons
given in support of the existence of self
in the Nyaya sutras
are
mainly on the ground of the unity of
the
and the phenomenon
of recognition,
whereas
sense-cognitions
the
an
these pramanas
The onlyold authoritywhich knows
of sambhava
is different from
which
interpretation
arthaprapti{Caraka
is Caraka.
Nyaya
The
are
The
Ny"ya
incidentally
gives a definition of jatias
savdtmikd
jdtih
"
calls
arthapatti
viii.).
ill.
sutra
he also gives
But
and
no
doubt
[lh ii.71).
taken
from
Vatsyayana'scommentary.
"
samanapra
and
Dvaraka,
who
Prasastapada
sutras
of
The
unfortunatelybe ascertained.
liarity
pecuPraSastapada'sbhasya is this that unlike other bhasyas
There
to
first brief
comments),
it does
dissertation
based
lost.
the
follow
not
main
their
on
but
sutras
contents1.
other
two
were
Rdvana-bhdsya
of
independent
an
sika
Vaise-
of the
bhasya (commentary)
of
time
also
cannot
continue
the
is
wrote
The
near
(which
then
in Prabhasa
the
from
appears
[ch.
Nyaya-VaitesikaPhilosophy
The
306
and
References
the
to
Padmanabha
former
Misra
and
also
in Kirandvalibhdskara
found
are
in
Ratnaprabhd
2.
Four
11.
2.
commentaries
written
were
this
on
two
also
wrote
and
Upaskdra. Of
these
best
for
native
of the
name
was
wrote
his work
The
modern
of
Bhurisrsti
and
mother's
Saka
in 913
in
era
of its
account
on
the
called
sutras
of Srldhara
nature
student
villageof
Nydya
exposition is probably
of
Its author
Vaisesika.
was
and
Acchoka
was
(990 A.D.) as
he
by Aksapada
or
father's
His
Bengal (Radha).
name
sutra
written
was
commentary
it written
on
himself
he
writes
Gautama,
of
and
is knowi
by Vatsyayana
date
Vdtsydyana-bhdsjya.The
the
Vaisesika
of his work.
the earliest
as
elaborate
Baladeva
the end
at
the
on
Nydya-kandali
simplicityof styleand
the
wrote
the
on
commentary
Misra
to
Prasastapdda-bhdsya, namely
Kandda-rahasya. Sarikara Misra (1425 A.D.)
commentaries
Bhdsyasukti
addition
has
Vatsyayana
not
tary).
bhasya (elaboratecommenof the
a
no
compendium
He himself makes
He
takes the categoriesof
of the categories
{Paddrthadharmasamgraha).
properties
dravya, guna, karma, sdmdnya, vitesa and samavdya in order and without raisingany
1
bhasya of Prasastapadacan
The
such
which
are
creation
important
and
in later
with
date
and
as
measure
the transformation
definitely
; he
it is not
are
on
by heat
these
on
is difficultto
available
6th century
doctrines
doctrine
to
a.d.
us
of
of atoms
of pilupaka in
in his narration
occur
points.It
or
the
as
Vaiiesika
5th
of the
Some
them.
of the molecu
silent
on
discussions, such
the
of number,
improbable
say
Nyaya- Vaisesika
of colours
and
he has got to
dissolution,doctrine
time
what
plainlynarrates
discussions
hardly be called
claim
nection
con-
ascertain his
after
Kanada
vi 1
1]
been
Literature
Nyaya
but
definitely
settled,
there is
307
to
reason
believe
that he
lived
in the
time
and
independently,
thought of
of other
his time.
It is far
more
systems of Indian
he tries to establish
these
have
we
times. Of these
with
the
the
with
Nyaya
doctrine
of useful
number
followingdeserve
present work.
its commentaries
\samgraha
the
works
of soul.
on
Muktdvali,
Dinakarl
Nydyanirnaya,
Nyaya
specialmention
by
Bhdsdpariccheda
Tarkabhdsd
and
In addition
in
in later
tion
connec-
Visvanatha
Rdmarudrl,
of Kesava
with
Tarka-
Misra
20"2
with
"
The
308
the
Nydya-Vais'esikaPhilosophy
Nydyapradipa,
Varadaraja with
commentary
of
Tdrkikaraksd
of
Mallinatha, Nydyasdra
the commentary
Niskantaka
of the
Deva
^ivaditya,
of
Saptapaddrthl
Madhava
[ch.
of
Dhara
city of
of
and
The
school
of
as
Navya-Nyaya
Nyaya philosophy known
with
of
A.D.
1200
Mithila, about
began
Garigesa Upadhyaya
admitted
Garigesa wrote only on the four pramanas
by the Nyaya,
new
viz.pratyaksa,anumana,upamana,and sabda,and
topicsof Nyaya
metaphysics.
But
it
not
cussions
his dis-
that
happened
so
of the
any
on
in
anumana
of
commentaries
portion
of his
treatises
work
sabda
on
Bengal,which
of
of
commentaries
Tattvacintdmaiii, and
and
anumana
became
the
on
for
commentaries
anumana
independent
many
also written
were
thenceforth
The
studies.
Nyaya
written
were
Siromani
Raghunatha
of
home
the
centuries
some
scholars
the
by
carya
BhattaGadadhara
Bhattacarya (1580 A.D.),
(1500 A.D.),Mathura
taries
(1650 A.D.)and Jagadlsa Bhattacarya (1590 A.D.),commen"iromani's commentary
on
on
Tattvacintdmani, had been
widely read
very
contribution
The
was
concept
for
Thus
should
be
and
thinking
From
century the
the
Mr
dates
s
wished
the
on
to
preciselyth(
define
one
specifythe
so
relation
that
smol
(e.g.
the exact
development
of
system
mentioned
highly technical
of
paper,/.
A.
S.B.
(Behar) ;
pre-eminently the
1915.
am
indebted
but from
home
to
the
of Nyaya
it for
some
sixteenth
fifteenth
studies.
of the
in this section.
Ifvaranumana
notable
started in Mithila
was
Cakravartti's
natui
be
or
school of Nyaya
new
series
subject1.
metaphysics,theology,
literature
the latter half of the twelfth century to the third quarter of the
the seventeenth
See
of
confusion
no
appeared a
the
concepts2.
they
should
concomitance
of the
other
when
example
fire),
they would
and
with
of the concomitance
nature
there
became
to
its relation
or
and
Nyaya
consisted
linguisticnotations
of
of
school
in the direction of
not
but
religion,
ethics,or
to
in
of Raghunatha
exceptions.
as
well
as
ever,
his Padarthatattvanirfipanaare, how-
vin]
Nyaya
Literature
309
be
to
the
vehicle
importance of
can
hardly be
attractingenthusiastic
close
I cannot
far
so
the
as
worked
large numbers.
Buddhists
this
at
first to write
the
was
logic and
of
in
chapter without
mentioning the fact that
logicalportion of the Nyaya system is concerned,
Jains and
it,the
students
this
though Aksapada
of
of
in medieval
had
subject and
made
valuable
of
Dasavaikdlikaniryukti
comprehensive
had
times
criticized
independently
count
Nyaya acJaina logic
the
contributions.
Bhadrabahu
account
In
(357 B.C.),Umasvati's
Divakara
of Siddhasena
Prameyakamalamdrtanda
and
Pramdnasamuccaya
Pramdnavdrttika
the
(650 A.D.)with
Buddhist
Indian
and
of
Buddhist
difference
Dharmaklrtti
of
Dharmottara
works
(500A.D.),
Dinnaga
Nydyabindu
commentary
interestingof the
diverse
points of
of
Nydyapravesa
kdrika
specialnotice.
deserve
the
are
most
on
between
separate work
on
of the
the compass
present volume.
It
is
bhdsya and
the
Udyotakara's
of
importance seems
science of logicin
the Buddhists
that roused
the
Jain
notice
interestingto
to
this
; and
it
of
Varttika
been
period was
to
no
written
write
in the hands
the
the
Varttika.
Vdtsydyana
work
Hindu
Dirinaga'scriticism
was
Udyotakara
method
have
between
that
it appears
logic
on
that
the
Jains and
Hindu
Nyaya
of the
of
The
treatinglogic separatelyfrom
and
Buddhist
metaphysics
till we
not
independent study was
accepted by the Hindus
work
of
Hindu
there is probably only one
to Gangesa, and
come
importance on Nyaya in the Buddhist
stylenamely Nyayasara
of Bhasarvajna. Other
works
older Hindu
generally treated of
as
an
See
of
Indian
Jain
Logic
and
Medieval
Buddhist
School, by Dr
Logic.
S.
C.
Vidyabhusana, for
graphy
biblio-
The
310
-Vaisesika
Nyaya
other
inference
[ch.
Philosophy
pointsof Nyaya
interest1.
doctrine
main
The
The
took
things remain
of
the stroke
impression
on
serve
or
my
things
they produce any
Whether
is
environments
immaterial.
you
on
or
us
it is
or
that
arrange
the
jug
tinues
con-
but
because
any
other
the
is
of
experience to be existing.
As the Nyaya- VaiSesikas
depended solelyon
valid reasons,
they dismissed the Samkhya
ence
exist-
perceiver
all the
their
on
account
on
to
exist
to
Existence
things,and
of
characteristic
or
continue
effect
Thus
mo-
held
so
it is broken
suppose,
If I
would
exist, the
collocations
of
pieces by
not
because they can
produce
either
directlyor
purposes
the Buddhists
as
of their characteristics.
is one
not
exist
doctrine
things,and
destroyed.
until
or
Things
us,
through knowledge,
did
be
thing can
jug unless
stick.
suitable
until
Philosophy2.
the
of
view
the
remain
to
dismissed
having
permanent
Vaisesika
Nyaya-
common-sense
that
themselves
an
Vaisesika
Nyaya-
mentariness
of the
same.
surrounding
general
most
this that
things
testified by
are
on
accepted the
water
{ksiti),
and
sound
itself
as
hear
organ3.
in touch
and
he
has
the
of the
manifests
such
his
as
which
from
who
admitted
the
want
to
it shows
the
Thus
present
heai
sen*
to
the
consulted in
been
fuller
deai
of tim(
the existence
be acquainted with
serves
de-
man
hearing,cannot
facultyof that
referred to have
all-
fests
it mani-
that
as
demerit.
of
sense
Vaisesika
and
bibliography
school
of
sounds
the
Nyaya
only there
and
impedes
they
of all persons,
ears
it is
these
to
on
the
as
akasa
the
with
of his merit
reason
extending
Almost
earth
ear-drum,
the
In addition
(kdld) as
1
by
of
cause
of his demerit
account
on
thus
only in
though
man
the
as
sense-organ
to
(bhutas\
regarded
pervading
four elements
of the
fire
(ap\
eternal; the
It is
doctrine
atomic
experience and
cosmology, but
their originaldifferences,they
agreement
by
been
*
except in
some
are
minor
regarded
since
about
600
A.D.
as
being
in
complete
mented
points.The views of one system are often supplecharacter of the two systems has already
The original
treated.
See Ny"yakandali, pp.
to
59-64.
vni]
MetaphysicalCategories
endless
have
futuritybefore
knowledge of
no
for
time-notions
our
did
of kala
is
existence
regarded
and
their movements.
is
creation
order
of
It has
The
mode
with
in which
by
existence
time;
{buddhinirmdnd)
the buddhi
Samkhya
to
records
the
unit
its
traverse
separate from
of kala
account
them
atom
an
to
The
to
could
we
nothing
changes.
real
taken
time
no
be
all
appearance
buddhi
our
would
of any
no
been
there
there
the time
as
unit of space.
own
it and
associated
the
admit
not
Had
us.
311
the
atoms
separate entity
as
as
it represents the
its
perceptions. But
kala in Nyaya-Vaisesika is regarded as a substance
existingby
with
the changes of things it reveals itself
itself. In accordance
as
past, present, and future. Samkhya regarded it as past,present,
and
of the constitution
of the things
future,as being the modes
or
in its different
astronomers
These
all be
must
of kala
substance
related
The
to
is
appears
regarded
as
the soul
substance
is relative
of which
virtue
and
in the
and
things
the
person;
pain,desire,etc.
the
perceived as
changes
lower2.
in
Over
regarded
are
like dik
is
link which
series,one
and
time
as
are
separate
is
atmans
tions
; all affec-
of memory
and willing,
are
generated
knowing, feeling,
and
the
with
the
senses
manas
objects.
soul,
above
which
the
on
as
the
all these
cause
and
of
our
intellectual
have
and
Nyayamanjari,
of things which
suffer
Isvara.
pp.
change
66-69,an^ Nyayamanjari,
p. 140.
have
we
experience
not
taneously.
simul-
definition
The
136-139.
eternal.
manas
after another
we
the senses,
knowledge, feeling,or
of soul with
thus
coming
64-66,
connects
sutras
being
stance
sub-
eighth substance
The
the vehicle
in size and
of
connection
is conducted
is that
kala
downwards;
the
(dik). It
space
and
with
It is the intermediate
ception
con-
all-pervading,
partless
There
is all-pervading.
It is atomic
by
planets.
Nyaya-Vaisesika
an
are
and
and
upper
{atmari)which
substance.
The
But
for each
as
of the
motion
in association
many
the
(adhvan).
it1.
seventh
one.
evolution
to the
with
contrasted
which
which
by
also
of
manifesting stages
regarded it as being due
The
but denied
Vaihsika
it of
things
The
312
Ny
consists
of substance
ay
Vaitesika
a-
[ch.
Philosophy
in this,that it is independent
whereas
by itself,
karma,
guna,
entities of which
man
a
visesa,and
samanya,
all
things in
the
world
of
right thinking,comes
differences
and
passions and
attains
of
to
Nyaya-Vaisesika
diversityof
the
reduce
is
self,and
be
must
something
percepts and
or
universal
the
on
due
was
number
the
book
book
substance
of "redness
karma.
In the
"
and
of
subdivision
Samkhya
1
or
Buddhism
we
the
The
is thus
It classified the
ultimate
types
of each
types
percept
"
see
thus
we
defined
as
type
six
are
see
In
in
red
which
call the
that
which
The
perceptionthere
notion
"oneness," and
mands
de-
lying
under-
independent entityon
an
principleof classification is
same
take
we
(dravya); dravya
the characteristic
has
be
to
appears
the concept
rests
If
etc.
the
entity. These
of that
presence
dravya, guna,
"
book,"
the
to
that
The
thought.
experience.
of
and
tries to
strength of
kind
any
nor
principle,
abstract
of each
held
way
have
neither
categories(paddrtha),and
the
is liberated2.
perceptionis due.
the
and
promptings
which
pluralistic
system
experience to any
of mere
logicalcoherence
taken directlyfrom
it admits
are
principleis
When
reason
to
ceases
their
of the
entities
original
respectivecharacteristics
with
of
nature
of
in
pitfalls
entities,he
dismisses
and
six
up1.
cultivation
the
in accordance
of the
conviction
above
the
work
know
to
made
are
specialmerit, by the
through some
thorough knowledge of the fallacies
the
are
samavaya
contrastingit
unit of sensation
and
the
with
(say
Abhava
is mentioned
in the Vaihsika
as
(negation)
dependent on bhava (position)
abhava
writers
such
include
a
as
as
Nyaya
Udayana
separate category,
but Sridhara a contemporary of Udayana rightly
remarks that abhava
not counted
was
bhava
by Pra^astapadaas it was
abhdvasya prthaganupadefah
dependent on
tvabhdvdt."
na
bh"vap"ratantryat
Nydyakandali, p. 6, and Laksandvali, p. i.
Later
sutras.
"
"
"
Tattvato
bhdvdt.
takadharmopacayesati paripakvdtmajMnasydtyantikaiartraviyogasya
p. 7.
"
Ibid,
air is
or
Nyaya-VaitesikaPhilosophy
The
314
materials.
of earth
fourth
The
hot
hot, neither
been
The
kinds
three
are
of
touch, cold,
would
sound.
no
of which
virtue
been
have
them
count
can
we
as
two, three,
one,
conception of numbers
two, three,etc. is due to
of the mind
state
(apeksabuddhi); thus when
oscillatory
The
etc.
jugs before
two
that
my
is another
then
The
the
is called
qualityof
determinate
seventh
of
is
virtue
things by
other
of which
the
the
measure
the
hrasva
for then
of any
two
as
jug
and
one
in the
then
then
an
in
dvitva
us
jugs.
the two
are
of
arise in
many
the
the
size
of
of
measure
the
dyanuka
(hrasva)2. Of course
number
a
in the
compose
This
kind
new
the
rate
gene-
is its
lutely;
abso-
own
of
different
atoms
again
when
and
the
three
not
the
small
(hrasva)
dyads (dyanuka)
"
measure
small
be noted
measure
appears
in two
but
regarded as
is
It should
the
dyad,
be
should
namely
the
whereas
kind, namely
generate
atom
still smaller
been
have
{parimandala),
of the
number
(dvyanuka),
molecule
dyad
of measure,
dyads. So
tryanuka
the
two
(samkhya)
it cannot
atom
is
is
partlessatoms
measure
of it would
(parimana)
small and
or
that
of the
the
thing. Its
generate
atom
great
eternal,and
; it is
other
as
of the
measure
(small) measure
measure
The
atoms
of the
bringing forth
be
such.
as
measure
when
to
there
perceivethem
we
parimandala parimana
are
(dvitva)and
well
as
there
called
then
is
apeksabuddhi ;
twoness
numbers
of them
small
This
"
perceptionsthat
speak
measure
notion
relative
manner1.
The
than
the
of
perception(nirvikalpa-dvitva-gund)
conceptions
similar
This
arises the
indeterminate
and
I have
eyes,
jug.
jugs there
two
prehended
ap-
is samkhya
things by
to
there
sixth
There
be
can
cold.
nor
akasa
no
skin.
the
fifth sabda
The
(touch),that qualitywhich
is sparsa
only by
vayu.
of the presence
account
on
[ch.
forms
as
""
seems
eternal
as
in
The
vni]
{hrasva) of
the
dyad
Qualityof Measure
is the
of the
of the
cause
For
them.
as
bigger does
also
tryanukas
thing become.
bodies
grosser
constitute
Thus
the
{mahat)
composed
body,
gross
of the
cumulation
the
find that
accumulation
but
parimana
but
of
also
nukas
trya-
parimahat
be
tryanukas
the
means
mitted
ad-
identical,for
not
Here
long {dirgha).
as
by
much
so
makes
parimana
coexistingwith mahat
only appear as great
things not
measure
of other
"
the
"
great
great
mahat
things of still more
of tryanukas is not only regarded as
measure
dirgha (long) and this dirgha parimana has to
as
as
we
"
"
measure
to
come
many
the
The
but
we
measure
of mahat
mana.
of the
cause
tion
accumula-
the
and
longer
Now
the
hrasva
individual
type of
which
measure
of grossness,
or
length
in
and
grossness
hrasva
and
tryanukas
should
atomic
and
cause
be
then
the
the
even
circular
to
smaller
than
if the
measure
greatness,
of
still
hrasva
of
measure
tryanukas, the
size of the
the
also
of the
to
great
is
atoms
measure
dyanukas ought
the
hrasva
more
dyanukas. So
the
The
accumulation
more
of the
{parimandald)
distinct
accumulation
an
that
measure
their
still
generate
of the
of the
measure
atoms.
ought
expect
generating by
as
than
the
was
separate and
{hrasva).As
effect,so
its
should
we
small
as
them.
composed
regarded as having
is not
length,generates
(small) parimana
parimana,
the dyads
dyads
length but
or
is called
greatness
which
atoms
of the
parimana
degree of greatness
lower
the
the
than
be
if
garded
re-
nukas,
dya-
atomic
more
should
measures
be
to
the
other
generates
cause
and
the
be
still
since
the
constituted
not
found
that
measure
the
still
parimandala
generate
But
It is therefore
measure.
to
smallness
measures
the
the
and
of atoms
share
of the
measure
dyads
and
atoms
and
dyads
and
subtleness
ought
atoms
in
smallness
dyads
it is their number
do
it is to be
to
effect.
their
are
tryanuka molecules
and
dyads respectively,
and
in the
if grossness
effect,the
of their causes,
measure
of the
that
greatness in the
more
more
held
to
seen
yet
are
argued
not
generate
which
is the
the
cause
The
316
of the
to
of the
as
be
latter.
and
and
which
atman
regarded
are
all-pervasive,
as
(absolutelylarge). The
(nitya). All
[ch.
Philosophy
This
paramamahat
atoms,
eternal
Vaiiesika
a-
parimana,
akasa, kala,dik
is said
ay
of the
measure
parimana, mahat
of
Ny
kinds
other
and
manas,
of
atman
parimanas
regarded
are
parimanas
belonging to
as
non-eternal
as
different
perceived by
such
this
as
The
virtue
destroysthe
The
rise in
not
to
that entityof
vibhdga (separation),
of things.
connection
contact
or
twelfth
and
gunas,
perceptionsof long
guna
by
connected.
as
us
is
the
to
and
(connection),that entity of
things appear
eleventh
us
that). Difference is
as
a
mere
negation
from
this pot.
is not
is samyoga
of which
tenth
positivenotion
as
jug
ninth
The
and
us
is different
(e.g.this
short
and
time
aparatva, give
and
paratva
which
guna
time,
remote
near.
The
other gunas
(knowledge),sukha (happiness),
dvesa
(antipathy or hatred) and
(will),
such
buddhi
as
duhkha
(sorrow),icchd
can
occur
yatna (effort)
only
The
with
characteristic of gurutva
which
things fall to
belongs to water. The
The
practised or
soul
1
to
virtue
of
(oiliness)
kinds, (i)vega
different directions,
of which
gross
its old
recognized1.Dhartna
the
in
by
thing
state
even
though disturbed, (3) bhdthings are constantly
quality of atman
by which
and
by which things experienced are remembered
get back
is that
vand
that
is of three
(velocity)which
keeps a thing moving
account
on
(2) sthiti-sthdpaka
(elasticity)
tries to
soul.
of sneha
guna
of samskara
guna
to
(heaviness)is
ground.
the
reference
is the
qualitythe
enjoy happiness or
presence
to attain
of which
salvation2.
enables
Adharma
is
is a special
characteristic of the soul, contrary to
bered
knowledge, by which thingsseen, heard and felt are rememof
and recognized. Through unexpectedness (as the sightof a camel for a man
South India),repetition
in
samskara
(as studies, art etc.)and intensityof interest,the
is silent
becomes
however
particularly
strong. See Ny"yakandali, p. 267. Kanada
Prasastapadasays
intoxication,sorrow
on
these points. He
and
also
*
that bhavana
and
only
by the samskara,
says
dharma
specialkind
of contact
is
(smrti)
memory
Prasastapadaspeaks of
Srldhara
that by
does not
kartnasdmarthyam).Sacrifice etc.
of the mind
produced (ix.
as
being a qualityof
(merit)
cannot
admit
2.
soul
is a power of karma
(na
for these actions being momentary
that dharma
be dharma
with
6).
viii]
the
Categoryof Universality
opposite quality,the
suffer.
to
man
things and
of
the
it for
arranges
their merits
or
Karma
means
be held
be
to
destiny
or
soul
rest
; it is the
movement
irreducible
as
of
is the fourth
them
to
spite of all
In
perceived as
and
sat
karma.
This
karma.
sameness
highestgenus
the
universal),
the
as
sat
or
samanya
nilatvajdti
(the genus
in
call them
we
spite
is thus
of
cows.
they
us,
existence
is called
aspect
or
another, both
objects around
all
are
a
ness,
same-
things,dravya,guna,
rests
jati,and it is
dravya, guna, or
ox
on
of
dravya,
jatissuch
intermediate
sometimes
that
three
sattd
genus
and
cow
of
the
cause
things.Thus
in all the
intermediate
other
such
universals),
still more
exist
to
in
sameness
This
and
kinds
the genus,
means
one
existing.This
or
is found
as
we
between
such
have
It
do,
traction,
(3) con-
All
general.
gunas
notice
diversityin all
which
regarded
that
of colour
found
are
the
category.
sameness
movement
just as
they belong to move.
difference
of the
quality of
substances
generalityor
of
third
realityas
movement,
on
Samanya
unknown
leads
the
which
things to
is that
soul
which
in the
demerits.
five kinds
are
Adrsta
of which
presence
317
karma,
or
gotvajati(the
as
The
of
intermediate
blue).
have a specialaspect
of guna,
cow),
genus
jatisor
or
genera
species,such as
jati);here however
pasutva (animal jati)and gotva (the cow
as
a species,
gotva appears
yet it is in realitynothing but a jati.
The
It is jatiwhich
aspect as specieshas no separate existence.
from
appear
aspect appears
one
theycannot
action
is
to
as
destroyed its
power
genus
are
and
only
from
reaped
to be
{samarthya)cannot
as
last.
another
at
So dharma
species.
as
future time.
is to
be
If the
admitted
which
of conduct
produce happiqualitygenerated in the self by certain courses
ness
for him
other
conditions
of
when
time, place, etc. Faith
helped by certain
(Sraddhd),
non-injury,doing good to all beings,truthfulness,non-stealing,
sex-control,
control of anger, ablutions, taking of pure food, devotion to particular
gods,
sincerity,
as
strict
fasting,
to each
The
caste
adherence
and
Patafijali's
Yoga)
dharma
which
account
of the
Vallabha's
stage of
the yamas
and
duties and
to these
niyamas (cf.
Yoga by a meditation on the six padarthas attains a
(moksa). Srldhara refers to the Samkhya-Yoga
brings liberation
of
method
attainingsalvation (Nyayakandali, pp. 272-280). See also
who
person
to
strictlyadheres
and
attains
Nyayalllavati,pp. 74-75.
(Bombay,
191
5.)
Nyaya-Vaitesika Philosophy
The
318
be
thus must
jatior samanya
independent realitythough it
This
the
representedin
this
regard
should
consciousness
be
to
sameness
the
all
cow
as
thus
negation theory of
admitted
be
to
of
sameness
visesa
Through
sensation
that
with
other
souls
things
The
comprehended
perceived
are
reference
the
this
within
the
in that
with
the
jati,
diverse.
world
No
single
probably agrees
be
due
the
to
Panditasoka
that
says
there is
could
we
have
known
is
together,then
infinitum.
these
should
Whatever
it is
cow
from
as
No
samanya
this
no
can
samanya
be
in Six
Sdmdnyadusanadikprasdritd
does not think that either by perceptionor
prabhdy
should
requireanother
requireone
and
"
the
factor to
common
can
be
admitted
to
pointed
Buddhist
out
as
Nydya
we
have
exist
as
an
being externallyperceptible
Tracts.
The
Vedanta
know
jatias a
by inference we can
and Manijati.See Veddntaparibhdsd,Sikhdmani
"riharsa'sKhandanakhandakhddya,
pp. 1079-1086.
So it discards
of
"
separate substance.
other
only
non-existence
objects.Apart
without
cook
is non-existent.
samanya
entity. But
could be established.
is
cooking by virtue of which the notion of generality
establish
the action of cooks that cannot
similaritybetween
(yadyadupalabdhilaksanaprdptam
therefore
it
no
the samanya
his action of
to
regressus ad
also
explained
Samanya has
If the specificindividualities of
them
and
be
some
If there
cooks.
hold
as
the external
sensation,and
Buddhist
formed.
jatiin
ceived
per-
thing
non-destructible;for even
or
from
receive
we
any
negation
sameness
cannot
of
presence
that
selves.
themspecificdifferences amongst the atoms
difference existingin the atoms, emancipated
The specific
minds
be regarded as eternallyexisting,
and it
and
must
of
existence
said
horns
two
destroyed2.
latter is not
any
the
individuals
of
destruction
who
All perceptionas
separate reality.
thing is due to
jatiis eternal
object1. This
the
have
to
this
independent
discover
the
ception
per-
He
cow.
Buddhists.
the
cow
and
separate and
aforesaid
the
by
as
non-cows
as
negative perception,whereas
which
is a positiveperception,
is
non-cows
dent
indepen-
any
sameness
sameness
and
guna
iapoha). The
of
separate
dravya,
existence
the
as
having
as
in
but
said that
realityof samanya,
reallybut the negation of all non-cows
realizes the negation of
of cow
was
is
is existent
denied
Buddhists
The
karma.
regarded
[ch.
is defined
as
1]
vi
is
on
Categoryof Inherence
of its presence
account
by
the
different
two
and
peculiarrelation
of
between
later
and
disconnected;
were
and
and
inseparablereality.
is the
contact
which
nature
exist
and
the
the
table
stance
jatiin sub-
relation
samyoga
if
as
take
they
place
disconnected
as
when
as
both
are
why
cause
may
{yutasiddha),such
pen
unified
so
effect,and
or
and
karana
samanya,
indissolublyconnected
as
same
The
substance
as
identical
one
or
connected
the table.
on
pen
the
to
relation
visesa, appear
thing. Samyoga
be
such
inseparableinherence
appear
same
on
and
attribute,cause
thingsof the
two
may
my
the
and
one
and
attribute
inherence, is
substance
karma,
whole,
one
of
things
atoms
karya (effect),
they represent
This
different
as
appear
inseparablerelation
attribute,substance
that
atoms
perceive them.
of which
(cause) and
that
319
I put
substances
is the
by
guna
separate
many
it has
but
the
by anybody always
The
of
things which
as
tacitlyassume
Vedanta
between
does
not
of Causation.
Theory
Nyaya-Vaisesika
The
true
admit
the
existence
relation of samavaya
of the
and
there will
so
it
vicious
as
two
the
of
either
seed
anavasthd
before it
kinds
and
the
be
at
vicious
all.
It is well
of anavastha"
the
tree,
or
to
be
to
necessary
(anavasthd).Nyaya, however,
would
remember
prdmdniki
when
would
to
that
connect,
the
(validinfinite,as
the
the admission
Indian
in
case
and
passions),
systems
of the
another
of anything involves
an
sisting
sub-
admitted
relation is to be
that
as
infinite)
(vicious
be completed.
can
infinite
as
6ankara
Thus
qualities).
and
and
two
that
finds
substance
different entities (e.g.
two
speculationstook
of its
in most
says
it with
being
remains1.
The
into
brought
never
six
realities
we
was
These
view
which
relation
samavaya
to
connect
another,
not
gard
re-
ledge
acknow-
question of
aprdmdnikt
infinite chain
Nyaya-Vais'esikaPhilosophy
The
320
admitted
they
had
dravya,
admit
to
not
admit
and
that
the
as
karma
guna,
ultimate
of the collocation
In the
production of
of atoms,
peculiarities
effect too
the
was
and
accessory
other
etc.)had
wheel
instrumental
other
the
they
they did
for
atoms.
constituting
admit
not
that
held
They
cause.
within
power
(such
causes
the
powers;
did
they
potentiallypre-existentin
material
cause
(e.g.clay) had some
effect
of the
arrangement
or
the
Visesa
samanya.
things were
everything could
that
change
and
[ch.
collocation
that
the
it,and
stick,the
the
as
the
of these
stroyed
de-
two
and
cause,
could
be
never
vidyatesatah) and that the non-existent
produced {ndsato vidyatebhdvah). The objectionto this view is
is non-existent
is produced, then
such
possible
imthat if what
even
bhdvo
things
Nyaya-Vaisesika
that
the
as
horn
could
is that
answer
is non-existent
be
can
the
also be
view
produced, but
produced.
that
is not
that
anything
is
which
The
produced
non-existent1.
was
It is held
which
cause
is neither
there
is
Mimamsa
by
to
reason
no
except
between
the
antecedent
succeeds;
movement
time
does
not
be
it must
the
of
that
effect,but
be
can
the
transcendental
plained
exsatisfactorily
is
nothing
sequence)
of
invariableness
mere
it the
make
to
unconditional
an
is any
(parispanda). There
relation (antecedence and
suffice
in the
there
this
as
resides
power
this
nor
movement
and
cause
unseen
effect. To
suppose
invariable
the
an
of observation
matter
that
the
produces
operation in causal
by molecular
an
hare's
cause
antecedent
as
what
of
well
(anya-
variabilit
thasiddhisunyasyaniyatdpurvavarttita).
Unconditionalityand inand
are
indispensablefor kdryakdrana-bhdva or cause
effect
relation.
For
of
accompaniments
upon
indirect.
In
something
they are
other
words
unconditional
else
the
invariable
an
but
antecedents;
or
example,
non-essential
antecedent
not
their
antecedent
Nyayamaiijari)
adventitious
also be
able
invari-
(na svdtantryend).
invariable
may
or
of
p. 494.
The
the
is
conditional
potter'sstick
jar; but
the
is
an
colour
[ch.
Nyqya-VaitesikaPhilosophy
The
322
and finds
as
{atindriyd)
metaphysical or transcendental
efficiency
other
than
unconditional
invariable complements
nothing in the cause
of operative conditions
(kdrana-sdmagri),and nothing
in the effect other than the consequent
phenomenon which results
the jointoperationsof the antecedent
Certain
conditions1.
from
general conditions
of
such
Isvara,
destiny(adrsta)are regarded as
effects
{kdryatva-prayojakd).Those
determine
It may
be
not
of
out
place
repudiating transcendental
and
nature
conditions
of
system
mechanical
The
causal
presence
certain
called
asddhdrana
to
notice
relation
not
merit
kdrana.
while
Nyaya
the
deny
which
of
mechanism
the
{dharmd),
of
existence
which
constitutes
the
through
of nature.
like the
then
that
fulfil themselves
that
order
relation
the uniform
only by
a
and
systems
natural
ends
moral
sddhdrana-kdrana
are
(sakti)in
will
of all
cause
causes
specific
here
power
like
common
the
causation, does
natural
metaphysical
a
which
effects
specific
the
the
called
are
cause) as distinguishedfrom
(common
is
relative space
as
of concomitance,
relation
of genus
which
be
can
to
species,
ascertained
and
uninterruptedexperience of agreement in
and agreement
from
in absence, and not by a deduction
of causalityor identityof
a priori principlelike that
essence2.
The
material
samavdyi-kdrana
such
cause
of the
the
as
intimate, inseparablerelation
an
samavctyi when
with
the
materials
is called
karana
inseparably connected
effect. Asamavayi-karana is that which
its materials
of the
of inherence.
found
are
of
produces its characteristics in the effect through the medium
of
the samavayi or material
cause,
e.g. the clay is not the cause
the colour of the jug but the colour of the clay is the cause
of the
colour of the jug. The
colour of the clay which
exists in the clay
in
inseparablerelation
colour
Any
of the
thus
quality(guna) or
in the
cause
the
clay is
effect
1
Dr
See
called
relation
the
Ray's Hindu
of the colour
cause
movement
samavaya
is called
P. C.
is the
of the
the
asamavayi cause
which
existingin
determines
the
asamavayi-karana.
jug.
of
This
the
the samavaya
characteristics
The
jug.
of
instrumental
Chemistry, 1909,
B. N.
pp. 249-250.
Seal's Positive Sciences
this portion Dr
on
was
Buddhism.
time
of
Ganges^.
viii
Dissolution
nimitta
and
material
and
stick
We
{sakakdri)causes
produce the effect
to
be
may
of the
causes
Creation
accessory
cause
the
and
regarded
know
that the
the
the
that
effect,e.g.
colour
black
extraneous
is
jug
Thus
which
help the
the
the sahakari
and
nimitta
effect.
those
are
the
as
323
in the
gunas
the
black
of the
burnt,on
colour
effect,
except
of the
in
of the heat
account
the
are
producing it,but
of the gunas
causes
clay
is the
where
cases
generate other
to
cause
cause
in
cause
heat
it
in
of the
cause
qualities
; thus
comes
as
when
an
clay
colour,though the
get red
we
existent,
non-
of the
colour
portant
imoriginalclay and the jug was black. Another
exception is to be found in the case of the production of
the parimanas of dvyanukas and
which
trasarenus
not
are
duced
probut
their
or
a
by the parimanas of an arm
dyanuka,
by
number
have already seen.
as
we
(Pralaya)
Dissolution
docrine
and
(Srsti).
Creation
of
it the
with
adrsta
and
As
(sakti-pratibandhd).
other
or
the
bodies
as
of all
separationof
or
elements,
gross
result of this
act
to
ceases
further
no
and
bodies, senses,
the atoms
are
senses
the
souls
all the
residingin
into
products come
of the dissolution
force
thus
and
commences
all combinations
all earth
disintegrated;so
is reduced
to
suspended
souls
in their
in their
own
natural
condition.
inanimate
condition
are
For
lifeless and
we
know
that
knowledgeless,
these
connected
entities. It is only when
are
non-intelligent
with bodies that they possess knowledge through the activityof
In the state of pralaya owing to the adrsta of souls the
manas.
1
The
doctrine
of
of both
pralaya and
the
systems
srsti is found
seem
only in
to be silent
on
later
Nyaya-Vaisesika works,
the matter.
21
"
The
324
part of
give some
I!
of
as
of
times
adrsta.
adrsta
At
in
it acts
is
the
the
with
one
vayu,
atoms,
and
atoms.
When
gross
form,
Isvara
and
work.
Brahma
this
of all
may
the
such
the
tejasatoms
god
lead
creation
Even
attainment
to
turn
of
the
for the
arranges
here
in the
and
by
the
souls
in contact
come
and
thus
play.
atoms
of
formed
are
full
vayu
contact
air atoms
all the
then
in
vayu
worlds
Isvara
by
do
to
created
are
the
by
of
rest
the
for the
of
for any
not
it finds
of this
originates.
by
conglomeration of water
conglomerate and then the earth
thus conglomerated in the
are
and
arranges
kinds
function
the
is directed
thus
the
formed,
elements
Brahma
Brahma
men
adrsta, by
are
ap
four
begins
process
souls it is called
creative
of creation
dvyanukas
the
the
beings.
the
eternal
one
world-creation.
the diverse
the
this desire
constructive
for the
the
first
action
is formed
fruits of diverse
about
this
This
it to
(e.g.of pralaya)
of atoms
disintegration
atoms
the time
tryanukas
then
of
and
create
creation)the
action
and
the
of
at
of
By
the
way
After
the
and
function
another
similar
the
of time
conditions
of dissolution
time
atoms.
to
adrsta.
as
specific
capacityin
of creation
kinetic
with
certain
unification
suspended
time
the
souls
(e.g.that
the
At
wishes
{sahakdri)helps the
integrationand
When
all the
under
causes
other
at
creation,Isvara
in
of Isvara
accessory
and
of
works
Isvara
desire
[ch.
not
the time
At
Philosophy
do
atoms
Vaiiesika
Nyaya-
selfish purpose
have
sorrows
from
worldly
but
their
place
attachment
and
find
demerits
that
for the
that
Moreover
of
men,
master
try fo;
and
the
good
they
Isvara
sufferingof
just as in
awards
prizes
or
according
to
merit
demerit.
or
creation
were
brought
men,
that
it may
or
Isvara
The
is one,
about
be
for if there
will of Isvara
not
1
due
were
It is also held
in accordance
to
many
that
with
pralaya and
the
karma
of
mere
only bringsabout
See Nyayakandali, pp.
dissolution
48-54.
and
creation,
Proof of the
vin]
also
but
karmas
our
always
acts
could
pleasures and
{icchd)of
as
Isvara
Samkhya
the
asserts
that
this be
then
but
world
the
some
momentary
is made
and
effects
as
their
as
but
causes
is
notice
we
that
answer
thingsmust
many
thence
be
taken
each
formed
if I had
could
fires,
I say
to
the
volumes
that
that
for
have
such
agents
effects
ordinary
have
effect must
The
case.
only
small
of
fire,and
from
the
us
to
with
there
small
puffsof
quantitiesof
could
burning
infer the
I hold
of
existence
smoke
smoke
forest
had
and
fire,
there
is smoke
that
I had
Thus
concomitance.
"wherever
only observed
of smoke
world
is that
present
of smoke
concomitance
notion
inference
sufficient reason
of observed
case
the
to
dividual
in-
like any
cause
view
from
in the
good
hold
to
The
between
two
gives is that the concomitance
in its general aspect neglecting the specific
of the
cases
fire";but
us
said
Nyaya
of
peculiarities
seen
be
cannot
cause
that every
law
the
day, that
every
it is
as
mountains, rivers,
with
in form
utterlydifferent
so
is
cause
suppose,
far
so
said
be
world
this manifest
this
Buddhists
against this
objection made
If
cause.
arrangement
and
have
effect must
other
any
its
call effects.
we
all
Isvara
of
up
Jains
ever-existing
and
effect
we
etc.
oceans
that
like
have
the
an
the
of the
cause,
as
is also
atoms,
as
of
The
believes that
must
cient
suffi-
cosmos.
and
with
agency
is not
jug)
prakrti is
of the
(e.g.a
to
effect. The
other
effect
desire
icchd of IsVara
the
the
(God). Nyaya
effect
of atoms
an
This
of Isvara.
objects(e.g.jug, etc.),which
being
with
Buddhists
the
by
this
is permanent
collocation
modifications
and
demerits.
arrangement
universe
world
This
Isvara.
and
teleology of
and
of Isvara
due
also be
must
changes
Existence
Carvakas,
every
so,
disposal of
consequent
compared
the
all order
this
For
it
merits
be
of the
existence
atoms.
for without
Yoga system.
the
fashioned
the
all its
with
Proof
Mlmamsakas,
deny
and
thus
may
explain
to
has
is in
find it in the
we
us
in accordance
place
take
325
to
demerits
and
merits
Their
and
of God
general way,
ripen, and
not
world
in
us
in the form
exterior
The
among
sorrows
world
exterior
Existence
small
and
lead
could
therefore
should
of fire in the
is
large
not
be
forest?
Thus
should
conclusion
our
[ch.
Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy
The
326
be
not
that
effects
smaller
only
This
IsVara.
because
body, not
we
does
he
that
shoots
of seeds
visible
no
said that
It is sometimes
exist.
not
has
and
they are
produced by any agent. To such an objectionthe Nyaya
is that even
they are created by God, for they are also
see
not
answer
day
Isvara
see, because
cannot
we
cause
every
effects.
That
we
because
there
is
do
not
see
maker
no
out
come
of
but
them,
them
fashion
to
one
any
is not
the creator
because
not
can-
objectorcould distinctly
prove that there was
invisible maker
no
shaping these shoots,then only could he point
of contradiction.
But so long as this is not done
to it as
a
case
of enquiry and it is therefore legitiit is still only a doubtful
case
mate
be
for
well
as
This
If the
seen.
to
us
the
as
infer that
At the
beginning of
father
who
is
always engaged
four kinds
created
He
creation
The
The
has
He
in
doing
of atoms
have
He
cause.
is like
our
good1.
us
Physics.
and
earth,water, fire,
are
is all merciful.
the Vedas.
Nyaya-Vaisesika
the shoots
cause,
world
manifest
is Isvara.
cause
since
air atoms.
cosity
weight, fluidity(or hardness),vischaracteristic
(or its opposite),velocity,
potentialcolour,
taste, smell, or touch, not produced by the chemical
operationof
heat. Akasa
(space)is absolutelyinert and structure-less being
is supposed to travel
of sound, which
only as the substratum
tion
combinawave-like
in the manifesting medium
of air. Atomic
is only possible with
Atoms
the four elements.
cannot
These
have
exist
in
an
mass,
number,
uncombined
air however
Two
three,four,or
of
current
by
Dr
the
1
See
five
of atoms
to form
dvyanukas
creation
in the
in
an
uncombined
themselves
has been
also
an
I"vardnumana
pp.
as
inherent
Jayanta's Nydyamanjari,
and
view
was
tendency
190-204,
and
to
Kadacit
cules
mole-
generally
pointedout
Hindus,
unite,"and
that
that
Udayana's Kusumafijali
with
of
Raghunatha.
tribhirarabhyateiti tryanukamityucyate, kadacit
kad"at pancabhiritiyathestam kalpana. Nyayakandali, p. 32.
2
the
view, there
also another
state.
into grosser
this
was
spheric
atmo-
(dvyanuka).Two,
binarymolecule
form
stage;
"atoms
Prakaia
consists
combine
atoms
condition
viii]
Molecular
they do
of
into
threes,or fours,"either by the atoms
falling
threes,fours,etc. directly,
or
by the successive addition
of
atom
one
each
to
the atoms
preceding aggregate1."Of course
possessed of an incessant vibratorymotion.
regarded as
are
however
must
327
in twos,
so
groups
Changes
be
noted
physicalexplanationof
will of Isvara, which
with
in
this
the union
gives the
connection
of atoms
direction
behind
that
It
this
unions
in harmony
the
of the universe,"
principleof a "moral government
that only such things are produced as can
be arranged for the
so
due disposalof the effects of karma.
"An
elementary substance
suffer
thus produced by primary atomic combination
however
may
qualitativechanges under the influence of heat (pdkajotpatti)?
The
impact of heat corpusclesdecomposes a dvyanuka into the
and
transforms
of the atoms
the characters
atoms
determining
pinge
all in the same
them
The
heat particles
continuingto imway.
transformed
reunite the atoms
to form
so
binary or other
in different orders
molecules
the
that
is
of atomic
change
under
there
arrangements,
which
account
for
finally
produced. The Vaisesika
qualities
into simple atoms, then
first a disintegration
the final re-combination,
and
then
qualities,
characters
specific
holds
or
the influence
or
This
of heat.
is called
doctrine
the doctrine
which
characters
new
assume
under
the
such
of heat.
procedure
called
the
is
of the few
one
and
doctrine
Vaisesika
Chemical
Heat
is
experiencedby
observation.
This
is
of
systems2.
compounds
Utpala'scommentary
See
B. N.
never
Dr
thus
on
of atoms
Brhatsamhita
take
may
I.
place between
the
7.
Nyaya and
Though there
(vn. 1),the Nyaya
in the Vaitesika sutras
are
slightindications of these matters
development of the theory
A systematic
the matter.
sutras
almost
silent upon
are
after Vatsyayana.
of creation and atomic
combinations
appear to have taken place
There
Udyotakara's Varttika.
Vaihsika sutras that they had any of those
p.
438, and
is very
differences
indicated here.
The
328
of the
atoms
bhuta
same
there
view
Nyaya
ay a-Vais'esika, Philosophy
Ny
no
are
of many
bhutas.
differences
in the
or
[ch.
According
of the
atoms
the
to
same
all differences
and
since these
of heat
particlesthe
that
take
atoms
in the
originalbhuta
characters depends on the
etc.
characters.
new
The
atoms.
colours
and
colours,tastes
of these
change
impact
It is heat
of
transformations
the
cause
can
the continued
Under
of earth.
are
alone
heat
of
physical
substances
in contact,
the
on
separate bodies
them.
with
as
milk
in the
molecule
should
originalbhuta
curd
as
has
thus
not
to
molecule, and
milk
be
of which
it is not
milk
is
the Vaisesika
view
the germ
both
are
the
and
heat
it is
and
when
the germ
blood
of the
the germ
atomic
1
"
mother,
which
the animal
to
form
heat
the
breaks
atoms,
atoms
and
is called
in
the animal
under
germ
(kalala).But
nutrition
up
grouping formed
chemicallycombine
thus produce cells
from
the molecules
i.e.atoms
their
by
constituents
contact
vayu
germ-plasm
the food
force
again in
paniments
(withaccomhomogeneous earth
plasm
determined
These
biomotor
So
molecule
of earth
of other
and
milk
change
substances,which
ovum
modes
isomeric
The
the
of the
atoms
modification.
takes
atoms,
the
disintegratedinto
the
that
necessary
the
with
and
the
of
specifically
plasm.
germ
the atoms
tissues1.
of
This
drambhaka-sa7nyoga.
Saririrambhe
paramanava
eva
karanam
na
Sukra-Sonitasannipatahkriydvibhdga-
The
330
Ny
ay
Vaiiesika
a-
Philosophy
[ch.
heat-lightrays change
forms
such
In the
is thus
those
as
that
belong
into
distinguishedfrom
be
smell
into
milk1.
all action
of matter
matter
on
activity(prayatnd) is
of motion
as
against the Samkhya
telligen
(ineverything other than purusa
all forms
considered
which
and
Conscious
motion.
to arise in the
to
to
Nyaya-Vaisesika system
resolved
doctrine
evolution
of cosmic
course
and
therefore
subjectto vibratorymotion.
The
The
of
Origin
in
manner
which
(Pramana).
Knowledge
of
knowledge originatesis one
discussion in Indian
philosophy.
the
We
topics of
that Samkhya- Yoga explained it by supposing
already seen
favourite
most
have
the buddhi
that
(place of consciousness)assumed
the form
of the
was
object of perception,and that the buddhi so transformed
then intelligized
or purusa.
by the reflection of the pure intelligence
The
Jains regarded the originof any knowledge as being due t(
a
withdrawal
of
of
intelligence
veil of
karma
was
covering
of certain
all effects
being
as
due
to
the
invariably,
unconditionally,
effects. That collocation (sd.magr?t
which
as
produced knowlege involved certain non-intelligent
intelligentelements and through their conjoint action
and
collocation
determinate
is thus
Govardhana's
"
knowledge
called pramana
originof knowledge2.
None
semblage
as-
which
collocations
immediatelypreceded these
as
all-
the
self.
the
Nyaya-Vaisesika regarded
and
which
or
of the
was
produced, and
well
contradicted
un-
thi"
of th"
determining cause
composinj
separate elements
the
as
which
"
karana
vy"pdrayannutpddayan
caritarthamiti
ndnyatra
Thus it is the action
of
eva
caritdrthah
tvindriydditatsannikarsddi
karnam
of the
knowledge, but
as
senses
as
pramana
which
not
is the direct
have
taken
cause
vd
15.
of the production
place without
the
vm]
Nature
causal
the
collocation
that
sometimes
the
collocation
is sufficient
from
the
absence
of
collocation
the
course
collocated
involve
called
be said
can
primary
to
it is
cause;
determine
combination
that
is not
combine
in any
produce
to
causal
the
effect.
Of
entity separated
an
things. But
only
for
effect,
the
singleelement
composing
stop the production of the
combined
or
the
331
to
or
preceding collocations
These
be
can
jointcollocation
their
of Pramdna
it is the
case
effect
the
jointly.
cognition as
the knowledge
of
the
all co-operate
further
in
determinate
is called
that
Nyaya
by
the
belong
within
always
remains
in its
appearance
that there
of
purusa
of the
whom
to
or
conceives
purusa
with
then
illusion,
the
or
percept
buddhi
the
as
perceives,
nor
purity. If
transcendental
own
the
concept
is but
Samkhya
the
cendental
trans-
mere
has
blance
sem-
to
admit
is
no
real
Buddhists
again some
simultaneouslywith
are
who
generation of
the
knowledge corresponding
to
it,and
that
advocate
doctrine
the
object there
corresponding
an
is the
to
the
rise of any knowledge there is the rise of the objectof it. Neither
the object by the
is the knowledge generated by the object nor
knowledge ;
but
evident
this view
subjectand
that
the
there
is
does
object,they also
are
sort
not
to be
parallelism.It is
knowledge should
of simultaneous
explain why
regarded as
causes
in
some
"
sense.
Pramatr-
tadeva
tasmat
caritarthatvamacaritdrthatvam
pramdnasya
pramdne
kathancit.
lahetuh. Pramdtrprameye tu phaloddesena pravrtte iti taddhetu
prameyayoh
knowledge nates
origion
a
particular
ever,
knowledge belongs,how-
the
feels,neither
nor
of
form
the
purusa
knows,
view
Samkhya
influence
and
The
contact
or
the
as
content
neither
in
; this is
buddhi
(knowledge).
it
that
transcendent
to
it the
The
pramana.
argues
of buddhi
state
not
origin of knowledge.
"
Ibid.
phap.\5.
The
332
Vaitesika
but
this
correspondence? Why
itself both
that shows
for
irrational,
in such
how
can
Vijfianavadins, that
and
as
that
knowledge
it is
its
as
itself
object,is
subjectand
as
also
ject
ob-
require
If this be the
it ?
the
knowledge
object should
as
illuminate
subjectto
as
illuminate
knowledge
knowledge
knowledge divide
manner
knowledge
should
of the
doctrine
object. The
the
[ch
ilosophy
its
both
alone
Ph
or
express
Nyaya
case
we
realized,so
there
These
pramana.
views
as
and
other
any
intellectual
involved
and
in the
the
plane
produced2.
on
are
same
alone
as
Vaisesika
know
that
the
valid
is thus
of
be
to
in which
that
as
four
explain
not
regarded
as
be
called
origin of
the
effect
an
like
Carvakas
source
of
of
Nyaya.
perception{pratyaksd)
admitted
sources,
added
sabda
Buddhists
The
knowledge.
two
physical phenomena
many
Pramanas
the
admitted
mana)*. Samkhya
2
do
moreover
could
which
nothing
cannot
its
The
We
be
thing known
the
in the same
originor production occurs
effect,
namely by the jointcollocation of causes
transcendent
element
is no
physical1. There
production of knowledge, but it is a production
other
way
Buddhists,
would
Knowledge
Inowledge.effect,
any
the
accordingto
momentary
pratyaksa
and
(testimony) as
inference
and
the
{anu-
third source;
the
Nydyamafljari,pp. 1 2-26.
of knowledge Gangesa,
Discussingthe question of the validity
See
it is derived
result of
inference from
later naiyayika
the
correspondence
thingwith the activitywhich prompted us to realize it. That
I am
which leads us to successful activity
sure
is valid and the oppositeinvalid. When
I
with the perceptionof an
be
that if I work in accordance
I
shall
successful,
object
call it valid knowledge. Taltvacintdmani, K. TarkavagisVs edition, Prdmdnyavdda.
of the
perceptionof
The
Vaiiesika
Vaisesika
"
only
as
our
sutras
admitted
two
tacitlyadmit
pramanas,
pratyaksamekamcarvakah
the Vedas
as
perceptionand
pramana.
The
view
that
cepted,
acinference, is traditionally
taccdpi,etc."
vidyd (rightknowledge) and avidyd
kanddasugatau punah
anumananca
(buddhi)
(ignorance).Under
avidyd he counts
samiaya (doubt or uncertainty),viparyaya
who
or
(illusion
anadhyavasdya (want of definite knowledge, thus when a man
error),
had never
it for the firsttime, he wonders
a mango,
seen
sees
what it may be)and svapna
and
(dream).Right knowledge {vidyd)is of four kinds, perception,inference,memory
the supernaturalknowledge of the sages (drsa).
the Vaiksika
I. i. 3,
sutras
Interpreting
as
vni]
Perception
adds
Nyaya
four-fold
the
fourth,upamana
division
333
(analogy).The
which
principleon
of pramanas
in each
that inference
and
the
different
and
case,
sabda
in
manner
conditions
or
each
it is to
case,
different
be
though
objectindicated by the perception. Nyaya
they point to the same
thus objectsto the incorporationof sabda
(testimony)or upamana
the
that
since
the mode
within inference,on
of producground
tion
of
is
knowledge
are
different,these
be
to
are
pramanas,
held
different
as
pramanas1.
Perception
The
naiyayikas admitted
they
believed
These
senses
to
could
akasa, of
Thus
the
by going
The
forth
and
separate
Perception is defined
associated
not
VI.
i. 1, and
VI.
character
i. 3, to
as
with
with
mean
that
upamana
1
their
and
(analogy)
and
specific
objects
in contact
with
them/
upasthd)recognized
recognized here
as
such
rightknowledge generated by
the
senses
are
body.
simultaneous
of doubt
sound
and
error
cognition(such
worthy
depends upon the trustas valid in themselves.
consider scriptures
author, he does
and
Arthdpatti(implication)
The
up.
manifest
not
made
was
of
the
not
Their validity
is only derived by inference from
and
the
object,devoid
the
other
any
of their
in trustworthypersons
ear,
attribute
discharged by
so-called
of the
functions
senses
are
the
was
thereby coming
senses
of these
functions
of the
sound
the
the
teristic
specialcharacthe
composed. Thus
(ydkypdni,pdda,payu,and
senses
as
only
can
with
were
receive
to
rays
them
to
over
general motor
contact
they
which
cognitivesenses
other
or
in contact
come
cognitivesenses
Samkhya
for the
one
of which
element
send
conative
in
of
could
eye
each
the five
only
composed
could
of that
ear
be
(Pratyaksa).
cases
of inference.
p. 33.
The
334
as
the
at
the time
Ny
Vaisesika
a-
ay
Philosophy
of the
name
when
If when
see
sound
of the
knowledge
we
associated
as
utteringit,just
person
association, and
man
cow,
[ch.
here
says
with
the
is
percept
terminate1
dethe
cow,
be
cannot
perception but as
rightknowledge which
counted
That
of the
sound-knowledge {sabda-pramdnd).
is generated directlyby the contact
object is said to be the product of the
as
the
with
senses
in which
the
which
perceptionin
thing is taken
it appears
at the very
without
indeterminate
as
Indeterminate
(savikalpa)determinate.
{nirvikalpa)and
is that
be divided
Perception may
perceptualprocess.
tion
percep-
first moment
with
association
any
of
name.
experience.Indeterminate
and
characteristics
of
association
names
universals,but
it is
name
connected
are
perception of
more
with
to
regarded
be
is said
product
from
as
to
at
it forms
percept
which
the
the
no
the
once
the
at
time
known
of that
should
perception. Only
being
is not
name
hearing
their
determinate
the
savikalpa-pratyaksa.If
of
thingswith
the
or
the
called
thing
perceptionreveals
nirvikalpaperception which
that
results
the
of the senses
with
perceiving process of the contact
object. Of this nirvikalpa(indeterminate)perception it is
the
held
later
the
by
directly,but
yet
stage without
arise.
The
naiyayikas
it has
which
the
indeterminate
that
be
to
we
admitted
determinate
as
of
conscious
not
are
perception is regarded
first
necessary
could
consciousness
as
it
not
of
process
with the
(2) contact
(samyukta-samavayd) in which
samyoga,
relation,(3) contact
the
genericcharacter as
(rupatva),which inhere
1
with
they
the
universals
in the
(qualities)
through
the
inhere
able)
(insepar-
gunas
of those
gunas
in samavaya
(such as
colour
thing
etc.)in
qualities,e.g.colourness
in the
samavaya
relation.
Gangesa,
awareness
gunas
later
Sense-contact and
viii]
speciesof
This
for the
is
eye
is in samavaya
relation,and
kind
the
thus
of contact
the kind
by
the
known
called because
eye
this
case
is
see
only
with
there
is in touch
kind
of
is
that
Nyaya
kinds
of
jug
the
the
akasa
auditory
in the
samavaya
can
here
the
on
(6)There
is
the
it the
absence
is
substances
and
is
negation.
in
eye
of the
jug
perceivedalong
be
It will thus
ground.
empty
which
space
ground. My
only
not
relations
ear.
qualityof
admits
in
samavaya
The
which
no
with
perception of
the
the
the absence
that
called
contact
samaveta-samavaya.
as
by
visesana
Thus
exists
in samavaya
perceivesound in a peculiar
called samaveta-samavaya.
The
(5)
generic
the universal of sound
is
(sabdatva) perceived
namely samyukta
qualifiedby
of colour
perceivedby
sound
of contact
the
of
auditory sense
of contact
kind
another
as
character
kind
said to be
and
of sound
character
generic
is another
are
is akasa
sense
the
or
sounds
which
by
samyukta-samaveta-samavaya,
in contact
with the thing,in the thing the colour
relation,and in the specificcolour there is the
There
(4)
relation.
335
is called
contact
universal
colour
Perception
seen
qualitiesbut
all
and
perception is
of the
contact
usefulness
and
the
or
which
the
seen
the
is
objects,but
not
factors
sense
in any
of touch
in the
system
and
taste
of
cases
does
(atindriyd)power
clear perception
not
the
are
of the
admit
are
of any
{sakti)than
that
All
ledge
know-
it is called
of
and
its
with
senses
actual.
but
senses
sight,hearing
Vaisesika
of contact
objectswith
is of the
contact
and/'
senses
instruments
metaphorical
sense
according to Nyaya-
that the
the
are
The
in contact.
are
the
knowledge produced
the
senses
objects is
only in the case
senses
and
distinct
the
object to
beginning from
the
The
the
process
its result
perception when
production and
the
with
whole
the
harmfulness,
is indeed
which
that
thing,sometimes
objectsare
between
this
sense
of the
real
as
Not
in contact
with
smell
as
well.
and
we
have
material
kind
of transcendental
of actual
vibratory
other
Nyaya-Vaitesika Philosophy
The
336
which
movement
The
of
production
is
but
perceivean
not
only with
I
of
this
them
sense-contact
It is
urged
that
be
etc.
of
and
sense
as
result
as
is in touch
but
also with
the
and
also
predicated. The
are
is called
dlocana-
is roused
there
the
pleasurablecharacter
perceive the
pleasure-givingcharacter2.
certain
regarded
When
of inherence
first stage
appreciation of
this
also
object should
relation
produced by
sense
result of that
as
have
to
me
tactual
hardness,
the
at
(sukhasddhanatvasmrti) and
before
in
effects
rence,
occur-
physical causes.
the colour
which
and
jhdna (sense-cognition)
of its previoustaste
memory
orange
the
or
specificcolour, or
object itself of
-with the
visual
with
the
of
sense-cognition1.
transcendental
no
to
movements
my
associated
universals
result
orange,
its
is similar
and
conglomeration
the
of
purview
is thus
knowledge
which
one
the
within
is
[ch.
of
the
as
orange
direct
that
result
pleasurable
of
perception
operating as a concomitant
through the action of the memory
stand
cause
(sahakari). 1 perceivethe orange with the eye and underthe
pleasure it will give, by the mind, and thereupon
understand
by the mind that it is a pleasurableobject. So though
perceptionresults immediately by the operation of the mind,
with sense-contact,
yet since it could only happen in association
and
be considered
it must
as
a subsidiaryeffect of sense-contact
this
hence
perception.Whatever
intermediary processes, if the knowledge
contact
regardedas
we
condition
with
be in contact
with
when
erroneous
not
with
the
objectis thus
the
sive
succes-
result of
primary
of all
the
them
but
it presents
also
an
with
negation.
object in
(atasmimstaditi)and
presents an object with
possess
which
is
be the
sense-
is
appertains to the object with which the sense
should
regard it as a result of the perceptual process.
Sense-contact
associated
may
if it
and
in contact,
visual
character
and
the
pensable
indissenst
universal*
perception
which
it does
khalvatlndriydSaktirasmdbhirupagamyatc
yayd saha na kdryyasya sambandhajfldnasambhavak.
Nydyamanjari,
Na
Sukhddi
manasd
tasya karanatd
p.
69.
buddhvd
tatra
kapitthddica caksusd
manasaivdvagamyate
.
.SambandhagrahanakdU yattaikapitthddivisayamaksajam
sthitam
bhdsyakrtaicetasi
jndnain tadupddeyddijildnaphalamiti
.
sukhasddhanatvajfldnamupddeyajndnam.
Nydyamanjari^
pp.
69-70;
see
also pp.
66-71.
The
338
Ny
Vaitesika
a-
relation
subject-predicate
it in
The
avikalpika stage
the
but
particular,
the
universal
as
ay
attribute
when
reveals
the
no
I say "this is
universal
of
name
taken
in
one
particularare
as
subject and
{jdtyddisvarupdvagdhina
orange."
with
at this
stage,
and
sweep
not
substance
predicate or
tu
an
associated
association
the
of relation
terms
as
there is
as
and
thus
[ch.
Philosophy
mitho
jdtyddlndm
and
visesana-
visesyabhdvdvagdhiti
y"vaty. He thinks that such a stage, when
the objectis only seen
but not associated
with name
or
a subjectpredicaterelation,can be distinguishedin perception not only in
the
of infants
case
of
things,but
association
also
of the
occurring at
dumb
or
that
persons
in the
of
case
and
names
all
do
know
not
ordinary
relations
could
the
names
for the
persons,
be
distinguished
explaining the
in
Srldhara,
succeeding stage2.
Vai"esika
with the above
to be largelyin agreement
view, seems
Srldhara
view of Vacaspati. Thus
says that in the nirvikalpastage
as
only the
not
But
universals
at this
as
manifest
stage there is
no
differentiation and
the
by comparison. But
in the thing are
are
ordered
as
differences
the
perceived_buj;
were
of other
memory
unification
differences
and
perceived,only they
"different from
this"
or
things,there
such
the
"similar
as
as
can
only
universals
are
to
not
well.
is no
result
they
consciously
as
this,"which
can
however,
an
ferent
altogether dif-
means
tion with
I.
But
the
cognition and
1
not
"
prat hamamdlocitd'rt
hah
would
sdmdnyavilesa-
vdn."
2
naiva
3
tacca
Ibid. p.
84,
"
Nydyakandali,
na
p.
sdmdnyamdtram
s"m"nydk"rasydpi
yam
tasmddvyutpannasydpi
namadhtyasmaranaya
purvamesitavyo vi-
namadheyamarthapratyayah."
"ata/i savikalpakamicchatdnirvikalpakamapyesitavyam^
189 ff.,
samvedandt
vivicya
s"manyam
na
svalaksanamdtram
viiesah
ityevam
viii]
Indeterminate
like to
dispense with
knowledge of
Perception
339
it for
as
be
"I
cow,"
see
preceded by
"this
is
cow"
or
indeterminate
"a
cow"
arise
can
it must
stage
involve
does not
cognition which
relationing
be
for
the
of
the form 'I know
cannot
perceptual
perception is
the jug'; here the knowledge is related to the self,
the knower,
the jug again is related to knowledge and the definite content
of
forms
the
which
jugness is related to the jug. It is this content
of the predicate'jug'
predicativequality(yisesanatdvacchedakd)
muktavall,
which
"the
is related
knowledge
knowledge. We
jug without having
to
of the
quality,the
of the
jug
could
which
the
universal
content3."
be
the
this is the
universal,and
related
But
sesika
to the
both
this
must
intuited
be
which
particularwith
the
old
the
and
knowledge
in order
that
the
possible,there must
pure predicationshould
nirvikalpastage, the
testified by experience is after
not
In the
proposition "It
necessary.
and
the
be
rendered
or
But
therefore
cannot
new
the
of the
dicative
pre-
knowledge
at
stage
known
be
of which
though
logicallyindispensably
admission
all
is
have
cow,"
the
directlybefore
is
cow
it could
an
be
it is associated.
schools
of
validityof the
the Buddhists
denied.
Things are not of the nature of momentary
versal
endowe^wJtrT~cTass-charactersor unibut they are
particulars^
and thus our
knowledge of universals as revealed by the
and is directlyproduced
perception of objects is not erroneous
of savikalpaperhold that the error
-vThe
Buddhists
by^objects.
ception
consists in the attribution of jati(universal),guna
(quality),
admitted
the
Tattvacintamani, p. 812.
Siddhantamuktavali
on
Ibid.
p.
809.
karika, 58.
Bhasapariccheda
22
"
The
340
universal
different
not
of
an
of
false creation
difference
remark
that
which
and
was
regards
of
for
and
kriya
the
the
know
we
to be
that
the
stick"
from
fourth
of the
in any
way
vitiate
until the
second
bring about
to
mind
that the
with
it
memory
as
or
this
The
fact that
operation of memory
identical
But
with
this
identityis
Vacaspati says
causes
Nydyamanjari, pp.
when
93-100,
it
as
"Panca
the
main
caite
ciated
asso-
memory
necessary
in
it is borne
in
111
was
long as
so
the
of the
never
that
being
as
But
name.
why
reascn
thhe
should
one
that
which
object of visual
through the help of
cause
the
can
be
whatever
of
considered
may
sense-contact
be
is
dicating
pre-
cannot
is not
name
concomitant
the
operates
the
jati,guna
therefore
as
perception. To
dhists,
Bud-
categoriesrelated to
be regarded
perception cannot
the association.
before, for
seen
ference
dif-
different
as
as
was
being the same
be
cannot
any objectionto the association
Buddhists
further object that there is no
identifya thing seen at the present moment
was
the
of the
believe
and
are
Now
them.
is not
name
ferent
dif-
"stick"
that
Vaisesika
substance
perception.
easilyexplained,for the
order
and
question of
The
completely different
thing are identified,
if it
is regarded as
"man"
is
The
perceptionerroneous.
former.
unity between
no
and
Nyaya
stage of
name
is
objections it
different
to the
of the
memory
ciated
with
there
of substance
As
erroneous.
is
and
name
of
something
ontologicalpositionwith
Nyaya
determinate
the
the
and
first three
of them
at
is
name
altogetherdifferent
as
is not
the
speak
to
the
to
motion
But
moves.
and
similar
error
also
So
none.
was
substance
the
from
from
there
where
[ch.
Philosophy
(name), and
nama
kriya (action),
The
-Vatiesika
Nyaya
Perception,pp. 151-4.
of this book.
viii]
Transcendental
Contact
341
the
Buddhists
be
regarded
as
point that an
and
place and
be
to
admitted
that
was
It
that
Vaisesika
early Nyayainvalid
as
with
is not
factory
Vacaspati's answer
very satisleads ultimatelyto the testimony of direct
tion
percepIt is easy to see
challenged by the Buddhists1.
for it
which
an
differed from
it
for
it
in
only
could
the
was
dismiss
not
this,that
same
a
the
the
as
name
savikalpa perception
nirvikalpa and
associated
was
with
the
a
thing of perception at this stage. As it admits
gradual
of
the
effects
of
causal
development
perception as
progressive
of the mind
with the
through the contacts
operationscontinued
the influence of various
self and
the object under
intellectual
and
(e.g.memory)
it does
which
give knowledge
well
as
the
can
and
will.
The
of
we
particular
smoke
we
can
by
any
sandal
in
visual
general.Jnanalaksana
associate
wood
sense.
our
the
contact
perceptionsof
Thus
visual
the
I
see
when
sense
we
is in
is that
other
smoke
and
with
with
all
virtue of which
by
when
looking
touch
all
ing
correspond-
contact
senses
are
universal associated
is in transcendental
sense
with
in contact
when
the
with
in contact
which
with
is in contact
sense
my
one
sdmanyalaksana,
contact
samanyalak-
general way) of
predicated. Thus
be
may
it my
smoke
called
nature
transcendentally(alaukikd)
are
universal
with
is
Nyaya
to
transcendental
particulars(in
through
collocations.
yogaja (miraculous).The
by coming
by virtue of which
is that
the
tion
previouslyacquired. The variaknowledge in the soul depends upon
not
was
and
jndnalaksana
sana
only
come
contact
causes,
requirethat rightperceptionshould
production of
as
varietyof causal
Mind
according
and
of
physical(e.g.lightrays) concomitant
at
its
perceiving
piece of
colour
only,
a
but still we
of the
contact
{alaukikasannikarsd)by
1
virtue
of which
this is rendered
The
342
these
and
Pleasures
to
be different from
conceives
that
be
we
for
self-revealing,
that
kind
same
manifested
have
for the
happen,
do
not
so
that
sake
there
that
was
associated
This
shows
collocation
remembered
in their
make
in
rated
gene-
it should
this
does
not
one
that
thus
are
of
duhkha
and
act
as
case
duhkha.
knowledge.
generated
are
in direct
through
perceptionor
in
generated
are
should
operation. It
demerit
one
manifested
are
qualitieswhich
the
and
merit
sukha
in
with
case
the
different,
so
themselves
not
objectseither
causal
them
another
are
between
knowledge
conditions, and
other
believed
are
things beyond
the
subtlest
Even
of future
so, then
have
differences
some
duhkha
senses
our
the
we
events
and
which
intuition
however
concomitant
Siddhantamuktavali
on
at
to
be
of
be
causes
of the
most
acquire this
can
power
and
concentration
objects directlyby
time
some
have
the
"To-morrow
Karika
pratyaksa
they
powers
may
come
that
distant
most
ourselves
the
have
to
by gradually increasingtheir
have
cannot
were
words
all; and
to
in
thingsthat
with
result
yogins
mind.
in other
feel
we
production.
The
distant
if it
should
one
fact that
the
and
of certain
They
as
to
and
of
course
in memory.
be
must
sukha
with
that sukha
is the
self
in
painfulexperiences that
in association
the
so;
generates sukha
thing which
same
by the
hand
other
to
might
in others.
Moreover
even
admitting
argument's
it is knowledge itself that appears
as
pleasureand pain,
pleasurableand
Such
is not
sukha
as
found
never
knowledge. They
feelingin others,or
its nature
are
the
On
generates sukha
of
etc.
for
it is evident
and
sukha
having some
knowledge
even
experience which
the
or
after
them
grasp
the
character.
in that
behaving
as
appear
things,but
illumines
or
[ch.
knowledge acquired by
is not counted
as
perception1.
pains (sukha and duhkha) are held by Nyaya
For knowledge interprets,
knowledge (jftana).
contacts
two
Philosophy
But
jnanalaksana.
called
possible is
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
63 and 64.
my
We
must
brother
notions
I maj
will
remember
ceive
pertheii
that
come,"
Gangesa
cussed
disperception
has
which
that
cognition
above, and held that perceptionshould be defined as
the specialclass-character of direct apprehension.He
thinks that the old definition
involves
of perception as the cognition generatedby sense-contact
vicious circle
a
of
(Taltvacintamani,pp. 538-546). Sense-contact is stillregarded by him as the cause
kinds
the
six
but
the
He
it
should
be
in
definition.
to
included
not
perception,
agrees
of contact
above.
described firstby Udyotakara as mentioned
discarded
the definition of
as
sutra
which
we
have
viii]
and
Inference
this
happen
may
jfiana,which
by the mind.
is also
This
perception called
past perceptionsby
at
it is
that
eye, but
the
only
which
that
senses
present
moment
which
; thus
we
fragrance is
According
Vedanta
to
of inference.
to
and
rose
percept
ceive
perthe
perceived by
not
the visual
associates
this
acquired perception
is
pratibha-pratyaksahowever
The
reference
of
memories
with
see
form
other
the
associated
are
the
cognitionis produced, it
cognition,e.g. This is a pot, but
the self by the mind
I know
as
When
from
perceives it directlyand
is with
pratyaksa directly
manasa-pratyaksa, by
fragrant; the
it.
case
as
different
course
other
manas
percept with
is
the
regarded
pratibhana-
is called
This
true.
be
to
is of
of
visualized
be
to
343
happening of a
is produced only as
after
this it is
this
"
event.
objective
an
again
related
to
is effected
This
pot."
future
by
mind
the
proceed
as
result of this
anuvyavasaya1.
Inference.
Inference
and
the
been
on
most
valuable
this
subject.
the
thing on
with
it,as
that since
in
be
cannot
hill.
In
"fire"
necessary
1
This
that
later
To
sadhya.
the
hetu
Nyaya doctrine
produced at a later
Prabhakara, which
example)
moment
or
must
must
make
of
cognition
be contrasted
technically
is
been
paksa, and
the
term
inference
the
it is
with
fire
be
has
correct
be
also
assertion
the
remember
we
this^smoke
is called
is associated
fire,there
which
has
about
assertion
an
hill
like
made
has
Nyaya
lihga must
that the
proof (pramana)
lirigawhich
or
without
about
That
hill in this
is called
that
risingfrom
example
an
of
means
making
mark
the
finding smoke
smoke
(the
in
It consists
hetu.
or
calledJiti^a,
made
second
contribution
strength of
when
yonder
is the
(anumdna)
cognitionis
doctrine
triputipratyaksa
of
taneously
given simulknowledge
holds
that the object,knower
according to Gangesa,
cognition),
in knowledge.
(determinate
Vyavasaya
of this
that I am
aware
but
the
cognition
the
of
the
object,
gives us only
cognition
and
is called
former
one
the
succeeding
objector cognitionis a different functioning
anu
(after)
vyavasaya
and
"idamaham
(cognition),
janamiti
are
vyavasaye
all
na
bhasate
tadvai-
jnanasya
bodhakendriyasannikarsabhdvat kintvidamvisayakajnanatvaviHstasya
bhdtadrtam
vaiHstyam
svasya
ca
svaprakaie
vyavasaye
sistyamatmani bhasate; na
janamitina vyavasdyah
sitnmarhati,purvam vihsanasya tasydjnandt,tasmddidamaham
kintu
anuvyavasayah.'"Tattvacintdmant
:,p. 795.
The
344
in it
sadhya
objectssimilar
known
in all other
and
which
i.e.,
(sapaksa-satta),
sadhya (possessingfire
be
not
Vaifesika
Nyaya-
in
present
such
it is invalidated
that
the
should
could
not
be
also
be
of
one
these
hetu
the
what
hetu
seeming
Thus
which
by
does
paksa)
possess1.
not
technicallycalled
sound
that
"
is
is eternal
quality
since
be
not
opposite way
violation
may
it is
be
hetu
the
hetvabhasa
because
or
made.
be
it is visible
sound
(here the
technically
is
of
any
make
could
which
of
of the
only
hetvabhasa
This
viruddha-hetu,
eternal,
does
which
should
the
inference
Again, hetvabhasa
asiddha-hetu.
called
the
possess
that
technically called
sound
is
fallacious,for visibility
must
liriga
not
would
thus
correct
no
that
inference
the
is
the
possess
certitude
spoil the
would
inference, and
fallacious,or
the
perception {pratyaksa) or
(abddhita-visayatva).The
liriga
that
the
having
direct
by
sastra
conditions
to
inferred assertion
by it an inference in
The
possible {asat-pratipaksa).
such
determining
as
is
of
testimony
known
are
in
paksa
object as does
from vipaksa or
absent
sadhya (vipaksa-vydvrtti
the sadhya). The
not
possess
such
the
to
[ch.
in the
any
Philosophy
the
second
type,
exemplifiedin the
created
the
hetu
"
case
being
is present
technicallycalled
sound
is
in the
anaikantika-hetu^
eternal,since
it is
"
object of knowledge
an
an
is found
object of knowledge.
(pranteyatva)is
here
is not
absolute
type, technicallycalled
example
Here
fire is not
"
pratyaksa
fallacious.
found
time
1
in
for
The
cases
that
fifth
be borne
in
kind
particular
sounds
in mind
our
ears
of movement
not
the
it is created
since
under
as
e.g.
that Nyaya
the Mlmamsa
existed
"
being
hetu, but
it is
hetu
like
hence
did.
sound
did not
like
believe
Eternalityof sound
fourt
in th
jug,
etc,
hetu
is
the
is
is
with
stroke
same
non-
of the
Mlmamsa
they
of
be
to
the
jug
meant
th"
with
in the doctrine
the
possess
fallacy,called prakaranasama,
opposite hetus are available at
where
sound, which
theorythat
manifested
hot,
shows
Now
opposite conclusions,
It should
of
eternality
the
do
in
sadhya
the
that
case
11
(i.e.
things possessing sadhya), as well
which
things that are not eternal (i.e.
of
sadhya), and therefore the concomitance
as
the
in
were
drum
only
or
The
346
that
there
wherever
observed
which
and
known
was
concluded
of smoke
those
relation
the
to
view
concomitance
the
the
in which
been
smoke
with
under
which
the
fire,I
But
Nyaya
all those
could
cases
case
that
enough.
hundred
a
it cannot
any
was
cases
hundred
the
should
where
there
of
existence
Thus
where
cases
be asserted
the
there
I had
where
from
of the
but
fire,
latter
may
seen
there
as
that
smoke
all
in
should
former
smoke,
was
it that there
an
is
and
neither
is any
there
ass
nor
relation
in
that
be
not
ass
fire.
where
cases
an}
shouh
of absence
case
been
cases
with
of fire
technically
vyatirekavydpti.But
have
case
there
of smoke
existence
in
see
smoke
was
it is necessary
The
in
(vydp-
shall
we
of
every
sign
of concomitance
fire there
concomitance
there
fire,but
no
of
ourselves
assure
held,
enough
of smoke.
of absence
to
concomitance
is
inference
an
concomitance
we
wherever
be
case
every
of inference1.
no
it is not
anvayavydpti and
is not
that
there
only
of the
be
called
with
concomitance
observation
no
but
enunciate
holds
i.e. not
case
should
cause
fire,without
validityof
the
school
smoke
perceived
is smoke
smoke,
the
it refers to the
means
the
are
the
had
if we
ascertainingthe
Mlmamsa
was
I had
of
correct, and
The
there
was
there
of its
memory
when
of
bahirvyaptias
to
chapter,that
I knew
the
discovery of
containing smoke
cases
signate(sddhya),how
valid.
been
next
we
fire,
case
had
been
of
the
tigrahd)had
fire is
circumstances
the
ihetu)with
each
with
hill,
comitance
{anumiti). The contechnicallycalled vydpti. When
will
the
in
of the inference
concomitance
of concomitance
Now
had
it is called
admit
not
with
of the
observed,
be
with
it is called bahirvydpti\and
having fire,
conviction
the
hill. The
associated
as
anttmana)
or
the
smoke
was
we
we
fire {trtiya-lihga-pardmarsa)
is thus
with
{anumitikarana
hill
fire which
inseparablyconnected
fire in the
was
in the
and
when
remembered
yonder hill,we
there
[ch.
fire. Now
was
smoke
since
be
to
us
there
liriga(smoke)
this refers to
then
to
that
concomitance
in
(yyapti) of
before,
Philosophy
there
smoke
was
concomitance
the
smoke
was
there
perceived that
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
even
this
in
sitting,
might
have
smoke, but
of concomiNyaya 7racts,
Invariable
viii]
tance,
of
or
antecedent
and
cause
that
be
may
or
an
of
large number
produced the smoke,
very
the
followed
vind
yato
the
it
above
there
with
the hetu
doubt
which
wood
that
But
there
them,
have
lead
unsettle
had
the
of
of such
with
of
of
without
But
have
1
2
the
the
know
we
but
by
the
hidden
demon
doubts,
and
that
that
who
if
fire
might
one
wood
green
should
duced
pro-
did
it.
indulged
we
and
disturb
not
concomitance
or
observation
on
which
at
or
we
The
consideration2.
either
things
kind
the field of
(e.g.the
of them
fixed
natural
would
an
that
be
not
and
moon
was
the
pening
things hap-
certain
certainlyexist, even
essence.
that different
effect,and
there
could
which
the
identityof
essential
inference,and
could
identityof
neither
that
rise of the
order
happen
happens
of
of
that
effect
and
cause
held
Nyaya
types of inference
suppositionof
it
of
relation
whereas
of other
sometimes
same
Thus
all work
effect,nor
and
ocean). A
other
of
and
vyapti
essence,
cause
quite a number
brought under
tide of the
hetu
But
practicalactivities would
doubts
such
as
{vydghdta). Thus
species,exhausted
and
genus
the
of
former
relations
smoke1.
be
to
relation
any
the
identityof
of
the
the
some
always depended
or
and
concluded
endeavour
careful
by
and
the
was
ass
fire in
was
suspension
notion
arrived
but
immediately
was
there
real hetu.
end
no
work
the
forming
that
we
the
there
be
mained
re-
the
the
not
but
our
the
Buddhists
ass
antecedents
dispensed
to
us
all the
ass
smoke
say
what
an
of the
introduction
when
even
iti
was
was
would
be
the
It
without
smoke
it
all
to
be
might
smoke,
of
of
observations
and
in
that
be
we
disappearance of the
only could we
{vyapti)between
might
in green
that
bhavanam
concomitance
course
that
smoke.
followingit,but even
had so experienced in
smoke
that
disappearance of
na
122),then
p.
such
347
the
and
ass
observed
the
cases
and
the
same,
by
without
ass
the
have
never
If it were
enough.
Concomitance
effect between
might
one
ass,
that is not
Unconditional
in such
kinds
cases
of
causes
often
it is difficult to
and vyaptigraha.
Tatparyatika on anumana
Tatparyatika on vyaptigraha,and Tattvacintamani of Gangesa
See
on
vyaptigraha.
infer
from
cause
particular
the
though different
that
the
Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy
The
348
effect,
yet
same
there
causes
If each
found
ever
how-
produce
to
difference between
some
effect
holds
Nyaya
often
are
be
must
effect.
the
[ch.
one
effect
rivulets
due
another.
sheets,will
in
or
rains and
to
not
enable
is taken
infer that
to
us
to
in the
flood
the
was
Thus
river.
we
uniform
based on
Nyaya relied on empirical induction
the Buddhists
and
uninterruptedagreement in nature, whereas
assumed
of causalityor identityof essence.
a priori principles
It may
be out of place here to mention
that in later Nyaya
not
works
great emphasis is laid on the necessityof gettingourselves
such upadhi (condition)
assured that there was
associated with
no
that
see
the_hetu
that
a
the
hetu
relation of
smoke
produce
account
on
we
; fire must
smoke.
cannot
be associated
case
which
smoke
no
that
of smoke
of smoke
could
with
concomitance,
be
because
fire there
is
this
must
with
duce
pro-
order
It is
produced.
is fire. In order
and
not
smoke
an
to
must
the
be
condition, and
be assured
be assured
hetu
to
condition
necessary
fire is associated
is smoke
there
the
with
happened, but
the sadhya in
greerTwoodin
with
is thus
wood
Green
the concomitance
in every
concomitance
unconditionallyassociated
Thus
inseparableconcomitance.
of this condition
account
the
was
(upadhi)without
so
of which
which
settled
so
of the
that
ditioned
con-
by wide
experience(bhuyodarsana).
Prasastapada in defininginference as the "knowledge of that
with the reason
associated
(e.g.fire)
(e.g.smoke) by the sightof
the reason"
described a valid reason
nected
(lihgd)as that which is conwith the object of inference
(anumeya) and which exists
wherever
the object of inference exists and is absent in all cases
it does
exist.
not
This
is indeed
the
of
name
another
in
or
infer
can
said.
by
vakatvd)with
when
as
non-existent
with
concomitance
it is
there
a
is
cow
is
no
family
a
cause
infer
can
it
it is
neither
cow
horn,
this
is
ass
one
because
it has
between
horns
horse
the
nor
and
horns
horns.
for
fallacious,
cow,
are
it has
has
ass
is
no
existence
because
horns, it
have
it has
or
doubtful
(ill.
us
(hetu)
reason
inferred
the horse
all that
for he tells
the
association,
proper
if I say
have
may
we
be understood
object to be
(aprasiddhd)or it has
concomitance
no
or
cause,
infer
can
we
say
are
also
can
for
fallacious,
if I say
Again
that
in the
(sandigdha).Thus
horns
they
the
to
verse
(believedto be the
says
from
according to Kanada
there
i. 15) that where
is either
Kasyapa
Kanada
effect
the
effect,
thing by
what
as
Kanada)
the
from
same
the
Nyaya
vipaksdsattvaof
same
of paksasattva,
qualifications
sapaksasattva and
a valid reason
(hetu). Prasastapada further quotes
that this is the
349
not
and
though
The
cows.
there
is smoke
When
he
remembers
inference such
from the
is
there
the
with
a
of
inference,but
that
inference into
of
one
from
two
this that
and
class),
samanyato
that
the
where
of
drsta.
some
Inference
can
classes,drsta
member
holds
only
of inference.
generalnature
such
are
enumeration
be
that
inferred.
(from
effect
an
are
the
not
class to another
He
then
divides
teristics
experiencedcharacmember
of the
same
(perceivedresemblance) is
Drsta
previously known
these
that
of types of
its effect,or
from
is inferred
cause
smoke.
no
feels certain
and
Kanada'
is
unerringlyperceivesthe
concomitance
regard to
"
as
fire there
no
and
cause," etc.,Prasastapada
only types
the
if
fire,
is
this concomitance
knows
one
smoke,
there
case
and
the
inferred
case
is
class. Thus
an
example of it we can point
as
exactlyof the same
of
has a hanging mass
that by perceivingthat only a cow
out
I see the same
flesh on its neck (sasna),
hanging
whenever
I can
The
350
when
to
Thus
on
with
namely
strength of
the
on
performance
which
infer that
it is
[ch.
a
But
cow.
is
common
Philosophy
animal
an
different class of
objectsfor
the
of
neck
of flesh at the
mass
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
of
work
of the
infer
that
will
sacrifices,
they
work
also be
of the
priests,
rewarded
with
the
performed (i.e.
are
drsta.
is rewarded
peasants
the
tended
ex-
attainment
of
tion
pararthanumana. We know that the distincof svarthanumana
(inferencefor oneself)and pararthanumana
made
by the Jains and Buddhists.
(inferencefor others) was
is called
the inference
does
Prasastapada
he
inference,but
of
not
make
sharp
to
mean
that
seems
of five
innovation
entirelynew
this
of two
distinction
what
infers,it
one
premisses in
need
be
not
classes
which
it is
case
considered
Prasastapada, for
in IX.
be
can
as
an
2, Kanada
called in
called
are
and
pratydmndya.
of
these
of
any
is of
Pratijfia
nidarsana
the
have
in
the
same
similar
as
of
case
Dr
mere
hill is
motion
no
also
being1). He
fiery;
more
which
case
that
was
it has
because
serviceable
as
points out
Vidyabhusana says
familiar
has
motion
is
to
"An
is
in the
seen
cases
cited to
smoke
Nyaya,
of the
the
name
apade"a."
and
the term
last two
are
kinds,(i)agreement
substance
in absence
arrow),(2) agreement
an
has
substance
be of two
may
"
second
Nyaya drstanta,but
to
entirelydifferent. Nidarsana
in presence
(e.g.that which
in the
we
the
mention
not
premisses excepting
course
is very
does
however
case
is
as
what
(e.g.
is not
universal
of the
fallacyof
seei
the
exampl"
like
reasoning, but
kitchen
(example).Asahga
Dignaga
converted
made
it into
the
ample
ex-
universal
is
"
"
Prasastapada cannot
be easilysettled.
"
Doctrine
vm]
Concomitance
of
351
{tiidarsanabhdsa).Prasastapada'scontribution
of the
enumeration
nidarsana, but
the
different from
to
the
Keith
Professor
questionof
to
The
of
novations
Prasastapada'sapparent into
himself,and
by Kanada
alluded
definitely
has
discussed
not
the fallacies of
that
nature
this
the
latter borrowed
it is
and
ascertainment
of
is the
middle
of the
between
with
the
inference,but
that which
immediately
with
inference
does
but
the
But
he
the
with
patti
that the
the
therefore
was
Buddhist
this
logic by
major
was
with
the
mere
collection
latter
in
both
leads
that
the
the
is
in the
to
lingaminor
major, for
of the
nection,
con-
with
associated
of
nature
doctrine
of
was
between
either
unless
this
of
pp.
to
contention
was
the
and
middle
identical
with
tadut-
contribution
new
or
that
and
tdddtmya
Dharmaklrtti's
connection
concomitance.
by Vacaspati have
shown
probability a
former
bhasya
Prasastapada's
lead
(srnrtyanugrhito
lihgaparamarso).
The
all
regarded
be
the
it
of the
to inference
the
major
whether
these
memory
Dharmaklrtti.
principleof
root
should
that
follow
regard to the
of Dirinaga as
point.
the
memory
with
immediately
Udyotakara's criticisms
to
the
of its connection
connection
most
inference
an
and
is silent
reference
that
question
is that
answer
memory
of the
memory
is the
not
the
former1.
middle
or
major
His
associated
the
middle
inference.
i.e.the
whatever
reason
the
raises the
leading to
paramarsa,
the
liriga
(reasonor middle) through
connection
no
says
On
definitely
proved
concomitance
Vatsyayana
the
is
it from
previouslyperceived. Udyotakara
no
alternative.
nidarsana, unless
of the connection
the memory
definitely
of inference
most
as
It however
us.
suppose
traditional
other
some
of the
above,
all
are
that
to
shown
from
was
problem
being
circles independently of Nyaya. There
is
that Prasastapada borrowed
suppose
thing
anyProfessor
Keith
Stcherbatsky or
supposes,
Dirinaga as
I have
able
systems that it is reason-
lost to
now
study
however
from
for,as
is
in Vaisesika
reason
no
which
that
pursued
in other
current
are
sist
con-
of
names
to
seems
five
work
indicates
the
what
suppose
Vaisesika
of the
thus
was
will
200-255.
in
essence
grasped a
not
give us
The
352
Ny
desired connection1.
the
If
separate relation.
that
such
fire there
no
is
relation
then
smoke,
for there
perfectsatisfaction,
caused
smoke
was
by fire and
it
ascertained
be
can
that
it cannot
preceded by
that
argument
known
to
only
can
lead
be
infer the
to
us
effect
and
of
or
morning by the
identityof essence
tree) also
there
identity of
be
cannot
nature
in either
of
of this
and
any
if
certain
even
it for
granted
connection
of fire at
preceding time
there
are
relation
(e.g.the
identical
are
of concomitance
these
that
they
do
know
not
of
there
this
determine
the
effectively
not
causal
svabhavadva
Tatparyatikd^p.
be
any
be
scribed
de-
further
with
about
the
and
that
the
have
there
major.
These
under
only
argued that
of Pahcakdranl
relation.
former
smoke
be
is
the
then
vitiate
that
searcl
take
to
a
The
natural
later
in order
to
five conditions
the
nor
(i) neither the cause
is perceived,(3) in immediate
(4) the cause
disappears,(5) in
perceived,
Karyyateranabh"vadva
and
method
the
effect is
exist
the
to
cannot
discovered, we
be
ol
be
cannot
latter from
It may
wood).
thing has
one
any
infer the
may
middle
the
introduced
darian"t.
cause
other
{upddki) cannot
between
the
many
of
sunrise
therefore
Some
ways.
(e.g.green
Buddhists
succession
is
cause
conditions
which
always be certain unknown
may
is
validityof inference. To this Vacaspati's answer
and careful
of cases
after observing a large number
conditions
na
also
of
perceptionof smoke
the
versa,
conditions
such
immediately
then
inference,for
they
connection, we
vice
not
sociated,
as-
therefore
with some
naturallyconnected
such is the case, though we
may
nature
Unless
The
inference.
the
of
sunrise
by another, but
inferred
with
element
was
determined,
essence
being
case
invisible demon.
invisible
cedence
ante-
there
in each
not
cases
the
that
smoke
presence
as
ascertained
and
may
the
and
be
no
Again
effect and
is smoke
an
was
that
causalitycan
precede the
by
there
fire alone.
fire and
immediate
proof
no
not
said
be
invariable
it cannot
is
of this view
determined
fire there
being
[ch.
be
cannot
causalitymeans
there
no
Philosophy
in his refutation
Vacaspati
cause-effect
the
that
says
-Vatiesika
ay
105.
are
niyamakdt avinabhavaniyamo'
darhttdnna
The
354
Ny
is that
fire).Kevalanvayi
could
based
be
not
object has
"this
Vaitesika
a-
ay
on
any
name,
Now
the
{vacyatvd);
yatva
or
of
object
form
of
that
earth
that
elements
differs
from
there
only
has
inference
differs
earth
"
of
specialqualities
those
where
cases
as
other
This
had
third
infer
to
is upamana,
Vaisesika,
with
before
other
known
"what
gavaya?"
it, it is just
forester
he travels
similar
This
to
knowing
on,
he
cow
forms
called
then
known
have
said
was
the
been
to
be
of the
animal
due
to
gavaya,
by
the
animal
by
not
forester-
gavaya
name
also
gavaya,
upamana
with
If
but
its name
process
is made
man
then
The
when
by
to
gavaya.
of
its
forester
some
city and
the
the
finding it
and
upamana.
of the
man
n(
"
testimony (sabda-pramdna).
generated by
unknown
the
forest,asks
it
and
the
thing is
similarityto a known
had pointed out a gavaya
to a
that
such
of
reason
seeing a
on
hitherto
an
in
only
use
by Nyaya
forester
cow";
and
of
the
in
the
to
goes
the
like
be
it has
known
associatinga thing unby virtue of its similaritywith som"
of the city who
has
a
man
never
Thus
and
the
"abda.
consists
name
{gavaya)
ox
is
know
be
thing.
wild
seen
its
and
it alone.
it and
is admitted
and
since
anything by
and
which
pramana,
it is evident
of agreement
could
inference
Upamana
The
possessing
differ from
not
here
elements,
possessed by
was
of the
case
in
does
water;
as
name.
There
negative instances.
exactly the proposition of our
is
from
earth.
we
of it
specialtraits
all that
or
from
taken
instance, which
one
in the
as
based
stances
positive in-
elements
positiveinstance
be
to
where
any
and
is prame-
is vacyatva
such
other
be
to
there
that
found,
earth, such
be any
cannot
there
smell, since
is not
concomitance
is
be
therefore
wherever
"
knowledge,
cannot
specificquality of
other
agreement
kevalavyatirekiis
in agreement
inference
has
here
vyapti
of
cases
an
third
the
which
is known
case
of
therefore
know
object of knowledge ; we cannot
there was
where
no
object of knowledge (prameyatva)
necessarilyon
The
such
no
an
name
no
[ch.
Philosophy
had
told him
would
have
this
would
knowledge
is
tion
the associathe
observer
vin]
strength of
the
on
animal
realists,and
as
similarity
Similarityis
the
All
persons.
Vedas
the utterances
rightknowledge
of
derived
from
the
Vedas
himself.
The
because
they
but
itself,
Vedas
separate
did
but
But
person.
validityof
by
the
said
Vaisesika
in
The
from
See Nyayamanjari
given by
strange
the forester
animal
should
be treated
in view.
alone
on
as
case
oldest
Nyaya
itself"upamana."
and
Udyotakara
called
view
hardly
the
this
was
"
name
Vacaspatihold
association of the
to the
probablythis
wild
not
by
the instruction
"
was
ox
pretation
inter-
memory
What
upamana.
that it was
"
name
wild ox"
When
he had
of testimony (aptavacana),
and the
perceptionof similarity,
to this association
is
later times.
infallible
an
Vaisesika.
Nyaya-
The
upamana.
was
But
the
(anu-
tacitlyadmit
authority.But anyhow
by virtue of which
possiblewas
was
the
{abhava)is of great
negation or non-existence
philosophy. In this section we can describe its
Kumarila2
the point of view of perceptibility.
interest in Indian
only
inference
of
us
of
problem
nature
establish
to
the
admit
sutras, which
the
Negation
as
not
how
was
I have
as
corroborated
pramana,
is
give
out
came
Vaisesikas
The
valid,for
is
they sought
validityof testimony {sabda)on the strength of
miti) on the ground of its being the utterance
as
and
is the
utterances
sabda
of
not
act
separate
rightknowledge which
infallible and absolutely
truthful
by Tsvara
uttered
is
perception of
the
with
received
testimony
or
knowledge
were
355
the
in accordance
instruction
Sabda-pramana
from
experience of
name
the
and
similarity
called upamana}.
derive
Sabda
known
similarityof the unto a known
The
one.
naiyayikas are thorough
such
of
as
they do not regard the observation
being due to any subjectiveprocess of the mind.
indeed
but yet the
perceived by the visual sense
of the
association
we
and
Upamana
two
factors
Vatsyayana
as
meant
is not
clear,but
very
Dinnaga supposes that according to him the result of upamana was the knowledge of
holds that
the knowledge of a thinghaving similarity.
or
Vacaspatiof course
similarity
he has correctly
interpreted
Vatsyayana'sintention.
the
means
of
associating
name
to
It is however
object{samakhyasambandhapratipattirupama-
new
which
of similarity
ndrthah, Vatsyayana). Jayanta points out that it is the preception
leads
directly
to the
association of the
be
cannot
See Rumania's
treatment
and
name
and
and
of abhava
hence
the instruction
it cannot
consequently
Nyayakandali,
pp.
be
220-22,
of the forester
classed under
Vatsyayana,
Upamana.
in the
The
356
and
Ny
[ch.
Philosophy
followers,whose
his
Vaiiesika
a-
ay
in the
with
intuition
an
chapter,hold that
with reference
there are
to the object negated where
no
{tndnairi)
ence
of ordinarycognition(pramdna) leadingto prove the existmeans
next
{satparicchedakam)of
existent"
"it is not
contact
with
sense
our
eyes
(e.g.in
of
the
jug) to
of
non-existence
the
neither
that
the
if
since
both
are
ground, we
jug, and when
ground,
of the
case
of non-existence
perception. A
he
of
man
time, since
be
did
he
not
not
has
case,
non-existence
then
be
see
be
urged
think
perceiving the
memory
of the
being any
of
non-existence
inference
see
ground
in the
mind
rises
preceded by
any
notion
our
never
say
at all to visual
there
were
their non-existence
but
when
the
any
tigers.There
in the rise of
sense-
and
of
in
is
even
the
place where
of them,
tigers there
place and without
there
say
could
reference
aware
of
without
for it is not
can
we
we
thus
no
sittingin
jug
the
the
there
them
in the
was
when
it could
therefore
other
which
may
but he might
tigers,
is asked
shut
we
grasped by
jug (which is absent) and
the notion
the
see
perception. We
the
at
that
no
existence
perception of the nonboth
the ground and
perceptionof
in the
is absent
remember
no
and
is
the
in the
contact, which
that
the
the
nor
of the
case
there
indeed
It is true
object.
the
perception,for
to
with
same
then
jug
called
we
and
due
held
thing. They
be
cannot
here
turn
we
that
notion
the
later
on
he
place where
becomes
aware
morning, even
operation of the
is
no
question of
of non-existence,
of concomitance
of any
kind,
neither
the
ground
non-perception with
about
to
be
the notion
explained
admitted
nor
the
of
question of the concomitance
non-existence
culty
diffiis brought in,the same
of non-existence
{abhdvd) which was sought
will
when
the
recur
again. Negation
is therefore
to
be
one
as
whole, just as
any
perception of positiveexistence
(e.g.
viii]
there
is
ground
should
to
as
the
on
well
as
by
the
the
is therefore
there
the
jug
there
arise
be
said
negation
of the
in the
without
any
to
jug
Both
the
of action
the
of
of
knowledge
the
of the
non-existence
the
ground
knowledge. The
of
357
visual
the
jug
and
organ,
reason
be due
to
is taken
kind
no
of Negation
ground) is.
knowledge of
same
separate process
view
Mimamsa
on
should
be
said
to
non-existence
be due
of the
jug
principle
the
ground is perceived.The
that in order to perceive a thing one
should
have sense-contact
with it,appliesonly to positiveexistents
and not to negation or
non-existence.
be cognized even
can
Negation or non-existence
in
as
Non-existence
sense-contact.
and
hence
there
be
It may
contact.
act
same
be
cannot
that
urged
or
of
non-existence
this the
To
other
reply is
question
any
if
stance,
positivesub-
here
well
as
sense-
required
apprehend negation
that
of
is
sense-contact
no
could
apprehending negation,one
is not
from
him.
is necessary
thing and
know
be perceived. We
it exists must
a
place where
and yet the qualitycan
its quality to be different,
only
be taken
in association
the
that
We
well.
be
its locus.
apprehended
but
before
along
later
the
In
it is
on
of
memory
with
the
thing and
the
later
reallyno
in this
case
the
as
hension
appre-
is said
apprehension of
to
existence
non-
non-existence
perception of
so
non-existence
when
case
it is
only through
non-existence
apprehend
can
of
with
locus
the
of
non-existence
cording
(abhdva) can thus, ac(e.g.ground). Negation or non-existence
to
Nyaya, generate its cognition just as any positive
do.
existence
can
negativity or mere
Negation is not mere
vacuous
absence, but is what
generates the cognition "is not,"
as
position(bhavd) is what
The
Buddhists
deny
that
when
specifictime
but
negation
and
spite of such
negation could
that
relation.
There
is also
relation
apprehended,
it
(e.g.this is not
could
apprehension, we
an
thus
no
"
be
associated
relation
e.g.
jug
between
in
the
is the
hold
negation. They
is apprehended
with
with
now);
here
think
never
them
in
any
there
is the
of
existence
conditions
pratiyogi(thing negated
when
the
is
space
in
there
the
it,if
The
358
the
the
of
negation
for how
Ny
the
can
ay
jug
"Vais'esika
existed
negation
Philosophy
before
of the
jug
all?
and
[ch.
oppose
be asked whether
Again,
effectinganything
tion
negais to be regarded as a positivebeing or becoming or of the
of not becoming or non-being. In the first alternative
it
nature
will be like any other positiveexistents,and in the second
it
case
at
will be
eternal,and
and
permanent
it may
it cannot
be
related
this
to
or
"
there is no smoke
here, since there is
(non-perceptionof cause
no
fire);(3)vyapakanupalabdhi (non-perceptionof the species
there is no
pine here,since there is no tree);(4) karyanupalabdhi
"
"
of smoke
here,
(non-perceptionof effects there are not the causes
since there is no smoke); (5) svabhavaviruddhopalabdhi (perception
of contradictorynatures
there is no cold touch here because
"
"
of
effects
there
"
is
cold
no
here
touch
because
dhavyaptopalabdhi (oppositeconcomitance
of
past is
"
not
of
sity
neces-
depends on other causes);(8) karyyaviruddhopalabdhi (oppositionof effects there is not here the causes
since
destructible,
it
"
which
give cold
can
there
since
is
fire);(9) vyapakaviruddhopa-
of snow
touch
there is no
here,
(opposite concomitants
because
of fire);
(10) karanaviruddhopalabdhi (oppositecauses
the fire);
there is no
shiveringthrough cold here,since he is near
labdhi
"
"
of opposite causes
(11) karanaviruddhakaryyopalabdhi (effects
for
of shiveringsensations
this place is not
occupied by men
is full of
it
smoke1).
There
but
is
no
that
doubt
does
that
not
in the
above
that
prove
ways
there
is this that
there
are
certain
speak
we
is any
"
situations
reason
All
that
of negation,
for the
we
justifythe
which
can
use
that there
only shows
are
only interpretedin
perception of
1
the
ground where
See Nyayabindu,
p. u,
and
the
are
that
certain
way.
visible
Nyayamarijari,
positiveperceptions
positive
It is the
jug
pp.
is absent
53-7.
that
viii]
leads
view
Nyaya
of Negation
359
of
to
us
existents
is
have
right to
no
the
that
it is the
same
the
the
distinct
jug
is there.
jug, and
without
the
for
existent
negation with
the
even
such
relation
and
space
subsists
the other
in
of
one
similar
as
way
have
then
even
quarrel is only
over
to
the
call it
jug,"it does
been
be
to
between
colour, taste,
with
ground
"ground,
not
matter
admitted.
relation
tion
Nega-
the
qualifiedand
the
sutra
Kumarila
the
the
the
negation
that
sense
to take
and
its
is
one
abhava
does, though
Mlmamsist
is
quality
the
where
(IX.i.6) seems
of
relation
associated
it appears
between
Vaisesika
The
etc.
which
between
opposition,in
The
is not.
without
it
it,then
of
being
is admitted
is noted
negation
as
time
{yisesyavisesana). The
pratiyogiis
it,it
tion
percep-
as
by perception as much
positive
any
of the objects of perceptiononly are
ferent;
difin the perception of positivesense-objects
diversities
that
call
the
nature
just as
then
the
If identical
shall expect
we
without
ground
is this
different?
or
may
"the
But
is but
we
It is said
is valid.
ground
jug.
difference
jugness" or
is; the
are
you
the
distinct
the
alone
the
on
If different
some
apprehended
is
there
former
ground
ground, and
the
category. If
perception of negation,and
the
for whatever
the
much,
the
without
with
as
name,
with
the
as
that
say
ground
identical
jug
when
fact
non-perception of jug
of the
the
much
as
the
the
explain it away2. In Vaisesika
four kinds
of negation are
enumerated
as
(1) prdgabhdva (the
negation preceding the production of an object e.g. of the jug
before it is made
(thenegation
by the potter);(2) dhvamsdbhdva
of an
followingthe destruction
object as of the jug after it is
destroyed by the stroke of a stick); (3) anyonydbhdva (mutual
have
commentators
tried
to
"
"
negation
e.g. in the
"
cow
there
is the
ff.,and
also
34
Prasastapada says
the production of
of the cause,
so
that
as
non-existence
is also
hanayogyah)and
Nydyamanjari,
of it is the
the non-production
commenting
is not
is
an
actual
the
pp.
effect is the
an
the
horse
the
satisfied with
senses
sense-contact
the
{bhdvavad
with
and
48-63.
sign of
receptionof
directlyperceived by
that there
negation of
view
existence
Sridhara
in
sign {linga)
abhdvd'pindriyagra-
non-existence
which
{abhdvendriyasannikarsd'
pi
is the
abha-
The
360
Ny
always exists
other places is
"
of the
of
find here
notice
not
[ch.
in any
debating
devices
of Salvation.
the
continued
we
seeker
that
probable
of
Acquirement
for the
of this
Philosophy
necessity
It is
Vaifesika
a-
that of the
in the horse
The
ay
other
related
terms
many
of
system
sphere
atmo-
an
consequence
debates
to
Indian
in
which
philosophy.
do
we
These
are
and
igrahasthdna.
Tarka
its real
deliberation
means
it thus
nature;
suppositionto
some
of
nature
When
conclusion
which
to
arrive
we
tries to
called
that
there
his
prove
vdda.
is
Jalpa
means
which
seeking to
those
are
seeks
establish
which
or
appear
as
each
in which
defeat
when
new
any
hetus
the
means
two
the
as
of them
the theses
the
is
disputants
their
respectiveopponents.
destructive
only a
opponent's doctrine without
to
the
formulate
specific
When
of
each
reasons,
dispute
refute
the
tarka.
in which
atman,
with
five fallacies
enumerate
sutras
to
of
right
respectivetheses,such
an
about
of
it is not
to
come
Nirnaya
result
tarka.
to
their
thesis
own
suppositions;
to
discern
to
in favour
reasons
{samsayd)
as
is not
or
thing
of the mind
take
to
of other
is doubt
have
we
seeking
oscillation
there
anything
of
consists
an
unknown
an
the exclusion
inference,but merely
conclusion.
on
but
are
it is
Hetvabhasas
doctrine.
reallynot
of
(Jietvdbhdsas)
so.
the middle
Nydya
(hetu):
viruddha
savyabhicdra (erratic),
prakaranasama
(contradictory),
portune).
(tautology),sddhyasama (unproved reason) and kdldtlta (inopreason
Savyabhicara is that where the same
prove
may
opposite conclusions
like the atoms
it is
which
are
sound
eternal,and
intangiblelike cognitionswhich
is that
where
jug
eternal, because
is eternal
(e.g.sound
is
The
the
reason
intangible
because
non-eternal); viruddha
the
is non-eternal
opposes
it is
are
it is
because
it is
impossible
them
to
logical
diverse
in
justice
small
The
362
example.
example (e.g.sound
fallacies of
[ch.
Philosophy
fallacies of the
the
Prasastapada counts
counted
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
is
also
Dinnaga
it is
eternal,because
incorporeal,that
inference
the
repetitions.Chala means
for the
of the opponent's arguments
misinterpretation
dictory
defeatinghim. Jati consists in the drawing of contrathat
and
intentional
of
purpose
is
these
are
mere
means
the
self-contradiction,
inconsistencyor
As
tricks
by
work,
which
to the
before
of
utility
of which
the aim
the
ought
like,by
the
is
the victorious
descriptionof
so
many
be defeated
in
be to direct
to
his defeat
which
glory of
the
people to
might
opponent
an
like with
the
or
of
exposure
opponent.
issues
of
intention
conclusivelyproved
false
debating
metaphysical
that lead to
the ways
teacher
pupils in
and
onward
would
him
it was
could
silence
not
shaken
be
deemed
therefore
for the
protectionof
of these
being
necessary
has
his
and
called
Carvakas
other
existence
of soul
but
faith
that
the
Nyaya
also denied
The
naiyayikas ascertained
the
devices
ledge
know-
sutra
as
of Soul.
of soul
Carvakas
Susiksita
Buddhists
plodding
was
that
it
existence
who
regardec
and
The
follow,
acquire these
of his pupils. A
existence
the
thought
of the
of salvation1.
doctrine
as
the
he who
enjoined in
attainment
denied
life
been
that
should
faith and
therefore
Carvakas
consciousness
necessary
own
for the
opponent,
and
of moksa
The
Dhurtta
the
there
admitted
destroyed
was
of any
at
wer(
th"
death.
permanent
self.
all the
categories of metaphysics
corroborated
by experience.
See
kantaka
Nyayamanjari^
of
pp.
586-659, and
Tarkikaraksa
of Varadaraja and
Nis-
vin]
Doctrine
of Soul
363
of the self
entity to which they belonged; the existence
is not
proved according to Nyaya merely by the notion of our
of Mimamsa,
self-consciousness, as in the case
for Nyaya holds
that we
cannot
such
depend upon
a
perception,for it may
some
be
I
It often
erroneous.
black,
am
be
relied
for
upon,
inference
which
that
result
body
but
in the
or
produced.
facial
of the
the
of
some
factor
not
prove
the
are
collocation
manifested
be
can
did
than
know
believe
antitheistic
the
leave
these
that
inequality of
it to
to
pleasures
be
must
men
formed
perworld
the
karma
admit
as
chance.
irresponsible
Salvation.
and
vara
the
that
action
bad
it,it is better
to
of
the distribution
and
Since
establish
to
the
and
good
behind
We
offered many
of
kinds
basis of inference.
Buddhists
though
ness
acquiresconscious-
failures prove
and
past lives.
seeks
But
with
its actions
body, yet
the help of
in
inequalities
Is
Nyaya
time.
self
travel
not
at
show
reasons
determining
any
It is not
collocations1.
successes
suffer
to
features,and
pains and
the
entity to
eternal.
does
in itself and
It is unconscious
pains. Moreover
these
found
same
in the
action
that
etc.
the
be
we
the
it is with
birth children
the memory
the
has
So
i.e.exists
all-pervading,
the
at
from
result of suitable
at
have
everywhere
because
body
is
or
upon
that
when
places (vibhu),and
disconnected
bodily limbs,
Even
all
in
of
Never
as
as
adhere
of collocations.
exists
is thus
as
admitted
time
colour.
any
has it been
experienced, nor
like the body, so the soul must
in any
same
seen
has
white
am
perception cannot
have
self-consciousness
our
etc.
located
atman
on
that
such
self cannot
consciousness, emotion,
destruction
must
the
I say
that
be
been
atman
and
evident
self
the
that
to
as
the
it is
safely depend
cannot
the
but
happens
the
that
in
existence
the
the
of
Isvara
the
on
Jains,the Sarpkhya
existence
of
Isvara
and
and
arguments.
refute
of
of the
existence
to
Nyaya wanted
Isvara
by an inference
samanyato-drsta type.
1
See
"c.
Jiianasamavayanibandhanamevdtmanascetayitrtvam,
NyayamaKjari,
The
364
The
world
and
it
the
this view
effect like
of
atheists
universe.
But
no
a jug) and
(e.g.
therefore
of
the
produced by
could
producer
in
general sense
have
may
other
as
the
consider
arrangement
thus
though
in
the
different from
yet
man,
order
inference
effects
without
by
be
never
creator.
The
creator, since
its construction.
and
arrangement
effect and
Just as
that the
inference
it is
Everything
has
that
has
is
order
and
may
from
not
jug.
has
of the
ground
not
hold,
actuallycreated
that
and
many
the
does
would
see
we
the
has
world
arrangement
effect and
an
and
"order
creator
now
stands
arrangement
produce them,
therefore
effect and
an
even
plants are
general.
world
of
dailyshooting forth
to
in
sider
con-
things produced
of
found
and
creator,"an
of the
objection that
proved
of
existence
arrangement
(e.g.
trees)which are
being
any creator
for it can
the
same
disregard
case
of
similar
the
to
are
concomitance
and
The
is not
we
with
not
specificcase
smoke
arrangement
from
each
kitchen
the
that
and
fire in each
and
order
the
"
creator
it differs from
which
and
arrangement"
creator"
was
order
answers
general with
the
general with
be inadmissible.
not
an
to
of
and
fire,but yet
fire in
have
"
of
of
peculiarities
of
universe
sort
the "order
fire in the
forest
concomitance
here, we
the
the
arrangement," for
the
universe;
(sannivesa-visistata)
this,Nyaya
peculiarityin
find in
we
To
existence
; thus
specificcases
of the
productions that
between
and
specificindividual
the
So
such
some
of fire
kind
order
"
is from
of
order
certainlya
human
tions
produc-
of
that
argued
the
by
and
was
arrangement
in human
"the
and
of
specificcases
be
inferred.
be
there
that
arrangement
for, it
an
but
admitted
is not
arrangement
and
not
is to be taken
concomitance
and
eternal
arrangement
argue
and
is found
that
arrangement
or
creator
the
deny
order
it could
universe
if this
would
the order
from
is also
whole
is not
this world
even
way
the
as
Many
order
the
world
the
that
But
they
difference between
and
slips
geologicalchanges and landdestructive
operationsproceeding in
these
in
can
to
effect.
production.
they
contrast
that
assumed
be
effect. In
an
holds
from
and
therefore
never
other
it may
nature
was
Nyaya
any
occur,
the
[ch.
Philosophy
produced,
result
-Vaitesika
Nyaya
The
has
world
therefore
jug
an
in
order
is
an
creator.
that he makes,
God
VIII
so
Isvara knows
He
omniscient.
all the
purposes
knows
all
all
requirememory;
always happy.
of
karma
men
the
protects
results of his
by
the
external
of
so
take
body
are
produced
philosophy
To
of
so-called
The
is not
the
also
can
is in itself bodiless
is
by
indispensable for
well
self
our
say that
it in
the
if any
our
ception
con-
be
his will
changes
and
movements
with
common
the
most
world
was
served
therefore
person
systems of Indian
full of
and
sorrow
intensifythe
to
everything is
therefore
; the wise
other
is
force
of
{sarvam
sorrow
attached
never
that
to
the
which
jndnd)
also
that
vivekmah)
duhkham
our
pleasure only
wise
with
is
atoms1.
believed
bits
small
sorrow.
Nyaya
in
thinking
self,namely body,
my
; when
as
will of
naiyayikas in
The
the
in the
in
as
may
place,so
He
etc.
manas,
in accordance
self which
our
Isvara
atoms
the
directlywithout
with
the
as
not
produces dissolution,creates, or
the
by which each man
reaps
Isvara
no
does
therefore
him
is thus
order
As
so
body
him,
our
will
has
he
just as by
that
eternal,and
in the
world,
of
association
same
such
sense
and
universe
and
perceived by
produce changes
though
universe
the
deeds.
its will
can
will is
own
of this wide
internal
His
world,
365
things always
things are
of any
intervention
any
Salvation
and
the
once
says, of the
true
senses,
as
feelingsand
manas,
knowledge
proofs {pramand),
self that
own
my
of
the
the
which
ledge
know-
six
padarthas and
objectsof knowledge
logicalcategories of inference is
attained, false knowledge is destroyed. False knowledge can
be removed
thinking of its opposite {pratipaksaby constant
when
of things. Thus
bhavana),namely the true estimates
any
pleasure attracts us, we are to think that this is in realitybut
and
of
thus
the
{prameyd),
pain,
will
and
never
attract
the
other
right knowledge
us
again.
Thus
it will
about
it is that
with
dawn
the
and
it
destruction
or
antipathy to things and
knowledge our attachment
called dosa, cf. the klesa of
ignorance about them (collectively
of false
Patanjali)are
With
1
the
also
destroyed.
destruction
of attachment
190-204,
hvaranumana
actions
of
(pravrtli)for the
Raghunatha
Siromani
and
of
production
there
sorrow
in
state
in
perfect
mukti
happiness
can
its
never
It
original
knowledge,
that
is
the
is
in
and
of
state
natural
willing,
the
of
really
happiness.
purity
of
state
as
It
is
unassociated
etc.1.
Nyayamanjarl,
pp.
self
499-533.
the
passive
with
Nyaya-
bliss
remains
in
absolute
being
speaking
of
all
remains
to
nor
of
of
and
according
knowledge
which
divested
is
the
to
cessation
etc.)
mukti
pure
spoken
though
willing,
of
negative
sometimes
(ananda\
be
of
state
qualitilessness,
purity.
own
feeling,
leads
the
self
the
with
attachment,
that
With
which
state
and
karma
viii
and
ceases
knowledge
of
[ch.
rebirth
experiences.
in
The
state.
neither
is
of
its
emancipation
inert
it
bondage
(consciousness,
own
Vaisesika
its
is
qualities
its
and
body
with
false
the
produce
cannot
Philosophy
and
cease
Without
ceases.
sorrow
actions
its
desires
of
fulfilment
it
Nyaya-Vaiiesika
The
366
but
itself
in
painlessness
state
state
state
of
absolute
of
of
pleasure,
mukti
self
in
pain,
CHAPTER
IX
MlMAMSA
purely
common
such
monistic
common
sense
an
the
original
four
things
universal
manifest
the
class
only
as
collocation
viewed
physical
Thus
circumstances
combination
the
and
objects
Nyaya
is
inhere.
class
of
notion,
without
relation
relation
between
has
would
number
conceived
were
qualities,actions,
between
reals
etc.
substances,
1
On
the
No
of
of
to
be
difference
of the
and
word
us
able
was
merely
is
other
any
physical
so
the
by
produced.
Soul
with
knowledge,
etc.
quality, action,
its
entity,
separate
principle
any
types, which
all
produce
was
Chapter
of
IV.
of
by
an
their
substances,
acknowledged
it
as
construction.
consisted
which
see
are
knowledge
of
is
and
actions, and
Mimarnsa
there
as
philosophic
to
in
sense,
different
even
soul, mind,
without
principle
three
qualities
meaning
give
also
things
of certain
and
as
being
of
which
in
admitted
be
fail to
is
substance
to
conceived
of
entity
entities
naturally
had
combination
also
different
it the
(jndna)
knowledge
sense,
of the
contacts
So
all
produced,
are
many
which
is viewed
collocation
the
so
inhering
production
qualities
its
unconscious
Samkhya
infinite
and
respective
etc.
by
as
as
entities
genesis
the
to
material
entity, and
Causation
of
stantive
sub-
are
substances.
soul, just
to
our
out
but
illuminates
The
nature
inert
an
The
in
just
jug
which
conditions.
of
event.
the
separate
objects.
of the
regarded
separate
as
(jndna)
similar
as
be
to
of
they
existence
separate
perceived
material
is
any
Space, time,
that
perceived
etc.
quality belonging
of
qualities
impression
with
with
coming
as
Samkhya).
is
and
supposed
are
the
connection
Knowledge
regarded
also
is
notions
substances.
the
in
action
or
other
distinct
themselves
of
What
work
not
conceptions
considered
colour, taste,
as
did
be
the
convey
substances.
have
and
from
experience
at
ultimate
(e.g.prakrti
or
which
the
should
experience
qualities such
entities
karma
that
tendency
looked
of view
point
as
Review.
philosophy
sense
entities
as
Comparative
Nyaya-Vaisesika
THE
PHILOSOPHY1
to
exist
conceived
Philosophy
Mimamsa
368
that these
but
were
so
aspects of
many
combination
of
rudiments
the
which
What
merely
however
call
we
form
kind
some
from
in
been
pointed
emphatic manner.
of
our
by
out
the
Even
transcendent
of
could
knowledge
in
to
as
some
school
Nyaya
Samkhya
did
to
attempt
self
fixed
in
not
the
on
of
is
ground
that
must
again based
upon
attributes
of the
latter to
inference
since
the
to
inhere
in
another
inhere
inhere.
on
of
that
the
in
the
of
need
passing states
moral
uncritical
in the
the
fixed
of
them
our
strength of
self is thus
the
had
to
gap
existed
it
This
assumption
and
that
was
here
left
demonstrate
by
non-
self
quality,
hypothesis
a
that substances
it
was
the
nature
also that
other
could
knowledge was
substance
a
attributes)
take
their stand
ordinary thought
the
principleas
(buddhi) as being
former, and
of
None
nature
substance.
some
entirelyseparate,
were
self-conscious
conclusions
and
strong
of the
fill up
to
knowledge
qualityrequiring(similarlywith
in which
hardly
this has
prove
the
consciousness).The
object of
an
therefore
and
and
hypothesis of
ground
admit
thought-
demonstrated
its
grounds
on
necessityto
transcendent
sense
the
to
be
which
object,to
very
try
support
the
on
could
purusa
cling,and
matter
(pure
purusa
translucent
struggle
and
emancipation. Samkhya had first supposed
of changing reals, and
be merely a combination
virtue
had
then
to
entityas
permanent
knowledge
contact
or
experience ; and
sense
its transcendent
existence
towards
holds
ness
conscious-
pure
reflection
bare
them
Samkhya
entity as
the
common
it had
of
another
ordinarilyunderstood, can
as
experience,and
a
in
causes
experience of
knowledge
demonstrated
existence
about
brought
a person.
thought or
distinct
hypothesis of a pure self,as essentially
this
separate
in its
of transcendent
transforms
consciousness
But
but
is with
thought ordinarily,
or
into conscious
matter
cations
manifested, collo-
thing
transcendent
thatjherejs a
this pure
changed incessantly
were
there
within
matter, knowledge,
illuminatingmatter-stuff.
of subtle
andjhat by
be
knowledge
mind
new
any
already
was
of
of reals
and
about
bring
not
phenomenon
form.
of matter
of the three
reals contained
developments
combinations
As
etc.
feelings,
willing,
and new
phenomena
did
all
[ch.
direct
evidence
and
draw
upon
their
of this self-
Mlmamsa
370
it,and
had
it
this
into them
priests.These
different schools
with
(which are
references
the
he
written
that
attempts
at least of one
much
the
Mlmamsa
various
about
Bhartrmitra
works
Jaimini has
of it borrowed.
that it was
are
But
deemed
survived
the
now
it
so
all other
sutras
ground
written
were
not
are
Jaimini'sMlmamsa
and
B.C.
200
from
of other
matters
of what
that it has
Commentaries
system.
such
school
before him.
made
were
probably written
were
how
say
hensive
compre-
is evident
subject.These
work
masterly a
of
cannot
we
in different
the
and
tempts
(lit.at-
only a
are
school
one
is his
be said
may
and
now,
dealt with
who
enquiries
scholars
Mlmamsa
Mlmamsa)
views
the
gives to
preceding writers
available
of
many-
That
systematic compilation of
and
different
of
cussions
Dis-
the
regularrational
it is
the foundations
us
literature.
about
common
by
beginnings
thought.
[ch.
smrti
circles
enquiry),and
of this
the
rituals,and
the
represent
rational
more
in different
begun
were
at
became
sacrificial
of the
rise to
gave
doubts
and
intricacies
seems
Philosophy
work
it
on
by-
(alludedto in
Nydyaratndkara
10 of S lokavarttika) Bhavadasa
verse
(Pratijhasutra63),Hari and
Upavarsa (mentioned in Sastradlpika).It is probable that at least
persons
as
preceded Sahara,
of these
some
known
about
would
Jha
verse
of
the
have
him
about
speaks
"abarasvamin by
basis
by
upon
an
of
Kumarila.
Brhatl
commentary
often
on
57
he
B.C.
later
the
on
it
"
flourished.
the
on
Mlmamsa
person
alluded
as
Brhatl
mentary
com-
bhasya
that
was
current
the
commented
was
"
Prabhakara
by
Prabhakara's
based
son
Sahara
of
Varttikakara
as
thing
any-
Ganganatha
of
being
as
yathahuh
says
of
Dr
It
to
"
famous
evidence
works.
Sabara-bhasya
This
the
It is difficult to say
King Vikramaditya
Ksattriya wife. This
merely referred to
Dr Ganganatha Jha
Varttikakara.
of this
wrote
the
of
unknown
and
Prabhakara
in which
of
writer
Sabara-bhasya.
time
which
is the
by
the
as
the
upon
had
mentary
com-
the work
another
who
also
mamsa
compendium on the Prabhakara
interpretationof Mlhakara
Prabthat
called Prakaranapancika. Tradition
says
views
are
(often referred to as Nibandhakara), whose
marila
Kualluded
to as "gurumata," was
a
pupil of Kumarila.
believed
temporary
to be the senior conBhatta, who is traditionally
his celebrated independent
of "arikara(788 A.D.),
wrote
ix]
Mimamsa
exposition of Sahara's
vdrttika (dealingonly
Literature
bhasya
371
parts known
in three
Sloka-
as
philosophicalportionof Sahara's
work
contained
in the first chapter of the first book
known
as
as
Tarkapada), Tantravdrttika
(dealing with the remaining three
chapters of the first book, the second and the third book) and
Tuptikd (containingbrief notes on the remaining nine books)1.
Kumarila
is referred to by his later followers as Bhatta, BhattaThe
scholar and
next
pada, and Varttikakara.
great Mimamsa
follower
of Kumarila
viveka,M
with
the
Mandana
was
imamsdnukrarnani
Parthasarathi
and
later
vdrttikaywho became
Misra, the
on
the
author
of
commentator
converted
by
Sankara
of
Vidhi-
Tantra-
to Vedantism.
(about ninth century A.D.)wrote his Sdstradipikd, Tantraratna, and Nydyaratnamdld followingthe footprints
of Kumarila.
other followers of Kumarila,
Amongst the numerous
the
of Sucarita
names
the
Mis"a
author
of
Misra
the author
of Kdsikd
and
Somesvara
specialnotice. Ramakrsna
Bhatta
excellent commentary
the Tarkapada of Sdswrote
an
on
and
tradipikd called the Yuktisnehapiirani-siddhdnta-candrikd
Somanatha
his Mayukkamdlikd
the remaining chapters
wrote
on
of Sdstradipikd.Other
works
which
Mimamsa
important current
deserve
notice
Nydyasudhd
are
such
deserve
Nydyamdldvistara
as
dhinl,Mimdmsdbdlaprakdsa
of Sankara
of
Subo-
Madhava,
Bhatta, Nydyakanikd
of
Most
writingof
for
mentioned
of the books
this
Hindu
chapter. The
is indeed
here
of the
importance
great. For
been
have
not
only are
consulted
in the
ture
litera-
Mimamsa
all Vedic
duties
the smrti
performed according to its maxims, but even
and rituals
literatures which regulatethe dailyduties,ceremonials
all guided and explained
of Hindus
at the present day are
even
The
by them.
legalside of the smrtis consistingof inheritance,
adoption,etc. which guide Hindu civil life even
proprietoryrights,
is explained according to the
under
the British administration
Mimamsa
Its relations to the Vedanta
maxims.
philosophy will
be briefly
indicated in the next chapter. Its relations with NyayaVaisesika have
also been
pointed out in various places of this
as propounded
chapter.The views of the two schools of Mimamsa
be
to
by
Prabhakara
1
and
Kumarila
on
all the
important topicshave
in his
Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasada"astrisays,
preceded Sankara
by
two
introduction to Six
Buddhist
generations."
24"2
Mimamsa
372
pointed
been
also
win
he
and
after Kumarila
gleaned
the
Varttikakara's
vague.
references
It did
develop
not
later times
subjectin
know
the
excellent
The
of
the
the
Mimamsa
doctrine
excepting
the
depends on
knowledge
for
the
on
I do
English except
Prabhakara
the
on
is based.
of
knowledge
the
Validity
its
structure
the
means
that
asserts
nor
tude
certi-
all knowledge
is
memory
neither
truth, and
own
condition
extraneous
(svatah-
whole
remembering (smrti)or
it itself certifies
the
and
of Mimamsa.
philosophy
action
other
any
written
Nyaya
which
on
Mimamsa
itself,for
in
cornerstone
philosophy
of trutnT The
valid
of
of
ojf__theself-validity
forms
pramanya)
Jha
doctrine
Svatah-pramanya
doctrine
know
we
theirs alone.
and
in
the
frequentlyreferred.
Paratah-pramanya
The
written
Ganganatha
I have
to which
Mimamsa
Dr
What
from
be
can
slightand
gathered
Works
in
texts
also
are
of their views
of
Vedic
Prabhakara.
Mimamsa
on
by
one
and
that
mostly
philosophy
be
only
after them.
but
were
work
of any
not
further
any
the
little of
can
said
deal
sutras
contributions
also
views
not
Hardly
philosophy
Mimamsa
interpretationof
by Kumarila
philosophy consists
of Mimamsa
livingit is
Mimamsa
very
could
strong rival1.
the
to
[ch.
however
while
very
The
them
to
made
Sahara's
of them.
out
been
and
sacrifices,
with
connection
as
Prabhakara.
principlesof
the
with
has
views
times, but
Kumarila
contribution
new
any
in later
regarded by
was
Prabhakara's
out.
followers
many
Philosophy
on
any
other
validity. But Nyaya holds that this selfvalidityof knowledge is a questionwhich requiresan explanation.
that
It is true
is
its
under
in
produced
knowledge
is
anything
blue, it
visual
true,
1
There
asked
but
these
Kumarila's
was
views
whether
or
views
course
were
the
no
by
him
the
not
trick and
only
rightones.
latter said he
historic value.
When
touch
with
not
Kumarila's
then
this
perceive
this
own
views
so
were
to
erroneous,
up and
rose
defeated
generated is
the knowledge
performed according
be
Kumarila
we
that
knowledge
rites should
up
knowledge
contact, and
rouse
was
the
of
saying
of visual
in any
Prabhakara
to
by
meant
result
his burial
Prabhakara's.
held
defeated, but
this has of
attempted a
Prabhakara
were
is not
piece
truth?
own
direct
is a
is
certifythat
cannot
his views,
Kumarila's
its
is the
as
what
of
proof
contact
pupil,to
then
as
but
us,
conditions
certain
long
as
he
was
alive.
But
ix] Objections
ofKnowledge
againstthe Self-validity
it has
how
conditioned.
it
Moreover, knowledge
affair and
mental
? In
representation
other words, how
can
perception a blue thing guarantee
my
that what
is subjectively
perceivedas blue is reallyso objectively
can
certifythe objectivetruth
is
373
of its
"
"
well ?
as
have
is
After
perception of anything
perception that what I have
my
such
any
So
reallyso.
blue
as
do
we
perceived
as
not
blue
this so-called
of knowledge cannot
self-validity
be testified or justified
by any perception. We can only be certain
that knowledge has been produced by the perceptual act, but
there is nothing in this knowledge or its revelation
of its object
from
which
valid
or
its
If the
true.
validitythen
and
never
come
would
be
no
a
perception of even
mirage we should
to grief. But
are
we
disappointed often in our perceptions,
and
this proves
that when
follow
the
we
practically
which
only be
can
with
perception we
our
what
of
piece
and
It is
the
following our
of
hence
that
production of
there
directions
every
infer
can
we
as
by
the
on
in
find later
we
knowledge is
such
depends
be
cannot
ascertained
undecided
are
the
them
upon
to
of
speak
the
to
its
validity,
result of certain
meaningless
as
for
causal
tions,
colloca-
its
production,and
depending on anything else.
validityof knowledge, for
mirage
is called
invalid
when
proceeding
in accordance
with
or
to
supposition that
by
objectivefacts of experience1.
that this Nyaya
objection is based on the
see
knowledge is generated by certain objective
agreement
It is easy
ascertained
validity is
with
the
collocations of conditions,and
1
See
that
Nyayamanjari,
knowledge
pp.
160-173.
so
produced
can
Mimamsa
374
Philosophy
[ch.
be
only
hardly be demonstrated
can
prerogativeof knowledge
by experience. It
that it reveals
all other
is the supreme
things. It
is not
we
phenomenon like any other phenomenon of the world. When
produced in us by the external
say that knowledge has been
warranted
collocations,we just take a perverse
point of view which is unby experience; knowledge only photographs the
for
objectivephenomena
only
to
theory which
and
knowledge
like
not
been
has
knowledge
is
nothing
show
to
this is
other
any
there
; but
us
evidentlyunwarrantable.
for
phenomena
it stands
that
This
is
causation
is
Knowledge
them
above
and
all. There
be no
can
validityin
interpretsor illumines them
things,for truth appliesto knowledge and knowledge alone. What
with
facts by practicalexperience is but the
call agreement
we
agreement
of
jective
previous knowledge with later knowledge; for obto us
never
come
directly,
they are always taken
facts
on
the
than
what
is
kinds
latter do
not
different kinds
that
on
we
why
us
to
be
what
is said
in its
to
on
be
which
or
the
generate the
never
that
on
is indeed
knowledge
any
reveals
objectivefact
or
makes
we
can
say, for
objectivefacts and
never
perceivedby
knowledge is
objectivefact,for
its revelation
all
objectivefacts
This
illumination.
self- validity(svatah-prdmdnyd) of
revealed
rise of
than
more
for this
knowledge
Why
rise of
it for
the
certainty
former,
of any
aware
production (utpatti).As
objects are
between
are
The
so.
dependent
dependent
are
account
of revelations
it does
other
There
by knowledge.
no
arise indeed
by knowledge.
knowledge revealingdifferent things,but
of
it is revealed
before
have
they
them
on
experienced ;
never
and
knowledge,
is bestowed
different
these
of
evidence
to
knowledge
knowledge depends
Thus
illuminatingthem.
us;
and
soon
there
the
as
is
no
knowledge
ledge
knowis produced,
intermediate
revelation
of
is
link
objectson
for
ix]
of
Self-validity
of Knowledge
else
anything
(svakdryakarane
is
in
its
svatah
knowledge
any
and
certain
valid,and
mind
the
at
of
we
of the
its
action
own
well
as
Whenever
there
impression that
naturallythus prompted to
are
; but
knowledge
with
There
is
work
indecision
no
rise of
knowledge as to
knowledge rises,it
just as
it is
it the
its direction.
to
time
in
jndnasya).
pramdnyam
it carries
(pravrtti)according
our
rise but
own
375
the
in
ness
correct-
with
carries
former
rejectour
itself to
goaded
works
it carried
us
us
knowledge
of mind.
This
it the
is what
knowledge
of
conviction
knowledge,
is valid,
and
the
its indication.
according to
his
according to
that his
with
to work
on
when
knowledge, yet
he does
in
not
Mimamsa
so
certaintywhich
Whenever
with
the
when
man
conviction
uncertain
passiveor
means
firstrevealed
it says
temper
that
the
we
all necessary
think
that
knowledge
certified
at
be doubted
unnecessarilywhen
not,
we
must
defect
any
in
sense
or
look
to
care
they
the
do
moment
because
any
the
thus
be
The
We
could
the
have
not
regarded
place
diversityof
its
validityof
production
need
not
as
sense
after
it is invalidated
of
memory
later
on.
Memory
depends
upon
organs
in
perception.
just said
have
of
even
phenomenon
previous experience,and
cannot
Thus
exist.
of
and
not
for these
that
Philosophy
[ch.
the
Mtma?nsa
376
Nyaya
face of
the
ground
of diverse
afford
silent
remain
to
such
on
svatah-pramanya.
a
conflict between
these
knowledge. Evidently
at
it
that
of them
with
of
virtue
there
the
Their
inference.
actions
never
when
the
must
have
The
acted.
only
as
of the
rise of
of
case
later
of
is
to the
on
Thus
it
rise of
as
with
the
of
imagined
knowledge as well
be
to
as
the
senses
the
be
must
same
be
may
phenomena
in the
gives
which
be
the
are
manner,
not
Thus
vary
take
cognitionsof course
regarded as the material
be
such
some
which
and
as
our
place in
cause
colouringof
cause
a
white
of the
one
be
we
the
felt
be
not
are
these
to
only
are
ferred
in-
characteristic
and
knowledge
in
proceed
may
in relation
with
senses
felt,for
the
later
to it.
objects
first-hand.
render
material
the
how
to
of
existence
cognitionsof objectsare
and do not happen always
the
different moments;
soul
which
thus
may
either in the
and
at
differently
movements
which
to
where
case
first start
our
for these
is found
conditioningfactor,yet the
of its validitystrikes us
notion
sketch
senses
the
our
inferred.
(asamavdyikdrana)
that
us
contacts
such
and
objectivefacts
original,
underived,immediate,
Prabhakara
and
such
nature
of the
contact
be
on
it looked
else cannot
knowledge,
nature
which
ledge
previousexperience or knowthe dependence
In other cases
We
operation and
is that though
production
always have
directlyexperienced from
later
may
rise of
in accordance
on
knowledge.
which
the
of
the
senses
conscious
knowledge
to
anything
on
that
seems
memory.
knowledge
been
from
where
case
be
of
specialcapacitiesin them by
with
be perceived,was
us
a
in producing the knowledge
of the rise of knowledge, but
could
things
doctrine
their
have
the
were
such
objects,or
the
which
of
matter
are
held
view
ledge
of know-
condition
principlesof
point of
the
as
to
appear
different
two
of
was
not
It therefore
important point.
an
not
cause
piece of cloth,the
production
immaterial
(e.g.in
colour
of
causes
the
case
of the yarns
this
or
subsist
of the
which
378
imams
[ch.
Philosophy
the
and
organs,
sense
priority,
posteriority,
pleasure,pain,desire,aversion,and
effort1.
It may
Kumarila
senses
Bhatta
senses
without
entities which
he
prefersthis
having
into actual
coming
last view
kinds
stage is called
(determinate). The
their
Kumarila
the
pertaining to
the
these
wherein
infant
perception,whereas
1
See
mdmsd,
2
35
noted
kind
objects
objects.The
to
it
as
out
the
senses
appears
sense
is
things
the
nor
genus
that
of
has
present
around
differentia is
there
is
the
of indeterminate
This
view
to
resemble
the
Buddhist
rest
5a
conceived
are
etc., and
Dr
being imaginary
as
GariganathaJha's Prabhdkaraml-
to meet
sun
nature
being almost
and
Samkhya-Yoga
virtue of which
the stars.
It is the
did
Nydyarattidkara on it.
not think like Nyaya that
but
the objects(prdpyakdritva)
(vrtti)by
functioning
as
some
all the
in this connection
of
and
etc.
Slokavdrttika, see
actuallywent
the
as
Prakaranapaflcikd, pp.
pp.
of
is its per-
(svalaksana)and
it
the
subsist.
two
in
seem
defines
which
view
thing
or
savikalpa
cognitionthat
that the
the
individual
the second
association
says
first
dlocana
mere
of
and
objects2,
stages, the
two
nirvikalpaperception of
objects. Thus
first is a
their
perception.
of
first moment
ception at the
or
satisfactory.
more
perception in
nirvikalpa(indeterminate)and
two
are
with
determinate
and
that
says
functions
certain
as
in contact
being
as
he
capacity of revealingthings
with them, or that they might
the
contact
actuallycome
Indeterminate
There
either
of the
nature
objects. Thus
the
conceived
entities
be
with
the
to
as
that
in conclusion
mention
to
undecided
rather
be
as
place here
contact
may
or
activities,
of
was
of their
or
the
be out
not
the
senses
held
could
of the
functioning
that there
grasp
sense
further clearly
explainedand
different category
(fattvdntard).
even
It may
the
was
be
senses
special
such distant
that reached
Parthasarathi
the
objects
ix
Indeterminate
impositions. But
the
we
Rumania
both
differentia
the
and
genus
do
and
the
other
defined
class
characters;
only when
in
common
are
not
remembered
hence
the
stage of
data
of other
that
and
genus
data
and
other
as
ceived
pernot
are
properly,and
not
involvinguniversal
as
the
difference
perception
the
the
this,that
indeterminate
in the
latter
perception
to
is
between
particular.It
and
refers
other
those
to
It is also held
percept.
objects of
that
though
since
the
such
enter
into
the
indeterminate
cognition.
both
the
perception,it
Kumarila
also
indeterminate
and
agrees
the
factors
is to be
with
one,
as
did
the
yet
not
regarded
Prabhakara
determinate
case
of memory
indeterminate
holding
an
as
are
things
themselves
valid
percept
constitutingthe
determinate
things
the
memory,
features
other
as
its differentia
long
manifest
cannot
things creeps
determinate
memory
as
stage1. So
its character
determinate
the
the
thing
well-
fullyapprehended
the
in
belonging to
as
that
see
be
class,though
only
at the first
perceptionof the thing remains indeterminate
pressions
perception. At the second stage the self by its past imbrings the present perception in relation to past ones
apparent
memory
in
the
to
we
or
genus
characteristic
through
cannot
stage
indeterminate
these
realizes
is thus
of
things;so
as
in
or
it differs in certain
certain
to possess
which,
to
"individual"
an
apprehended
be
can
because
only
us
its character
which
consciousness
belonging
at the
it
other
some
indeterminate
characteristic
and
and
presented to
individual
and
things from
it is found
with
the
at
other
with
to
relation
things in
to
comparison
indeterminate
the
themselves
379
that both
think
Prabhakara
Perception
perceived in
are
manifest
not
remember
not
Determinate
and
as
in
perception
valid2.
Some
Ontological
Problems
Doctrine
The
other
of
1
2
with
the
Perception.
perception of
things may thus
between
of
connected
the
class
by "ridhara.
Compare this with the Vai-Sesika view as interpreted
See PrakaranapaHcika and Sastradipika.
Philosophy
Mimamsa
380
[ch.
ing
disputein Indian philosophy.Before enterPrabhakara
first introduced
the
into discussion about jati,
(part) and avayavl (whole). He argues as
problem of avayava
an
exponent of svatah-pramanyavadathat the proof of the true
of anything must
existence
sciousness,
conultimatelyrest on our own
is distinctly
and what
recognizedin consciousness
established.
be admitted to have its existence
must
Following
Prabhakara
this canon
says that gross objectsas a whole exist,
the material
since they are
so
are
perceived.The subtle atoms
and their connection
cause
cause
(samyoga) is the immaterial
and it is the latter which
renders the whole
{asamavayikotrand),
different from the parts of which it is composed ; and
altogether
it is not necessary that all the parts should be perceivedbefore the
holds that it is due to the pointof
Kumarila
whole is perceived.
call it a separate
look at a thing that we
view from which
we
of parts. In reality
tical,
whole or only a conglomeration
they are idenbut when
we
lay stress on the notion of parts, the thing
look at it
we
appears to be a conglomerationof them, and when
from the pointof view of the unityappearingas a whole, the thing
appears to be a whole of which there are parts (seeSlokavdrttika,
Vanavdda)1.
the idea of havingmany units within
though incorporating
Jati,
of whole in this,
that it resides
one, is different from the conception
in each individual constituting
that jati(yydsajyain its entirety
subjectsof
the
hot
universal
and
the particular
dravyam, Vydsabhdsya,III. 44);for there isno
{sdmdnyavis'esasamuddyo
other separate entitywhich is different from them both in which they would inhere
as
be
can
Nyaya holds. Conglomerations
exist at
distance from
one
another (e.g.
hi tadavayavdh),
and
(nirantard
of two
and
forest),
those in which
gether
they exist close to-
(ayutasiddhdvayava)
and
having no
Buddhists
as
perceptible
space
Panditasoka
in connection
eva
hi
between
has shown
with
did
one
pararupadeSapari-
defavitdnavanto
avabhdsamdnd
bhavanti).The whole
hdrenotpanndhparasparasahitd
and
Buddhist Nyaya
is thus a mere
nota
(see
reality
Avayavinirdkarana,Six
appearance
that
the
atoms
however
held
were
(niravayava)and hence it
Tracts).Nyaya
partless
the atoms.
The existence
would
be wrong
to say that when
we
see
an
we
see
object
and
of a whole as different from the parts which belongto it is directly
experienced
there is no
valid
reason
"
it :
against
adustakaranodbhutamandvirbhulabddhakam
asandigdancavijndnam
hat ham
mithyetikathyate"
JVydyamanj'art,
pp.
550 ff.
ix]
but
vrttt),
the establishment
of the existence
argument
that
denied,because
of
jatishould
whole
(class)
consistingof many
or
jatiexists because it
class character
in the
us
in the
when
individuals
that
sense
of
brought
into
to
class
inherence
exist
the conception
is
in other
individuals,even
exist.
to
ceases
the
the
The
parts (individuals).
class)comes
generated by which
with
refutes
it involves
(e.g.cow
is
relation
of wholes
distinctly
perceived by
particularclass. It is eternal
in any
individuals
of that
relation
included
it continues
of the
one
be
381
When
into
dividual
in-
new
being, a
new
individual
the
is
class-character
existing in other
individuals; for inherence
{samavaya) according to Prabhakara
is not
eternal
is both
an
entity but an entity which
produced
and
the
not
produced according as
thing in which it exists is
non-eternal
holds, but
as
things in
eternal,and
or
it exists.
class-character
does
class-character
with
destruction
relation
not
is itself
nor
the
according as
many,
which
of
or
regarded
there
individual
that
its
or
destroyed or
in
highest genus
that
argues
we
Prabhakara
the
satta
would
of
class-character
With
a
new
the class-
the
duals
indivi-
the
common
the existence
of
is
apprehended
class possess
some
of
He
acknowledged by Nyaya.
(being)as
existence
is
of
jati is essentially
thing in relation to
admit
not
dividual,
in-
of
of a
apprehension of the class-character
other similar thingsof that class by the perceptionof
But
that
exist.
to
apart from
the
characteristics.
of
inherence
production it
produced. But
Apprehension
supposes.
number
destroyed,the
the
only
ceases
separate existence
no
is
Nyaya
as
subsist
nor
it is
one
infinite
is the
elsewhere,
destroyed,but
that is
as
individual
any
individual
an
jatihas
Nyaya
as
When
go
that
of inherence
character
it is not
cause
be-
common
said to be sat
(existing)is
more
or
less
word
or
without
name
perience
quality. Our excorresponding apprehension of a common
but
we
existing individuals,
always gives us concrete
can
never
experience such a highest genus as pure existence or
be perceived.When
form which
being,as it has no concrete
may
that it is possessed
we
speak of a thing as sat, we do not mean
the
of
is
any
such
simply
that
class-characters
as
individual
has
the
satta
its
(being);
what
specificexistence
we
or
mean
svaril-
Mtmamsa
382
[ch.
the
Thus
pasattd.
Philosophy
individuals
view
when
that
namely
look
we
with
identical
(jatias
lays its
jatiis thus
of
view
Kumarila's
stress
itself to
The
at
the
we
identical
as
apprehension
held
that
to
and
with
jati)it
as
comes
jatibe-
of
jatiwhich
view
presents
latent.
becomes
is thus
of
that
point of
individual
individual
as
notion
another
is the
point
one
individual
the
the
it from
at
by Samkhya,
from
it is
individual),
look
jatior
as
directlyperceived.
individual
an
the aspect
consciousness,and
it is
similar
consciousness
our
upon
(the individual
it and
by
only
matter
but
things themselves
particularaspect or
in which
the
from
only
phase
dJiarmadharminoti),Kumarila
svarupam
jati is perceived by
the
jdtirindriyagocard).
of place
It is not
out
Prabhakara
Kanada
find that
we
school
Mimamsa
things
is not
the
on
from
admitted,
well
very
well
very
The
knowledge
knowledge
at the
the
is
self
or
the
and
directly
as
serve
nature
involves
the
identical
same
perceptual,inferential
The
inferred
as
or
the
which
be effected
things.
differences in atoms,
for
of any
samavdydstu
Prabhakara
with
admitted
the
separate category
by
the
differentiation
eternal
of
of
visesa
the
ordina
category
the
basis
of
quality of prthaktva
the
by
the
of
difference of
or
of visesa.
purposes
knowledge.
knower,
All
moment.
other
object,and the
knowledge whether
the known
kind
must
necessarilyreveal
specif!
things the;
knower
perception from
of
by
the
on
evidence
the
on
category of visesa
that
exist,
things themselves
agrees
that
mention
as
to
{tatraikabuddhinirgrdhyd
senses
accepted
ground
these
constitute,can
to
the
another,
one
may
qualitiesof
All
of the
supposed
150, abheddt
Pratyaksasiitra,149,
(Slokavdrttika,
that
it is
point of
view
of self. The
the self
be
garded
re-
division
ix
Character
Self-revealing
of
the
or
revealingpowers,
of Knowledge
383
anumana
pratyaksa (perception),
(inference),
the point of view of the objects of knowledge with
etc. is from
reference
to the varying modes
in which
they are brought within
the purview of knowledge. The self itself however
has no illumining
pramanas
knowledge,
as
for the
its very
It is
both
appearance
could
deep sleep we
in
even
self is present
of dreams.
remembrance
by
for then
then, as
even
self,the knower,
the
proved by
is
knowledge {samvid)
the
have
that
and
the
reveals
objects.
cognized
different
not
were
felt
been
have
objectionsis this,that
these
to
answer
by cognition
that
from
one
we
could
and
such,
as
of
virtue
by
certain
object is
is that
self has been
favoured
this,that
it illumines
agency
remembrance
such
as
manifested
and
left
only
the
in
such
the
in
the
reference
to
objectof
nition
cog-
active
operation of the
not
indeed
less,
absolutelyform-
by
forms
which
things are
mind
the
which
knowledge
as
cognitionis
dream
{adrsta).Dream
of that
it is
the
perceived previously,and
were
were
and
Even
not
and
forms
them.
objects that
unseen
manifested.
have
about
which
cognitionalcharacter
the
could
felt that
operation with
have
and
us
been
Cognitions are
illumined
to
has
determined,
to
have
not
induced.
they
to
another, they
the
active
or
reference
with
for
believed
his
which
cognition and
the
apprehend
we
if the
and
of
were
cognition is
was
with
reveal
reference
which
the
aroused
by
thus
only
kind
to
pressions
imthe
of
previouslyexperienced. Only
of the
can
in accordance
to
have
do
not
with
the
operationof adrsta,as
the person
deserves
in accordance
experience
lead
us
to a
any
with
such
regressus
his
double
ad
cognitionand
for
infinitum,
also because
if a second
it
cognition
Mimamsa
384
is necessary
and
If
it could
then
then
interpretthe first,
to
on.
so
cognitioncould
be
not
to us, but
itself to
reveals
illumination
is of
that
the
us
not
the
presence
of
The
we
requirea third
another
course
known
un-
its
and
self-cognized,
the
objects. From
of this self-
presence
its presence
only
cognition,
of
it is
infer the
can
it is
would
cognitionis not
it reveals
moment
[ch.
objectof
because
course
of
that
be the
self-valid.
objectsalso
cognizing knowledge. But
and
Philosophy
is inferred
that
for inference
can
cognition itself,
only indicate
it can
an
object and not in the form in which
the
be
apprehended
draws
a
by perception (pratyaksa). Prabhakara
subtle distinction
between
perceptuality(samvedyatvd)and being
object of knowledge {prameyatva). A thing can only be apprehended
whereas
inference
can
(samvedyate)by perception,
only
indicate
the
of
presence
Kumarila
is
in the
every
in
one
Prabhakara
object of another
perception and
the
different
is indeed
manifestation
of
ception
per-
that it ends
perceiver behaves
as
object is known
he
the
the
the
the
Prabhakara
knower,
as
nition.
cogthat
view,
the
and
known,
(the doctrine
simultaneously illuminated
are
existence
object of perception.But
a
relationshipbetween
from
knowledge
or
presence
cognitionitself1.
in holding that
knowledge,
the
the
the
perception involves
the perceived, wherein
agent whose
This
with
apprehensibilityof
perceiver and
the
indicate
apprehend
agrees
the
never
direct
that
says
also
only
apprehending the
apprehended by any other
be
cognitioncannot
without
object
an
of
2.
triputipratyaksd)
The
The
question
valid,how
be
are
regarded
however
to
we
arises
that
if all
apprehensions
are
illusoryperceptionswhich cannot
problem of illusoryperception and
for
account
valid ?
as
of Illusion.
Psychology
The
satkhydtiwhich
which
we
shall
different theories
or
have
we
before, and
Vedantists,
of the
describe
of
described
anyathdkkydti,and
in
the
next
(3)akhydti of
See Prabhdkaramimdmsdy
be.
by
the
Dr
Mimamsa
school.
Ganganatha Jha.
The
Mlmamsa
386
it holds
But
illusion.
for the
account
to
silver
remember
that
Philosophy
taken
is not
that
the
of
note
of
for
illusion,
the
at
non-distinction
mere
phenomenon
[ch.
of
time
is not
enough
is
definite
there
false identification of
that
The
to
holds
us.
noticed,
not
the
since
it is
special
erroneous
say
the
features
and
fact that
that
result of
this
dual
the
present object is
at
appears
the
is not
the
the
apprehended,
in
seen
perceived;
difference
past
some
it is
and
between
that
apprehended,
of
moment
by
as
the
illusioi
the
of
apprehension,and as such
perception (which is wholly
remembrance
not
and
ordinary valid
apprehension) of
between
difference
silver is not
of silver
of
the
of direct
matter
certain
illusoryperception partakes
of remembrance
character
valid
the
to
per-
things,
two
Owing
present conch-shell
different from
the
the
these
of silver roused
and
non-apprehension
and
between
remembrance
it is
silver remembered
takes
the
only a memory
appeared before him
has
being noticed,the
silver
cognition of silver.
of the conch-shell
features
common
time
the
mind
of the
and
the difference
apprehend
gives rise to
weakness
the
conch-shell
to
common
this
and
identifyor
we
fails to
ceiver
before
its
the
production to
yet
us,
th"
sight of
the
and
as
illusoryperception
be
valid
as
as
real
perception. Both
kind
of activity01
give rise to the same
the part of the agent, for in illusoryperception the perceive
would
be as eager to stoop and pick up the thing as in the ca"
of a real perception.Kumarila
agrees with this view as expound(
by Prabhakara, and further says that the illusoryjudgment is
valid
real
does
the
cognizor at
judgment could be.
to
not
matter,
experience finds
the
If
for it is admitted
out
the defects
originalperception which
production1. It is easy to see
at
the
of
moment
1
illusion to
of
its
he
has
the
cognitionas am
subsequent experience rejectsit,that
the
this view
that
time
maintain
of any
self-valid
that
the
production
the
is valid.
time
had
Mlmamsa
doctrine
See Prakaranapaflcikd,Sastradipikd,and
at
that
The
later
invalidate
perceptionit can
was
the
when
that
in Mlmamsa
all
to
of its
adopt
cognition
akhyati theory
Slokavarttika,
sutra
2.
ix]
Inference
tries to
establish
the
view
that
the
387
illusion
due
is not
to
any-
of two
is its power
in the
as
is
to
case
prompt
Is this
"
In doubtful
to action.
us
post
or
man?"
what
tall
involved
self-valid
as
as
in doubtful
other
any
cognitionsalso,
is actuallyperceived
But
too.
this
when
of remembrance
the
(of
element
cognitionsshould
be
of apprehension
regarded
cognition.
Inference.
Sahara
has
been
idea
of
of
says
that
known
to
when
exist
between
thing when
knowledge is called
one
tries to
that
in
subsist
show
that
togetherin
the other
of
third
any
other
is
one
or
eliminable
on
coexistence
or
does
factor.
the
this kind
is
condition
have
things,we can
perceived,and
Kumarila
their
relation
permanent
only possiblewhen
two
cases
things(e.g.smoke
thing (e.g.kitchen, etc.)in
relation,i.e. when
upon
two
inference.
inference
large number
fixed
certain
notice
we
and
fire)
pendent
inde-
some
depend
not
It is also
sary
neces-
the
two
of
of the existence
though including all the cases
extensive sphere where
(smoke), may have yet a more
When
(smoke) may
not
it be
of coexistence
case
the constellation
former
exist.
case
with
of Krttika
third
cases,
cause
and
effect
the latter
of the
contiguityof
RohinI, where, by
between
or
other
permanent relation,whether
the
latter may
the
of
(as in
once
the
otherwise
case
of
or
a case
inferred),
and its species),
or
genus
two
between
things and
be
and
one
whole,
one
(e.g.smoke)
cases
gamya
and
the
The
the
(e.g.smoke)
is called
exist
can
other
the
be
(e.g.wherever
gamya
the
Inference
involves
subsistingbetween
of
is smoke
there
there
inference, for
of
cause
the
it is itself
of
memory
found
they are
the
associated.
perception of
direct
case
and
fire)in
only
place
It is
basis
is
permanent
things (e.g.smoke
two
the
coexistence
where
that
other
the
general proposition,universal
inference.
relation
in
of the
existence
gamaka with
fire)cannot
third
the
when
and
vyapaka
or
inferred.
of
in
in which
that
beyond
of that
result
as
[ch.
infer the
can
thing (hill)is noticed, we
with
its counterpart (fire).In all
of the thing (hill)
has
the thing (e.g.fire)which
a
sphere extending
existence
such
Philosophy
Mimamsa
388
naturallybring
to
that
mind
my
(i.e.fire)also.
Every case of inference thus proceeds directlyfrom a perception
holds
and not from
generalproposition.Kumarila
any universal
that the inference
gives us the minor as associated with the major
and
of the
not
fire. Thus
known
inference
in
gives us
general way
of fire,
yet the
and
the
contain
inference
that
of the
knowledge,
of
the possessor
of the
case
gamya
and
fierymountain
the
new
the
mountain
for
it
is the
was
sessor
pos-
anticipated
not
was
is thus
fierymountain
though
smoke
of
not
new
distinctly
anumdnaknowledge {desakdlddhikyddyuktamagrhitagrdhitvam
that
also be noted
sya, Nyayaratnakara, p. 363) \ It should
forming
a
third
the notion
thing
and
for the
that
in the
noted
there
in which
large
was
It is
the
this ; for
between
inference would
and
no
it
to
of
this
of
is
where
cases
note
that it is not
new
it is the
things,
remembered
it is
enough
concomitance
the
where
was
ance
concomit-
the
negativeinstances
by an
vyapaka was marked
the
contention
two
is that
"
it is not
indebted
was
fire,nor
the hill,but
give us no
Tatparyatikd,p. 1 20.
or
always
relation
permanent
of the gamya
Dinnaga'smain
it and
subsist
two
absence
important
Dirinagafor
number
relation between
permanent
these
conception
and
failed,
in which
of the
in
"
the
to
nection
con-
for otherwise
Logic, p. 87
ix]
Inference
absence
of the
knowledge
the
of
forming
of
of the
large
in
exactly the
the
existence
of the
It is clear
of the
memory
of
the
invalid,but
us
acquirement
of
of two
thing
As
To
with
which
perience
ex-
two
any
thing in
some
failure
of
exist
perceived to
where
the
the
circle of
ence
exist-
this
If the
case
relation, is
is
possiblewithout
the
not
self-validity
for memory
account,
the
not
another
a
new
from
is not
is that
answer
of pramana,
status
is
the
is also
gamya
of the
process
that
it is
seen
garded
re-
memory
it does
as
number
no
the
of the
which
is not
and
seen
inference
at
for
the
not
all.
for the
propositionsnecessary
of inference
gamya
existence
means
is
of cases,
of the
existence
gained by
gamaka
of
number
of the
in
perception of
the
only
known
was
case
knowledge
regards the
inference
no
new
it is
statement
if
this Kumarila's
things in
perception,for
gamya.
is
cases
becomes
that
on
new
is known
and
gamaka
that
it has
coincides
permanent
destroyed
to
in
relation1. The
arises
self-valid.
bring
not
In those
well.
as
of inference
gamaka
for
noted,
indispensablefor
permanent
the
of them
effect,of
question
as
in which
this form
The
is not
in
each
is not
be
gamya
gamaka,
coexistence
the
also
in
particularcases
together in another
relation2.
same
and
cause
with
thing
that
of
coexist
expectancy
in that
gamya
relation
of the
number
to
should
vyapya,
notion
found
an
or
negative
associated
creates
of
such
things were
relation
gamaka
389
plicit
ex-
convincing others
an
anumana.
There
viz.
two
kinds
of
former
Kumarila
"
is
that
kind
stronglyopposes
of
mdtrddeva
and
view
not
by
to
Kumarila
samanyatodrstasambandha.
inference
Buddhist
according
anumana
pratyaksatodrstasambandha
The
1
are
where
the
is
(vydpti)
that concomitance
the
permanent
tained
ascer-
positiveones.
vyatirekebahufah
sdhitydvagamaNydyaratndvyabhicdrddarsanasandthddanumdnotpattiranglkartavyah.
kara, p. 288.
sarvatasca
"
Mtmamsa
390
relation
between
has
fire,
been
Philosophy
things,as
concrete
two
The
noticed.
in the
[ch.
of smoke
case
of inference
between
not
permanent relation is observed
two
general notions, as in the
things but between
the
two
where
concrete
of
case
and
ment
move-
where
there is
change of place,e.g. the perceivedcases
involved
with it;so from the
change of place there is also motion
change of place of the sun its motion is inferred and it is held
that this general notion is directlyperceivedlike all universals1.
Prabhakara
recognizesthe need of forming the notion of the
and
relation,but
permanent
he
relation
in connection
He
subsist.
things is
third
relation
the
tween
be-
tions
point,whereas in all other associaof time and
place the things in which these two subsist
together are taken only as adjuncts to qualify the two things
fireand smoke). It is also necessary
to recognizethe fact that
(e.g.
of smoke
in fire is only conditional,the
though the concomitance
two
When
such
concept
smoke
is
conviction
of the presence
of
presence
main
fire in smoke
of the
concomitance
the
the
not
between
with
that
says
does
fire,the
firmlyrooted
of smoke
of
inference
Prabhakara
seen.
is
is unconditional
involves
this
to
seems
free
that
as
soon
as
any
{pratijnabhasd)and
influence.
of
from
mind
counts
of the enunciation
(paksdb/idsa),
example (drstdntdbhdsa)
along with
and
in the
fire is made
minor
the
lute2.
abso-
and
gether
logicwas not altocognition of smoke
The
includes
within
Slokavarttika,)Nydyarattidkara, Sdsiradipikd,
Yuktisnehapurani,Siddhdn-
See
tacandrika
2
which
where
On
itself the
on
anumana.
may
even
discovered
navagamdt%
means
of
oneself
assuring
we
see
enquiryin
say that
it does
large number
not
exist
Prakaranapaiicikd,p. 71).
that there is no
cases
condition
to tell us.
He
the condition
{upddht)
says
cannot
that
be
{prayatnenanvisyamaneaupddhikatvd-
ix]
and
Upamana
is different from
has
seen
cow
(gavaya), and
the go, and
within
accepted by Mimamsa
in which
Nyaya took
(go) goes
apprehends
the
to
forest
in
it. The
and
which
sense
who
man
sees
wild
ox
the
with
similarityof the gavaya
of the go (which is not
cognizes the similarity
of his perceptionthen) with the
The
gavaya.
of the gavaya
in the go, as it follows
similarity
then
the limits
cognitionof
directlyfrom
is
that
391
Arthapatti.
Upamana,
Analogy (upamana)
Arthapatti
this
the
of
not
was
gavaya
and
for
remembrance,
mere
what
not
was
and
seen,
and
Prabhakara
hence
could
seen
the
at
the
time
the
go
also
similarity
be remembered.
not
Kumarila
was
seen
was
not
The
the
seen,
difference
this
without
and
house,
this
the
outside
on
outside
presuming his existence somewhere
of Devadatta
of cognizing the existence
method
is called arthapatti(presumption or
house
implication).
The
exact
psychologicalanalysis of
cognitionis a
disagree. Prabhakara
matter
on
holds
and
Prabhakara
which
that
in this arthapatti
mind
the
when
knows
man
Kumarila
that
datta
Deva-
house.
of
of this doubt
cause
The
and
thus
The
mere
it throws
forces
outside.
somewhere
without
of Devadatta
absence
but
implication,
the
is that he
us
to
That
hypothesis of
absence
not
from
the house
into doubt
imagine
can
which
of Devadatta
find Devadatta
does
the very
only
be
found
the doubt
from
existence
must
his
cause
of Devadatta,
remain
by implication,
cannot
the house
the
is not
that Devadatta
at
is not
be
removed.
enough
for
Mimamsa
392
the
making
also that he
home
that
presumption
also be dead.
might
creates
doubt
the
Devadatta
that
for
house,
as
he
livingand
was
this
home;
at
[ch.
is outside
he
I know
But
not
was
Philosophy
from
he
is
doubt
then
must
of
beyond
is
doubt,
least element
the
leads
and
and
as
may
dead,
the
well
of
his
the
that
absence
external
an
being
man's
of
exist
the
fire
in the
existence
only
it was
doubt
the house
be
cannot
the
the
the
presumption
other
house
he
be any
doubt
house
that
There
is
absence
leads
an
from
two
we
the
the
may
is found
the
with
how
removed
it does
livingand
can
the
doubt?
The
cause
The
real
that
then
he
not
his
very
of
procedure
life of Devadatta.
be outside
must
the house.
from
So
there
It is the
of his external
between
the
the mind
of his external
from
come
existence.
The
mind
which
it
contradictorypoles both
See Prakaranapancika, pp.
of
113-115.
to
the
existence.
life of Devadatta
cannot
not
can-
certainty
presumption
house, and
is
therefore he is
was
too.
presume
absent
the
to the
opposition
presumption
between
us
Devadatta
remove
be
and
in the house
doubt,
doubt
Devadatta
only
removed,
the
the
about
The
doubt
quite the other way.
by previous knowledge or
being removed
about
is
ful
doubt-
is
means,
when
made
can
of its removal
cause
life of Devadatta
some
Doubt
that
doubt
with
resolved
is not
creates
livingis
house, then
his
the doubt
of doubt
already known
is
supposition that
the
Devadatta
created
at
house.
the root
or
Devadatta
that
the
explanation of Prabhakara,
this
necessarilybe
outside
from
by
follow
not
because
fact which
the
the
Devadatta
removed
cause
living.If
of
should
being
follow
the
be
for it does
Devadatta
by
inference
ment
ele-
no
perceivednon-existence
of
objectsto
fact that
if the
absence
of
when
however
that
says
by
the
fact of
the
is
perceived to
is
the
there
he
uncertainty1.
Kumarila
of
the
presumption
thrown
smoke
that
that
presumption
In inference
the
doubt
of
presumption
the
to
it has
when
in
else.
only when
for it is
of
notion
somewhere
remain
but
possible,
house
into the
passes
and
rest
his
without
oscillates
accepts
but
that
shoots,and
these
which
by
beneficent
lead
can
the
sacrificer
Sabda
of the
most
word
or
Heaven
to
in sacrifices
to exist
or
such
some
of existence.
state
Sabda
is believed
specialpotency
[ch.
Philosophy
Mimamsa
394
is
pramana.
regarded
recognized
as
Indian
separate
of
systems
of
means
proof by
and
this
Vaisesika.
A discussion
on
Jaina, Buddhist, Carvaka
fore
value and I have therehas but little philosophical
topic however
with
give any attention to it in connection
The
validityand
Nyaya, and the Samkhya-Yoga
systems.
writers
of the Vedas
were
acknowledged by all Hindu
omitted
they
had
that
they
the
were
Mlmamsists
to
had
this
of
word
strove
and
Their
it with
it. Some
that
authority
derived
not
was
though
days
of India.
It
laying down
The
for the
Mimamsa,
of
was
Mimamsa
slightextent
of
to
has
which
upon
rational
Vedas
of
means
Mimamsa
as
it is its very
valid
are
of debate
with
be
in the
for the
its
their
It does
do, but
with
old
purpose
and
to
help
of
sacrifices
doctrine
dispensed with
dation
foun-
the
dwell
seeks
Vedas.
epistemo-
own
laying
not
the
the
of the
with
and
any
in themselves.
has
dealt
systems
of
interpretationof the
sake.
own
one,
any-
eternal.
were
interpretativemaxims,
brief examination
proof cannot
authority
solely to
of maxims
compendium
be rightlyunderstood
may
But
as
its
other
as
due
of
its structure
the
were
it has
been
from
most
right
by
and
theme
the
written
end
matters
sutras
for
canons
logicaldoctrines
fact
in
was
the
not
were
words
favourite
very
and
denied
who
nor
in time
beginning
no
they
thority
au-
supposition
others, particularlythe
while
God,
prove
Buddhists
the
authority on
Their
us,
the
to
not
to
much
so
serve
as
which
the
rightlyperformed.
of word
in connection
(sabda)
with
soul.
they
viz. those
The
are
made
up.
uttered
by
first becomes
men
valid
These
and
means
sentences
those
be
of two
kinds,
which
of
may
ix]
Sab da Pramana
uttered
by untrustworthy
itself. The
before, and
but
the
as
of words
of
means
validityof
as
the
be
of
Even
proof.
sentence
name
have
we
or
be
may
of
to
of
means
have
we
us
proof;
accept sabda
to
inferred
writer
would
that
yet
of its
ground
the
on
the
that
if it is admitted
of sentences,
not
for when
speaker is not
understanding the meaning
person
difficultyin
no
known
in
is valid
second
course
counted
means
any
of
are
be
the
sentences
cannot
proof, and
separate
of
meanings
relations
words
therefore
cannot
and
persons
of
meanings
395
known,
or
of
any
sentence.
Prabhakara
or
thinks
understandable
are
letters of
thus
to
be
serve
as
of
reason
found
in
regarded
form
of
of
of each
word
word
the
letter-sound
vanishes
the
it is
moment
behind
of the
the
word
an
whole
the
the
As
potencies
of the
direct
agree
their
own
of
on
be
nature
potency
auxiliaries
of the word
has
verbal
this
the
the
impressions
this
to
be
cognition.
Both
on
to
that
hearing
be
mitted
ad-
for the
necessary
originatesfrom
admitted
brings
bringing
of
meaning. If even
comprehended, it has
certain
lacks
letters,it
denotative
or
and
be
uttered,but
certain
the separate
the
latter is
Prabhakara
and
point.
peculiardoctrine
natural
but
of
with
combines
contains
cannot
hearer
cause
have
word
which
the potency
Another
not
word
meaning
purpose.
Kumarila
impression which
comprehension
that
the
is to
leaves
about the
The
word.
separate potency
denotation
about
constituent
any
our
letters,
yield
for
means
of
of letters. The
cannot
elements
as
in the
are
combinations
as
however
word
all sounds
that
powers
refer to certain
expounded
here
is that
all words
out of
by which they themselves
of their comprehension
objectsirrespective
non-comprehension by
the
hearer.
The
hearer
will
that the
to him
meaning unless it is known
such
and
in question is expressive of such
a
meaning,
that meaning
the word
all along competent
to denote
was
it is the hearer's
knowledge of that fact that helps him to
understand
the
Mimanisa
396
the
understand
to
conventions
to
the words1.
of
themselves.
to
be
of
this
arise
could
as
Again
they are
which
of
word.
have
believed
effort
the
been
the
The
on
senior's
only
commands
be
deduces
only
as
Thus
denotation
when
holds
each
that
related
thus
to other
the
word
and
genus,
understand
to
it
him
according to
word
no
be
can
apart from
taken
the
sists
con-
agency
the
pronounces
is the
that
cause
fests
it only mani-
of
meaning
"
"
cow
the
comprehended
such
accusative
something is to
only as
appears
be
done
Kumarila
thinks
that
however
are
with
Nyaya
cow
or
it
the bovii
specifickind
dnaya
that
means
"
bring the
coi
independently express
into a sentence
subsequently combined
idea (abhikitdnvayavdda). Thus
character
God
the
with
gam
words
(cow)
connected
sentence
to
any
doctrine
This
sentence.
of go
case
in the
According
meanings.
having
as
though
required by
word
gam
that
intended
in gam
thinks
person.
; but
pronouncing
Mlmamsa
would
ever-existingword.
comes
vdda), and
hdna
other
is
who
Vedic
results
manifestive
man
the
see
horse."
"
the
to
the meanings
by which according to Prabhakara
mands
are
acquired may be exemplified thus: a senior comand
bind
to
a
horse, and the
junior to bring a cow
to the
noticing the action of the junior in obedience
and
the
convention
process
of words
child
hearer
such
agency
This
us.
denotative
that
predicted by any
be eternallyexistent
by
while
be
to
It is easy
of which
this effort of
that
to
is due
give meanings
of
self-validity
manifestive
forth
put
thinks
Nyaya
to
some
manifested
are
the
on
think
not
word
and
denotation.
performance
present
ever
they
the
are
with
names
proper
of
cause
does
acknowledged
about
doctrine
not
all words
only
the
by
commandments,
thus
[ch.
Mlmamsa
particularmeaning
people who introduce
are
It is
word.
Words
bearing
the
of
among
is admitted
of
meaning
association
the
that
Philosophy
created
and
gam
dnaya
all words
and
means
bovine
the
independently
associated
them
means
with
their
ix]
Non-perception
bring;these
cow."
two
But
with
shows
only
combined
former
what
the
into the
theory the
kind
some
it appears
sentence
have
the
on
connected
then
are
of
word
action,and
specialkind
meaning
the
with
bring the
"
it is
that
means
gam
particularsentence
of action
associated
as
397
in the
is,as
bringing, but
above
it cannot
contain
injunctions(such
with
these
only
inferred
things). In
But
speaker.
The
In
kind
addition
of
the
the
words
of
of
to
see
Kumarila
thing.
is
is
in
this
is the
visible
that
are
to be
can
the
vision
of it
to
by
is
no
object,there
such
and
an
inference
accounted
perceptionof
we
for is
which
have
Patanjali,
appendix.
by
of letters
composing
Dr
be noted
It may
which
a
how
admit
of
in
it is
is
But
object
vision
no
it is easy
perception of
want
non-perceptions
to be
solved.
existence
only
in the
S. N.
and
How
begrasped?
of pramana
complete
apart
word
former
in
case
Dasgupta'sStudy of
that Mlmamsa.
anumana.
positive(sadrupa) or
in this connection
consists
there
of
Some
visible
separate mode
Ganganatha Jha
word, there
of
case
these
wantof
or
namely anupalabdhi.
All things exist in places either
and
a negative relation
(asadrilpa),
See Prabhakaramimamsa
the
existence
non-
could
senses
of it also.
presupposes
fifth
perceived
non-existence.
the
perceiver.When
existence
the
be
cannot
perceivethe
of vision
want
admits
non-existence
the
room)
existence, but
of
want
the
trustworthy
perception of
that
with
nothing
in order
the
argues
jug
no
for there
senses,
of vision
is
(anupalabdhi).
all
Kumarila
pramanas
anupalabdhi for
viz.
into contact
come
validityof words
trustworthy character of
Non-perception
above
the
to
of pramana,
the
the
cases
considers
Pramana
thing (e.g.there
by
of
ground
Kumarila
of
a
all other
sabda-pramana.
as
persons
the
on
this
perform
as,
from
form
did not
the
which
favour
momentary
was
fested
mani-
(sphota)but
not
created
Salikanatha's Vakyarthamdtrkavrtti.
Mimamsa
398
that
they
come
case
the
latter
within
[ch.
Philosophy
the
perception of
while
in the
only
can
be
of the movement
of the mind
which
we
by a separate mode
as
anupalabdhi. Prabhakara
designate as a separate pramana
holds that non-perceptionof a visible object in a place is only the
perceptionof the empty place,and that therefore there is no need
had
of
admitting a separate
meant
by empty space ?
there
jug
if the
us, then
before
space
If it is necessary
of
non-existence
of the
anupalabdhi.
as
pramana
is
for the
that
should
what
For
perception
absolutely empty
be
place be occupied by
stone
ought
we
not
is
admitted
practically
empty
is defined
space
which
which
be
or
as
to
words
thing
the
thing as
same
attempt
may
moment
jug,then
the
be
to
admission
the
accepted,
of the
be
made
want
to substitute
associated
an
for the
want
of
or
explain
to
positiveconception,it will
shift negation from the objectivefield to
in other
of
absence
perception of space at
of knowledge about
want
jug. Whatever
negation by any
attempt
an
the
the
of
notion
the
the
to
amounts
negation of
as
knowledge
of
also want
with
associated
we
as
best
at
ledge,
know-
or
It is said
as
moment
ground
also
negation.
of
negation
that
the
The
that
means
as
be in the
But
a
jug
or
comprehension
is associated
its
there
the
the
comes
this
But
the
of
knowledge
any
to be admitted.
with
this
the
the
perceptionof
then
at
want
the
of
same
only
the
knowledge
thing as
ground
the
ne:
of the
ju(
perception of tl
of the
seen
of the non-existence
moment
to
comes
negation,and
without
is
other
"
of
the
the
jug
admissi"
meaning
if it is not
car
meant
fied
(the perception of the ground) is associated with or qualiof
the
of
the
the
want
by
knowledge
perceptionof
jug? For
of
ground cannot
generate the notion of the non-existence
there is a jug the ground is perceived.
where
jug, since even
qualifyingphrase that
only the ground is perceived
it
"
"
ix]
Self
399
comes
is excluded
presence
not
are
as
negative conditions
specified
And
ground.
of
negation
be
this would
in
which
us,
unaccountable
manner
by other
means
that
noted
non-perception of a
notion of negation immediately and
and this is true not only of thingsof
of the
of past
memory
remember
there
that
the
object
"
negation of
has
the
absence
thing
would
who
be
perform the
meaning of those
the
sacrifices
regarded
thus
sense
one
as
Kumarila
the
we
not
may
self in
of
have
from
the
the
knower;
body
present in all
many
of
our
our
it is not
so
the
on
is
The
soul
this
about
to
the
the
that
true
the
say
the
body,
many,
to
in
us
been
our
nitions
cog-
that
even
body
our
as
so,
the
or
embodied
cognitions. Moreover
not
are
always conscious
that
and
cognitions,
of ourselves
notion
is
body?
analysisof
says
parts of
forming
per-
the existence
perception of
no
of the
correct
ground
cognitions. But
as
notion
proof for
cognitions,and
our
their
self
men
the
from
it
would
what
and
it is manifested
Prabhakara
any
without
the
of
sensible
soul,for
speak of
thereby?
that
this also
there
where
differs from
however
consciousness
though
thinks
he makes
in those
is thus
eternal,omnipresent, and
the notion
have
we
which
Heaven
even
"
it is
Prabhakara
body.
should
why
texts
going
something entirelydistinct
of
Vedic
buddhi;
we
God.
commandments,
to
when
comprehended.
Vedic
and
and
organs,
in each
as
but also
of
want
or
be
can
"
special
to
itself in
of
Self, Salvation,
Mlmamsa
of
us
perceptionsof non-existence, as
was
no
jug here. Anupalabdhi
which
by
separate pramana
to
in
our
of the
consciousness
of self is
is not
cognized in
body
reason
for
admitting that
or
body is this, that movement
be attributed
to
willing,knowledge, pleasure,pain, etc., cannot
then be
the body, for though the body exists at death these cannot
that they must
found. So it has to be admitted
belong to some
the body apwith which
other entity owing to the association
the
self is different
from
the
Mtmamsa
400
pears
with
endowed
be
to
[ch.
Philosophy
movement
Moreover
etc.
knowledge,
the
to
not
are
etc. though apparent
perceiver,
yet perfeeling,
ceived
by others as other qualitiesof the body, as colour etc.,
It is a general law of causation
are
perceived by other men.
elements
of the constituent
that the qualities
(in the cause) impart
of which
but the earth atoms
the body
themselves
to the effect,
the qualities
of knowledge etc., and
is made
up do not contain
the inference
of a separate entity as the
this also corroborates
raised that
vehicle of knowledge etc. The objectionis sometimes
if the soul is omnipresent how
it be called an
can
agent or a
mover?
the
by
energy
So it is that
moves.
agent
on
of
self must
body.
The
from
the
senses,
continues
for
through.
The
question now
holds
that
the
self
cognized object,nor
self
what
means
which
is the energy
movement
fact that
the
also
it
loses
one
arises,how
being different
as
of
some
same
of
movement
as
the
senses
persistingall
cognized? Prabhakara
cognized apart from the
cognized without the cognizor
is self
cognizor is never
is the objectever
the cognitionas a
as
enteringinto
and the objectshine forth
the
causes
understood
be
when
even
perceive his
to
movement
this is
account
the
that
and
the atoms,
moves
he
admit
not
of
motion, for the principle
atomic
It is
does
Mlmamsa
But
factor.
necessary
Both
the
knowledge in
(perception
triputi-pratyaksa
in the self-luminous
have
already described as
It is not the soul which
is self-illumined but
as
three-together).
knowledge; so it is knowledge which illumines both the self and
the object in one
operation. But just as in the case of a mai
who walks, the action of walking rests upon
the walker, yet he is
regarded as the agent of the work and not as the object,so in th"
of the operationof knowledge, though it affects the self,
case
yet
the
is
it appears
not
as
agent and not as the object.Cognition
we
soul, but
and
the
soul
is manifested
in it as
in
the
"
I
cognitiveelement
from
all cognitions.In deep sleep therefore
cognized the self also is not cognized.
appears
Kumarila
the
as
body
is
however
"
the substratum
perceivesitself by
which
is distinct from
mental
perception(inanasa-pratyaksa)
mental
of the notion
inseparable
no
object is
is
when
perceivedby
its substratum,
cognitionas
of
"
I,"or
perception,and
in other
the
words
the self
perceptionof
its
Mimamsa
402
self
the
considered
Kumarila
[ch.
Philosophy
be
to
the
merely
of
potency
generated
knowledge {jndnasaktiy. Cognitions of things were
This
self
the other
and
senses.
by the activityof the manas
itself can
only be cognized by mental
perception. Or at the
of salvation
time
there
in pure
actual
any
is the
ananda
or
the
and
of all its
senses
of
energy
is
that
at
knowledge,
accepted
in the
about
bad
and
good
the
performance
the
attainment
of
of
which
of
of
body
of
up
ever
Every day
of the
be
It may
admit
any
animals
results)and
state
is
the
guarantees
non-performance
characterized
of
non-production
energy
with
energy
and
and
Nyaya
mentioned
movements.
yet remain
unmoved
a
the
existence
universe.
is
no
beginning
in
men
the
these
nature
to
the
by
any
time, or
further
any
dharma
belong
that unlike
of molecular
of action
of
adharma
Mimamsa
did not
panda). It
(parts
manifested
itseli
relationingof
non-sensible
motion.
the
performer and
vibration
the
created
Neither
God.
Nyaya
means
the
being by
as
a
(iakti)
separate category which
considered
as
a 3akti can
move
being
itself. Manifestation
is
that
and
to the
the
as
universe
God
into
only
seeks to
the
that any
coming
that
God
any
suppose
operation of
supposes
of
Though
reason
are
in this connection
existence of energy
self
The
the
the
supervisor,for
in actual
not
as
have
admitted
for
etc. performed
(sacrifices
but
the
parents without
is it necessary
suffers
them
thereby exhausts
effects by refrainingfrom
benefit
This
had
universe
should
no
and
destroyer of
and
creator
action
is
body
does
Mimamsa
it.
and
rebirth.
or
made
enjoys
by assiduouslyperforming
sandhya prayers etc., by the performance
the
as
there
the
the
effects of sin
produces sins).
dissolution
new
beneficent
certain
of
of salvation
view
man
and
kamya-karmas
himself
the
actions
being divested
also.
when
and
of any
potency
mere
This
Prabhakara
by
brought
is
Salvation
main
as
existence.
mere
of
state
devoid
self
The
senses.
time, remains
knowledge
the
So
manas
pleasure,pain,knowledge,
is it bliss
knowledge nor
these are generated in it by
as
; but
the
of
potency
self remains
operationof
the
its energy
the
nor
manifestation.
the
supposes
senses
the
as
qualitiessuch
Vedanta
as
existence
in which
state
willing,etc., for
of the
none
expression or
its characteristic
of
being
the
(atlndriya)
Mimamsa
ix]
have
and
Nyaya-Vaisesika
403
there cannot
knowledge of them. Moreover
be any
contact
{samyogd) or inherence
(samavdya) of dharma
with God
that he might supervisethem ; he cannot
and adharma
tools or
have
like
fashion
the world
to
body wherewith
any
can
one
no
the
Moreover
carpenter.
world
either
as
actuated
with
requirea
creator
or
were
the
could
or
have
as
beings
no
to
him.
create
dissolution
Moreover
So there
new
philosophy
and
he
would
God,
no
world
creation
any
should
he
is
in the
when
whom
towards
the
create
to
For
act.
pralaya. The
or
without
same,
motive
no
cruel
feelingof mercy?
creation, no
running
he
merciful
there
beginning
no
any
himself
creator,
no
has
be
been
ever
srsti
dissolution,
or
pralaya.
Mimamsa
From
what
Mimamsa
of the
as
have
we
before
said
in the
agrees
main
with
categoriesof thingssuch
rupa,
Rumania's
etc.
rasa,
Mimamsa
as
ritualism.
as
it will be
Vaisesika
easy
about
to
that
see
the existence
differences
qualities,
points of jati,
the
on
also been
have
peculiarities
that
of these
before.
mentioned
On
some
points it appears
Kumarila
influenced
was
by Samkhya thought rather than by
Nyaya. Samkhya and Vaisesika are the only Hindu systems which
have tried to construct
a physics as
a part of their metaphysics ;
other systems
them
only
have
have
general with
layingany
The
but
the Vaisesika
specialstress
main
was
God, and
difference
self-valid
also that
flthermeans..
valid
view
To
it
do
as
The
former
and
that
was
not
this it
soon
as
us
Nyaya
requiredto
was
it did
derive
not
to test
necessary
would
its orders
that the
prove
validityfrom
its validity
hy any
its
to us
them
render
the selfthe
secure
or
of the
consists
with
of Mimamsa
ityof^lMin^wledge. This
advantage that
Nyaya-Vaisesikaabout
of
suitable.
theoryof knowledge.
Veda
differed from
have
or
and
physics of Prabhakara
little importance, as
they agree in
in not
view.
In fact they were
justified
for the performance
this part, because
common-sense
most
was
on
them
The
matters.
thus
of sacrifices the
the world
generallyfollowed
minor
on
Kumarila
Prabhakara's
and
etc.
samavaya,
municated
cominjunctionswere
valid knowledge, and
as
later
on
there
the Vedic
be
would
injunctions
26
"
Mtmamsd
404
other
The
invalid.
such
pramanas
indicate
to
described,firstly
were
Philosophy
[ch.
perception,inference,etc.
as
that
could
they
show
not
to
us
be
not
was
an
acquired,for dharma
existing
be
could
the
which
other
but
perceived by
thing
pramanas,
could
a
only be produced by acting according to
thing which
the knowledge of dharma
For
the injunctions of the Vedas.
of the Veda
therefore
the sabdapramana
and adharma
was
our
could
dharma
how
of
the
was
different
be
difficult to
Vedic
sentences.
it would
it
Secondly
only source.
knowledge
that
necessary
of
means
discuss
The
and
of creation
Hindu
God
had
eternalityof
that
the
Vedas.
Even
of
it would
have
batable
de-
dissolution
and
could
systems
them
verifythe meanings
doctrine
is
have
without
cognition,as
should
we
be
not
endangered
the
dispensed with
to be
on
account.
is defined
Veda
The
the
(also called
the
as
vidhis
collection
of
Mantras
and
Brah-
injunctivesentences).There are
three classes of injunctions(1)apurva-vidhi,
(2)niyama-vidhi,and
(3) parisarikhya-vidhi.Apurva-vidhi is an order which
enjoins
manas
something
(we
could
where
when
order
an
some
could
be
be
that
is ordered
alternative,and
an
the
only
remained
In
one.
undone
done
which
the
by
is
of
sacrifice).In
already
the vidhi
known
unknown
had
the
of these
one
would
done
been
it not
methods
A certain mantra
necessarilyas possiblealternatives.
the rein" {imam agrbhndm rasandm) which
could be
number
holding
There
of
the
cases
reins of
are
should
an
three
(1) When
they yield a meaning
sentences.
not
enjoined
however
is
be
as
vidhi.
already known
used
at
the
as
have
for the
not
is
should
threshing as the
the niyama-vidhi
all
parisarikhya-vidhi
that
corn
possiblebut only
as
insists upon
is that
following
from
In
up
for the
that "corn
washed
of ways,
to
us
chaff
the
alternative
the
number
nails,the order
the
to
us
in
restricts
(e.g.though
acceptable for
which
been
Veda
alternative
restricts
course
grainsshould be
duty was necessary
injunction).Niyama-vidhi
have
the
by
separated even
threshed"
only
above
thing could
is made
definite
the
by
except
e.g. the
known,
know
not
sacrifice
otherwise
not
or
but
"I take
used
in
time
of
ass.
main
some
but
then
individually,
they should
be
Vidhis
ix]
together connectively
taken
however
can
should
be
not
connected
vidhis
The
The
deity
whom
to
the
that
the
be
cannot
part of them
describe
those
with
that
it is
which
actions
mandates
the
by
When
is
proved by
force called
action
potency
desired
or
of
the
in
the
to
dilate
upon
make
Kumarila
and
sacrifices,rituals,and
detail,which
forming part
Even
the
to
of
preted
inter-
only
be
may
before
as
acquired.
injunctions of
and
whose
istence
ex-
scriptures is generated
This
the
and
value
have
exist
in time
capacity
beneficient
This
Heaven).
abides
which
agent
injunction
arthavadas
of the
to
which
performance
dharma
agent.
performer
pressive.
inex-
positive
or
results
of the
apurva
is like
until
in him
the
follow1.
It is needless
nature
produces
faculty
results
Sahara
the
in
of
as
the
Vedas
not
authority
or
apurva
(e.g.leads
sacrifice
the
best
Vedas
deed
according
did
forming
as
at
or
as
Vedas
the
in
the
in
mere
For
membered
re-
interpreted
found
for
as
performed
which
capacity
the
in
is
be
rejected altogether.
of which
performance
sacrifice
the Vedas,
either
treated
praising injunctions.
as
all be
interpreted
reasons
the
acquired by following
injunctive orders
be
or
deities
some
It should
praise some
be
give
be
to
are
offered.
sentences
or
of dharma.
source
untrustworthy
those
context
specificationof
therefore
as
should
arthavadas)
the
be
the
praise of
should
the
regarded
be
expressions
certain
of
they
vidhi-vakya (injunction)
of
Vedas
connected
for
certain
supplied.
main
in
only
can
(called the
the
is to
Thus
of
dharma
of
the
be
to
injunctions. Anything
us
which
is
be
to
tences
sen-
they
of
case
from
words
are
being
as
libation
as
injunctions
giving
sentences
taken
be
to
are
powers
suitable
separate
themselves
the
In
generally hymns
are
If the
(2)
together. (3)
preceding
which
405
separately by
mantras
or
whole.
incomplete
are
immediately
of
as
yield meanings
which
sentences
Arthavadas
and
anyhow
can
have
these, for
an
other
but
the
elaborate
relevant
works
voluminous
into
research
in
matters
little interest
for
the
great
student
philosophy.
1
See
vistara.
Dr
Ganganatha
Jha's
Prabhakaramimamsa
and
Madhava's
Nyayamald-
CHAPTER
of
Comprehension
which
by
the
who
knower
is
the
sometimes
object,
its
in the
and
sometimes
mind
perceptions
of
attainment
of
sense
to
him
adapt
himself
question
wherein
not
only
epistemological
metaphysical
based
the
schools
in actual
quently
very
or
thought.
scholars
learned
spread
large
all
number
were
for
the
and
of
not
in
Buddhist
thinker
Mlmamsa
once
purpose
securing
on
defeating
adherents
generally conducted
to
could
debate
and
he
could
their
teachers
merely
in
on
the
justify
pretation
inter-
differei
defeat
over
fre
schc
great Nyayc
by
his
probably
tours
one
was
of any
country,
of the
These
own.
and
attended
all
masters
of
debates
Extensive
spot.
and
ignored
defeat
the
the
and
prestige
of
by great
analysis
of these
parts
the
to
thinkers
the
public
great
undertaken
of
result
example
country
of followers
often
the
tried
together
meet
with
sometimes
The
has
of knowledge
theory
the
but
bearing
consistent
the
others
to
different
the
knowledge
schools
to
determining
for
in
from
over
the
often
important
If
appeal
an
and
side
situation
unimportant.
debates,
of
one
different
which
accustomed
were
another
of
as
for
painful things.
psychological
on
with
psychological experience,
the
by
experience
regarded
sometimes
of
All
knowledge
of
and
of
tions
percep-
environment
pramanya
metaphysical
knowledge.
of
theory
the
his
accordance
of
to
notion
(that
avoidance
It contains
analysis
an
indicates
of
theory
a
on
other
also.
one
his
to
the
consists
The
to
is
knowledge
inner
in
the
knowledge
of
knower
or
right
"
prdmdnya
of
an
work
subject
pramana
and
of
the
"
moves
of
validity
sense
movement
the
faithfulness
the
and
result
The
the
means
knowedge,
subject
pleasurable
an
and
means
the
in
of the
true),which
are
his
used
the
validity in
of
object
essential
more
controversy.
the
acquired.
knowledge
Issues
acquired, pramdtd
cognizes, pramd
knowledge, prameya
of
of
signifies the
knowledge
validity
Dialectic
Sanskrit
in
VEDANTA
OF
philosophical
the
the
than
Pram2na
SCHOOL
SANKARA
THE
of
the
many
fame
at
secure
tion
disputacountry
opposite schools
debates
were
fore
there-
passionless philosophical
x]
ch.
Old
mood
with
inflict
the
object
defeat
victory and
of
mind
debates
exposing
dialectical
him
the
of
the
the
the
But
is
different
the
contribution
end
of the
point of
position of
Indian
now
of
to
the
try
of
lay
the
far
before
as
we
my
(pratndnavdda)
thought.
Sarikara
sketch
to
so
the
Vedanta
views
Their
of the
opposed
was
work
on
through
pass
he
can
find
full
play
philosophical answer
the
belongs
of
the
theory
of
was
looked
at
of
the
ficiency
de-
be
Vedanta
of
here
from
the
the
to
indicate
school
in
the
traversed
to
by
on
of
solution
dealt with,
later
of
some
the
as
field of
it. I shall
solution
the
we
in this
an
place
in order
Sarikara
be
out
their
to
come
we
conflictingtheories
reached
of
comprehension
criticisms,the speculations
not
readers
to
respectivevictory
Vedanta
have
an
gence.
philosophical diver-
understanding
With
relations
will also
that
negative criticisms
is the
knowledge,
of
opponent,
vitandd, before
mutual
main
of
theory
Vedanta
philosophy
knowledge
schools
the
of the
view
and
to
it may
of the
by
the
by
close
of each
philosophy.
survey
to
problem
clear
these
thinkers
philosophy, who
of
of the
brief
has
final
the
of
of
metaphysical theory
also
attitude
advanced
an
real
the
which
from
the
of controversy
arts
student
indifferent
its associated
to
reading
important thing
most
Advanced
most
of
the
ultimately proving
called
student
experience
net
and
arguments,
consequently
that
answers
of
personal
self-contradictions
In
before
modern
debate.
picture of
quarrel, the
opponent
a
the
to
which
to
contradictions, and
to
the
of
sense
thought
find
and
sometimes
the
order
in
ascendency
different schools
the
of
aspects
and
on
make
us
we
original,a
philosophers, and
the
and
of dialectic
of
side, the
of each
to
in the
resources
to
party and
knowledge
by
give
experience.
root
silencing the
either
of
pursue
his statements,
opponents)
given.
no
of
series
All
for
works
the
often
was
school
to
inconsistent,led
philosophy
to
him
criticize
define
was
thwart
come
the
inconsistencies
to
interminable
(to
led
It
407
but
truth
establish
to
thought.
debaters
to
testimony
Indian
and
the
theory
to
these
their
arriving at
victory of
that
attempt
asking
of
philosophical
Sanskrit
his
the
adhered
debater
of
of
of
of Controversy
opponents
on
particularschool
some
is
Methods
the
fore
there-
theory
the
main
offered
shall
by
attempt
chapter.
Before
review
main
the
School
philosophicaland
the
positionof
of
Vedanta
situation.
philosophical
The
to
Sankara
The
408
Vedanta
Review.
it
system
of the
[ch.
schools
advisable
seems
already discussed
epistemologicalquestions which
Vedanta
as
taught by Sankara
the
to
termine
deand
his school.
concerned
This
Buddhist
Sautrantika
The
the fulfilment
with
however
be
that
says
of his ends
desires
is
man
(purusdrtha).
without
done
So
as
cannot
deserve
not
knowledge
is thus
contradiction
in
far
actions
in
our
all have
we
criticism
restricted
be
it
trusted
When
the
the
which
is called
not
perceived by
visual
that
world
invariably precede
that
the
permanent
this is
visual
all
existing from
before
as
our
association
perceptualexperience
its association
with
object as unassociated
is
perceived. As a
thought and mental
determined.
At
one
with
result
it is not
the
object is
name
of
the
perception
moment
derived
invested
"
from
an
fact that
that
and
of
is the
see
past time, is
name
to
hence
all
generated by
is not
be
to
I
the
momentary,
so
This
name.
this
as
sense,
things are
existed
never
seen," what
or
cow,
I had
cow
how
followingits representationwe
representedby
things as were
such
this is the
object. For
now
manence
know
to
or
as
brown
this
or
enquiry about
Our
That
"
I say
object with
see
therefore
(samvddakatva).
generated by
and
cerned,
con-
to get
rightlyindicatingwhat we want
practicalexperience (arthaprdpakatvd).The perceptionis
can
the
knowledge,
all concerned
are
we
when
right(abhrdnta non-illusory)
can
objectsis
to
experience,for
of
examination.
or
perceptions of things
our
illumination
representationor
mere
the
evident
which
with
thi
and
pel
abhildpc
or
the
as
abhilaj
a
part
object,an"
error.
Tl
of
pleasure
"
and
perception reveals
the
pain is also
object as an
Sankara
The
4io
concept and
ideational
School
[ch.
has of
knowledge
that such
power
Vedanta
of
showing
which
means
this
Yet
consists
later
the
of
in the
merely
and
to the
stage is pramanaphala
which
determines
attitude
This
world.
the
external
world,
the correctness
its value
for
question of
determining
firstmoment
in
us
the
relation
the
what
or
the
refers
only
of the
latter is
external
regarded
N.
{pratyaksabalotpanna
T.,
p.
20)
But what
is this
he
Its
Dharmakirtti's
nature?
specific
object and
ends.
our
with
The
knowledge
as
divested
element
presentative
is not
succeedingmoments
but
this
as
on
less,
characterand
express it,names
and
the
to
try
we
answer
specificcharacteristics of
those
means
of
world
own
real
unimportant.
as
presentativeelement.
the
perception to
practicalrealization
of the
the
out
knowledge is generated
itself. It only looks
to
it is in
from the
nature
ciations),
asso-
wards
perceiver to-
perception leaves
how
to
as
faithfulness
or
the
of
account
question
epistemological
other
of the
other
therefore
pramana
which
pramana
thing (devoid of
the
not
use
by
of the
vision
and
form
of the
part
nature
(svalaksana).
specific
this pointis that by specific
object which
clear when
appear
form
in the
as
and
mind
result is the
concept
or
idea
'
'
nilabodharupamavasthdpyate
this is blue
"
in its specific
character
er
{nilasarupampratyaksamanubhuyamdna
...
hi vijnanam, N. T.
19) and this
(yatkincitarthasya sdksdtkdrijndnam tatpratyaksamucyate,N.
blue"
(m/abodka,N.
valid.
T.
This
blue
22) which
In
my
opinion
sensation
svalaksana
(adhyavasdya)and
presented
therefore
means
thing which
or
is valid
concept which
in
is direct
T.
is different from
pratyaya.
ntlavikalpanarfipa
nilasdrupyamasya pramanam
there is the appearancece
T. p. 22). At the first moment
N.
tvasya pramdnaphalam,
of the blue
(nilanirbhdsam
(paramdrthasat)and
th
ideational process,
or
with
to
the
pure
7)
acquaintance
this is real
and
the idea
"
this is
(pramanaphala)through
is regarded
sense,
and
sensation
Dharmakirtti
as
is
for
invalid
a
vikalpa-
of the moment
this is the
only
or
vikalpapratyaya
pramanaphala is the idea
though the latter is a product of the former, yet,
perceptionand
follows
it. But
of
moments,
it cannot
x]
Yogacara Epistemology
The
Yogacaras
idealistic
or
above-mentioned
the
Sautrantika
come
into
what
is the
of
data
of
we
can
Buddhists
touch
with
take
Buddhists,
knowledge
411
their
and
and
say
cue
from
that
since
knowledge alone,
say
use
and
they copy,
into touch
with
that
not
objectsin
they
alone
themselves
exist?
; these
We
never
the
that
you
come
only be grasped
fore
thereby us simultaneously with knowledge of them, they must
be the same
as
knowledge (sahopalambhaniyamdt abhedo
for
it is in and
nilataddhiyoh)\
through knowledge that external
without
to us, and
objects can
knowledge we
appear
in touch
not
are
which
knowledge
such
with
then
much
by
if there
are
external
of
in
external
forms
of
of
powers
there
it is
be
to
The
is not
admitted
be
better
; for in such
ternal
ex-
question
should
objects,there
world
no
are
knowledge.
knowledge,
external
an
dreams
have
we
objectshave
diverse
infinitely
an
so
solved
tion,
assump-
possessingthe
as
diverselyaffectingand
determining
rather
be said that in
being so, it may
ledge-moments
beginningless series of flowing knowledge, preceding knowdetermine
by virtue of their inherent specificqualities
Thus
the succeeding knowledge-moments.
knowledge
knowledge
our
the
alone
; that
knowledge brought
(vdsand)associated
with
succeeding one
pleasure,pain, etc.
soul
in which
blue
in
and
not
are
interpretedas
the
cognitions are
the
series continues
form
of
inhere,
Even
to
as
the
the
are
be
they
entity
the
same,
refer to
as
various
"
cognition,
in the
ously
errone-
Though
knower.
case
forms
perceivea
this is often
referringto a permanent
all passing and
momentary,
yet
so
of
one
long
as
person,
etc. can
recognition,
for these are evidentlyillusory
of the objects
the permanence
but
knowledge, and
say
cognitions,so
illusion of
an
qualitiesrequiringa permanent
they may
knowledge appears.
but
is
which
thing,"is
word
external
an
about
the
as
no
the
assumption
the
there
even
diversityin
the
that
acknowledge
objects,but
why
objects. So
that projectsitself in
self-apparentin itself,
jects.
to
as
referringto other external obappear
as
all
external
is
manner
We
so-called
the
can
memory,
Sahkara
The
412
believed
been
have
to
ceiver
or
knower,
the
knower
knowledge,
the
interprets
the
the
and
the
known.
brushes
idealism
things
ledge-moments,
know-
or
verdict
of
to
next
perthe
This
thoroughgoing
perience,
objective field of ex-
an
knowledge
involvinga
as
knower
and
considers
the
illusoryappearance,
of knowledge
flow
as
a
self-determining series in successive
schools of thought,
objectiveforms as the only truth. The Hindu
and
known
for
[ch.
destroyed the
There
is no permanent
entity as
at once
are
knowledge-moments
Vedanta
of
perceived before,
be, are
they may
whatever
moment
School
as
mere
and
Nyaya, Samkhya,
and
matter,
two.
With
the
and
which
was
the
after and
the
factors
proper
contact
brings
about
consciousness
it
considered
by Nyaya
as
indubitable
partly of
knowledge
of
nature
also
being were
consciousness
Thus
of instruments
into
comes
brings about
(bodhd) and
(bodhdbodhasvabhdvd).
of
this
other
indeterminate
bringing about
be perceived,but
in
fact that
the
definite
being.
ledge
know-
partly of
terial
ma-
in
perception the
with the object(e.g.
of the visual sense
jug) first
a non-intelligent,
non-apprehensible indeterminate
{nirvikalpd)as the jugness (ghatatvd)and this later
existence
course
into
came
the
between
practicalutilityof
the collocation
which
it
soul
important.
on
The
relation
the
not
was
in which
of instruments
consists
the
explain
duality of
manner
unerring and
collocation
The
to
writers
is defined
Pramana
by
Hindu
accept the
Mlmamsa,
attempt
that
knowledge
knowledge
enquired
and
the
collocations
consciousness:
state
the determinate
its existence
of
sense-
this is
of consciousness
be
inferred from
as
consciousness,cannot
can
jug.
of
the
not
already in possession of the
perceiverwere
qualifyingfactor {visesanajhdnaas jugness) he could not have
comprehended the qualifiedobject {visistabuddhi)the jug (i.e.
the
if the
object
knowledge
which
possesses
of the
lihga takes
of
similaritywith
of
the
Buddhists
other
jugness).
part, and
In
inference
in
upamana
(anumdna)
the
sight
material
knowledge
even
xj
Nyaya
external
objectwas
external
world
world
towards
question how
the
the
with
external
world
called
pramana,
was
form
could
is
world
the
was
to
so
far
determine
the
about
ternal
ex-
our
the
convictions
it determines
as
our
form
yet it
like any
does
it
the
was
about
which
by
means
the
ganif)
with
other
the
as
Buddhists
of
collocations
in the
knowledge
was
but
other
result
of collocations
world.
Pramana
material
but
knowledge
pramana,
as
not
knowledge (anadhigatddhi-
new
demanded,
objectwas
the
whether
self
our
we
world.
external
how
question
happening
necessarilybring to us
not
of
the
associated
was
with
convictions
The
pramanaphala.
little importance
could
{adhyavasdya)
answer
to
had
we
most
because
form
us
it is
generated
not
convictions
and
knowledge
convictions
sought
Nyaya
external
knowledge
how
but
it is pramana,
413
does
Knowledge
So
of the external
them,
also blue.
but
world.
attitude
Epistemology
whensoever
there
produced,
was
previouslyunknown
matter
no
known.
or
were
Even
the
of known
knowledge
conceived
colour
be
to
of the
collocation
of
(knowledge)
(sdmagrz) and
of
with
manas
confusion
thus
the
the senses,
to
be
the
impossible to understand
between
knowledge and
Nyaya
thus
combining
fails to
with
sciousness.
con-
than
by a certain
{phala). Jnana
united
of
(e.g.contact
of
element
about
result
it
objectiveworld.
of the
of movement
form
with
thus
was
the determinate
of certain
senses
having
turning
The
red.
to
certain
result
of the
the
brought
a
soul
the
in
produce
subtler
other
in
to
as
as
believed
was
their movements
renders
black
movement
ended
distinction
of the
no
was
things
was
phenomenon
fire from
Such
molecular.
knowledge
object,etc.
the
There
the
consciousness
contact,
sense
rise of
much
as
jug by
indeterminate
the
of the
phenomenon
considered
collocations
manas
with
soul,
object,etc.).This
the real philosophical
an
external
explain
the
event
cause
Sahkara
The
414
School
Vedanta
of
[ch.
much
as
substances, but
as
when
forward
the
substances
new
any
and
inhered
cultivation
were
in them.
of the
It
of inference
art
originally
pre-eminent and metaphysics was deduced
later by an
which
application of the inferential method
gave
the introspectivemethod
for its application,
but little scope
was
inference
that
so
jug
since
in to
came
it has
jugness) and
taken
experience was
the results arrived
material
of external
copy
the
But
events.
thing,devoid
of
of
it evident
made.
form
of the
thus
viz.
different
subtler
the
form
which
knowledge
different
itself,for
of which
from
the
element
the
with
the
objectswith
light of intelligenceis
the
same
from
which
objectswere
assumed
the
probably
was
elementary substances
in it another
was
element
This
substances
of
or
as
which
it
that
finds
comes
utterly
ligence
intelof
content
like
crowding,
its form
in touch.
its manifestation
in
This
in
all the
changeless entity amidst
fluctuations of the changeful processionof knowledge. How
this
of knowledge
element of lightwhich
is foreignto the substance
consciousness
as
the
"I,"
See
the
ment,
ele-
of
intelligenceis
illuminates
the
stationary light,"the self," which
is incessantlychanging
bustling knowledge which
accordance
the
the external
distinguishedit
the
being
translucent
as
touch,
in
same
once
and
came
combinations.
material
is indeed
at
such
knowledge,
it
in
invisible
an
which
intelligence,
from
that
of the
made
was
had
as
of
matter
it
knowledge
consisted
grossness
fact that
combination
matter
and
criticize it1.
to
absolutelydifferent
then
even
knowledge
objects with
subtler
of which
the
that
though in a
But though
was
the
between
be
not
used
not
was
knowledge
as
weight
But
objectspossessed.
makes
; it
and
could
things,it
objectsthemselves
sort
far
so
is
testimony of personalpsychological
only as a supplement to corroborate
difference
the
perception(e.g.this
the
inference
by
at
understood
Samkhya
explain even
Nydyamanjari
on
pramana.
x]
Samkhya Epistemology
itself to
relates
knowledge, and
itself and
into
appears
how
knowledge
conscious, is
as
415
the
itself takes
it up
difficult
most
point
of the
it appears
knowledge
is thus
and
knowledge)
conscious.
as
the
The
forming of
the
(instrument
pramana
buddhi-shape
and
of
process
the
pramana
when
it is
with
buddhi
by
what
intelligized
by
by
not
be
may
the
to
prama
called
the purusa.
influence
transforms
between
distinction
and
did
due
to
its
all due
to
the
the
pure
and
akara
the
objects. Samkhya
external
the
that
world
as
and
it is the
to
Vacaspati
upon
of
into
make
not
any
(dkdrd)
knowledge
however
was
or
entity
its forms
of
same
of buddhi
regarded
such
in motion
transcendent
consciousness
agree
the
copying
admitted
according
but
contact.
sets
metaphysics, and
the
therefore
not
that
states
non-intelligent
did
Vijfianavadin Buddhist
The
consciousness.
physical contact
of purusa
touch
that
purusa
in touch
comes
purusa
of
(callit yogyata
according to Bhiksu) of
samyoga
who
The
inexplicabletranscendental
an
originalprakrtiin Samkhya
transcendent
or
ordinary means
transcendental
It is the
the
lead
can
the
was
realist
forms
translucent
as
stance
sub-
Nyaya
the
to
show
forth
shone
there
; it held
was
in
no
and
intelligence,
that there
knowledge
distinction
that
being
was
and
between
so
transcendent
made
the
element
it conscious.
shaped
consciousness
was
buddhi
almost
With
and
like
as
regards the
way
in which
the
objectiveworld
and
sense
con-
We
known.
the
"
in this
Pramana
the
of
phenomenon
prama
but
it
far
validityof knowledge
attitude that is generated
validityis
This
world.
it does
await
not
the
mana.
pra-
pramiti or
prama,
also
indeed
may
the
means
in
with
us
manifested
of
the
or
reference
with
verdict
the
conviction
the
to
rise of
the
specific
objective
knowledge,
later
any
experience in the
nirvikalpa (indeterminate)
as
the
objectand
not
class-notion
The
savikalpa(determinate)knowledge
knowledge thus formed
by relatingit with
the
called
as
hypotheticalindeterminate
non-sensible
holds.
as
Pramana
be
reveals
For
they induce the prama.
or
produced, it always exists,
right knowledge is never
under
different circumstances.
manifests
itself differently
so
The
and
knower
which
knowledge
same
as
tions,
physical colloca-
should
that
is the
sense
the
itself,
with
it is
apprehension.
collocations
the
mean
be
may
[ch.
regarded knowledge
revealed
once
apprehension
direct
the
things
it
Vedanta
concerned
not
these
for whatever
at
are
of
But
us.
which
unique phenomenon
and
in
knowledge
induced
tact
School
Sankara
The
416
as
merely
Nyaya
only re-establishes
other
objects as
representedby memory1.
Prabhakara
rejectedthe Samkhya conception of a dual element
in consciousness
and
as
involvinga transcendent intelligence
(cit)
a
material
which
unique thing
and
knower
by
the known.
its faithfulness
upon
in
objects,but
external
has
(amMuti)
of
the
us
complete
self-revealing
aspects. But what
from
its self-revealing
character
declared
Kumarila
brought
about
by
the
consciousness
be
cannot
the
producing
Kumarila
non-sensuous
Samkhya
considered
as
an
flash
one
force
to
that
action
and
the
all direct
in the
external
independent
knowledge
Prabhakara
apprehension
unit
in all its
in itself
was
did
world
apart
enquire.
not
movement
for
with
consciousness
jfiana(knowledge) was
can
Movement
was
that
perceived,but
necessary
regarded
upon
it
itself in
prompting
is thus
knowledge
; but
was
transcendent
nirvikalpa as
it became
mere
the dim
knowledge
moment,
of
things.
vibration,but
atomic
operation of
movement
which
of the
was
vibration
first moment
of
called savikalpa.
any
absolute
and
matter
could
the
as
there
be
basis
of
made
at
But
the
real.
anything
was
which
all.
had
Vedanta
of
enquiry
ultimate
That
be
and
the
the
most
[ch.
made
was
truth
which
question
could
all appearance,
philosophicalenquiry
Hindu
School
experience. But no
judgments about the
uncontradicted
the
Sahkara
The
418
knowledge
appeared
asked,
not
was
of
whether
regarded
was
whether
absolute
as
garded
re-
truth,
unchangeable reality.This
wonderful
charm
for
the
mind.
Literature.
Vedanta
It is difficult to
the time
ascertain
were
other
Indian
according
written
systems,
to
very
of the
even
the
when
refutation
I think
of almost
SunyavadaBuddhism
Safikara'sinterpretation),
they
early.
Brahma-sutras
it may
be
not
all the
(ofcourse
have
cannot
far from
the
been
truth
in
was
teacher
the
on
forth
of
Sarikara
is the
and
A.D.). Sankara's
820
"
Brahma-sutras
of commentaries
host
(788
from
root
studies
Vedantism
on
originality,
vigour,and philosophicinsight. Thus
called
wrote
a
discipleof Sankara,
commentary
and
Govindananda
another
wrote
commentary
on
who
it called
the
about
sprang
of great
Anandagiri, a
Nydyanirnaya,
named
commentary
flourished
which
mentary
com-
841
RatnaA.D., wrote
Amalananda
Bhamatl.
his Kalpataru on
it,and Apyayadlksita
1260A.D.) wrote
(1 5 50 A.D.)son of Rangarajadhvarlndra of Kaftcl wrote his Kalpadiscipleof Sankara,
taruparimala on the Kalpataru. Another
(1247
"
end
the
would
whole
of the
to
Sankara's bhasya,
of
fourth
Madhava
sOtra.
be
but
in which
a
the
on
it
book
is
running commentary
abruptly at the
it ends
(1350),in
his
"ankaravijayay
ceived
interestingstory about it. He says that Suresvara reSankara's permission to write a varttika on the bhasya.
other pupils objected to Sankara that since Suresvara
was
recites
But
one
commentary
an
formerlya great
Mlmamsist
to
(Mandana
Vedantism)
he
Misra
was
not
was
called Suresvara
competent
to write
x]
a
Vedanta
good
vdrttika
treatise
but
this
on
called
419
the
burnt
was
Literature
in his uncle's
it,recited it from
house.
who
Sankara,
had
once
and
it down.
Padmapada wrote
(1200) wrote a commentary
on
Padmapada's Panas
capddikd known
Pahcapddikdvivarana. Akhandananda
wrote
his Tattvadipana,and
the famous
Muni
Nrsimhasrama
(1500)
his
wrote
it.
Amalananda
Vivai'anabhavaprakdsikd on
and
also
commentaries
wrote
Vidyasagara
on
Pancapddikd, named
Pahcapddikddarpana and
Pahcapddikatikd respectively,but
the Pahcapddikdvivarana had
by far the greatest reputation.
is generally identified
with
MadVidyaranya who
by some
hava (1350) wrote
work
his famous
Vivaranaprameyasamgraha1,
elaborating the ideas of Pahcapddikdvivarana ; Vidyaranya
excellent
also another
work
named
wrote
Jivanmuktiviveka on
seen
memory
Prakasatman
Vedanta
the
doctrine
of
the
on
main
written
commented
his
on
important work written in verse
teachings of Sankara's bhasya is Samksepasdriraka,
(900 A.D.). This has also been
by Sarvajnatma Muni
Sriharsa
(1190A.D.) wrote
by Ramatlrtha.
upon
Vedanta.
Another
Khandanakhandakhddya,
Vedanta
after
the
Citsukha, who
dialectic.
Sriharsa, wrote
probably
commentary
work
celebrated
most
flourished
also
it, and
on
the
on
shortly
wrote
an
Tattvadipika
called Nayanaprasddini written
which
has also a commentary
and
Misra
Raghunatha also wrote
by Pratyagrupa. Sankara
danta
Vework
A
on
commentaries
Khandanakhandakhddya.
on
of
epistemology and the principaltopics of Vedanta
known
merit
Vcddntaparibhasa was
as
great originalityand
independent
written
work
on
Vedanta
known
dialectic
as
Ramakrsnadhvarin
ManiprabJid.
forms
principlesof
1
See
an
wrote
The
his Sikhdmani
on
Veddntaparibhdsd
with
expositionof
some
excellent
Vedanta.
Another
article
Narasimhacarya's
work
of
in the Indian
it and
these
son
his
Amaradasa
two
of the
supreme
His
taries
commen-
fundamental
importance
Antiquary, 191 6.
27
"
The
420
Sahkara
School
the
great
(though probably
last
of Madhusudana
AdvaitasiddJii
Vedanta
of
work
on
SarasvatI
who
[ch.
Vedanta)
followed
is
the
Dharma-
known
Gaudaas
rajadhvarlndra. This has three commentaries
and Siddhivydkhyd. Sadananda
brahmdncifidi,Vitthalesopadhydyl
Vyasa
also
wrote
Sadananda
dhdntasdra.
Veddntasdra
named
of it known
summary
also
wrote
which
has
Vidvanmanorafijini.The
and
Yati
much
though
touches
with
on
in other
bodha
Vedanta
well, as
also
Vedanta
The
subtle
doctrine
which
doctrines
of
of Ananda-
of
illusion very
drstisrstivdda,etc., with
great clearness.
the
Veddntatattvadipikdand
interest.
well
as
as
in their
deep
Bhedadhikkdra
of Nrsimhasrama
important
an
work
above
The
works
is
the
on
only
which
on
the
It is useless
Vedanta
making
other
I think
thought
commentator.
sutras
some
than
There
is
first commented
were
held
the
form
half dozen
of
the
in the
regarded
been
as
danta
Ve-
based.
by
meaning
Brahma-sutras
of
to believe
reason
the
out
commentary
any
who
writers
have
of the
commentators
or
the Brahma-
that
There
of
without
Sarikara
Vaisnava
some
dualism1.
Vaisnava
system.
important
most
bring
to
upon
modified
be
Gaudapada.
attempt
to
points of
also good
are
is to
contained
as
reference
any
to
also
of
some
in
summary
dialectic.
Vedanta
list of
of the Vedanta
Muni
Vedanta
the
Siddhdntatattva
general summary
of
many
its relations
Siddhdntalesa
of
interest.
discusses
ajftanaand
of
nature
dealt
not
are
of Vedanta
of Prakasananda
cit,the
to
of the
it
important,as
Nydyamakaranda
important points
Veddntasiddhdntamuktdvali
the
Subodhi?ii
of Sadananda
is
interest
work
elementary
commentaries
Advaitasiddhi
to
treats
other
some
also two
works.
Bhattarakacaryya
excellent
an
A dvaitabrahmasiddhi
inferior
points of
many
Advaitasiddhisid-
as
been
more
Brahma-sutras
but also
only differed from Sarikara'sinterpretation,
themselves
in accordance
differed
with
the
largely amongst
the different aspects of
different degrees of stress they laid on
who
not
their dualistic
was
This
creeds.
the
only
Every
one
one
that
in the
of them
was
2nd
commentators
claimed
that
pretation
his inter-
when
I shall deal
of the Brahma-sutras.
and
to
with
the
x]
Date
of the
the
Upanisads. Should
myself and claim that
additional
just one
myself inclined
view.
the
But
having
purport
same
in
Jacobi
Professor
of the
Hindus
found
in the
Brahma-sutras
vada
of
the
the
the
from
with
as
with
the works
was
the
of
the
of
contained
to
to be later
Buddhism
in
thanNagarholding that
Nagarjuna
the
Mahayana
Vacaspati Misra, we
and
better
were
Even
sutras.
find him
the
is
in the
; but
no
in such
the Prathat
to suppose
reason
to
so
philosophy of
known
quoting a
evolved
Sunyavada
concerned
less. There
no
as
Vidyabhushana
are
the
than
work
references
in support of
Sunyavada
philosophy of Asvaghosa
jnaparamita
than
not
of
am
the
S. C.
the Brahma-sutras
the Brahma-sutras
of his arguments
the essentials
Tathata
the
only
be,
may
dialectical form
far
own,
regard to
the late Dr
be
of
interpretations
itself
that
are
interpretation
that
mentions
its
as
but with
composition of
I agree
juna.
both
which
shown
has
Vasubandhu,
one,
it would
discussing
sutras
an
however
Vaisnavas,
(singularistic)
the
421
give
of Sarikara.
interpretations
The
Srimadbhagavadgltd,
Ekanti
right
probably more
were
to
attempt
be
to
believe
to
Brahma-sutras
Brahma-sutras
the
Hindu
later times
writers
that of
as
of the Sdlistarnbha
passage
doctrine
of pratltyaof the Buddhist
give an account
samutpada3. We could interpretany reference to Sunyavada as
pointingto Nagarjuna only if his specialphraseology or dialectical
sutra
to
methods
were
referred
to
in
any
On
way.
the
other
hand, the
clearlypoints
Bhagavadglta to the Brahma-sutras
out a date
priorto that of Nagarjuna ; though we may be slow
such an early date as has been assigned to the Bhagato believe
vadglta
could
that its date
safelybe
by Telang, yet I suppose
reference
in the
placed so
far back
be
as
second
century
placed slightlyearlier
than
date
the
Brahmasutrapadatecaiva hetumadbhirvinisatah
in support of the view
that the Bhagavadglta is a
volume
of the
present work
"
of the
or
on
work
the
could
Bhagavadglta.
The
Bhagavadglta.
Vaisnava
in the section
B.C.
Brahma-sutras
The
B.C.
"
in the 2nd
first century
the
will
Bhagavadglta
be
and
proofs
discussed
its
sophy.
philo-
Indian
Antiquary, 1915.
See Vacaspati Misra's Bhdmatl
on
Sankara's
bhasya
on
Brahma-sutra,
II.
ii.
I do
this
been
should
refer to
the
did
the
dealt
of
dualism
also the
seems
as
Hindu
inclined
Upanisads
Vaisnavas,
previous
who
had
worked
not
of
therefore
monistic
the
the
like. The
Upanisad
Upanisads
in
in
bold
systematic
the
karikas
reference
the
absolutist
by Gaudapada.
on
Gaudapada's
and
the
on
to
writer
Thus
the
at
karika, he
tried
the
crocodiles
of
rebirth, out
monistic
the
the
and
is
hardly
of
what
attainable
the
fession
con-
from
recovered
that
of
self
him-
not
makes
was
of
"he
his
mentary
com-
adores
by
by
of his
made
for all
kindness
Veda
to
significant
interpreted,
conclusion
says
dencies
ten-
very
did
of
Sarikara himself
(advaitd) creed
and
were
who
tator
commen-
monistic
seems
Upanisads
important
most
form
clear
It
other
any
Brahma-sutras
the
by Gaudapada,
Badarayana.
even
Veda,
it
form
some
like his
revived
manner.
epicSamkhya
the
the
be
to
who
sages,
of
absolutist
an
seems
Mandukyakarika
by
in
system,
with
sympathies
that
out
an
fact that
writer
think
to
was
formation
the
theist,than
other
no
that
the Vedas
the
Gaudapada
any
school, not
of any
Ekanti
as
to
am
Badarayana,
more
them
make
the
development.
the
the
of
writer
of
except
work
to
goes
explainsthe
that
the
that
also
after
formulate
This
and
"vetasvatara,
Sarikara.
man,
Brahma-sutras,
was
the
probably
dualists
which
as
the
those
originallyregarded
know
by people
Upanisads,
It
of
for
with
the
Sarikara,
with
fact* that
the
Hindu
or
in accordance
were
not
of any
Gaudapada
as
on
attempted
monism
Upanisads
was
as
manner
was
was
I do
in conflict with
know
not
with
canonical
Gaudapada.
pure
coherent
the
come
[ch.
doctrine
as
combined
who
commentary
work
would
views
of the dualists.
it.
Gaudapada
monistic
as
work
Bhagavadgita,
to
monistic
Vedanta
do
we
Brahma-sutras
the
authoritative
the
that
commentaries
writing
that
show
such
ideas, when
monistic
had
held
that
of
interpretedthe Brahma-sutras
who
and
fact
supposition.The
who
School
evidence
of any
know
not
writer
Sahkara
The
422
his
great
x]
gods1."
It
Buddhism
and
Gaudapada
423
that
particularlysignificant
seems
Sarikara
credit
and
not
Gaudapada
Badarayana with
the teacher
Upanisad creed.
Gaudapada was
teacher
of
Sarikara
; but
he
should
recovering
of
Govinda,
the
the
Sarikara
probably livingwhen
was
a student,for Sarikara
directlyinfluenced by
says that he was
his great wisdom,
and
also speaks of the learning,self-control
and modesty of the other pupils of Gaudapada2.
There
is some
dispute about the date of Sarikara, but accepting the date proposed
by Bhandarkar,
be
it to
yZ% A.D.3,and
Sarikara, Gaudapada
Pathak
and
Deussen,
suppose
that
in order
have
must
thus
was
been
flourished
after
that
the
Thus
says
he
possibly himself
was
to
on
goes
that
like the
that
found
he
great
Vasubandhu
and
A.D.
Buddhist
; and
for
thinking
considered
that
was
contradiction
that
that
there
agrees
with
being5.
In
IV.
shown
dictated
then
idesitd)
is
being
into
hold
is of
existents,whereas
being (Jdta) is of
who
quarrel with
non-existents
nor
Some
non-
them
liable to
are
non-coming-into-being{advayamajdtim).
that there is no
hold
who
coming into
one
19 of
that
others
are
the existents
those
that
{avivddah aviruddhascd).
it
in
coming
neither
and
being
has
He
"
quarrellingwith them
existents
(abhutasyd)\ there
say
who
him
adores
he
others
have
least 800
teach
disputants hold
He
to
sky {gaganopamam4).
vacuous
of untouch
was
any
that
say
touch
the
Nirvana)
and
the
able
in his karikas
Buddhist,
be
{dharrnd)were
and
all
is sufficient evidence
that there
to
consider
may
livingtill at
Gaudapada
teachers
Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Asariga and
I believe
we
his karika
there
coming
no
was
again
he
says
being
into
Buddhas
the
that
in any
way
tesvara
have
Ankara's bhasya
Anandasrama
Telang wishes
would
lived
4
5
have
on
edition
to
him
Gaudapada'skarika,
of Sankara's
put Sankara's
in
only
years. J.
Compare Lankdvatdra,
p.
Gaudapada's karika,
date
805 A.D.-897
for 32
IV.
bhasya
29, Katham
2, 4.
on
Gaudapada's karika,
in the
somewhere
A.D.,
R. A.S.
as
edition, p. 214.
Anandasrama
he
did
not
believe
1916.
ca
gaganopamam.
p.
31.
Venka-
could
Sankara
The
424
Again,
vddi),who
of
origination{jdti). In
know
he
be
to
that
says
These
the
IV.
of
name
Buddhas,
{dharmd)
were
adoration
which
it
he
90
the
said
by
knowledge.
He
the
in IV.
and
vacuous
{mukta)
Buddha
probabilityalso
work
is divided
and
of
spoken
which
we
98
and
by
nature.
99
the leaders
all appearances
that
closes
and
(vastu-
them
agraydna
to
one
in all
Gaudapada's
had
Again,
then
realists
deal with
Buddhas
pure
emancipated
not
was
could
refers
are
[ch.
for those
was
Mahdydna.
all appearances
first. It
know
that
says
Vedanta
of
since
afraid
were
he
in IV. 42
School
the
with
karikas
an
into four
more
virtue
The
the
of
of
way
which
the
fourth
second, third,and
of
work
entire
Gaudapada's work,
Mandukya
Upanisad by
known
as
Mdndukyakdrikd.
the
explaining
is
the
chapters are
constructive
with
connected
particularly
not
parts
the
dukya
Man-
Upanisad.
In
first
the
chapter Gaudapada
manifestations
external
world
of the
while
awake
are
we
self:
state
(taijasadtmd),(3)as the
experiencerin the dream
called the prdjha when
there
experiencer in deep sleep(susupti),
is no determinate
and
knowledge, but pure consciousness
pure
(2) as
bliss
the
He
(anandd).
attached
to
his
theories
of
creation
who
knows
these
experiences. Gaudapada
:
think
some
that
three
then
the
as
is
one
enumerates
world
has
never
some
proceeded
consider
others
(vitalactivity),
creation as an
from which
of that cause
it has
expansion {vibhuti)
proceeded ; others imagine that creation is like dream
(svapna)
and
magic (mdyd); others, that creation proceeds simply by the
as
creation
from
the
; others
is for the
enjoyment of
(kriddrtham),for such
he
in
creates, but he
a
1
state
prana
it
have
cannot
any
longing,as
are
of fulfilment.
Gaudapada's karika,
IV.
100.
In
my
translation I have
not
followed
bahkara,
for he
the
same
principle
The
426
Sahkara
School
of
Vedanta
[ch
of
the one
or
unity; all imagination either as the many
(advayd)
is false ; it is only the oneness
{advayatd) that is good. There
is no many,
nor
are
thingsdifferent or non-different {na ndnedam
ment,
attach...na
prthag ndprthak)x.The sages who have transcended
fear,and
Vedas
appearance
and
third
the
and
death, coming
howsoever
it be
akasa.
All
the
upon
by
and
birth
also
conceived,
as
it is all the
while
its
death,
suffer
nature
own
change.
is but
mind
it3. One
upon
different
not
compounded
as
appear
is like the
truth
the
as
appears
but
are
distinction
is
no
result of
from
dreams
it cannot
birth.
All
tion
imposi-
an
in the
many
; but
imposed
immortal,
It has
birth
dream,
but when
the
as
waking state one
appears
many,
activityof the Togins (sages)is stopped arises this fearless
mind
in the
be
all desires
mind
not
distracted
when
it stops.
Thinking
all. He
thing
every-
not
awaken
pacify it
diverse objects
{layd) and
it towards
move
should
and by
pleasure(sukhaiti)
unattached, by strong effort making it motionless
should
He
still. When
he
; when
Brahman.
final cessation.
production at
any
; he
remain
traction
see
(citta)into
when
wisdom
of all sorrow,
birth he should
and
and
of all
taking part in
existingin all bodies
(magic). Duality is a
The
truth
(advaitd)by maya.
of maya
the
that
maya
one
therefore
going
things that
and
(svapna)
of the
gone
void
so
have
have
In
and
anger
neither
there
When
is
there
being,the unproduced
In the fourth
not
taste
any
dissolution
into
passes
that
sign,no appearance
is no
object of knowledge
no
is then
the
into
is the
to
come
dis
perfe"
inl
omniscent
(sarvajna).
Alata^anti,Gaudapada furth"
called
chapter,called
nor
the
etc.
andndrtham,
Compare Madhyamikakdrikd, B. T. S., p. 3, anekartham
Compare Lankdvatdrasutra,
78,
Advayasamsdraparinirvdnavatsarvadharp.
mdh
tarhi
tasmdt
mahamate
yogah karaSunyatdnutpddadvayanihsvabhdvalaksane
vijUdndnam
niyah ; also 8, 46, Yaduta
svaciitavisayavikalpadrstyanavabodhanat
2
vdlaprthagjandh bhdvdbhdvasvabhavapara-
svacittadrSyamdtranavatdrena mahamate
bhavanti.
mdrthadrstidvayavadino
8
Compare Nagarjuna'skarika,
dhyaydh putra
karika,
mdydya
in.
eva
ca
28, Asato
vdpijayate.
B.
T.
S., p.
196, AkaSam
may
ay
janma
talvato
naiva
Safah-ngaiica ban-
asantaScdbhivyajyanietathdbhdvena
x]
Gaudapada
describes
without
form
final state1.
this
death
of argument
thus:
(effectin
All
which
Those
reminds
who
unproduced
eternal
yet changing?
from
that
with
which
such
that
the
phala)}
and
without
itself
cause
vatah), and
thus
said
have
to
dependent
would
be
look
we
come
to
is
others
reasons,
none
of the
all
at
but
truth
realityor
that
not
which
it
suffers any
its
in
both
look
touch
be
to
with
from
objectswhich
appear
the
who
reallytraversing the
reason
is
but
false
imposition
The
very
karika, B. T. S.
2
The
use
Buddhistic.
dharmah."
Alatasanti
name
p. 206, where
of the
The
Dharma
word
Hindu
he
sense
the
the
is
in any
be
of
{cittd)
from
particular
objectswhile
of
an
error,
for in
with
in touch
comes
diverse
tions.
manifesta-
quotes
by
the
vacuity.
verse
is the
then
sense
from
Compare
unborn
is
absence
of
Nagarjuna's
the Sataka.
of appearance
"
given by Jaimini,
injunctionsof the
the
the
Since
absolutely Buddhistic.
is that
is determined
nor
essence
in the
dharma
view
different
not
be
manifest
thereby
of their
to
mind
The
to
there
by it are
objectsseen
perceivethem to suffer production are
of vacuity {khe),for all production
on
being born,
perceived as
said
never
reason
mind
the
neither
be
mind
by
Those
produced.
the
suffer. When
we
reasons.
objects and
it could
that
future
ever
cause,
{svabha-
they seem
the point of
manner
them
at
cease
no
(hetu
vanish, and
would
do
only
is
nature
(samklesd)that
connected
reasons
so
effect
birth,neither
own
they
exist
conclusion
Nothing is born
either
being, non-
for since
not
right
and
case
their
sider
con-
we
itself suffered
has
them,
can
no
afflictions
we
in
example
no
effect.
no
; call
for otherwise
when
come
into
come
things
the
has
is
effect there
of
called
it be
can
karyya
as
truly
cause
Nor
cause
the
to
there
cause
through
or
on
dependent,
does
one
being-non-being,nothing
the effect is produced out
nor
be
which
of
the
things
illustrated.
infinitum
to
that
that
reference
reference
by
being,or
Without
the
from
can
ad
consider
be
dialectical
(cause)as
production,there
may
again
regressus
karana
production ; how
no
is born
follows
Nagarjuna. Gaudapada
If it is said
has
case
How
and
either
anything
production.
about
which
427
(appearances) are
then
of
cannot
(aja),for it suffers
being
dharmas
us
regard
potential form)
and
the
decay2. Gaudapada
or
continues
Philosophy
or
entity is peculiarly
Codanalaksanah
Vedas.
arthah,
Sahkara
The
428
School
of the
Vedanta
of
[ch.
of absence
production it
could never
Everything has a beginning and
change its nature.
false. The
existence
of all things is like
end and is therefore
an
a
magical or illusoryelephant {mayahasti) and exists only as far
production,for
as
merely
it
it
being
of
the appearance
is related
or
appears
nature
of
experience. There
and things,but
to
production,movement
is thus
the
one
movement
curved)
does
imposed
are
not
upon
them.
We
between
to
in
could
any
consciousness
be
demonstrated
the
be
the
neither
things, so
neither
are
(atta),nor
is the
mind
of
thinks
samsara.
things
when
that
is not
as
thing
which
is not
which
from
all
the
mind
long
as
cycle of
the
there
ceases
not
are
So
suffer
to
notion
regarded
fore
there-
are
appearances.
has
that
relation
thing,but
those
produced
effect he
possess
causal
which
and
nor
produced by
and
cause
of
not
(acintyd). A
which
appearances
{samsdra), but
All
things are
existence
unthinkable
of that
cause
are
kind
thing (dravya\
do
realitythey
posed
im-
are
appearances
its appearance,
and
as
of
cause
appearances
one
indicate
ceiving
per-
(e.g.straightor
fire,
though in realityit
all the
consciousness, though
never
the
as
appears
attributes
charcoal
also
so
the
(dravyd) is
a
thing may
the
them
possess
the
upon
that
is
no
from
being produced
relative
coming
All
exist.
seeds of
being
in
and
dreams,
That
appearances.
relative
point of
mdrtha), for the
relative
exist,do
are
exist;
but
thoughts
in
magic, men
of
neither
are
again
maya
does
magic coming
eternal
born
and
out
not
of
tible.
destruc-
nor
die,so
are
all
existingfrom an imaginary
view (kalpitasamvrti) is not so in reality
{parain all
existence
depending on others,as shown
they
with
as
appears
exist,do
that
not
therefore
or
that
shoots
like
not
which
appearance,
not
and
maya,
are
appearances
magic
As
is like
are
which
exist
and
moving
fools
are
not
or
real existence.
exist,and
steady,or
deluded.
That
neither
none
of
things
exist
nor
those, are
x]
Vedanta
It is
obvious
so
Madhyamika
the
that
these
doctrines,as
to
Sunyavada and
held good of the ultimate
these
It is immaterial
are
we
whether
he
that he had
sure
teachings which
smallest
Upanisads
he
the
to
that
he
that
the
preached by
Hindu
or
highestrespect
believed
be
to
comment
upon,
the
Buddhist,
great Buddhist
studies
guaranteed
of
truth
Buddhist
on
in detail
Vedanta
and
philosophy
Gaudapada took
he
probably because
tions
by the textual limita-
and
unspeakable
the
called
also
Mimamsa
(decision)of
the
as
claims
the
previous
them
on
attained
wonderful
now
in
the
Brahma-sutras
these
mentary
as
part of the
interpreted
differently
also
on
account
on
of the
to be mentioned
,
intended
the
com-
have
subtle
and
of the association
of the
of the
account
So
of
sutras
views
both
celebrity,
the
and
ideas it contains,and
expositionsare
distinguished
Purvamimamsa
were
the
or
Vedas
and elaborated
philosophy propounded by Sankara
we
speak of the Vedanta
followers,that whenever
the philosophy that was
propounded by
we
mean
other
be
to
Uttara-Mlmamsa
the
left
was
explain.
which
incorporated
by different exponents,
deep
and
it
(788-820 A.D.).
philosophy
sometimes
of
Mimamsa
Jaimini.Though
examine
to
the
Upanisads
views
Gaudapada's
Sankara
is the
far the
of
the
therefore
Brahmanas
of
How
of the
exposition of
from
truth
the
Vedanta
form
and
his.
indefinable
lines.
summarized
long
so
Upanisad
the
it is
Upanisads.
for his
and
that
Lankavatdra,
to
of
the
Nagarjuna's karikas
in
truth
was
the
for the
wished
from
it.
prove
Buddhist
as
found
borrowed
are
in the
as
429
to
attempt
doctrines
found
Vijnanavada doctrines,
needless
Sankara
and
names
of the
by
his illustrious
philosophy
Sankara.
exponents
Ramanuja-mata,Vallabha-mata,etc.).In
(e.g.
If
have
this
School
Sahkara
The
430
of
Vedanta
[ch.
elaborated
as
intelligible
better
to take
but
elaborated
as
they
that
Nydya
foundation
however
sutras
but
are
of
In
is
the
did
in order
in
but
of
Vedas
and
Hindus.
the
then
right one,
Mimamsists,
the
be
in the
opponents
held
who
be
the
in
inventor
interpreted the
existed
and
regarded
or
sutras
connected
infallible
as
also
were
by
the
that his
way
of
that
the
accomplishing
did
Vedas
his task
were
preach
not
any
there
in the Vedas
was
to
was
philosophy, for whatever
for performing this
to
us
interpretedas issuing commands
that action.
They held that if the Upanisads spoke of Brahman
demonstrated
and
the
of
kind
some
Sahkara
in the
be
not
and
the
the
the
could
worship
not
deny
Brahmanas
by
to
of
could
was
Mlmamsa,
purport
of
of its pure
nature
exaggerations intended
Brahman
that
salvation.
the
He
for
performing
form.
attractive
more
mandatory
or
mere
were
found
as
as
clared
de-
he
of
the
said
Absolute
that
which
the
karmaka:
da
by
in the
of the
certainlyof a mandatory
anxious
ordinary people who were
was
of
be
but
(sacrificial
injunctions)Brahmanas
the Vedas
into
explicitlyof
highest knowledge
attain
these
essence,
the
expositionof them
philosophy being founded upon the
The
most
accepted by all Hindus.
his
thus
were
the
Upanisads,
was
Upanisads which
Badarayana. The Upanisads
part of the
was
of
case
the
sutras
If
the
summary
to
that there
in the
enunciated
declare
openly
condensed
claim
not
to show
systematic philosophy
and
is available.
original system,
an
Upanisads
the
an
whom
Sahkara,
philosophy.
original source
extremely
Sahkara
form.
systematic
expounder
and
the
of
find it in
we
the
these
than
as
It is therefore
of
systems
etc.)are
sutra,
other
Vedanta
the
Hindu
other
not
system,
their master's
to
followers.
followers,all
his
by
true
are
the
For
sutra,
the Vedanta
up
his
by
Vedas
nature,
for this
"
as
or
wise
"
the
the purport of
it was
that
intended
pleasure,
x]
Sankara
and
were
had
actuated
never
truth,but
the
controlled
the
their
intended
were
for two
of
knowing
intended
were
become
universe.
classes
of
wise
all
to
who
earthly
Brahman
two
Sankara
persons.
absolute
the
the
for
disinclined
The
43
Absolute, Unchangeable,
one
of the
Upanisads
desire
any
and
senses
the
Truth
only
by
the
Upanisads, which
joys, demonstrated
as
and
did
thus
not
to
concerned
were
understood
the
of
content
in
demonstrating
their
it)as
uncontradicted
of the
view
ultimate
he
held.
referred
texts
Samkhya.
the
to
had
He
had
and
also
of
had
they
(as he
show
to
that
of the
none
of
mahat, prakrti,etc.
interpretthe
physics,cosmology, eschatology,etc.
about
thus
to show
also
doctrines
of Brahman
He
to
that
Upanisads,
nature
end.
He
apparently conflictingtexts,
the
of all the
testimony
which
the
in
passages
few
to
that
the
scattered
ideas
found
in the
are
could
his opponents
criticize the
be
system, he had
consistent
and
self-contradictory,
wrong.
This
he
than
did
which
subordinate
it lent
to
Upanisad texts,
that
either
in
all
had
the
the
were
any
of
interpretation
the
to
the
in
prove
value
Upanisads
all,and
to
the
never
in rational
Brahman,
topics. Many
and
the
world
problems
of
of appearance
great
the
was
accept the
in great
contradicted
other
that
systems
They
erroneous.
and
contradicted
un-
truth.
absolute
thought, and
and
aid
purport of the
showed
was
Nyaya
categories which
and
self-contradictory
us
the
moreover
philosophy
or
as
for
and
inconsistent
was
gave,
its main
perceptual experience
put forth
to
of
interpretations
persuading the mind
Brahman
realistic
them
consistent
and
philosophy,to
on
place, as
Brahman
in his
only
testimony of
disciplesfollowed him
detail
he
objectionsthat
schools,to
that
which
had
His
all other
show
to
that
not
all the
remove
regarding the
philosophiesof
Upanisads, other
but
make
to
other
also
epistemthe
maya,
relevant
philosophicalinterest
which
had
left out
been
slightlytouched
or
and
reasonings
philosophical
for
aids
but
as
convincing
revealed
logicis
of the
instructions
the
remembered
is
Malabar
the
a
used
logicgone
incarnation
Benares
he
wrote
Sahkara,
of
Siva.
travel
all
schools
It is regarded
India
thought
he advised
and
went
but
him
him
travelled in various
he established
acquired
his
defeat
to
Kumarila
into
then
then
the
then
and
came
over
that
in his twelfth
Upanisads.
ten
on
forth
he
decided
adherents
at the
the
residingin
It is said
to
of other
first went
to
He
disciple.
follower of his
ascetic
an
year
It is said that he
was
Kumarila's
to meet
converted
this time
debate.
in open
eighth
the Brahma-sutra
from
in order
been
He
his commentaries
and
miracles
have
to
sage
in
A.D.
Sivaguruwas
Badarikasrama.
on
800
Many
in his
renowned
to
bhasya
Benares,
to
is believed
ascetic
and
father
of the Narbuda.
he also wrote
on
over
of
he
turned
thence
Kumarila,
meet
He
his illustrious
returned
He
and
the banks
on
and
Later
year.
Taittiriyabranch.
of
cell
mountain
to
of
the
His
for upsetting
the Sankara-
as
700
Deccan.
discipleof Govinda,
the
between
born
was
of
astray. Many
such
in the
Brahmin
related
became
he
country
Yajurvedi
are
that
certain
almost
taken
work
true
Sahkara-jaya,etc.
digvijaya,Sankara-vijaya-vildsa,
as
be
to
The
Logic
in Sanskrit
written
that
strengthening our
Upanisads.
Upanisads
Sarikaracaryawere
lives of
and
accept them.
to
discussed
always
are
intellect
our
[ch.
were
be
always
criticisms
in the
mind
the
adapt
to
Vedanta
Sahkara
by
it should
But
his followers.
fullyby
of
School
Sahkara
The
432
own.
Mandana
He
then
dominant
influence
in
moulding
religiouslife of
the
India.
Sahkara
carried
the
on
by writing commentaries
siitrasX.nz"
to
intended
was
there
is
other
rival
main
(Isa,Kena,
yaka,
and
the
teacher
Upanisads
ten
absolutist creed
preached
in the
he
was
on
the
works
Katha,
of
Sarikaraare
the
and
Chandogya), and
on
one
which
the Brahma-
Brahma-surras,
held
cosmology
his commentaries
Prasna, Mundaka,
and
the Brahma-
and
was
Upanisads
commentary
that
Gaudapada
the
The
be
Throughout his
ample evidence
sutrasx.
that
to
the
on
that
prove,
of his
work
the Brahma-sutra.
Sahkara
The
434
As
particularconclusion.
sutras
except
second
book
Upanisad
devoted
Vedanta
and
creed
[ch.
of these
the
to
first two
the
textual
Sarikara'smethod
passages.
Vedanta
of
first four
the
are
School
to
proving the Vedanta
be a consistent
system of metaphysics, complete in all parts, but
the Upanisad texts
in so interpreting
that they all agree
as to show
in holding the Brahman
that alone
be the
to be the self and
to
II Sahkara tries to
answer
only truth. In Chapter I of Book
of the
some
point of
does
not
objectionsthat
against his
view
difficulties
apparent
consist
chapters of the
of the
interpretations
of explaining the absolutist
of
be
may
absolutist
the
in
made
creed
absolutist
from
and
the
show
to
doctrine
that
did
not
some
present
refute
II
Chapter II
the Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisesika, the Buddhist, Jaina,Bhatwo
chapters and
gavata and Saiva systems of thought. These
real
any
of Book
Samkhya
In
difficulty.
his commentaries
of his system.
that
the
with
first four
the
on
The
of
conclusion
the
the
is
sutras
Upanisad doctrines.
of the revealed
be
known
reasonable
shows
So
and
is
final
no
argument
used
of the
bound
to
its
the
of
system
view
From
vindicate
ultimate
to
his
the
own
rationalitybut
the
on
truth
never
only
another
to
what
be
he
by logic
only be
thus
not
can-
debater.
arrive
can
and
shows
false,and
by
can
truth
judgment
are
founc
all
positionof
metaphysics.
be
we
discrimination
reason,
only with
Upanisads.
rational
The
alone.
Upanisads;
which
certaintyto
debater
be false
to
Sarikara
ultimate
one
to
ing
in show-
rightunderstanding
The
shows
points
considered
was
the
to
What
expert debater
main
in strict agreement
with
value
Upanisads.
alone.
reason
more
to be
in the
he
by
there
the
scriptures,
the
always
Reason
the
tries to
mainly occupied
was
occupied
contain
sutras
of the work
rest
he
the
For
Vedanta
its truth
authorityof
the
as
did
thoroughly
depend
not
But
Upanisads.
on
what
was
his
could
contradict
not
rational
was
interpretation
If he
could
that
show
was
contradictions
that
his
faithful to
with
and
did
not
contradict
experience.
only interpretation
the
was
interpretation
the Upanisads, and
that
experience
could
in
some
way
its
be
apparent
explained,
x]
Sankara!
that he had
he considered
Interpretation
to do.
nothing more
435
He
writing
of the term, but giving us the
a
sense
truth as taught and
whole
revealed
in the Upanisads and
not
simply a system spun by a clever thinker,which may erroneously
to be quitereasonable,
Ultimate validity
does not belong
appear
but to the scriptures.
to reason
philosophy in the
started
He
not
was
modern
the
with
be the reason
premise that whatever
may
it is a fact that all experience starts and moves
in an error
which
identifies the self with the body, the senses, or the objectsof the
All cognitiveacts presuppose
this illusory
senses.
identification,
for without
self
pure
can
behave
phenomenal
a
perceiverthere would
cally
try to prove philosophi-
never
and without
such
perceiver,
does not
cognitiveact. Sankara
knower
be
it the
or
no
the
self unattached
the pure
with
This
him
to
is
self
pure
he is satisfied in
things,for
truth.
of the
existence
kind
any
of
distinct
as
that
showing
as
from
all other
the
Upanisads describe
impurity as the ultimate
to which
exception can be
taken, for it is so revealed in the Upanisads. This point being
granted,the next
point is that our experience is always based
upon an identification of the self with the body, the senses, etc. and
of pleasure,
the impositionof all phenomenal qualities
pain,etc.
is a beginninglessillusion.
the self; and this with Sankara
upon
Sankara
All this had been said by Gaudapada.
accepted Gaudapada's conclusions,but
proof of his thesis. He
refutation
thought
idea
of
that
in
was
showed
other
did
not
Upanisads
held
to
prove
For,
magic
mere
that
if the
the
show
self is what
quarrel on
with
the
one
side with
Samkhya
is
mere
the
do
than
the
was
could
it appears
or
maya.
but
to
Upanisads. He
self as pure being,
not
Mlmamsa
realists,both
be real.
Sankara
accepts it
or
maya.
as
This
It must
tries
never
indisputable.
clusion
con-
necessary
had
He
realists and
of whom
truth.
ultimate
that his
show
the
the pure
that
bliss
is maya,
This
teachingsof
of illusion
world
to
positive
only for the
he
being done
a
dialectic
thought.
more
the
and
intelligence
pure
world
the
as
being accepted
be
of
dialectic for
of the
use
with
pure
no
develop his
made
nothing
agreement
that the
matter
systems
had
he
on
accepted
thus
the
the
to
other
validity
The
in their own
but interpretedthem
way.
scriptures,
is to be
Mlmamsists
held that everythingthat is said in the Vedas
as
interpreted
requiringus to perform particularkinds of action,
of the
28"2
or
doing
from
to desist
School
certain
kinds.
other
containinginjunctionsfor the
implies that
it
be
nature
which
lead
is identical
could
that
Upanisads
not
meditation
but
the
worship
or
wisdom
him
on
that
of
performance
and
duties
truth
and
transcended
who
had
no
of
the
his
that
and
Veda
etc., belonged
that
to
they had
the Upanisads. They
duties). When
they
which
know
the
of
wisdom)
was
thus
inclined
led
truth
and
the
or
when
self
the
was
the
injunctionsrelating
intended
actions),were
teachings of
the
the
nature
for inferior
Upanisads,
of
ultimate
superioraspirantswho
of sacrificial duties
those
and
right to
no
were
but
follow
should
who
order.
deeds, such
Vedic
So
long
follow
karmins
succeeded
alone, they
had
reserved
to
required;
was
emancipation
other
for
Brahman.
actions,and
as
they
the
the
as
tions
injunc-
sacrifices
remained
in
higher teachings o
(performers of scriptural
of all
purging their minds
them
to the performance of the Vedic
tions,
injunckarmamarga (the path of duties),and wanted
field of
the
kind
any
would
point was
the
as
meditates.
so
his main
Brahman
the
only
perform
lower
order
desires
as
upon
demonstrate
to
not
for any
desire
joy. Throughout
tried
limits
the
For
declare
intended
were
reality),
had
to
which
jflanakanda (those
who
and
the
whereas
types of aspirants,
the
of
Brahman,
procedure
man
of
action
or
the
of
does
meditated
highest truth
ultimate
to
be
view.
the
absolute
the
to
such
to
revealed
dawned
truth
the
kinds
Upanisads
self;such
our
results
agree
reached
one
with
beneficial
to
Sankara
the
interpreted
of certain
of the nature
that
mean
described
there, i.e. Brahman
particularnature
meditated
as
being an entity which possesses
upon
should
No
in the
should
Brahman
would
the
possessing
then
the
[ch.
also be
performance
descriptionof Brahman
therefore represent a simple statement
but
This
should
The
actions.
Vedanta
of
of the Veda
the
as
Sankara
The
436
no
for
duties
in
entered
to
advanced
ordinary joys
The
the
of
life
but
wanted
for
complete
intending
a man
qualifications
emancipation.
necessary
to study the Vedanta
are
(1)discerningknowledge about what is
clination
eternal and what
is transitory(nitydnityavastuvivekd),
(2) disinof
to the enjoyment of the pleasures of this world
or
x]
Sankara
the
after
faith
{ihamutraphalabhogaviraga),
(3) attainment
(Jamadamadisadkanasampat) and
The
{mumuksiitvd).
study
the
the
have
When
the
force
him.
of wisdom
path
had
soon
as
was
or
adhikarins.
dualists
he
tried to
There
became
the
all
of the
he
that
the
attained
self alone
injunctionsceased
duties
of
path
intended
could
convinced
the Brahman
maya,
Thus,
for salvation
should
qualifications
realized
man
(jnana) were
persons
he
of
concentration
desire
these
self and
all else
with
who
the
once
realityand
any
as
identityof
emancipation.
the
person
Upanisads, and
about
truth
was
437
self-restraint,
renunciation, patience,deep
peace,
and
world
Interpretation
to
and
{karma)
be
of
jointperformance of
Vedic
duties and the seeking of the highest truth as taught in
the Upanisads (jnana-karma-samuccayabhdvah). As against the
kind
of dualistic
the Vedanta
Sankara
of
former
in
and
interpretationof
remarkable
hidden
Buddhist
Hindu
thought
the
and
and
His
raised
could
has
may
close
build
than
by
but
based
these
discussed
by
Vedanta
As
as
these
will
be
to
subsistence
names
and
an
or
and
is
did
and
coherent
forms,
which
have
these
one
system
later
from
dissolution
pretations
inter-
raise
without
cause
doctrines,but
not
in the
"the
Vedanta
These
Sankara.
Sankara
in
of Sankara'
Sarikara's
with
discussed
Sankara
garded
re-
system
treatment
of
complete
for his
followers,and
his
a
on
was
person
short
according
in
which
he
of
sections,
of the
descriptionof some
thought as explained by Sankara.
this with
is extended
divine
basis
followers
problems
as
some
of
interpretations
the
in conflict
achieved
influence
great that
did. Our
on
his
direct
ciples,
disciplesof his disdoctrine
in the succeeding
rational
as
regarded by
so
his
to
Sankara
nowhere
(proceeds)the originor
which
doubt
no
adhered
any
between
exposition
this he
In
a
being almost
the
disciples,
as
been
and
metaphysics.
we
to
offered
treat
not
was
in the
philosophy
texts.
religionbecame
who
questions and
been
the
Upanisad
immediate
stronger way
are
the
older
times
those
philosophy
thought, as
difference
traits found
formulate
He
generations,tried
much
favoured
never
main
(pracchanna Bauddha),
later
incarnation.
Buddhist
to
success.
in
Upanisads
distinctive
the
the
The
interpretations.
consists
the
that
expounded
as
dissociate
show
no
main
which
of this world
includes
many
Sankara
The
438
determined
after
The
of Brahman
existence
world
have
must
in the
but
all other
Upanisads
as
so
Brahman
is the
Sankara
which
the
the
for the
be threefold:
(1)The
modification
of
been
other
something
has
thing,
some-
of
spoken
than
world
is
tion
(imagina-
adduces
things have
which
from
cause
to
specially
world
by
even
the
as
works
a
cause,
be considered
produced
[ch.
fruit of
that
reasons
may
been
Vedanta
inconceivable
arrangement
an
the) mind1."
of
of
agents and
formed
School
Brahman,
into
sprung
itself originatedfrom
being,but we could not think that Brahman
something else,for then we should have a regressus ad infinitum
{anavasthd). (2) The world is so orderly that it could not have
forth
from
from
which
come
then
(3) This
shines
hence
for
Brahman
according
being, and
pure
us
all. So
long
call
we
without
true
"
self
touch
any
as
is the
All
creation
sport; from
the
world,
exist
as
the
but
is
creation
Brahman,
the
all
cognitions.
identityof pure
gence,
intelli-
Brahman
self of
is the
are
illusory
things,with all that
dreamless
sleepwe are absolutely
for
one
being.
But
(Isvara)
point of
in the
view
in which
sense
individuals, we
accepting it
the
created
there
the
can
is
no
as
world
as
who
Isvara
maya,
world
exists,and
affirm
the
men
creates
we
existence
all
of
in
is
self,is at
the
us
of
illusorymaya.
true
separate
as
It is the self of
appearance
that God
realityall
well
deny it,
we
ordinary waking life,
our
in
tries to
one
blessedness.
in
an
is
pure
Isvara,
as
engaged
as
is the
thousands
is but
be conceived
may
our
all,the self,
us
of our
phenomenal notions the nature
blessedness
realized. The individual
is partially
pure
blessedness,and
of
essence
when
in all
Sankara
but when
self which
true
the
itself forth.
us
are
(sdksi)which
objects of cognition
of these
it appears
as
to
pure
we
mine,
or
state
as
to
self with
identifyingthe
"
present
ever
the
even
it shows
source
intelligent
being is Brahman.
consciousness
through
as
undenied
denial
into
come
It is thus
it remains
is hence
has
immediate
well
self,as
in the
even
and
is the
self knows.
the
which
and
the
world
this
Brahman
as
The
source.
non-intelligent
efficient
Sarikara's
commentary,
the material
once
I.
cause
i. 2.
cause
{updddna-kdrand)
{nimitta-kdrand) of
See also Deussen's
the
world.
x]
Main
There
is
form.
call them
by
that
are
they
the
Vedanta
so
We
that
and
effect,
the
cause
"
the
illusion
mere
it cannot
admitted
be
fact
platesand
as
the
different names,
many
by
mould
may
439
and
cause
illusoryimpositionon
an
and
name
of the
difference between
no
effect is but
of
idea
formations
trans-
and
form
it is but an
effect
{ndmarupd). This world, inasmuch
as
the
imposed upon
Brahman, is only phenomenally existent
and form {ndmarupa\ but
(vyavahdrika)as mere
objectsof name
the
the
cause,
Brahman,
The
The
main
absolute
in
many
us
the
to
show
different
passing
self,which
has
self.
they
The
determine
the
subject and
though appearing
world
also
All
other
events, mental
while
the
the
has
only
all is the
only
other
no
or
truth
physical,
and
absolute
self. While
changeable
un-
other
how
examine
to
as
apart from
as
reality and
underlying them
investigatedthe pramanas
sophy
philo-
the ultimate
this,that
no
appearances,
could
is
is one,
truth
systems
philosophy.
Vedanta
(non-dualistic)
school
individuals.
this
than
advaita
is the
reality
{pdramdrthika)1.
Vedanta
Saiikara
the
individuals
but
are
truth
the true
of the
of the
taught by
as
and
idea
idea
main
is alone
far
of
objectivetruth
titude
things or our atin practicallife towards
them, Vedanta
sought to reach
beneath
the surface of appearances,
and
enquired after the final
and
the macroultimate
truth underlying the microcosm
and
cosm,
Svetaketu,
"That
the
The
object.
important
most
text
{mahdvdkya)
comprehension
This
of
instruction
famous
Vedanta
Svetaketu."
thou, O
art
the
says,
of my
self
this
highest knowledge, for when
knowledge is once
produced, our cognitionof world-appearances
and purged
will automaticallycease.
Unless
the mind
is chastened
of all passions and
comprehend this
desires,the soul cannot
the
as
truth;
ultimate
but
when
salvation
by
instructs
all
All
him,
which
itself,
truth
this is
"That
is at
for
ordinary notions
me
to
the
and
with
pure
account
System of
bliss and
preceptor
the
becomes
pure
of the Brahma-sutras
the
Vedanta
for
is anxious
cognitionsof diversityand
in his
he
once
Ankara's commentary
Deussen
soul
the
At
identical
once
that is important in
from
of
thou."
art
and
done,
once
knowledge
systematisedby
excellently
taken
is the
of what
truth
gence;
intelliof the
has
been
it is therefore
necessary
un-
is
there
cease;
many
forth
no
and
is extinct
attachment
his self
with
his connections
the
ever
with
the
the
world
the
and
experiences brought
past karmas
again
and
the
under
the
the
and
and
as
with
Vedanta
such
has
soon
we
all
Brahman,
his
the
world
and
all
continued
world
was
of
and
them.
ever
bad
led him
works
the
world
While
of his
own
self,worked
himself
relationshipbetween
Mukti
on.
(salvation)
process ran
self from
of the
the
subjectivepsychosis
of
state
pure
it held
different,for
self
that
that
truth
about
diversified world
time)
are
truth
about
it.
our
it. We
but
does
All
the
truth
one
cease,
Mlmamsa,
Yoga.
the
do
that
sense
not
not
only
also
do
know
But
world
is the
but because
represent the
not
our
garded
re-
as
imagination
only an illusory
true knowledge is acquired.
about
notions
(lastingthough they
false in the
reallyare,
world
was
is
when
know
process
cordingly.
ac-
undergo
to
and
the
true
of which
account
our
of
in want
self,on
reality
world-experiences,worldly
at all,but
to
come
and
by Nyaya-Vaisesika
by Samkhya and
intelligence
is
of
world
one
case
nature
the
illusoryperceptionsrepresentingthe
This
experience-cease.
happens not because
field of
take
of the
desire
no
the world
karmas
as
the
there
false
highest
of
real existence
no
which
of
the
by
condition
of pure
to
performed good
the world
unconscious
an
state
This
of the
ignorant
dissociation
world.
as
so
the
consisted
illusion
about
delusion
world,and
the
meant
he, as
known
external
of accumulated
force
and
ceased, though
itself with
world-events, and
his interests,
and
of karma
from
emancipated
foolishlyidentified
lieved
be-
divested of all
willing,but
had
and
real nature
the
he shines
systems
of himself
bonds
The
thine;
and
him,
became
unattached
others.
and
originalpurityuntouched
own
no
and
unreality or
The
the
had
the world
with
about
knowledge
the self
man
became
with
same
them;
joys
his
[ch.
All Hindu
salvation,he
to
absolutely free
as
psychosis,he
own
in
of all consciousness
and
We
process
sensations,perceptions,feelingsand
all
was
of mine
reduced
thus
was
idea
As
notion
attained
man
world-consciousness, or
of
duality,no
School
truth,the Brahman.
the
the one,
as
that when
as
Vedanta
vast
by
of
Sankara
The
440
they
may
be
do
not
know
not
what
ordinary experiences of
the
the
from
self,the
world
the
nections
con-
the appearance
and
ultimate
the
abiding
beginningless
real
represent the
what
world
world
as
as
we
ourselves
about
us
is.
representing
Sahkara
The
442
world
disappears
-appearance
is necessary
the
illusoryperception of silver
perception of world-appearance is
of
that
and
is
to
when
disappear
question
for
reference
there
entity,it
lasts,but
the
real
is
division
"is not"
such
association
into
For
they
existence
creative
we
the
the
of
that
only
real
do
creation
not
only
than
for there
maya,
appearance.
the
can
the
it
by
and
so
be
long
is
no
as
be
they
or
association
illusory. It is
no
error
affected
of the
real
and
found.
It is
it
only
has
ordinary logical
principleof
to
have
lasts.
"is"
own
as
and
they
pendent
inde-
If it has
any
nature, for
Brahman,
real with
are
other
association
association
nor
dream
no
its
be
cluded
ex-
be said that
exist
by
it
as
ance
world-appear-
said
as
no
the
long
so
perception.
illusive
the
as
sullied
way
since
is
(prdtttika-sattd).
the
They
us.
fact of their
function
lasts
in any
exist
not
illusion
makes
existence, for
baffles the
it to
persons.
it is dissolved.
neither
can
with
illusion
or
(avidya)
non-existence
ciated
asso-
either
creation
Maya
which
which
pounding
ex-
doctrine.
individual
to
deluded
maya
time
realityis grasped
with
are
and
function, that
truth, is
the
in
in
question illegitimate,
perceived,but
maya,
begin
is known
illusorycognitions demonstrate
the
this
permanent
category
of existence
middle.
truth
bound
becomes
maya
existence
apparent
an
as
is
the
held
merely
emphasizes
thinks
knowledge
true
world-appearance
Upanisad
reference
when
the
long
therefore
Maya
has
brought
so
was
the
association, for
vanishes
entity in
existence
not
with
false
moment
been
has
realityand
unchangeable truth.
only
avidya
or
Vedanta
or
real
no
which
appearance,
not
is
affect the
not
Maya
cosmos
was
the
how
illusory
anywhere,
"many"
The
of
asked,
did
many"
Sahkara
system
association
the
to
fact
real
this
the
in
conch-
this
or
Upanisads
"no
that
is what
But
The
known.
was
is sometimes
Brahman.
with
does
truth
be
destroyed by
was
exist
not
constructive
his
In
did
the
there
by adding
(illusion).This
is maya
The
it
also
link
of buddhi
destroyed,so
Brahman.
and
one,
hence
illusion,and
an
reality,the
the
intermediate
glittering
piece to
shell the
knowledge
No
[ch.
dissociation
mechanical
it,no
Vedanta
of
for all.
once
just as by findingout
but
manas,
effect
to
School
the
but
the
with
empty,
a
mere
x]
Nature
In
what
is said
of this
falsehood
in the
is solved
Here
the
therefore
the
absolutelynon-existent.
"is"
hare's
since
is the
it does
the
it is neither
rather
also
the
it may
be
these
for
times, and
called
are
in
tuccha,
is said
be
to
the state
it is sat
time
"castle
of
(is),
it is asat
in
This
absolute
an
Or
sense.
the
falsehood
though
it appears
that
way
this,that
in
"is
(isnot).
world-appearance (jagat-
asat
in another
consists
that
sense
it exists
nor
"is not"
rightknowledge
so
of the
sat
said
world-appearance
be
to
falsehood
prapancd) that
in the
exist
itself in all
world-appearance
Since
us.
not
appearance,
The
"is"
sat
"is" and
that the
not," for
it appears
ignorance persistsin
but
is "is
volved
in-
as
world-appearance is
moment
"is not"
horn
existing,since
or
the
to
up
to
The
a.
is neither
of the
opposition
of may
explained
which
manifest
not
air"
been
indefinite
the
the
or
has
continue
it does
false ?
product
mere
The
It is not
dawns.
"
category of time.
its manifestation
has
false
category of the
by
not," since
be
to
443
world-appearance
world-appearance
"is not"
asat
nor
is the
sense
world
The
of World-appearance
of
to
be the
of the reality,
the
realityor an expression or manifestation
being,sat, yet when the realityis once
rightlycomprehended, it
will
be
and
will
manifest
exist
never
when
perception;
shell,we
that
the
exist
never
silver,the
the
the
Brahman,
the
"this"
silver is
before
that
us,
when
so
The
separate
of
the
the
real.
both
as
the
The
to
the
it
find in
we
that
out
appeared
before
saw
before, does
us
not
illusory
an
it is
conch-
at
the
time
as
"this"
of
(this
exist, and
now
the
to
world
; but
be
piece
having
conviction
of the
than
fact that
of the
case
Brahman,
other
the
had
the
comes
no
in the
as
of
when
case
conch-shell,the
existence
in the "this"
is
being, the reality,
that
the
world
once
never
has no
world-appearance however
the comprehension of the identity
real is realized
is the
same
as
that
world-appearance
refers
as
is found
us
negation
existence
is found
we
In the
appears
what
dismissed
at once
justwhat
exist,
not
illusoryperceptionof
(pointing to a thing before me) appeared as
of the world-appearance, it is the being (sat),
case
before
truth
existed
again.
"this"
silver;in
is
silver,though
be
existed, does
never
This
the
illusoryperception to
is silver),
yet it never
will
world
again.
once
that
say
the
is
School
Sahkara
The
444
Vedanta
of
[ch.
the
be contended
that when
it cannot
and hence
negation itself,
conviction of the negation of the world is also regarded as false
(forif the negation is not false then it remains as an entitydifferent
the unqualified
then this
monism
and hence
from Brahman
fails),
of the world-appearance; for negationof the
reinstates the reality
world-appearance is
much
as
false
the
as
of the
realization
world-appearanceitself,
the
negative thesis,
that the world-appearance does not exist,includes the negation
the only
of world-appearance,and hence
also as a manifestation
thing left is the realized identityof the truth, the being. The
of this illusion of world-appearance is this,that it
peculiarity
hence
and
as
appears
the
on
with
consistent
is not
there.
dawns.
This
indeed
is
appearance
of
This
or
inlaid in the
is dissolved
course
brings home
to
being {sat)though it
when
rightknowledge
the truth
us
which
appearance
an
truth
is different from
what
we
to us
as
(sadvilaksand)\for the real is known
and
which
is proved by the pramanas,
will never
that which
of proof.
again be falsified by later experience or other means
A thing is said to be true only so long as it is not contradicted ;
of rightknowledge this world-appearance
but since at the dawn
be regarded
will be found
it cannot
to be false and
non-existing,
know
as
is
real
real1. Thus
false;
that
The
as
Brahman
falsehood
is true, and
alone
and
truth
not
are
the
the
world-appearance
contrary
of falsehood
and
entities
will
such
truth.
mean
in
referringto it the
negation refers also to itself as a part of the world-appearance
and hence
not
only is the positiveworld-appearance false,but
itself is also false; when
the world-appearance is
the falsehood
itself
contradicted at the dawn
of rightknowledge, the falsehood
is also contradicted.
differs from
Brahman
luminous
(svaprakdsd)and
objectof
any
other
all other
has
no
consciousness
ideas,emotions, etc.,in
contrast
things in
form
; it cannot
that grasps
to
it
this that
are
it is self-
therefore
be the
called
things,
drsya (objectsof
x]
Brahman
Brahman
also,so
Upanisad text,
forth
and
drasta.
form
long
is not
apart from
as
The
mode.
and
the
it is understood
as
in its true
knowledge
of any
of the pure
notion
as
nature; it is
the associations
The
Appearance
form
445
meaning of the
only when it shines
that itis svaprakasa
a
is devoid
Brahman
of any
of
carries with
drsyatva(objectivity)
of jadatva (materiality)
it also the notion
its nature
as
nonor
consciousness
(^ajhdnatva)and non-selfness
(andtmatvd) which
consists in the want
of self-luminosity
of objectsof consciousness.
The
or
of consciousness
relation
real but
regarded as
later,it
see
is not
knowledge
and
conch-shell
is not
which
its
its
itself
shows
are
not
its
associated
impositionon
the
essence
it is the
with
pure
of
illumination
shall
natural
own
bliss
of
These
in
essence.
(dnauda) shines
the illuminating
there
illusory
extraneous
forms
only in
expression and
consciousness, not
for their
forms
itself. Whenever
consciousness,it is an
consciousness.
the
so
appearance,
of
consciousness,but
the
natural
own
forth,the
is a form
mere
be
consciousness
In the state
from
as
different
are
that
this
they
themselves
are
depend on
this
that
but objects of consciousness, but also in
they are all
finite determinations
consciousness, the
(paricchinna),whereas
soever.
abiding essence, is everywhere present without any limit whatThe
forms of the object such as cow, jug,etc. are limited
in themselves
in what
they are, but through them all the pure
is,the jug is,
being runs
by virtue of which we say that the cow
the pot is. Apart from this pure being running through all the
consciousness
individual
cowness
or
individual
there
appearances,
is
no
class
other
(Jdti)such
as
pratlyamdnatvdt).So
kalpitam,pratyekam tadanubiddhatvena
the
is essentiallydifferent from
Js world-appearance which
which
it
on
forms
the material cause
Brahman, the being which
is imposed, is false {updddnanisthdtyantdbhdvapratiyogitva
sanamithydtvasiddhih as Citsukha has it).
"
The
The
nature
of the
world-appearance,
world-appearance is
of silver in the
llusions is called
not
however
conch-shell,for
as
they
prdtibhdsika,
so
phenomena.
the
illusoryas
contradicted
ception
per-
worldly
by other
School
Sahkara
The
446
Vedanta
of
[ch.
whereas
the illusion of world-appearance is never
experiences,
contradicted in this worldly stage and is thus called vyavaharika
later
in
an
unreal.
sometimes
asked
the
that
it be defined
can
for
a
as
truth.
realitycannot
that which
this
Judged
which
gives only
this
from
all
realityin
is associated
appearance.
are
the
not
derived
ground of
(adhisthdnd) on
different with
perceptionsof
the Vedanta
it is
Vedanta
the
from
us,
answers
the
nor
senses,
of
all
our
directlyfrom
but
is the
not
of
of
the
it will
that
not
all
reallypersistsin
its forms.
not
of the
flash
experience
guarantee
stage. What
true
with
present
way
the
that
self-luminous
one
experience is
forms
evident
identical
Our
appearance
experience,
certifyits truth.
cannot
it will be
through
later
some
This
being
that
genus
nor
universal
but
moment,
it is the
of all
the substratum
objectiveevents
(ekenaiva sarvdnugatena sarvatra
satpratltih).
of being
existent
because they possess the genus
all
experience. Being
which
different
the
of their
but
they are
imposed on one
supposes,
appearance
and
guarantee
be
had
being (sat)and
with
(sat)as Nyaya
but
this
is
prehends
conception of realitycomabsoluteness,and
unalterability,
in any
cannot
at
appearances
Things
of view
of
of
reality(sattvd)before
To
appearance
is all
contradicted
experience is
an
experience
world-appearance
be
The
be
cannot
which
manifestations
of
notions
point
our
consciousness
the world-
of
it the
within
as
true.
world-appearance
is the content
conception of rightknowledge.
independence,
the
to
be
to
rightknowledge,
right knowledge without
any conception
and
no
reality,
conception of realitywithout a
as
of
conception
held
have
doctrine
the
see
we
be
we
view
have
cannot
we
point of
it has
of
notion
itself that
against this
how,
that
deny
can
As
world-appearance
by the accumulated
stage in which
our
of the
the
it must
such
comes
absolute
false and
such
as
manifest
to
and
ultimate
we
there
ceases
appearance
and
men,
all
is based
right knowledge
experience of all
It is only because
the
the
the
as
on
runs
which
on
the
illusions
things but
one
so
because
identical
is thus
appear.
they
the basis
being as
said
be
to
This
selves
them-
are
the
being
have
is
been
taken
supposed
is not
Our
in all appearances.
world-appearance could
which
if the reality
reality,
basis
as
of them
x]
World-appearancenot ultimatelytrue
could
be
perceivedby
did
the senses,
point the
not
other
inference, but
ascertained
been
has
be
will
never
also
againstit.
inference.
by
hence
The
us
there
realization
any
degree
be
no
to
of
our
The
be
the
to be
so
and
at
or
examination
on
the
for all
to exist
depend
such
solutely
is ab-
depend
we
ascertained
convince
may
by
the
universal
world,
before
it is
is
us
to
also
that
us
will
the
that
only denies
time
never
Vedanta
prove
; it
with
to us
prove
stage. The
enquiry
and
proved
reality.
world-appearance will
times, and
by
practicalfruition
external
it appears
as
have
perception,but
it is that
any
and
exists
now
the
ception
per-
we
We
enquiry cannot
that
time
any
and
erroneous.
world-appearance
perceived by
contradicted
at
the
time
one
dawns
the
perceptionwhich
in
us.
The
Our
time.
disprovethe
therefore
is
to
prove
future
any
world-appearance
at
cannot
us
false,and
the
to
the
will
the
inference
Vedanta
itself
it will demonstrate
the
grasps
these
perceptionof
right knowledge
testimony of the Upanisads
when
that
us
it
when
come
the
person
world-appearance cannot
that
in the
satisfaction
at
inference
our
objects as
never
the
emancipated
exist.
manner.
small, but
which
on
in it. True
error
that
continue
the
that
be
only be
enquiry {pariksd),which
endeavours
world-appearance
cannot
validity
own
world-appearance
realitycan
or
of examination
that
by
contemporaries and by
contradicted
admits
that
and
our
beyond doubt
this sort
validate
in-
course
real,if it is contradicted
to
sun
transactions
our
prove
our
of
But
of
uncontested
or
perceptions are
Validity
is
testimony of
perceive the
for all
examination
that
perceiveis true
our
cannot
valid.
proper
tures)
(scrip-
sruti
our
is contradicted
that
{upajlvyd)indeed
dependence
and
all
case
admit
to
with
mere
We
this
in
so
undoubted
an
case
that what
prove
do
and
Perception can
its
only when
way.
can
if inference
pearance,
perceptions of the world-apthese
that
our
cannot
present perceptions
prove
contradicted
in future,and
inference
and
sruti are
for
cannot
in
the
is not
this
But
it
and
447
of Brahman
as
also contradicts
world-appearance in
its manifold
aspect.
Moreover
false,for
between
we
are
led
to
think
that
the
world-appearance
it is not
the
(drsya).Consciousness
must
be
admitted
to
have
true
is
relation
consciousness
some
kind
of
it
neither
can
be
apart from
and
We
other.
what
but
be
of connection
kind
that
like the
an
that
say
also
objectivity
associated
the
connections
objects of
difficult
the
are
the
perceivable in
object as
objectsof
know
define.
upon
of
specialeffect
object,for such
any
way
for
thinks,
nor
can
us)
to
there
are
but
consciousness
our
no
It cannot
(ofbeing useful
Prabhakara
its
consciousness,
our
that
practicalpurpose
been
(samavdya)\
we
to
means
produced
or
any
things which
considered
is
admissible
with
the
it not
possibleto imagine
and its objects,
for
inherence
nor
consciousness
Mlmamsa
mean
of
had
irrespectiveof
it is not
it is indeed
by
objectivityof
time
any
consciousness
things are
is meant
of
jfiatata
at
kinds
two
[ch.
illumines,for
(samyogd)
contact
these
effect is not
many
between
Vedanta
of
it
objects. But
the
with
connections
any
be
could
there
so
objectswhich
any knowledge
the
with
connection
School
Sankara
The
448
not
also cannot
mean
(e.g.the sky). Objectivity
that the thing is the object of the thought-movement
{jndnakdrand) involved in knowledge, for this can only be with reference
and
to objects present to the perceiver,
cannot
apply to objects
about
of past time
not
useful
as
present how
which
it be
can
Objectivityfurther
forms
this
the
on
in the
the
inference,where
not
mould
try
to conceive
we
and
becoming objects of
seen
between
admitted
that
nothing
the
its
conceive
illusory.
though all things
Vedanta
by
on
external
such
not
to
be
the
that
and
sense-contact
even
and
does
in whatever
things existingseparately
fail. We
we
of any
the
but
are
if that
Thus
of
true
kind
have
also
of relation
hence
sisting
sub-
it has
to be
is after all
world-appearance
but
Now
even
is far away
consciousness,and
imposition of
be
cannot
form.
own
manifold
objectsand
objects,for though
perception,it
consciousness
it is difficult to
that
called
consciousness
after
way
may
of
object of
consciousness
hence
are
case
if the
thing is
an
objectof thought-movement ?
that the thingsprojecttheir own
mean
and
conscious, for
be
may
made
cannot
knowledge
apply
may
one
why
so
this
only
can
particularmental
not
assumption
world
of
sciousness
illusoryimpositions on conspecific
objectsit is admitted
without
take
states
rather
admit
of the
absolute
The
answer
that
this
take
can
realityof the
that
the Vedanta
place
manifold
gives to
of illumination
is the
work
of
has
one
basis
in the
is not
of my
content
{vrtti),so that
"knowledge is silver"
mental
phenomena
have
such
as
cit
the
through
Without
states.
Phenomenal
forms
this
of
entity
the
through
states
begin
can
there
and
there
been
and
luminous
there
the
suffer
(upddhi). It
manifests
specifickind
of vrtti.
itself
pure
any
for it holds
admit,
mental
the
the
basis
through
as
mental
such
of
ledge,
know-
are
It is this selfforms
diverse
assume
limitations
or
the
or
which
reality,
their
as
samyoga
of all
phenomenal
that
consciousness
There
is at
is
the
once
interpreterby
only
one
basis
reflection
vrttis.
forms
reality;there
as
the
states.
objects called
various
and
any
consciousness
pure
ground
by
inner
difference,no
the
reality,
mental
or
or
no
to
reality
states, which
associations
course
and
the
well
states
phenomena
relation
to
Had
it has
self-luminous
mental
be
already
so
cease;
destruction.
seems
is of
consciousness
ultimate
also
the
objectiveworld,
phenomena
the
of
kinds
There
the
of the
in their
their
other
no
is manifested
what
eternal
one
that
between
is the essence,
appearances
to
is the
diverse
varieties
outer
The
is
the
remove
through
there
not
would
originationand
with
the
of
all illumination
the
characteristics
in connection
of
forms
these
operation of
interpretreality,realitymust
consciousness
identical
from
does
reality,
or
tion
mind-modifica-
or
states
apart
as
temporarily removed
since
mental
the
manifest
mould
that
before
that
to
that
by
material
manifests
said
validityof knowledge
untouched
which
mental
Vedanta
This
is
cit
one
no
admitted
and
covering them
with
of
only
about
moving
this
the
itself
can
reality,
consciousness
it is necessary
is made
knowledge
world
basis
unchangeable
through
states.
pression
ex-
in the
is sometimes
pure
of
states
the
there
lightof
be
Objective
basis,whereas
are
in touch
coming
{vrtti).It
knowledge must
be
is silver."
there
the
on
basis,this
their
that
of "this
as
of
vrtti
when
by
but
realityas
form
the
is not
their
in my
mould
or
through the mental
is no
illuminatingknowledge.
creations
shadowy
but
the
manifested
as
illusion
manifested
being
[ch.
the
of them
of illumination
Vedanta
of
knowledge
state
the
that
School
Sankara
The
450
and
is
no
the
dr"ya
can
only
but
manifestations
existence
(contact)or
samavaya
as
an
termined
be denot
as
entity of
(inherence)
x]
Brahman,
between
them
truth
is
have
one
the
and
ground of Illusory
Impositions
the pure
this,that
the
drk
it.
on
It is sometimes
identical
illusorycreations
consciousness
45
objected that
in the
ordinary psychological
"this is silver,"
the knowledge of "this" as a thing
as
only of a general and indefinite nature, for it is perceived
its specialcharacteristics as a conch-shell
a thing but
not
are
illusion such
is
as
noticed,and
thus
consciousness
there
of any
illusion
"this"
the
as
the
as
characteristic
character
be
may
because
as
are
pieceof
possible.But
neither
kind, and
be. The
can
stands
the illusion is
hence
conch-shell
definite
nor
it cannot
or
pure
indefinite characteristics
be the
ground
as
perceivedindefinitely
of Vedanta
answer
in Brahman
is that when
of any
a
mere
the Brahman
said
the
the Brahman
illusion
in its true
of
never
noticed ;
or
rather
it
world-appearance is possible
and
correct
nature
is
never
vealed
re-
in
infinite bliss is
and
pure
our
can
could
may
all
serve
do ;
be
so
in dreams
even
bad
functions and
as
organs
to
affect
of
man.
feel
we
or
in
us
29"2
the
experience of
the
Vedanta
[ch.
before
even
his
cognition the
able
unknowworld-appearance were
running in some
existence
(svena adhyastasya saviskarasyaviyaddd-
of
phenomena
of
state
of
individual, for
for each
creation
School
Sankara
The
452
tatpratityabJidvepi
tadadhydsasyapicryadhydsajanakatvopapatteh
krtsnasydpi vyavahdrikapaddrthasya ajhdtasattvdbhyupagamdt). It is again sometimes
objected that illusion is
sattvdt
vam
malobserved
produced by
illusorynotion as
similarityis found between
and
no
such
this Vedanta
To
conch
is
the
through
that
says
of bile
this
silver,"but
is
the
and
world-
similarityis not an
illusion (e.g.
when
an
to
the defect
potenciesof past
the
dispensab
ina
of the eye
pitta).Similarityhelps the
or
by rousing up
; but
memories
Brahman
in the
influence
of illusion
or
the
production of
perceived as yellow owing
factor
sthana)
ground {adhi-
the
silver in "this
the
appearance.
white
similaritybetween
duction
pro-
impressions
as
may
well
be
of our
the unseen
by adrsta
past good or bad deeds.
power
defect is necessary
but the illusion of
In ordinary illusion some
this world-appearance is beginningless,and
hence it awaits
no
done
"
other
(defect)than
dosa
Here
the appearance.
only adhisthana
self-luminous
have
or
at
all.
Hence
association
the
As
with
veil and
soon
the
as
mental
the
not
Brahman
the Brahman,
been
illusorycreations
of the
cause
is the
direct
could
the
not
perception
indefinite
is
states
for
necessary
removing
appear.
completely realized the illusions disdisappearance of the phenomena means
nothing
the
the
is
realization
The
Ajftana
The
adhisthana
Brahman
The
than
there
and
constitutes
adhisthana.
manifesting thereby the self-luminous
the adhisthana, the ground, the reality,
the blissful
self-luminous
more
Had
adhisthana,
manifested
been
avidya (nescience)which
ground.
the
as
the
of the
Definition
cause
of
self-luminous
(nescience).
Ajnana
of all illusions
Brahman.
is defined
as
that
which
is
beginningless,
by knowledge {anddiyet positiveand removable
bhdvarupatvesati jndnanivartyatvani).Though it manifests itself
in all
perception)which
beginning,for it
have
it before
beginning
is associated
with
the
in
they
become
time, yet
pure
objectsof
it itself has
consciousness
no
which
x]
Nature
of A j nana
is
opposite of
abhava
(negation)but
sense
from
both
which
category
ordinary
well
position as
but
(anddi);
said
been
well
as
for
notion
ground
be
to
the
as
the
which
definite
the
it
beginningless yet
beginning
the
whether
of
illusion
is
that
say
as
thing
be
it is
the
it is not
It is not
through
the
is unreal
also is unreal
or
that
true
of
should
be
the
cause
being
it is
for to have
determine
for the
not
of the
the
the
solution
dis-
thing which
the
comes
which
cause
Vedantists
Some
and
constitutingillusion,
material
are
cit, the
is different
way
or
not.
is
unnatural
of it.
thing,for
that
the
what
is
this,
changes
positivecan
in the
that
necessary
in all
same
produced
regarded
(updddna)
cause
the
be
it may
of any
matter
what
being
ajfianais
illusion ; it is not
only
it is not
any
whether
matter
the
the
as
knowledge
when
persistas
effects which
and
in
not
substance
came
by knowledge,
that
ground
negative. Though
the presence
of the
notion
continue
the
have
into
such
as
dissolution
to
not
be
it
merely
ajfianatherefore
positiveentity yet
substance
for the
the
if the
here,
case
it is
it could
beginningless. The
upon
the
imagination
an
that
with
beginningless or
was
is different
of the moment
the
it does
it does
the
beginningless
defects ; for
associated
fact
ajfianaas
though
it should
Illusion
the
removed
have
thing depends
define
is necessary
and
it is
is not
only a positiveentityshould
effects.
product
subject
is
destroyed ;
forming
that
be
positiveand
can
to
the illusion
produced
however
not
or
it ; and
cause
can
the
or
which
one
is
positivein
be
to
necessarilymean
not
it is also
with
it is
negation {abhava).
mere
it cannot
of
indefinite
from
that
this
third
produced by
but
from
its difference
negation. It is sometimes
illusoryimagination of the moment
illusorycreation
moment,
the
here
mean
positiveentity,but
neither
hence
temporary
associated
ever
holds
not
negation
from
and
(dosa)
Vedanta
temporary
as
mere
imposition,does
rather
or
defect
by
caused
it is not
negative, but
nor
of
essence
merely
other
any
positive
as
is believed
like
positivesimply because
It is
the
notes
(abhdva-vilaksanatvarndtram
called
described
been
positivity
(bhdvatva) does
positiveentity(bhdva)
453
time
of
persistin
process.
ajfianawhich
The Sahkara
454
Ajnana
established
School
Vedanta
of
by Perception
and
[ch.
Inference.
nor
Ajnana denned as the indefinitewhich is neither positive
also
in
is
such
directly
experiencedby us
negative
perceptions
know
I
do
do
not
I
not
as
know, or
myself or anybody else,"
know
what
do
I
not
or
particularlyI had
you say,"or more
did not know anything."Such
been sleeping
so longhappilyand
pointto an objectwhich has no definite characteristics,
perceptions
and which cannot
or negative.
properlybe said to be either positive
is not
It may
be objectedthat the perception I do not know"
the ajnana,but merely the negathe perception
of the indefinite,
tion
of knowledge. To this Vedanta
had
been
that
it
the
says
perceptionof a negationmerely,then the negationmust have
been
associated with the specific
object to which it applied.
A negation must
imply the thing negatived; in fact negation
generallyappears as a substantive with the objectof negation
of the negation.
the nature
character specifying
as
a qualifying
I had no knowledge" does
But the perception
"I do not know
or
not involve the negation of any
particular
knowledge of any
specific
object,but the knowledge of an indefinite objectless
in the sense
that
ignorance.Such an indefinite ajnanais positive
itis certainlynot
this positive
indefiniteis not positive
negative,but
in the same
in which other definite entities are called positive,
sense
for it is merely the characterless,
passiveindefinite showing itself
in our
experience.If negationmeant
only a generalnegation,
and if the perceptionof negationmeant
in each case
the perception
of a generalnegation,
then even
where there is a jug on
the ground,one
should perceivethe negationof the jug on the
ground,for the generalnegationin relation to other thingsis there.
Thus
the generalnotion of the
negationof a thingcannot mean
of
all
out
a generalnegationwithnegation
specific
things; similarly
which
it
objectto
might apply cannot manifest
any specific
itself to consciousness ; the notion of a generalnegationof knowledge
is thus opposed to any and every knowledge,so that if the
latter is present the former cannot
be, but the perception I do
not know
can
even
though many individual objectsbe
persist,
known to us. Thus instead of sayingthat the perception
of "I do
is the perceptionof a specialkind of negation,
not know
it is
rather better to say that it is the perception
of a different category
the ajfiana.
It is our common
namely the indefinite,
experience
u
"
"
"
"
"
"
x]
Ajnana
that
after
experiencing the
launch
we
forth
admitted
that the
perception of
its diverse
in
Of
forms
when
far
as
states
it
(knowledge)
of
themselves
as
to
unknown.
comprehend
but
merely
can
with
reference
negation
of
of
absence
to
of the
ajnana
in
as
ordinary
regard
it is
to
or
of
states
as
knowledge
ignorance,but it is unable to
negation {abhava) is not a perception,
ajnana
negation,for
know
not
our
for the
indefinite
as
the
I do
of
the
I say
is different from
character
or
perception{anupalabdhi).Thus
this,I perceivethe
indefinite
that
thing,and this is
thing. An objection is
not
when
in consciousness
perceptionof
the
raised
sometimes
of
without
before
well
the
the
objectbeing
maxim
qualifiedthing
out
of
but
is
that
the
is known
first and
known
first
To
its
be
sciousness
con-
known
can
It
qualification.
this Vedanta
be
must
qualification
is groundless,for we
then
from
the
repliesthat
be
to
specifickinds
as
the indefinite
a
vrttijnana about
thing
in,the ajnana with
objects comes
positiveseither
or
it has
it. So
remove
the
our
is conceived
specific
type
perceiving
both
the root ajnana as well
reference
to particular
objectsas represented
{vrttijnana),are comprehended by it.
with
temporarily removed,
so
455
{ajnana) of
to
negation. The
{sdksi)is such that
perceptions of
But
indefinite
perceptionof
mental
course
Negation
endeavours
our
mere
consciousness
as
in
not
as
is not
separate entity,
of the
positive.
and
"
the
appear
as
the
negation
of
jug,negation
of
cloth,etc.
so
all
and
it may
be
negations are unnecessary,
accepted that negation like positionis one which appears as many
and
the
of illusory distinctions
account
impositions. Thus
on
distinctions
between
School
Sahkara
The
456
Vedanta
of
[ch.
content
perception
I do
"
first what
"
impossibleto
So
also
know
say
the
anything
man
invariable
the
he
the
could
of the
form
the
by
of the
and
indefinite,
remembers
one
perceiveanything
consciousness
is
of
the
had
is
the
the
no
active
indefinite
The
is
no
of
state
mental
mediately
imstate
it is
state
that
of
state
I did
"
not
(ajh"na) perceived in
than
general
and
mental
says
an
activity
object of
in the
awakened
and
only
for there
is
aforesaid
state
fundamental
more
that
he
since
the
to
pleasant and
the
state
during
that
long."
so
from
that
say
long"
so
not
perception
appears
state.
it is
did
and
objects of knowledge
impression {samskdra)
ajfianathat
what
anything;
the pleasant and
of
absence
know
then
so
some
as
know
not
between
preceding
true
anything
that
perception
the
to
referring
as
awakened
and
the
you
It is not
in the
senses
also
should
hearer
if this is
possibleto infer
concomitance
and
was
the
So
say."
sleeping long
know
sleep state
then,
senses
what
the
refer to
the
is not
say
perception,but
no
is not
in the
knowledge
"
I did not
as
of the
ceased
had
know
to be admitted
is
"
state
not
during sleep.
inference; for, it
active
I do
has
the
you
require that
speaker, and
cognition
"
indefinite
of the
by
said
was
what
this would
negation,for
of
know
not
"
to
reason
no
"
"
are
the
mere
connected
so
inferred from
be
the
in direct and
state
as
well
The
this
which
say
"
was
I did
which
the
removing
known
not
know
the
See
inferred
in
not
or
it
the
first streak
in the awakened
sleeping state.
rather
of
involves
and
light in
darkness1.
known
before,but
thing thus
veilingit before
was
both
ajfianamay also be
knowledge of objectsis revealed
takes
always
consciousness
of this
presence
knowledge of
as
in the
as
in which
manner
as
immediate
consciousness
it now."
removal
the
consciousness,
indefinite before
as
I know
the
from
of
My
an
we
present
indefinite
Apart
from
such
an
Paficapadikdvivarancii
Tattvadipana, and
inference
Advaitasiddhi.
its exist-
but
such
by causing
seems
School
that
appearance
we
the
think
to
seem
Vedanta
of
[ch.
self-luminous
that
{ndsti na
shine
an
that
behave
to
so
not
Sankara
The
45 8
it is not
it does
or
rather
or
cit
there
is
no
of its
is
shining or luminosity. To say that Brahman
hidden
than
this,that it is
nothing more
by the ajflanameans
such (tadyogyata)that the ajflanacan
relate itself with it that
so
appearance
it appears
of
states
opposed
which
by
the
to
also
of
regard to its
with
regard to
do
of
essence
is only
Brahman
its
pure
may
be
as
that
said
the
as
dispel
once
the
dissolved
of the
cit is not
consciousness
infinite
indefinite
experience
as
obstructingthe
presence
full infinite bliss
; and
as
aspects
modes,
or
ajflanahas
with
our
cit
pure
constitutingthe
there
phenomenal
our
but it seems
states
many
bliss;
in
result of that
of the bliss in
ajflanais one,
reality
is not
and
pure
the
is obstructed
cit in various
at
limitless
pure
cit. It
pure
lightof
obstruction
This
the
experiencesof pleasure.The
these
the
on
the
the obstruction
incomplete manifestation
an
the
thus
not
by
object in
its character
though we
pleasurablefeelings,
yet
is indicated
and
character
it is that
so
consciousness, for
ajflanais
us, so long as
for
of
state
its locus
of consciousness.
states
with
both
states
it obstructs
only
in the
as
of this
action
the
but
have
to
it. The
hidden
in
ajflana-consciousness
considered
is
be
to
to obstruct
regard to
which
it
constitutingthe
as
consciousness
as
removes
(vrttijflana)
and
tulajflana
The
4"ure
of
in the notion
is
union
creatingan
as
of
the ego
the
associations,such
the
self-luminous
it is the
in the
notion
or
knowledge
the
of
this
ahamkara.
This
of the
limitations,
characters,and
ego
as
of
an
ajflana
object.
is demonstrated
notion
of ahamkara
and
consciousness
pure
characterless
of the
ajflanaas obstructingthe
illusoryphenomenon
self,the
true
as
as
action
important
most
cit,and
itself
reveals
manifestation
past experiences,etc.;
Brahman
the
associations.
other
that
is found
structed
ob-
repositoryof a thousand
creation of
This illusory
held
notion
up
of
in the
the
ego
mind
runs
on
from
{ajitahkarana)with
the
real,the
false with
x]
Mtmamsa
and
as
of the ego.
there
here
of
into
two
self
I say
"
the
ball and
part
"
perceive
consciousness
as
The
one.
of
and
there
the
mind
with
materiality,
sorrow,
of ego
notion
contains
two
so
fused
antahkarana
or
and
Thus
notion
distinct elements
two
are
taken
the
as
fire fused
the
aspect associated
or
cit
we
entities
also when
the
when
459
It is the antahkarana
of illusion.
Just as
are
Nyaya Objections
that which
is the self.
the other
real and
parts, one
unreal.
remember
We
sought
that
self-luminous, and
held
that
thought (triputi),
object of knowledge,
analogy
of the
fire
the
and
never
and
iron
two
is like
illuminates
lightwhich
it does
that
be
well
held
indeed
{anubhavd)
quality of
the
atomic
in
self1.
not
between
the
medium
if it
were
would
According to Nyaya
but
it would
size
result
it is not
of suitable
iron
ball
and
the
the
self
the atman
consciousness
collocations.
objectand
the
of
self,and
the
anything
self and
the
Nyaya
affect itselfas
size, it
the
hold, for
and
manifest
it would
depend
is conscious
on
this
like other
If it were
illumination.
small
illuminate
as
knowledge
thought
Prabhakara
movement
only
ments,^
move-
substance
portion of
everything,
own
self-luminosity
(svaprakdfa)
says (p.432)
sacetana"cita yogattadyogena vinajadah
narthavabhasadanyaddhi caitanyavi nama
sciousness,
con-
with
only
refutingthe doctrine of
is associated
Nyayamaiijari in
as
its
{cit).Consciousness
Thus
self may
the
thinks
Kumarila
same.
movement,
But
the
the
revealing itself,
as
thing, if all-pervasivethen
if of
as
be
to
could
and
and
one
that
Vedanta
self-luminous;
be
to
said
the
regarded
be
can
both
Prabhakara's
to
the
knowledge,
further
not
assistance
But
relation
any
knowledge
are
its purpose.
according
discover
require the
not
of
fulfilling
did
of
nature
can
separately experienced, and we
are
reallydifferent and only have an
seeming unity. Perception (anubhavd)
of
like
the
He
self to be
the
threefold
reveals
self.
ball
illusoryappearance
a
is the
once
the
consider
not
such
it at
never
these
that
did
Prabhakara
which
are
say
that
distinctly
that
red-hot
are
antahkarana
is
Prabhakara
repudiate.
to
this
manmahc.
it
and
constitution
of the
self
that
is the
[ch.
of the
also it has
then
lamp,
the
produced by
was
Thus
it is to
self-luminous
the
Vedanta
of
regarded
whether
knowledge,
self is thus
which
it
School
the self. If it is
produced
self,the atman,
of his
on
lightis
the
as
it be
else could
The
not
supposed
be
to
Sahkara
The
460
same
self,for
be
who
sees
the
vijfiana,
as
quality
necessarily
a
from
admitted
entity. No
it is he
as
what
that
doubts
one
any
else.
anybody
or
the
consciousness,
pure
of itself self-luminous1.
is
always
Again, though consciousness
waking or sleeping,yet ahamkara
is
continuous
all
in
stages,
is absent
that
from
"
"
ajfiana and
antahkarna
of
"
I did
not
{vrtti)of
of
state
as
a
waking, this ahamkara
then
the peris again generated, and
it associates
ception
the ajfianain the sleep and originatesthe perception
know
which
is a mode
anything." This ahamkara
the
the
manifested
self; on
antahkarana
be
agent
the
active
be
may
be
antahkarana.
have
we
and
then
even
regarded
ahamkara
the
only
as
is
active
illusorily
to
ahamkara
mode
vrtti
the
the
as
is
kriyas'akti
of
antahkarana
same
and
willing. The
already seen,
such
as
The
result of that
knowing
in
and
as
associated; but
ahamkara,
the
self,and
regarded, as
antahkarana,
now
by avidya,and
jfianasakti(power of knowledge)
of the ahamkara
work). This kriyas'akti
the
itself is
constituted
as
(power of
imposed upon
an
is thus
or
vrtti of
side
is called
antahkarana,
aspect of
or
in its
manas
pure
called
is not
it cannot
a
a
jlva. It
mere
stand
directlyby the
the phenomena
See
is clear
See
from
own
pure
nature
the
is the
alone, without
as
the
the
indefinite
pp. 130-140,
this
with
above
account
principleof the
consciousness
remain
Nyayamakaranda^
PP- 53-582
in association
nothing,but
it (dsraya); its
forth
that
the
it is
ajfiana
phenomena.
But
Citsukha
Vedanta-paribhafd,
p. 88, Bombay
antahkarana,
edition.
and
Vivaranaprameyasamgraha%
x]
IndefinableCharade?'
antahkarana,
the
these
The
states.
is itself
movements
the
antahkarana
associations
and
jlva or
soul
already
have
in direct
experienced
only
are
Brahman,
has
for its
the
which
different
only
be
known
as
indefinite.
all these
the
else
as
the
Dialectic.
indefinite
ajnana
according to
of
category
from
the
our
been
But
could
Vedanta
the
be
there
real, the
this indefinite
dawns.
Nothing
of this indefinite
phenomena
of
selflatter
which
is
however
can
If it is indefinite
pure
reason.
objectiveworld
are
with
would
that
all
come
out
all
can
of it?
It is
to have
it
proved
nescience, how
of world-existence
forms
seeming appearance,
being,then it
pure
It has
containing
infinite
permanent
derive
to
the
Brahman
and
only relatively,
except
appeal
moment,
and
variety of world-forms
names,
this
is
indeed
or
avidya,ajnana
originatedby
maya
are
the
to
and
all the
events, the
said to exist
and
is
of the
nature
That
well-defined
beside
Vedanta
world.
category
hardly comprehensible.
these
through
of the
about
of
order
forth
career.
the
that
existence
knowledge
true
his
manifold
the
the
from
relative
arise in
diversityof
the
ahamkara
states
ajnana-phenomena
perception and
and
shines
real
itself
categories. The
two
luminous
of
and
seen
the
of which
began
Anirvacyavada
We
corresponding
light of
46
manifest
only
can
it,when
beginninglesssystem
it the
within
of World-appearance
no
be
other
indefensible
whatever
of truth
element
in the
notions
and
self-contradictory,
we
in it except
lightof
have
reason.
about
the
thus
groundlessand
indefinite they must
false.
If
they
have
all
examined, and
that
they are
make
cannot
one
that
or
they
notions
6rlharsa and
his commentator
of
account
I shall
the
their
possibleof
the
of
our
by
notions
complete
of reality.
example.
one
of
the
notion
Four
difference
of
explanations are
difference:
of
notion
as
It is impossible
give
to
various
examination
the
Citsukha.
chapter
our
them
undertaken
were
Khandanakhandakhddya.
from
(bhedd)
of
about
negative criticisms
follower
this
[ch.
assertion
world-order
of
criticisms
take
us
Such
and
limits
Let
the
Vedanta
of
such
any
not.
are
about
fundamental
within
School
Sahkara
The
462
be
may
in our
characteristics
perience
experceived as appearing in its own
thinks ; (2)the difference
{svarupa-bheda)as Prabhakara
between
two
things is nothing but the absence of one in the other
ference
Naiyayikas and Bhattas think ; (3) dif(anyonydbhdvd),as some
means
Vaisesikas
divergence of characteristics
speak of it ; (4) difference may
alternative,we
it is said
that
see
difference
cloth
of
into
in
the
form
the
cloth
the
of
as
be
each
the
is
thing
as
which
something else, it
jug, etc. from which
perceived directly in
is
can
be
existence
their
from
directlyperceived by
difference
that
else
something
is
perception
perceived
of
the
two
perception of difference between
things has
identical perception,then
the
together in the same
apparent.
Difference
as
from
we
the
may
the
jug, and
cloth
be
the
very
in the
that
that
is the nature
ask, what
how
nature
nature
an
which
can
the
the
cloth
of
jug ?
the
of the
if
penetrated
what
not
from
difference is
difference
as
an
itself represents
by
the
jug,
If the difference
jug, then
jug. If it is
the
But
difference
this is indicated
of the
also
diction
self-contra-
entityis
means
such
must
cloth.
the
becomes
perceive
the jug?
we
naturally mean
difference
the
cloth
could
how
difference
expected
the
must
the
would
the
and
by perceiving the
teristic
jug as the charachave
penetrated
the
also
jug
jug
first
the
Taking
if
from
the
as
separate quality
and
But
otherwise
difference
as
the
form
very
its difference
cloth,
the
that
other.
its characteristics
then
senses,
from
from
cloth, then
i.e. if difference
the
by their
perceive only
we
be
represent in themselves
mutual
(vaidharmya)
the
said
cloth
that
x]
Categoryof Difference
jug only indicates
the
is intended
how
for
be
to
can
and
is yet
it is
of
term
the
the
jug
also be
is
for
also in
cloth
which
itself;and
the
the
if the
of
be
term
from
the
the
cloth
of its relation
old
would
difficulty
involve
in the
the
of
nature
the
manner
hence
If
If its difference
is involved
cloth, and
things,
of difference?
also the
same
pendent
is inde-
other
independent
cloth
by
impossible,
which
notion
the
difference
becomes
jug, then
from
quality,then
character
the
is
which
it is differentiated.
qualityof
also
its difference
establishes
its difference
its
as
of
from
term
difference,it cannot
cloth
in,
comes
which
things from
to other
from
association
term
it is
we
of any
that
463
jug
would
difference but
not
if
qualitieshave
not, then
absence
be
might
relation
to
relate
to
other
viewed
But
jug, etc.
things,they
appear
that
reference
be
cannot
that
of both
there
that the
as
the
jug
and
jug
are
notion
of
the
jug
the
cloth, I
same
as
does
merely
shows
that
that
not
jug
the
or
from
notion
difference cannot
of cloth
be
the
is
I
what
an
mean
has
its limits
has
the
is
entirely
also
from
thing
thing
reference
notions
difference
jug
one
reference
characteristic
are
difference.
jug cannot
I say
when
cloth;
the
they
different
with
requirethe
the
when
another
Thus
viewed
that
mean
be
reference
It should
It is
quite
the cloth.
Moreover,
never
the
but
is also
cloth, and
it may
without
seen
cloth.
the
is different from
jug
difference,though
The
and
on.
so
as
they appear
perception as jug
of difference
notion
again
Again, it
etc.
the
thing
every-
relation
would
that
perception of difference.
the
the
for
so,
are
is
have
require another
and
jug, etc.,
as
cloth,
to
If there
would
another,
they
everywhere
relation,and
that
the
relation
different from
that
itself with
if
things;
same
relation
when
this
notions
that
then
that
with
noted
the
and
said
be
being
with
quality of everything.
two,
requireanother
may
of relation
the
these
between
relation
any
be
the
to
say
to
say
appear
to
of other
cloth.
things
is different
jug
entitywhich
is that
is
the
jug, and
jug. This
in the
to
nature
of the
thing perceived.
Again,
in
the
second
alternative
where
difference
of
two
Sankara
The
464
things is
defined
the
as
cloth
the
of
the
that
jug
difference
cloth
and
cloth
cloth
is not
is its difference
absence
also
resides
of
is not
also
explained. If
their difference
the
the
the
in
as
or
cloth
is rather
mutual
the
the
also
would
require
this would
the
same
negation of
then
the absence
is not
jug
also
jug,
cloth, and
that
other, we
that the
jug, then
from
jug
the
in
thing in
means
in
[ch.
I say
the
Vedanta
of
of each
identity.If it is said
a
separate thing,but
to
then
itself,
jug
for when
arises ;
difficulty
jug in the cloth
residence
absence
in
that
or
School
reduce
jug
in the
identical
cloth
of
exclusion
be
cannot
this mutual
might
and
clothness
of
well
as
jugness in
say
jugness
that
are
there
and
one
is
no
clothness
the same,
amount
to
and
in
hence
the absence
cloth, for
absence
of clothness
in the
as
such
which
is
ceases
to
exist.
things are
other, then
apart from
the
differences
"
the
of them
natural
forms
excludes
forms
of
the
"
the
If natural forms
thingsare reduced to formlessness {nifisvarupata).
then as the
specialnatural forms {svarupa-visesd)
{svarupd)mean
specialnatural forms or characteristics only represent difference,
the specialones
of the things as apart from
the natural
forms
be proved that there
would
to be identical. So also it may
appear
which
is no such qualityas prthaktva (separateness)
can
explain
questionswould arise as
separateness exists in different things or similar ones
it
separateness is identical with the thing in which
differences of
to
or
whether
whether
exists
or
things,for
not, and
so
there
forth.
also
the
and
it. Certain
effects,but
the
fact
is
cause
truth
and
of
was
only a more
complex form
ground, the root, out of which
such
of
the
of
present
forth
and
find
being, we
into
unable
are
antecedent
an
to
that
what
the
of
the
which
the
at
of
cause
effect
the
is the
If
forth?
come
pictorial
representation
collocations
variably
being in-
some
the
into
penetrate
was
we
and
appears
effect has
an
at
what
it
enquiry
manifestation, what
the
enquiry we take
phenomena in which
causal
than
in
fundamental
more
know
to
was
apart from
simpler form
had
production
inexplicable. Our
thing
wished
we
sought
we
and
causation
enquiry after
an
when
jug, what
the
of
of the
moment
present
cannot
quite undefinable
form
primary
be
concept
something
the
this
could
phenomena
after
[ch.
insufficient
In
Vedanta
of
its transformations
by
certain
School
Sahkara
The
466
logic of
effect
springs
before,
were
affair. The
the
and
in a
effect may
be of use
to
us
Nyaya definition of cause
generalway in associatingcertain groups of things of a particular
other
kind with certain
phenomena happening at a succeeding
moment
other
also
more
than
of
as
this. It does
Antecedence
cause.
condition
is
continuous
one
again
involve
of the
and
dependent
question as to
is regarded in this view
answer
in time
cause.
entity;
succession
and
succession
antecedence
and
each
But
of
time
then
antecedence,
of
the notions
antecedent
an
house,
such
must
an
water
Asses
be
the
as
the
being
to
from
the
to the
understand
tim"
mutualh
of these
can
condition
Asses
are
is
invariable
as
washerman's
If it
happening of
anything about
in India.
these
invariably present
of the smoke1.
cause
carryingsoiled linen
washing in the laundry.
used in
is boiled for
as
is
rising
contributes
again difficult
are
which
ass
smoke
regarded
antecedence
it becomes
1
to
an
ceived
con-
of
of succession
of time
consequence
be
and
phenomena,
other
even
pensable
indis-
an
only
can
(anyonydsrayd) neither
be conceived
independently. Another
important
But what
If it means
does that mean?
invariability.
upon
as
nature
consequence
; thus
the
our
for the
antecedence
as
not
the
means
effect,
its contri-
x]
Theory of Causation
the
buting to
and
effect,for
the
dence
only intelligible
thing is the anteceIf invariability
the existence
of
means
nothing more.
of which
will not
of the seed
is said
that
with
the
cause
into
shoot,for
no
being,then
the
factors,then
also
cause
from
so
specialkind
of effect
kind
etc.
presence
shoot.
If it
it is
ciated
asso-
questionremains
not
understood
what
is meant
by cause.
effect is often seen
to be produced by
with
of
its
cause
own
(cf.Vatsyayana
as
which
fails. It cannot
each
particular
of effect that
fail get
special
of
factors,then
as
to what
and
without
can
that
as
kind
particular
we
same
the
associated
also
the
the same
Again when
be defined
cannot
pluralityof causes, the cause
the effect
happening the effect happens and failing
also be said that in spiteof the plurality
of causes,
is
mere
the
produce the effect,
produce an effect only when
can
have
we
suffice to
its accessory
for
same,
467
is meant
(sdmagri) be defined as
immediately succeeding which
relation
of movement
with
Moreover
the
to
its effect is
series of
Thus
in whatsoever
the
way
themselves
or
carved
of the
is
may
we
in relation
may
to
indefinite
seek
the
to
find out
interminable
the characteristics
ajfianaof maya,
try to conceive these phenomena in
all
for they are
another
we
fail,
one
and
and
and
are
illusory,
illogical
and
The
day will vanish for ever.
being,the realitywhich is unshakable
some
we
way
causal
indescribable
are
in whatever
out
the
of
principlefrom
fail. All
cause-effect phenomena we
of
nature
of the effects
and
as
being,for
incomprehensible.
that which
produces
which
was
required
cause
collocating
very
inconceivable.
real
into
causes
necessityinvolved
is that which
must
produce
conception that a cause
and
also equally undefinable,inexplicable,
logically
in the causal
the
is defined
if movement
of the
last movement
conception of causation
proved is taken for granted. The idea
the
effect,
be
the
the
indefinable
true
in
cause
is thus
the pure
the ground
itself,
30"2
upon
true
the
is thus
cause
all experience,and
effect-phenomena are
the
it of
avidya.
is
the
ajfianaor
regarded as
All
the
It is thus
of
cause
modes
various
Vedanta
of
[ch.
all appearances
which
School
Sankara
The
468
but
impositionsupon
the
all
in which
the
clay appears
and
so
unreal, indefinable,
illusory.The
appearances,
is the
clay. So in all world-phenomena the one
etc.
the
being,
imposed
of the
and
it
on
is called
the
satkdryavdda
that
which
them,
is
alone
the
being, as
the
in
unreal
in
which
of the
different
when
as
kind
is true
that
imposed
all
are
This
the
effect is
being
on
regarded
from
the
cause
kind
one
is called
sdmkhyayogaparindthe
as
real
the
it is called
parindma
vivarttah
ment
develop-
effect has
vivartta
of
the
cause
is what
When
potentialstate.
is what
ever
the
phenomena
the
being
are
existing,
There
is only this
the realityor being
of
distinguishedfrom
is
satkdranavdda
and
false.
appearance
of
many
sano
alone
truth
truth
This
names.
mere
one
that
properly the
more
cause
in its
of
or
and
are
the
cause
phenomena
themselves
true.
vivarttavdda
mavdday
the
in
phenomena
truth
all the
illusoryforms
but
are
Vedanta,
much
and
Brahman,
are
but
it is called
tadvilak-
vastunastatsamattdkdnyathdbhdvahparindmah
or
vivarttah). Vedanta
tadvisamasattdkah
has
much
as
object
to
lightof reason
explain
; they cannot
things and phenomena as they appear
however
though phenomena
they
never
can
bhedam
vinaiva
This
be
defined
being the
of the
cause
in the
in terms
except
relation
of
followers
and
cause
of
of
only
world.
In
with
the
or
the
restate
reality
cause,
(Tadakdryyam vivarttah).
effect
Sankara
world-appearance
but
identical
tadvyatirekenadurvacam
not
are
causation
Brahman
Vedanta
sometimes
cause
lay
in
and
the
explaining
stress
on
the
maya,
should
ajfianaor
be
regarded as the
world-appearance, whereas
causal
substance
Prakasatman
{updddna)
Akhandananda,
of
of the
and
x]
hold
Madhava
that
Brahman
maya-reflected form
the
as
is
and
Maya
of
cause
evolution
an
whereas
illusion
in
the
individual
be
the
with
jlva
hold
{upadana). Others
both
and
Isvara
rather
think
to
with
association
in the
since
and
the
the
individual
that
world
since
these
his
avidya
find in
we
regarded as
matter, upadana
the
cause,
and
maya
Brahman
the
as
the
world-
yet the
causal
individual
whom
to
of the
however
and
the
maya
jlva in
in
that
being
to
are
causal
permanent
entityevolving
better
hold
aspect pure
one
the
matter
manifested, it is
Brahman
as
entity
same
maya
the
as
factor
produced by
are
are
materialityetc., both
be
the
the
ajflana.Others
or
world-appearance
in another
by
Others
cosmical
all manifestations
are
in Isvara,
though
it is the
-appearance
that
of
that
individual
regarded
matter.
the
as
produced
the
or
causal
hold
be
located
as
maya
i.e. the
maya,
world-appearance
manifestation
be
to
The
maya
vivartta
the
as
said
associated
with
of the
jlva. They
or
may
etc.
avidya
world-appearance.
avidya
with
Isvara should
as
distinction between
and
appearance
Brahman
parinama
(God) is the
469
in association
or
make
of
mind
the
IsVara
however
of
Avidya
parinama.
is the permanent
of
cause
Vacaspati Misra thinks that Brahman
with
associated
the world-appearance through maya
as
jlva.
sahakari
instrument
it
is
thus
which
or
as
only a
by
Maya
were,
the
Brahman
one
world
Muktavali
even
of
matter
the
phenomenal
product of
as
of the
may
the
Brahman,
used
wonderful
is both
which
principalVedanta
was
holds
however
and
illusoryappearance,
the
temporary
jlva as
and
is not
the
manifold
in his Sidaffected
absolutelyun-
even
the
causal
(causalmatter)
of the
itself is pure
Brahman
that
maya,
of view
eye
Prakasananda
of appearance.
dhdnta
in the
appears
whatever
the
upadana
these
gences
diver-
all
as
indefinable
text
Rg-Veda
the
But
and
the
be, it is clear
existence
skill,and
instrumental
world-illusion.
whereas
in the
the
the
in the
idea
of
that
sense
an
illusion.
The
word
maya
supernaturalpower and
inherent
mystery underlying
of
was
the word
Vedanta
of
in the
only once
In early
occurs
maya
School
Sahkara
The
470
[ch.
and
Brhadaranyaka
once
Pali Buddhist
writings it occurs
only in the Prasna.
of deception or deceitful conduct.
Buddhaghosa
only in the sense
of magical power.
In Nagarjuna and the Lahit in the sense
uses
of illusion. In 6arikara the
it has acquired the sense
kdvatdra
word
is used
maya
of creation
as
the
pay
after
as
the
truth.
the
in the
seen
of
being
unreal.
the
world-appearance or
truth. Gaudapada asserts
seen
The
atman
follows
that
this
doctrine
and
the
followers
maya
the
in his
but
to
however
examined
and
jects
ob-
capable
false and
are
cognizer and
through maya.
illusory.Sankara
seems
that
it necessarily
illusion,
commentaries
he
compared
they are
atman
dualityan
own
the
once
in the
also
elaborate
is at
for it is
into its
held
which
reality.
not
who
and
dream,
on
me
to
have
of maya.
thought
over
expounded
the
Upanisads
done
Some
the
little
of his
concept
of
and
able
brought out in bold relief its character as the indefinthereby substantially
contributing to the development of
Vedanta
philosophy.
Vedanta
Pramana
memory
1
all
experience is
Brahma-sutra,
than
more
all
in
subsists
is real and
alone
atman
world
and
Gaudapada
unreal,because
Gaudapada
says
thinkers, that
removed,
appearances,
cognized, the
As
theory
is the
means
is intended
to
of
Perception
that
be
leads
excluded
and
to
from
Inference1.
right knowledge.
the
definition
If
then
of the
the
dream
world-appearancewith
not
the
is not
again. 1 1 was
do
They
world-illusion is dissolved
the
with
permeated
absolute
explaining
the
as
of
are
is realized maya
highest truth
and
cause,
principle
world-appearance.
that Gaudapada
the teacher
out a system with the help
Upanisads
towards
attention
any
illusion
worked
The
both
illusion,
accessory
here
enquiry
earnest
an
or
the
as
itself,
doctrine.
maya
spiritof
(power)
Govinda
teacher
of
sense
mentioned
be
also
of Sankara's
of
sakti
creation
phenomenal
It may
in the
x]
Theory of Perception
is to
pramana
knowledge
(pramd) in
been
be
defined
has
as
leads
such
right
acquired. Right knowledge
knowledge of an objectwhich has not
as
is the
contradicted
found
that
means
to
already been
not
Vedanta
the
47
{abddhitdrthavisayajndnatvd).
Except
when
speciallyexpressed otherwise,
pram a is generallyconsidered
of memory
and
being excludent
quired
appliesto previouslyunac-
as
{anadhigata) and
raised
sometimes
are
few
minutes, the
in the
that
mental
perception of
series of
the
ever
considered
So
long
reason
to
So
there
states.
the
preceding moments,
remained
is of
later
of time
of the
content
remains
mental
the
When
representing the
be
can
book
book
is not
such
no
for
so
there
same
change
so
in the
long
same
it can
is
no
as
of
reason
mental
is
state
ledge
know-
the
ledge
knowmental
any
considered
of
moments.
which
is
for
of the
mental
change
my
the
senses
mental
state
and
hence
second,
mental
state
has
that there
state
in the time
elements
remains
been
remains
thus
is not
fresh
supposing
The
undisturbed.
remain
every
am
as
percept of
same
seconds,
I
the
perceivedby
may
changed
state.
the
as
be
been
as
for two
the content
note
to
as
perceive
has
to
series
the
element
general content
the
long as
far
suppositionthat
each
in succession
between
mental
same
the
is to
the
through
so
time
of the
content
see
state
This
long
so
being perceived as
unchanged.
though
for
but
following in succession,that
moment
are
there
arise,
not
to
no
object it
its
all
that
question as
being referred
this difference
course
a
is
moments
thing for
unchanged
one
any
continue
we
Vedanta
momentary
as
as
the
does
state
suppose
of
elements
the
to
thing acquired
reply is that
be
succeeding
previous and
same
this the
the
There
the
no
of the
image
different mental
same.
is
there
the
of
having
states
as
is not
mental
has
state
one,
To
long
so
state
remaining
one
thing
there
when
previous moments.
considers
the
that
knowledge. Objections
we
are
looking at a thing for a
the thing in all the successive
moments
any
uncontradicted
as
any
the
it remains
extraneous
demonstrating the illusorynature of the world of appearance, and did not work out a
that in the theory of inference as
logicaltheory. It may be incidentallymentioned
school
worked
largelyindebted to the Mimamsa
out by Dharmarajadhvarindra he was
of
thought.
In
recognizingarthapatti,
upamana
the
Mimamsa
accepted
followed
also tacitly
had
view.
the
sabda
The
Mimamsa
and
anupalabdhialso
rajadhvarlndra
Dharma-
jadhvarlndra,
Vedantins, previous to Dharmarain these
matters.
47
Sankara
The
addition.
All
uncontradicted
our
should
external
world
absolute
is realized.
be
objectsthrough
it
into
were
their
into
has
the
assumed
shape
or
form
of
ledge,
its know-
object of
object
which
was
perception of
of the cit through a vrtti
the self-shining
is thus
resembling an object of knowledge. This therefore
consciousness
pure
poses that by the action of ajflana,
The
ignorance.
is
in
the
cit
but
the
diverse
kinds
all this
of
by modifications
sustained
but
are
is the
an
of
form
pre-sup-
being
or
spite of
In
diversified
diversified
the
modifications.
by
object
is
objective world which
transformation
of ignorance (ajflana),
the former
cannot
itself by itself,
for the creations
being of ignorance
underlying
manifest
they
of
state
ness
conscious-
the
or
appearance
is
object
hidden
long
so
has
rana
antahka-
the
as
the
(cit)shows
as
antahkarana
soon
the
the
with
transformed
the
that
the
until the
contact
becomes
As
{vrtti)1.
state
and
senses
objectsof
of the
in
comes
it is said
forms,
transformed
been
the
[ch.
right knowledge
as
(mind)
external
Vedanta
of
knowledge
regarded
antahkarana
the
When
School
of
nature
ajflana that
of
but
are
it veils
transformations
real
neither
its
The
ignorance.
unreal.
nor
creations.
own
of
It
Thus
on
the
of
through
the
form
of
the
the
senses
the
antahkarana
object,and
becomes
this leads
the
to
transformed
removal
into
of the veil
on
in
"
realityno
ajflanahas
and
the
1
world
external
Vedanta
In
does
As
producingmemory
(vrtti)of
regard
not
its functions
is called buddhi.
as
such
created
accordingto
citta.
distinction
such
doubt
the
inner
and
illusorydistinctions
the
(mind) as
manas
sense
functions, is called
it is called manas,
the same
entity (which
ajflanaas antahkarana).
of
time, space,
(indriya).The
manas,
souls
same
karana,
antah-
buddhi, ahamkara,
and
definite cognitionsit
originating
presentingthe
citta. These
as
yet the
outer
individual
as
objectsthe distinctions
of
its diverse
as
as
Sankara
The
474
School
Vedanta
of
[ch.
in absence). Vedanta
kevalavyatireki(by universal agreement
three
advocates
premisses, viz. (i)pratijna (the hill is fiery);
(as in the
(2) lietu (because it has smoke) and (3) drstdnta
Since
of
case
we
for
sufficient
being
one
of
case
one
making
that
mabhinnam
Brahman
is
silver in the
premiss (drstdnta)whatever
times
many
(svayamprakdsd).
defines it
as
which
that
is yet immediate
is
what
But
be,ng
its
in
This
an
with
be
may
makes
it
present
dependent
that
manifest
another, and
then
had
even
seen
is
Vedanta
would
and
nigamana,
and
nigamana.
9
and
have
not
but
act
all other
of
in any
is
anything
ting
constitu-
as
be
not
absent
such
capacity
without
may
and
dependent
never
at
present
another.
entitywhich
differs from
anything
objectssuch as
on
can
all its
else
for
the
jug,
should
knowing
(anubhuti) manifests
1
or
may
consciousness
it. It is thus
known
or
the
its character
other
some
it. Pure
Vedanta
knowing
means
time
one
manifests
seeing or
on
on
self-
ness
requireanother consciousit,then that might again requireanother, and
ad infinitum(anavasthd). If consciousness
on
so
manifest
did not
at
If consciousness
cloth, etc.
to
of consciousness
acts
our
knowability is a quality,which
manifestation, but
the
the
as
(avedyatvesati aparoksavya-
us
object of consciousness,
produce it or manifest
objectsin this that it
its
so
this mean?
does
Whenever
object^of_consciousness.
an
as
it, or
is
so
from
realityas
or
object of
the
never
direct
and
present in all
described
excepting
Drstisrstivada.
truth
vakdrayogyatvam). Self-luminositythus
way
is
and
of
spoken
luminous
ever
else
all is different
premiss (hetu)since
have
being
tadevam
yedevam
conch2.
Atman,
We
seeing the
that
premiss (pratijna)all
First
false;second
third
Brahman;
Brahmabhinnatvdt
mithyd
yathd suktirupyam).
it holds
conch-shell)to be false,
things (except Brahman) are false (Brah-
all
sarvam
inference
an
(silver in the
appearance
infer
can
of the five
kitchen)instead
either
of the
thing
hetu
pratijfta,
Nyaya,
one
might
be admitted
to
itself and
object-manifestation,
and
viz.
thereby
udaharana,
that
ness
conscious-
maintains
or
if he
doubt
the
ap-
udaharana, upanaya
pratijfta,
hetu, udaharana,
upanaya
of upamana,
sabda and anupalabdhi,
notions of the pramana
arthapatti,
view, do not requireto be treated here separately
being similar to the mimamsa
Vedantic
x]
Atman
of all
pearance
world
our
and
Jwa
475
This
experience.
directlyagainst
goes
the
mediate
imthat consciousness
not
was
jnatata theory of Kumarila
but was
only inferable from the manifesting quality
in consciousness.
(jnatata)of objectswhen they are known
Vedanta
Now
is the
of
same
says
the
as
self itself
itself the
never
under
identical
the
This
with
individual
of
soul,
highest atman
Vedantists
draw
own
all states
the
of
knowledge,
the
the
through
passes
be
must
We
distinction
have
between
it
The
knowledge.
(ego).
is not
atman
present in
ever
of
objects
object
self,because
manifesting unity of
Brahman)
a
about
ahamkara
Qlsvaraalso
or
and
his
the
is not
of
pure
which
life.
worldly
which
immediate
all
the.term
self called
real
of
consciousness
pure
as
comprehended
only self
with
along
object
self
of
perceiving
doubts
revealer
is the
it is
is yet
one
itself manifested
this self-luminous
For
and
No
consciousness.
is of
self.
knowledge
any
that
is
but
the
as
appears
but
association
The
real self is
consciousness.(
all
same
diverse
ilva
the
as
or
experiences
distinguishedfrom
this
that many
already seen
and avidya. Maya
maya
more
creative, generative(viksepa)
type, whereas
in the
prominent.
veiling(dvarana) characteristics are most
of the cit or pure intelligence,
the highest self,with
latter
The
tion
rela-
maya
and
to explain the
avidya (alsocalled ajnana) was believed respectively
phenomenal Isvara and the phenomenal jivaor individual. This
in two ways, namely as upadhi or pratibimba,
relation is conceived
avaccheda.
The
and
conception of pratibimba or reflection is
where
the image,
of the sun
in the water
like the reflection
the
brilliance
as
yet undergoes
though it has the same
sun,
effect of the
the
remains
sun
the
the
ever
impurities from
be
impurity
it
the
may
its
image
and
have
of the
or
of
all the
relation
akasa
in
of
appearance
is that
the
when
room.
we
The
purity
in
The
water.
by
untouched
suffers.
sun
reflected
be
water
of the
movements
in
same
which
but
same
and
The
different
sun
the
may
kinds
of
possessing different
nally
though unreal yet phenomereality.The other conception
of
images
speak
akasa
of akasa
in
(space)in
realitydoes
not
the
jug
suffer
the
within
jug
jug
the
limited
within
the
it will remain
think
the
have
we
"
individual
Jlva or
cit is reflected
pure
when
individual
jlva or
thinks
as
not
that
cause,
product
"
soul.
self in association
the
means
in the antahkarana
in the
does
avidya
reflected
when
avidya
the
aka"a
the
or
of the
the
that when
maya,
when
jug remains,
separate from
as
limited
being
lowers
accept the reflection analogy the fol-
who
of Nrsimha"rama
in the
(avachinna)
as
the
as
In
room.
room.
Vedantists
the
long
the
limited
is yet conceived
So
room.
[ch.
within
jug or
is neither
but
room,
the
by
within
Of
the
or
or
limited
aka"a
the
being within
all-pervasiveand
is
reality it
School of Vedanta
in
modification
any
by
Sankara
The
476
with
the ego
other
self is
^ajate the
v"*"'^
and
subtle
state
awakened
the
taijasa. In
Isvara,when
with
associated
controllingthem,
it is called
elements
ruler
as
the
or
self
So
visva.
when
Brahman,
subtieJaody and
the
state
is called
body
gross
is called
with
in_association
the
associated
as
hiranyagarbha ;
of matter
with
when
as
the gross
it is called
them
of
it is called
maya
controller
with
associated
is called
virat
purusa.
The
jlva in
itself
as
when
paramarthika (real),
the ego in the waking states
as
in the dream
when
Praka^atma
there
but
cannot
be
states
by
limited
as
its
avidya
and
through the sense
as
vyavaharika (phenomenal), and
dream-self,pratibhasika(illusory).
think
his followers
two
separate reflections
admit
spoken of
manifested
and
it is better to
is often
that
jlva is
that
the
such
ajflanais
since
as
image
jlva and
of
IsVara
one
Isvara;
in th
is
in association
with maya
totalityof Brahma-cit
Isvara, and this when
again reflected through the ajflanagives
manifestation
the jlva. The
of the jlva is in the antahkarana
us
of knowledge. The
states
as
jlva thus in realityis IsVara and
apart from jlvaand IsVara there is no other separate existence of
ajflana. The
x]
Ekajwa
Doctrine
him,
on
by rightknowledge,
Those
who
avaccheda
of
when
the
thingswhich
limitations
much
Vedanta
relation
therefore
phenomenal
being;
point of
the
Vedantists
that
all the
that
world
These
continue
long
so
individuals,run
salvation
is
which
yond
is be-
for the
these
of
diversity
discussions
philosophy in
and
better, purer,
are
mining
deter-
jlva. In
importance, for
and
the
he is but
much
more
much
as
jivas
jivas in
the
and
it
dream
super-jlvacontinues
world-appearance and all
and
course
salvation
is
world
us
much
as
will
undergo his
imaginary
to
of
his
merely
are
that
as
our
(avac-
is that
of Isvara
all the
as
dream
the
experiences;
view
little
be
he
well
as
imaginings.
that
limited
phenomenal as any of
the self,the reality,
the Brahman, and
are_bu"Jlkis"r-y
im^ositions-onJt. Some
there
is but one
jlva and one
body, and
L"axa
hold
but
as
accounts
relation
may
bothjlva and
always was.
being of the
jlvais cit
(mind). Isvara
has
he
it
the
IsVara
system
removed
reflection
antahkarana
comprehending
or
jlva are
pendent
de-
the
colour,and
fruit from
of
is thus
conceive
diversityof antahkaranas
jivas. It is easy however to see
of
not
Isvara
Brahman
same
it ; the
of the
of
image
jlva is the
that
have
the
chinna) by
the
prefer to
type hold
the
477
imaginary
the
as
all the
and
doctrine
of
The
has
that
no
creates
for
datum
which
of all
and
but
his
are
of
there
are
himself
his
forms
the
the
for all
illusion
ground
common
when
illusion
ten
of
held
theory
the
and
there
for the
see
persons
snake
as
by
the
some
ance
world-appear-
people,but
illusion,and
own
people ; justas
is the
individuals
many
permanent
having
doctrine
this
is known
This
imaginings.
ekajlva(one-soul).
rest
opposite
Vedantists
rope
our
is
each
no
person
objective
illusoryperception
in the
there, run
darkness
away,
and
in
their
individual
objectivelyphenomena
are
also
as
its
Vedanta
This
ground.
view
happening,
which
but
that
must
holds
these
are
and
School
Sahkara
The
478
Vedanta
of
[ch.
unchangeable entity in
According to
appearance.
and
but
objectivelyexistent
the
jug
had
see
occurred
to
before.
As
there
and
was
other
no
jug;
there
I had
as
soon
before
the
was
I said that
me
existence
no
there
perception that
are
all
as
happened
soon
the
was
the
the
as
jug,but
perception there
realityapart
from
have
to
illusion
jug
it did
the illusion.
exist
not
the
was
the
illusion,
fore
It is there-
the
the
world
phenomena
as
by
in themselves
phenomena
of
are
phenomena
there
ajftanaare
with
sense-contact
objective
The
but modifications
course
of the
the
created.
the
which
existent
are
as
of
the
ajftana,
common
tive
ground for the experience of all. This therefore has an objecthe drstisrstivada
has
no
epistemology whereas
proper
of
each
determined
are
epistemology, for the experiences
person
fications
subjectiveavidya and previousimpressions as modiby his own
of
nearest
to
does
Buddhism
admits
Vedanta
The
avidya.
drstisrstivada
only
Vijftanavada Buddhism,
the
while
that
the
the
of
admit
not
the
Brahman,
truth, whereas
the
comprehend
most
our
become
the
reason
illusoryand
is
forms
from
indeed
difficult
ajftana,
though its presence
perceived,and though by dialectic
well-founded
real,the
its full
It
momentary
alike in this,that
are
notions
and
names
self-luminous.
beginningless time
complete light is ever
can
only
Our
hidden
be
in
in
from
to
sciousness
con-
criticism
away
and
Vedanta
explains
fact
all these
that
modes
experienced as
innate
consists
vanish
to
seem
and
indefinable.
self-contradictory
due
of this difficulty
the
to
as
indefinable
of the
ajftana.
being
unchangeable
permanent
the
of
nature
be
can
all
of
modifications
are
this difference
permanent
any
theory approaches
with
error
which
this,that
us, and
the
the
we
tinue
con-
real
in
glimpse
x]
Nature
Indefinable
that
we
and
of A j nana
these
phenomenal forms
unknowable
incomprehensible, and
names;
certain
conditions
and
the
at
they are
they are
time
which
and
in
by
the
appears
the
imposed
of the
being
diverse
the
on
but
under
self-luminous
they
This
forms
undefinable,
themselves,
manifested
real which
of
are
have
to
seem
real,
a
positivebeing is only
the being of those forms
as
the
apart from
is
names
names.
cup, but
and
is undeniable.
positivebeing
the highestbeing,the
manifestations
manifested
so
479
clay;
it is the
forms
which
into
existence
being
also
of
then
plate or a
or
being
the
clay that
have
to
seem
and
experience
of
conceive
its very
Brahman
the
is the
such
Moreover
only by
Brahman
Brahman.
The
nothing
of
nature
Being
at man.
or
apart from
as
of
ajfianastates
of pure
are
negation (abhava\
that
is the
this
illumination
false identification
of
the
if
they
to
are
be
known
mutual
misattribution.
cannot
be
states
for
in themselves
it is
apart from
kind
altogetherit
entity then it would
in the
that
sense
they are
non-being,
illuminates
nothing
associated
than
more
The
forms
with
pure
of
ajfiana
ness,
conscious-
and
illusion,
superimposition,
when
is known
could
to
pure
try
we
the atman
cease
never
in every
way;
and
at
to
between
it is
tattvdnyatvdbhydm anirvdcya
either
as
real
or
If
us.
come
never
but
consciousness
these
consciousness
alone
to
we
the
know
fall in
ajfiana
dilemma,
means
of its existence
indefinable
self-luminous
illusorysuperimposition or illusion,and
Thus
not
knowledge they evidentlycannot be known.
its being a factor in our
illusoryexperience no other
knowledge
when
knowable
are
not
for it is pure
apart from
ajfiana.
is the
apart from
Thus
as
the
of
to
us
an
known,
or
is self-luminous.
that
means
But
manifested
with
means
be
must
this association
and
they
non-being.
with
being
modes
that
self-luminous
being. Being
ajfiana,and
not
them
such
as
difficult for
the
ajnanas
identification
false
it is indeed
essence,
unreal.
on
or
been
ajfianahad
all,if
it
were
entity
non-
positive
ajfiana thus
being and non-being
be;
the
account
of this that
undefinable
It is real in the
and
sense
is
and
it is
minable
undeterthat
it is
Sankara
The
480
postulateof
necessary
in its
School
are
manifested
consciousness
their
to
as
comprehensible only
apart from
but
formed.
Thus
(for no
it is
of
and
avidya and
be
Vedanta
think
that
field of
have
an
experience.
The
the
be
atman,
the
one
limited
by
its
the
imagine
of
Vedanta
conceived
in
but
atman,
the
is
atman
the influence
ground
sake
of
of
assent
of
the
as
scheme
ing
explainwe
may
common
things and
be
metaphysics.
three forms:
as
firstly
the
our
secondly
highest reality,
psychosis,when
in
experience may
phenomenon
the
ajftana
asserted
(pratikarmavyavasatha)
a
lightof
the
general
us
be
can
manifested
as
under
the
has
also
the
subject can
this
before
can
them
objectivecommon
no
comprehen
in-
in consciousness,
Drstisrstivadins
objectiveworld
We
which
far
so
view
sense
we
that
though
is irrefutable
operations by
interpretedin
from
But
common
say
inexplicablyproduced
beyond
admitted.
and
our
that
they
relation,and
conception of
anything about
this the
on
while
even
manifested
possible)save
depending
experience was
our
could
impossible to
consciousness
mutual
or
are
rational
no
of it is
knowledge
consciousness
that
these
they
unreal
and
self-contradictory
are
as
with
Its forms
real nature
far
so
[ch.
experience and
its connection
it is
in
Vedanta
phenomenal
our
own
of
the
jlva or
psychosis is not
as
identical
regarded as
atman
as
differentiated
with
the
chosis
psy-
appearing as
knows,
mind
or
which
is
just
as
experiences; thirdlythe
antahkarana
bundle
an
inner
centre
or
the
outer
world
objects
it also
contains
all the
of
the
antahkarana
The
forms
to
is not
present
modes
and
tendencies
or
our
of
centres
periences,
ex-
of
The
in past lives.
is
also
are
into
immediately manifested,made
experience. These
ajflanasis this
upon
tions,
manifesta-
of it into
always turning the various avidya modes
and
jlvasaksi(jlvain its aspect as illuminatingmental states),
these
are
avidya
exterior
are
psychosisor
pure
that
or
states.
only
and
have
their
and
formed
trans-
in these
consciousness, and
known,
forms
thus
be
they
can
be
interpretedas
indefiniteness
or
cover
superimposed
states
removed.
of
sciousness
con-
The
Sankara
The
482
translucent
it were
as
School
its
by
Vedanta
of
[ch.
translucence,removes
own
the
ajfiana
cit and
reveals the
veilingthe external self-luminous
by the very union of the cit as reflected
object phenomena
through it and the cit as underlying the object phenomena. The
which
was
pratyaksa-prama
pure
the
the
it. From
or
relative
consciousnesses:
or
point of
view
we
(1) consciousness
when
antahkarana;
Prama
or
of such
these
three
right knowledge
new
knowledge
is very
Thus
contradicted.
it is not
true
now,
by right knowledge of
knowledge of the world
absolutely. The
which
truth
is
of
it will be
whether
be
That
not.
regarded
contradicted
The
when
inner
by
pleasure
the
pain
or
with
the
I
"
perceptions,
for
or
as
same
by
knowledge.
up
hill that
the
I see, the
fire;so
in
the
long
the
same
with
an
antahkarana
that
experience
experience is to
whole
also
will be
is not
of any
is fire
the
is fire in it is
be in touch
be
two
tinuous
con-
objecl
form
perception,for
may
rated
gene-
last in th"
new
there
a"
In
an
as
acquirement
there
rated
gene-
are
sorry."
time
other
there
are
which
vrtti is said to
any
of
am
certain
vrtti cannot
experience
The
transformations
of
I infer that
object
it,but
"
or
or
as
true
by findingout
pain
virtue
for the
when
cases
hill is
one
inference,for
so
state
antahkarana
In such
vrtti is
mental
while
all the
way
taken
of
the
pleasure,etc.
not
is realized.
happy,"
perception of anything
the
time.
any
as
of antahkarana
self,by
am
it
consciousness
pure
by
knowledge
pleasure and
false identification
but
now,
later
Brahma-knowledge
of
reality.Thus
tested
contradicted
experiences
though
stage of world
at any
as
of
this is contradicted
one
be
by
only so long
true
experience at
to
ment
acquire-
definition
appearance
is the
is thus
vrtti
contradicted
to be
the
truth
the
absolute
is true
in any
is not
been
false,when
contradicted
which
Vedanta
world
as
in the
perception is effected.
said
appearance
world-knowledge
our
no
Brahman
contradicted
never
thus
the
absolute
only
not
be
be rendered
may
reflected
in
has
as
distinguishthree
background of objective
of
the
background
jlva
unite
means
is
experience (abadhitd). There
A knowledge acquired can
truth.
or
the
as
the
as
phenomena, (2) consciousness
pramata, the individual,(3) consciousness
of the
as
thus
may
on
new
the
karana
antahmatter
with
modes
the
of
x]
Perception
mental
modification, as
inference
when
perception,
as
sandal
odoriferous
inferringthe fire in
in
seeing
on
wood,
the
hill. In
sandal
wood
it is pure
is concerned, it is inference
or
to be
odoriferous.
not
Vedanta
I think
far
admit
it is
the sandal
as
far
so
memory
does
I assert
as
the existence
class called
inference
are
inference,and
but
different
modes
antahkarana
the cit
reflecting
perceptionis thus nothing but
vrtti transformed
holds
that
of the
in the
both
transformations
an
the
of the
corresponding vrttis.
of
and
perceptionand
it
of the
not
as
acquired
that
called samavaya
relation
other
does
of
cases
perceptionso
wood
so
483
The
in the antahkarana
objectwith
which
it is
in contact.
the
the
cit with
the
This
identityof course
realitysubsistingin
objectivecit.
that
means
another
me
man
this is
says
Devadatta,
and
the
ledge
know-
"
"
"
"
"
only
the indication
of
one
"
"
whole
as
under
Devadatta
visual
ception
perfrom
"
this
is
knowledge.
when
"
So
the
on
the occasion
preceptor
knowledge proceeding
from
ness
of the rise of Brahma-conscious-
instructs
*the
"thou
sentence
art
is not
Brahman"
the
savikalpa,for
31"2
School
Sankara
The
484
Vedanta
of
[ch.
and
ideas
a
copula, yet
though grammatically there are two
of intrinsic significance
the point of view
from
{tdtparya)one
does not distinguish
identical realityonly is indicated. Vedanta
nirvikalpaand savikalpa in visual perception,but only in sabda
in
perception as
should
sentence
in
be
whole
one
savikalpa perception
ideas
agacchati). Here
It is not
all the
But
conveyed by
as
goaded
connection
Kumarila
as
of error,
does
with
however
vitiated
defect
as
think
like
of
etc.)are
does
it divest
Mlmamsists,
adopts a
middle
condition
this is
be
for
is
it
compromise,
admitted, the
but Vedanta
for the
holds
that
and
if it
of
the
holds
of
dosa,
the
depended
an
cannot
absence
But
external
it wants
only
1
See
have
svatah-
dosa
(cause
of
course
be
presence
not
of
Sikhdmani.
sary
neces-
as
has
to
self-valid,
negative condition
apply to it,and it
negative condition,
Ved"ntaparibha"a and
is
It
It is clear that
regarded
a
the
such.
as
condition
another
of dosa
for
then
adds
is self-valid
requiresonly
objectiondoes
the
action,
qualificationslike
it
on
be
to
to
like).Vedanta
all
that
for whenever
as
the
the definition
of any
of knowledge.
self-validity
that
such
respondence,
positive conditions
(e.g.corfor the validityof knowledge,
knowledge
knowledge
says
absence
that
all
the
found
was
reference
no
presence
or
knowledge
course
for the
senses
necessary
whom
Vedanta
meant
prama
which
there
the
by
Nyaya
(svatah-
in
meaning
siders
con-
practicalaction and as
practicalexperience showed
accordance
is not
such
not
nor
and
is self-valid
same
that
to
until
In Vedanta
of
remember
we
one
prama,
in
the
this
in
knowledge
not
different concepts1.
three
or
means
pramanya
different
of
only uncontradicted
cognition.To
of self-validity
Vedanta
as
given by Mlmamsa
that such
objective qualification,
knowledge can
but prama
the
whereas
reality,
combination
pramanas
all
There
of action
contradicted.
six
has
prama
knowledge which
all knowledge was
course
identical
mention
to
that
Mlmamsa.
in
one
of two
place
Mlmamsa
pramdnd).
as
of
out
like
notion
the
cases
is coming" {rdjapurasa
king'sman
identical
but what
is
reality is signified,
no
admits
Vedanta
all such
the
have
we
combination
the
is
signified
or
In
sentence, "the
in the
as
above.
to
that
nirvikalpa is
for
condition
referred
cases
dition
positivecon-
any
like
the
been
no
blame
Nyaya,
damaged.
can
be
x]
Theory of Illusion
attributed
follow
its
to
this
theory
Vedanta
self-validity.
slipperymiddle
cit reflected
pure
of
in
485
for it could
course,
consciousness
be
could
regarded
from
; thus
present
avidya-dosa,and
valid
in
which
Mlmamsa
there
valid
only
dosa.
no
capacity that
in accordance
practicalaction
to
valid ;
facts and
with
of
want
dosa
all
have
drthdh
there
world-
that
ledge
know-
was
dosa
no
with
Vedanta
nothing
which
with
to
us
it meant
The
absence
can
vitiate
of
the
of Illusion.
the Mlmamsists
simply
true
was
Validity (pramanya)
knowledge has to goad
contradiction.
is
that
already seen
knowledge
when
it,but
Theory
Vedanta
We
it held
so
the
then
absolute
was
the
meant
correctness
the
as
the
ledge
point of view all world-knowand
had
no
the
validity,because there was
in the ordinarysphere also that knowledge was
false
was
be
to
come
that
say
could
nor
establishingits validity,
forms
of knowledge were
also all valid, for
would
not
to
could
for
appearance
bound
was
because
it
had
asserted
that
knowledge (yath-
was
thing remembered
the
and
asks
how
there
(e.g.silver).But
can
be
Vedanta
non-distinction
between
objects to this,
a thing which
If it is
clearlyperceived and a thing which is remembered?
said that it is merely a non-perceptionof the non-association
(i.e.
with silver),
non-perception of the fact that this is not connected
is
be, for
also it cannot
then
then
it is
on
either
side
negation,
mere
of the
is nothing but the bare presence
negationwith Mlmamsa
locus of negation(e.g.
negation of jug on the ground is nothing but
of the ground), or in other words
the bare presence
tion
non-percepof "silver" and "this" means
association
of the nonbarely
and
and
merely
sake
the
that
"silver"
and
is not
perceived,yet merely
could
be
down
manya.
See
to
up
move
a
such
from
forward
piece
Vedantaparibhdsd, Sikhdmani,
of
Even
between
distinction
the
tempted
to
pick
"this."
to
illusorysilver).It
Maniprabhd
and
Citsukha
is
on
positive
svatahpra-
Sahkara
The
486
conviction
School
perception that
or
of
lead
can
Vedanta
actual
to
man
[ch.
practical
imperfect
movement.
to
appears
like true
be
for
movement
silver before
picking it up,
then
this generates
and
me
this also is
the
objectionable. For
of the
lead us
similaritywith real silver cannot
with the thing before me
if it were
real silver. Thus
to behave
as
I may
perceivethat gavaya (wildox) is similar to cow, but despite
this similarityI am
not
as
tempted to behave with the gavaya
the
appearance
if it
were
in whatever
of
illusion
the
there
as
difference
in the
generated by
(The process
of
First
by
mental
state
dosa
defect
or
form
the
of
contact
"thisness"
then
in the
of that
the
thing as
"this"
the
this
be described
thing before
in the
mental
by
the
along
with
dosas
by
cit is disturbed
disturbance
and
may
Then
of the
dosa,
and
the
dosas.
specific
the
to
illusion
such
cit is reflected.
with
the
vitiated
senses
"this"
is
objects;
etc.,whereas
senses
reference
with
(nescience)associated
silver
of the
external
this,that
in
as
generated;
of the
consists
cases
illusion
actuallya phenomenon
of external
ohenomena
thus.
the
two
is
position
the
that
of actual
phenomena
are
Mlmamsa
thinks
there
that
the
way
it fails1. Vedanta
but
merely subjective,
not
is
Thus
cow.
defined
be
may
is
the
the
the
a
me
state
avidya
presence
impression of
into the
through similarityis transformed
silver. There
is thus an
objectiveillusorysilver
remembered
appearance
of
as
appearance,
generated by
well
as
its contact
the silver
silver state,are
illusory
There
(sdksicaitanya).
one
in the
phenomenon,
and
transformation
similar
with
state
the
are
avidya
thus
states
another
illusorysilver.
of the mind
manifested
of the mental
by
here
the
two
and
These
two
state
formations,
trans-
phenomenal
external
perceivingconsciousness
tions,
phenomenal transforma-
objectivesilver
forming the illusory
in the
antahkarana-vrtti
or
mind
state.
in
See
Vivarana-prameya-samgrahaand Nyayamakaranda
on
akhyati refutation.
x]
Nature
paramarthika
absolute
the
dosa.
to
is that
the
the
other
difference
removed
until
first
false
are
in many
occurs
impressions
due
pratibhasika
is neither
perception
salvation,whereas
represents
one
and
vyavaharika
vyavaharika
pratibhasikarealitywhich
of
two
between
of the
dosa
nor
practical ordinary
or
pratibhasika,illusory.The
truth;
The
487
absolute, vyavahdrika
or
experience,and
of Illusion
the
of
dosa
forms
extraneous
covered
disthe
(such
defect
as
the
the
senses,
tions
vyavaharika world is regarded as phenomenal modificaof the ajnana, as apart from
our
subjectiveexperience and
of silver in the conch-shell)
before it,so the illusion (e.g.
is
regarded as a modification of avidya,an undefinable creation
even
also
object of illusion,by
of the
is created
the
called
by
the
the
in
dosa
of
creation
Here
but
the
cit
the
Thus
in the
is
sion.
silver of illuthe
remains
modifications
suffers
silver
which
senses,
(anirvacamya)
conch-shell
the
of antahkarana
avidya
with
association
underlying
dosa.
conch-shell,indefinable
indefinable
an
of the
agency
of silver in the
illusion
of the
case
the
same
{parinama)
account
on
in
former
the
the
the
thus
and
in the
have
transformations
(citis different
cause
while
dosa,
latter
from
appearance
have
transformations
the
case
the
different
realityfrom
imposed
on
the
reality
same
it),
as
to
fied
vrtti as modiunderlying the antahkaranaby dosa and the object cit as underlying the "this" before
the
then I ought to have
me
(in the illusion of "this is silver"),
silver" like "I am
happy" and not that
experience that "I am
"this is silver"; the answer
is,that as the coalescingtakes place
a
coalescingof
the
cit
"
in connection
the
"
with
knowledge
am
happy,"
with
of the
two
also
the
my
is "this
notion
previous
"cits"
previous
of
vrtti of
is the
same
is
notion
as
"this,"the
silver,"whereas
happiness
"I."
Thus
in both
in
the
form
of
notion
tion
place in connecthough the coalescing
takes
cases,
yet in
one
case
the
knowledge
takes
School
Sahkara
The
488
form
the
of "I
and
am,"
previous impression is
perceptionsare the same
the
according as
also the dream
conch-shell.
of silver in the
There
[ch.
Vedanta
of
in another
"I"
or
"this is"
as
"this."
In dreams
the
illusoryperception
creations
are
illusory
as
the
form
"
that
"I
that
see
I remember
the whole
but
chariots."
the
inactive,and
are
I ride in the
therefore
is
imposed
chariots,etc."
on
In the dream
is
and
all the
state
not
senses
no
experience with
dream
time, objects,etc.
there
air
objection that
cit. The
the
upon
of space,
all characteristics
since
states
the defects
expiry of
the
on
of
sleep,etc.,which were
called nivrtti (negation)
illusorycreation
dream
pure
cannot
sleep the
antahkarana
accordance
called
with
or
will not
and
not
silver,the
not
was
is
in
an
and
it. Here
we
when
as
the conch-shell
the
that
the
the
upon
that
it is
of
illusion
it,by
to
is the
which
reality.This
a
as
advocated
things (e.g.red
the
is
no
creation
flower
and
of
the other
conch-shell
doubt
by Nyaya.
imposed
different
two
feel at the
we
perceived
feelingof reality
silver was
an
objective
sukti (conch-shell)
is transferred
and
(anirvacaniya-rajatotpatti)
realitybelonging
silver,this
is
illusion of silver
in it. One
conch-shell
this
comprehended
imposed
two
we
realityin
belonging to the
as
see
of the
form
and
illusorycreation
of the
real nature
but
reality,
illusorycreation, though the
silver
silver
the
silver. When
silver is felt
felt
illusion
occurs
is
experience
I cannot
the
when
is what
This
us.
illusion is there
the
cessation
be
creation; for
illusory
of
of
findingout
on
these
cit,but
was
as
when
as
ceases,
the
on
objectspresented before
the
badha
there
any
for though
nivrtti,
it,whereas
the
still be
experiences may
be experienced
of
to
time
the
Vedanta
crystal)are
upon
kinds
finable
inde-
an
is the attribution
the
of
illusory
the
sion
illu-
anyathdkhyati
admits
both
that
present
and
all
(a) having
knowledge {dama\
of such
these
that
power
true
his
them,
the
again
be
Yoga
attainment
of
for
alone
is the
Vedas
do
not
goal,but
supreme
with
the
the
is meant
of
of
the
of
all persons
that
earlier
But
Vedas
from
should
the
is
Mimamsa
as
Vedanta
Brahman
that the
to
be
the
in accordance
act
attainment
holds
Vedanta
of
standing
under-
asserts
Brahman
one
truth
ground
the
covers
to
(called
realize the
self1. Mimamsa
own
knowledge
evil.
to
with
prakrti,
right knowledge that
injunctions for
Vedic
removal
of
purport
holds
by
includes
and
purusa
dawn
the
declare
sessing
pos-
correctly
(meditation)which
emancipation proceeds
his
reality,
true
and
man
Upanisads
the
ethics
in
between
the
by
comes
in
concentration, try
Yoga
the difference
salvation
stated
as
therefore
while
; but
Yoga
understand
to
tainment
at-
instructor
salvation.
try
by nididhydsana
Vedanta
one.
the
in
the
the
of
processes
faith
attain
right
Upanisads
conviction
then
and
manand)
the
favour
in
strengthen
all the
of
purport
arguments
and
of
(b)power of
worldly enjoyments (uparati),
of mind
towards
heat, cold, etc., (c) employment
of
as
restrained
are
wards
tempted tobearing extremes
not
may
these
for
ledge,
rightknow-
attainment
restrained
senses
of
means
the
aids
of this
distaste
which
that
but
everything
[ch.
enjoyments
to
from
of
life after
heavenly
of the
life and
Vedanta
of
disinclination
(2)
is transient,
what
School
Sahkara
The
490
good
of
that
though
the
has
it,yet
this
believed
(e.g.Praka"atma
bring about
etc.
and
to
easier
In
for
only
the
suitable
remove
for
person
acquirement
See
his
it served
followers)that
to
many
a
and
the
way
so
that
it became
right knowledge.
ordinary knowledge the ajflanasre-
to attain
of
from
Vedantasara
and
the
desired
Advaitabrahmasiddhi.
x]
Emancipation
moved
only smaller
Brahma-knowledge dawns
Brahma-knowledge
the
at
is
the
only
wood
the
would
would
knowledge
last
wood,
same
very
destroy even
The
mukti
the
identity of
shines
forth in its
last state
the
of
mind
piece
burn
Brahma-
the
illusoryworld-appearance
and
final state1.
that
stage is
Brahman
whole
destroy all
fication)
ajnana modibeing destroyed,
itself
state
which
is itself
state
when
knowledge
that
in the
so
is removed.
whole
of
state
unlimited
the
the
when
specialstrength that
the
The
it is said
burn
its
being
it.
infinite and
light. Thus
true
own
destroyed by
pure
whereas
of
ajnana,
ajnana as a
this
at
the
of
of
state
at
states
are
49
in which
one
the
Brahman
lightof
pure
intelligence,
being and complete bliss
shines
forth
in its unique glory, and
all the rest vanishes
as
illusorynothing. As all being of the world-appearance is but
as
limited
manifestations
but
are
limited
of
which
of
Brahman
of
however
the sattd
bliss is
pure
bliss and
is not
mukti
question,how
the
appearance.
It is best
avidya
and
destruction.
true
knowledge
while,
Thus
if the
the
Vedanta
has
there
will
enjoyed
be
perfectknowledge
even
attained,the body
may
is
emancipated
soon
as
any
other
up
beginninglessprevious lives,and
1
birth
the
the
the
Siddhdntaleia.
no
to
it.
like
behave
no
longer
his
ripe
and
loses his
body
the
dawn
of
budding karmas
longer subjectto
of
for him,
is
the
last for
can
fruits due
sage
for him
he
and
and
when
demand
karmas
about
walk
exhausted,
burnt
the
worldof
category
that
and
has
the
believes
may
As
karma.
new
never
yet he
but
previously ripened
person
as
answer
as
been
to
one
that
however
individual's
emancipated
acquire any
are
once
for
remember
is indefinite
consciousness
pure
becomes
forth and
to
naiyayika, but
the
itself.
with
difficult
as
avidya came
ordinary sage,
karmas
is
being
all existent
from
as
taste
The
sleep.
notion) of
What
bliss,a
supreme
in its aspect
always identical
(emancipation)
indefinite
that
abstraction
an
class
(being as
consciousness.
pure
of
pleasures also
all
being, so
one
can
and
an
that
manifestations
all
we
beings as
the
pure
all
for
any
School
Sahkara
The
492
of
Vedanta
[ch.
could
make
subjectiveor objective which
Such
a
man
knowledge, action, or feelingpossible for him.
called jivanmuktay i.e. emancipated while
living. For him
of the
illusions
He
is the
else has
vanished
for
is
all
alone
lightburning
one
any
from
ever
the
stage1.
Indian
other
and
Vedanta
Systems.
of
distinctlyantagonistic to Nyaya, and most
powerful dialectic criticism is generally directed against it.
Vedanta
its
is
inconsistencies
in
it
begun
of the
many
far
this admitted
as
with
it
Nyayaregards the
and
to
ordinary men,
whereas
perform but
knowledge, and
to
only
so
long
as
of
men
that
he
was
not
it differed from
entered
into
of the Vedas
them
should
man
had
and
self-
Mlmamsa
elaborate
many
referred
only to
Vedic
duties
no
the
attain
the
perform
fit for
great supporter
and
self-validity
higher order
rise above
to
were
of the
But
prove
found
It also
its doctrine
but agreed
categories,
of anumana,
upamiti,
pramanas
anupalabdhi.
with
in Mlmamsa
was
Vaisesika
the
generallyas
sabda,
arthapatti,
It
etc.
sama-
carried it to still
followers
Citsukha, Madhusudana,
the
as
the relation of
the atom,
His
and
conceptions,such
Nyaya
conception of
conception of jati,etc.2
the
contradictions
by showing
of causation,
theory
vaya,
had
himself
Sankara
Vedanta
highest
duties
Vedic
instruction
and
studies.
With
and
Samkhya
be very
close.
all the
special means
advocated
were
and
Samkhya
have
We
by Yoga.
was
of
Vedanta
seems
had
Vedanta
to
accepted
this that
difference
main
Samkhya
believed
Vedanta
between
that
the
stuff of;
to
these
the
world
three
consisted
characteristics
was
were
formed
diverse
See
modifications
Paficadaii.
II.
ii.
Vedanta
x]
of the
maya.
is believed
to
But
sattva,
rajas
tamas
in the
held
Moreover,
believed
to
what
in
spite of
through as the
pass
and
it
appeared.
strable
Prakrti
regards its
as
but
also
essential
own
then
even
it
its nature
had
its
which
it with
be
it could
defined.
of souls,while
personal individuality
soul
one
self,which
or
There
transformations.
as
well
to
was
in Vedanta
as
; but
as
in the
between
of characters
however
all
by
virtue
the
Though
there
were
so
the
only
of the
maya
Samkhya
was
purusa
or
due
mere
in Vedanta
was
in
illusion
prakrti and
differences,it
many
was
was
illusion in
former
unde-
it
there
all transformation
Vedanta
reals
was
forms;
the
as
for Vedanta
or
of
qualities
belonged
there
finable
altogetherinde-
not
but
combination
long
identities,but
or
its manifestation,
believed
many
long
so
undemon-
Samkhya
adhyasa
an
non-distinction
mere
misattribution
was
appeared
in
from
stantial
unsub-
an
rather
so
Maya
indefinite.
was
being only
be
to
indefinable
monstrable, indefinite,and
It
or
undefinable
because
positivereals. It was
composing it did not combine, no demonstrable
to
was
different
apart from
nature
believed
was
maya
world-appearance,it
indefinable
was
that
negative.
reals
as
of pure
accepted in
as
Samkhya
were
not
in
mind
possess
stuff of the
positiveor
as
493
all modifications
indefinite,and
and
understand
we
and
of tendencies
sense
indefinable
was
Systems
Isvara
Vedanta
it.
other
Thus
alone.
sattva
and
real transformation,
mere
appearance.
is however
to
easy
view
that
could
be
not
convinced
by
his
he
the
more
argues,
thought
had
followers
borrowed
the
of
Nagarjuna.
being
Sankara to
pure
and
the
interpretationsand
we
much
are
led
is
pure
suspect that
to
difficult
was
as
self-luminosityof
the
to
the
more
Samkhya
his
and
of criticism
like
be
hardly
The
Sankara
much
very
indeed
non-being
can
we
arguments.
Upanisads.
the
Brahman
His
It
Upanisads,
in the
origin in
its
Buddhists.
found
the
from
sunya
distinguish between
category.
The
Vijnanavada
debts
Buddhism
of
The
494
can
in
others
think
the
he
that
Sarikara's
that
of
was
and
the
permanence
of
There
hidden
Vedanta
by
Buddhist
philosophy
of
self
be
is
largely
superadded.
much
with
and
led
am
compound
the
truth
Bhiksu
Vijfiana
himself.
Buddhism
Sunyavada
[ch.
to
seems
Sahkara
against
accusations
Vijilanavada
notion
overestimated.
be
hardly
School
Sahkara
Upanisad
to
of
INDEX1
abddhitcty 482
abddhitavisayatva,
adhvan,
abadhitarthavisayajndnatva,
abhautika,
abhdva,
228
138,
355.
335"
47
n.
141,
356, 359'
312
n.,
455
453"
abkava-vilaksanatvamdtram,
453
abhdvendriyasannikarso, 359 n.
abhdvo
pindriyagrahanayogyah,
Abhidhamma,
82, 83, 166
'
gon.,gz,
115,
117,
Abhidharma
literature, 120
Abhidharmakoiaidstra,
114
abhimdna,
120
abhinivefa,
220
93".,
237,
".,
anyonyahetuke,
abhinndnena,
98
abhisandahana,
98
abhrdnta,
267
145
agraydna,
96
abhisankharonti,
408
abrahma,
vaicitra
"
niro-
285, 457
ahamkdra,
213,
295
403,
The
technical
195
Ajitakesakambali, 80
30
292,
names
of
supposed
458,
219,
221
220,
432
".
451,
34
450,
452
sannd,
450,
terms
marks
Vedic
revealed
arranged
are
and
words
come
works
words
and
after
are
character.
are
in the
in
other
Roman
of the
order
italics ;
small
in
are
names
ordinary
in
453,
454,
457"
461
ajndna-phenomena,
words
452,
446, 449,
96
33,
295
".
capital. English
diacritical
Samkitd,
Ajatasatru,
ajdtih, 423
".,
aa/fo, 199
1
457,
100
404
adhikaranasiddhdnta,
adhivacdnd
226, 248,
a/a, 427
adharmdstikdya,
adhisthdna,
236, 270
T75
adhikdrt)
200,
ahirika,
adhikdribheda,
216, 225,
214,
253,
Ahipati, 231
Ahirbudhnya
ahimsd,
acintyam, 425
Actual, 275
323,
388
460, 461
306
acintya, 428
316,
250,
249,
Acchoka,
adharma,
w.
aham,
193
Absolutism,
263
424
agrd/iyam, 425
agrhitagrdhitvam,
-parikalpa vdsand
dha, 146
abhutasya, 423
abhyanujiid, 302
abhydsay 234, 271
abhyudaya, 285
abhyupagamasiddhdnta,
abhicta
".
420
250
abhinnalaksane
".
456
".,
Affliction, 301
Afflictions, 259
250
abhimdna-dravya,
;2(
292
92*1.
Abhidharmakosavydkhyd,
119W.,
263 ".
Abhidhdnappadipikd,
abhihitdnvayavdda, 396, 397
abAildpa, 153, 408
w.
120,
119/z.,
on
413
94
paticcasamuppdda,
120
Abhidharmakosabhdsya,
128;
121,
w.
323,
adrstakdritam,
Abhidhammatthasangaha,
Abhidharmakosa,
T~p2T
n.
359
96
Pitaka,
Abhidhamtna
311
344
ones.
with
But
a
English alphabet.
names
Roman
of
books
with
throughout
capital,as a
the
mark
are
Sanskrit
and
capital. Letters
body of the book
of
Pali
in italics with
respect for
with
the
their
Index
496
anirvdcyavada, 461
anitya, 119 "., 145
anityatd,201
46
annamaya,
ajndnas, 490
ajiidnaiva,445
ajndna-vrtti,481
ajndtasaitvdbhyupagamdt,
452
Akhandananda,
"., 303,
akiticanatd,
202
aklista, 269
Aksamdld, 28
hosa, 60
annamaya
419
261
akhydti,
n.
28
Annapurnd,
anrta,
^4"r*, 28 n.
alaksana, 425
alaksanam, 215 ".
alaukika, 341
alaukika
sannikarsa, 341
aldtaidnti, 424, 426
antahkarana,
Alberuni,
233,
antardya,
Alchemy,
235
48'7
235, 237
234,
Amalananda, 86".,
Amaradasa, 419
418, 419
ii4".,
193
antardya-karma, 191
antarvydpti, 157, 186, 346
Antarvydptisamarthana, 156, 346
antarydmin, 48
Antecedent, 465, 466
"z"",
lion.
Amitayurdhydnasutra,
193
Antakrtadaids, 171
antardbhava, ngn.
249
97, 459
anubhdga, 194
anubhuti, 416
anubrata, 200
anudbhuta, 252
anadhigata, 471
anadhigatddhigantr, 410,
anadhyavasdya, 332 ".
anudbhutaricpavativa,290
413
anumdna,
155, 302
anaikdntika-hetu, 344
492
371
176
vastu,
200
103
160
anavasthd,
438
".,
anavasthd
a""a#, 453
anupalabdhi,
471,
452
magga,
andsrava,
133
333
an
at via,
171
angulitva, 165
Anguttara Nikdya, 83, m
189, 301, 314, 323
"*"",
anuparimdna, 314 w., 316
anupreksd, 195
anustubh,
220
24
218
".
anirodhamanutpddam,
220
n.
Anuttaraupapdtikadas'ds,171
n.
anuvyavasdya,
343
Anuyogadvdra,
426
".
animitta, 300
aniruddham
".
350
nirdeia,
anuttamdmbhas,
445
212,
455,
sati, 102
anusthiti, 163 ft.
anekdnta, 175
anekdntavdda, 175
anekarthamandndrtham,
Aniruddha,
398, 399,
anus
145
andhatdmisra,
397,
".,
anupalambhah, 359
anupasamhdrin, 361
a"g"z, 236
anusmrti
100
andtha, 145
andtmatva,
4",
492
anddikdla-prapanca-vdsandhetukanca,n" anusandhdna,
andgdmi
348
anumiti, 346, 355
anumitikarana,
346
aw^-aj,
(aprdmanikt),319 ".
(prdmdnikt),319 ".
anavasthd
w.
".,
anumeya,
anantadharmdtmakam
anarthadanda,
".
196
anubkava,
\i$n.
amosadharma,
139
28 #., 228
Amrtandda,
anabhibhava, 290 ".
Anantadeva,
283
a/oka, 198
ambhas,
135,
Anquetil Duperron, 39
n.
alinga" 217,
".
425
".
222
anutpannam,
142
anirvacaniya, 487
anirvacaniyakhydti,
486, 489
anirvacauiyaraiatopatti,
488
anvaya,
171
353
anvaya-vyatireka, 347
anvayavyatireki 353
anvayavydpti, 158, 346
anvitdbhidhdnavdda, 396
anyalhdkhydti, 261, 384, 385, 488, 489
anyathdsiddhi, 322 w.
anyathdsiddh iiu nyasya, 320
,
Index
498
aticara,
201
281
atisamksiptacirantanoktibhih,
atithisamvibhdgabrata,201
atindriya,252, 322, 335, 339
Atom, 492
Atomic, 213, 253, 254, 323, 401, 416;
combination, 326, 327; doctrine, 280;
306 "., 314 n. ; size, 292 ;
measure,
structure, 305,
313
Atoms,
115,
i2i,
252,
253,
255,
305,
306/2., 311,
319,
320,
165,
256,
^23,
196,
175,
291,
292,
204,
297,
314,
325,
324,
400
Atri, 213
attd, 109
attha
katha, 83
Atthasdlini, 82, 84
".,
98/2.,108 n.
Attributes,165
atyantdbhava, 360
audayika, 192
Aufrecht, 230
Auliikya darJana, 305
Aung, 85/2., 86/2., 90
85
89,
".,
94,
dkdrdpabandha, 256
43, 46, 48, 51, 109, 114, 124, 143,
149, 175, 197, 198, 199, 203, 213, 253,
287, 288, 292, 295, 310, 314, 316, 321,
326, 333, 335, 426; atom, 252, 253
92 ".,
w.,
112
".,
a"a.fa tanmdtra,
252
dkdtestikdya,195, 198
dkrti, 298
dlayavijndna, 86/2., 131, 132, 136, 137,
146, 167
dlocana, 378
dlocana-jndna,336
dnanda, 75, 109, 238, 271, 366, 424, 445
Anandabodha
Bhattarakacarya,420
Anandagiri,418, 433
46
dnandamaya at man,
302
n.
avaktavya, 180
avastMjndna, 458
avast hdparindma, 256
avast utva, 428
Anandairama,
dnaya, 396
128
Avatamsaka,
aMfa,
157
Aupapdtika, 171
aupaJamika, 192
Aurangzeb, 28 n.
Acdrdngasutra, 236
dcdrya, 433
ddhibhautika, 269/2.
ddhidaivika, 269/2.
dkdra, 415
97".,
aupamya,
423/2.
"z/ta,294
dptavacana, 355
avdks'dkha, 234
drambhaka-samyoga, 328
avayava,
avidyd, 86
I3J"
90,91,
".,
132,
i33"
134,
93 ".,
i37"
lit,
138, I39"
dsavas,
99 ;
as
".
96*
122,
drammana,
J43"
drammana-vibkdvanatthdne,
89
Aranyakas, 6, 12, 14, 27, 28, 29, 33, 35,
43; character of, 14; compositionof,
tion
14; fanciful unifications in, 36; relaof, to Upanisads, 14
487, 491
avidyddosa, 485
avidydkarma, 132
avijjd,86, 92/2., 93,
dtidpdnasati,103
dnviksikl, 277, 278, 279
Apastamba, 276
ardrendhana, 347
driya sacca, 10 1, 11
105,
III]
and
beginningless,
99
avi/jdsava,99, 100
avijnapti,124
avijnaptikarma, 124
avijnaptirupa,123, 124
avikalpika,337, 338
avindbhdvaniyama, 156,352
avipdka, 195
the
drya, 294
"., 304
Aryadeva,122/*.,
_
120/2.
Aryamulasarvastivada,
".
Aryasammitiya,
114
120/2.
Aryasarvastivada,
4/3/a satya, 107
Arya, 219
"fr?"i 332/2.
avitikkama,
dsamjndnirodtet,
"9
avirati, 193
aviiesa, 246, 253
avivddah aviruddhalca, 423
10
Aruni, 33, 34
Arunika, 28 n.
Aryasariga,409/2.
150
Index
dsana, 236, 271
dsava, 99, 100, 105; meaning of, 99
dsrava, ggn., 134, 192, 193
dsraz'abhdvand, 202
Bengali,40
Besarh, 173
Bhadanta, 120
Bhadrabahu, 170, 181
n.
dstika,67
astika-mata, six classes of, 68
Astika systems, karma
doctrine of, 72
Asuri,216, 218, 221
dtahkd, 186 n.
Bhandarkar,
423
Bhartrhari, 231
Bhartrmitra, 370
481;
470,
as
breath, 26
dtodya,296 w.
Atreya-samhitd,213
Atreya-samhitd (Caraka),299
Ajreyatantra,213
Aturapratydkhydna, 171 n.
bhavacakra, 86
Bhavadasa, 370
bhavdsava, 99,
n.
418, 421
I43".,
Bhasarvajna, 305
bhdsd, 195, 199
n.
n.,
339
309
n.,
419, 432,
433
bhdsyakdra,433
Bhdsyasukti,306
Bhdsya vdrttika,63
Bhattas, 462
bhdva, 142, 146,287, 312
127, 149
dyatanadvdraih,85 ".
dyuhana, 93
dyu-karma, 194
bhdvabandha,
bhdva- karma,
".,
bhdvand, 28
BadarikasVama, 432
bahiravabhdsanam, 337
bahirvydpti,157, 186
".,
tantram,
n.,
201,
316
bhdvanirjard, 195
bhdvapdratantrydt,312
bhdvariipa,453
346
bhdvasamvara,
221
w.
194, 195
bahujana, 131
Bahu^rutlyas,112
bhavasvabhavaiunyatdy 149
Bahvrca, 28
bhdvdbhdvasamdnatd,
bhdvatva, 453
n.
147
Bhavagane3a,
band/ia, 207
Baudhayana, 70
Badarayana, 70,
43""
223,
279, 422,
423,
429,
tatta, 488
bddhita,361
Bahva, 45
bdhya, 409 ".
Balaki Gargya, 33,
".
".
"., 415
200
bhogopabhogamdna,
34'
Bhoja, 212,
".
bhuta, 328
bhutas, 214,
Journal,
Society's
230,
233 ".,
235,
236
bhrama, 337
Bhurisrsti,306
bdlopacdrika,
150
Benares, 39,
243
1 50
bdhyabhdvdbhdvopalaksanatd,
Bengal
212,
bhedakalpand, 340
433
Behar, 308
357
193
191
bhdva-lefyd,191
191
129
n.
322 n.,
""
bhdsya,86
472, 481
253
Avasyaka, 171
dvirbhiita,257
n.
n.
dvarandbhdva,
95, 121,
100
434
Bhdmati, 114W.,
Bharuci, 433
dvarana,
".,
Bhagavata,
bhdgya, 220
Atman, 28 n., 31 n.
Atmatattvaviveka, 307
dtmavdda, 401 n.
bahudhdkrtam
n.
bhatta-mata,69
"y/w.r, 268
dyu ska- karma,
28
n.
dyatana, 85, 88
436
Bharadvdja-vrttiy
306
n.
dtmaikatva, 433
vital
422,
bhakti, 77
Bhasmajdbdla,
28
421,
Bhaktdparijnd,I'jin.
dJrta, 312
Atmabodha,
i86"., 309
".,
Bhadrayanikas, 112
Bhagavadgitd, 8, 64, 227,
Bhagavati, 171
dssdsa, 103
diankd-pratisedha,186
diraya, 312, 460
diraydstddha,361
499
310
bhiitatathatd,130, 134
32"2
Index
5oo
bkutddi, 249, 251, 253
dtman
character
of,
creation
and
as
Bibliotheca
in, 25
thought,
90
Blessedness, 61
Bodas, 276, 279
bodka, 412
Bruno, 40
hi, 173
bodhibhdvand, 202
bodhtsattva, 127, 150, 151
Bodhisattvas,136,137
Bombay, in., 28 w., 317
brakmabhuta, 215 n.
28
Brahmahood,
n.
n.
226, 227
200,
236,
n.y
301 ".,
211,
430,
215,
431,
35,
434,
440,443,444,
452,
as
ordainer,49
silence,45
as
in Satapatha,
principle
the
of
cause
all,48 ;
ultimate
as
as
preme
su-
20;
as
cause,
of
powers
of
gods depended on,
37 ; powers
natural objectsdepended on, 37 ; priest,
i3".;
inadequate,
43
of, 37
; transition
substitutes of,
of the meaning
three currents
of
thought
432,
out
of,
n"
143 ".,
470
Vaisnava
commentaries
Brahma-sutrabhdsya, 3 1 9
Brahmavidyd, 28 n.
brahmavidyd, 34 n.
brahmavihdra, 103, 144
Brahmayana,
126
30.
31,
of, 8
n.
33-
rebirth in, 87
226,
mn.,
n.
Brhati, 370
Buddhacaritakdvya,
Buddhadeva,
".,
of
and
name
viftndna, 89;
on
theory of perception,97
Buddhahood, 84, 136, 137
Buddhapalita,128
Buddhas, 136,
137, 424
Buddhavamsa,
83
Buddhayana, 125 n.
buddhi, 213,
240
n.,
214,
242,
216, 218
249,
251,
n.y
224,
225,
275,
209,
212,
219,
237 ".,
Dihnaga's view
of
the
new
31, 35
i^n.,
n.
129
116
350
35,
115,
n.
Brahmasutras,
62, 64, 70, 121 "., 223,
279, 418, 420, 421, 422, 429, 431, 433,
439
14,
Brhatkalpa, 1 7 1 n.
Brhatsamhitd, 327 n.
Buddha, 7, 64, 65, 67, 79, 80, 84, 86,
236
n.y
168, 202,
28 ".,
Brhajjdbdla,28
Brahma-knowledge, 491
36" 43"
n.
35. 37"m
55
20,
into
Brhaspati, 79
Brahmajdlasutta, 65
Brahman,
development of,
169
Brhadaranyaka,
n.
brahmacarya, 199,
270, 283
British,11, 371
bod
Brahmabindu,
bodhdbodhasvabhava,)412
Bodhayana, 433
Bodhdyana bkdsya, 433
in, 27 ;
essence
supreme
208, 404,
429;
doctrine
of
matter,
95;
of
doctrine
of
non-
Index
self,161 ff.; doctrine of momentariness
and
doctrine
of
doctrine
of
the
i63ff.
;
causal
efficiency,
pancakdrant
determining cause-effect relation,
as
futed
re-
501
339,
340,
352,
357,
345.
34i"
34"5,
347, 348, 350,
".,
385, 411,
4i3#
buddhitattva,249,
Bulletin
250
V Academic
de
des Sciences
de
Russie, ngn.
Burgess, J., 170 n.
Buhler, 170 n., 276
logic,388,
103;
of existence,
in, 93; onto-
nature
390;
no-soul
doctrine
and
sensations
in, 95
; state
of
human
meditation
etc., 103;
niwana,
contrasted
impure,
as
103 ;
pity
friendship,
nivvdna
and heresy in, 109;
theoryof,108; no-selfdoctrine,
with Upanisad self-doctrine,
objectsof
no;
pessimism
in,
concentration,
102
n.
breath, 103;
in, 97;
sila
and
science
theory
sense-contact
samadhi
104;
preparatory
measures
of
body
of universal
in,
100;
99".,
Buddhismus,
win.
n.
caittadharma,
12
caittasamskrta
dharmas,
124
112
caittikas,
268
cakradhramivaddhrtas'arirah,
Cakradatta, 231
cakraka, 205
University,
121,
Cambridge,
155
208 ".,
213
".
Candrakanta
Tarkalamkara, 279
Candraklrti,85^., 86n., 87, gon., 109,
138, 140, 166; his
125 n., 128, 129,
of nama,
88 n.
interpretation
Candraprajnapti,
171
Candrikd,
n.
212
Canddvija,171
n.
n.y
212,
224, 231,
; his view
304 n.
of Samkhya
213,
n.y
;
302,
system
in, 214
kdrikd, 280
Caraka
samhild, 302
Caraka, s'drtra,280 n.
Caraka
Carake
carv,
Patafijalih,
235
79
Carydpitaka, 83
Categories,
281,
283, 287,
461, 492
Category,317, 378
312,
313,
365,
413,
catuhsictri,70
catuhfarana, 1 7 1
catuMataka, 129
caturanuka, 326
493
n.
Buddhist, 130^.,
230*
233,
100;
texts, 109
Index
502
cest"y 264
karma
cetana
cetana,
228
123
108, 213,
101,
214,
n.
400,
412,
415,
438,
444,
445,
447,
cetasy i\l
Consciousness-stuff, 250
cetasika, 101
cetati,124
cctovimutti, 106
Copemican,
Cosmos,
Cowell,
University,3
Cosmology, 221, 276
"r^/a, 294,
Chdndogya, 28
39, 46"., 47
88".,
226
iu".,
263 w.,
54".,
173. i74"-"
i33".,
n.,
432
Chdydvydkhydy
53,
49 "., 51M.,
w.,
36,
35 ".,
now.,
".,
w.,
487, 488
citra, 313
".,
445,
".,
n.
dabbasambhdrasadisd,
Daksa, 23
daksind, 36
DaksindmHrlti, 28 n.
dama, 490
dandaniti, 277
96
cittabhumi, 268
cittadharmay 121
cittasamprayuktasamskdra, 86
cittavimukta, 151
121
cittavrttinirodha,235
codandlaksanah
arthah, 427
".
DafaJrutaskandha,
171
Daiavaikdlika, 171
n.
Collocation, 255,
332,
256, 257,
342,
their method
412,
274,
320,
413,
of treatment,
66
Compendiums, 2
Compound concepts,
Concentration,103,
94 ;
104,
feelings,
94
272, 342,
437, 490
157, 159, 160, 308, 322,
3*5, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 351,
35*,
353, 354, 356, 358, 364, 388,
412,
n.
45".,
439
416,
413,
perception,
331,
26
Deussen,
w.,
49 w.,
cognition,
334,
378
""
Devadatta,
117,
393,411,
483
120
devaydna,
34, 54,
Devendrastava,
Devi, 28 n.
dhamma,
84
Conglomeration,163
Consciousness, 94,
379,
Devaksema,
".,
Concomitance,
353,
4"
detdvakdHkabrata, 200
deiita,423
Determinate,
185, 225,
343
268, 271,
".,
Dattdtreya, 28 n.
daurmanasya, 86 n.
ddna, 283
ddnapdramitd, 127
325,
416, 467
Collocations,160, 363, 367, 374, 466
Commentaries,
63, 67, 285 "., 308, 422,
;
280
".,
3""9
detepabandha, 256
Co-effects, 321
33""" 33i"
n.
ddnasamiti, 199 n.
Darashiko, 28^., 39
Death, 50, 58, 59, 84, 103, 201
Debate, 406, 407
Deccan, 432
Delhi, 39
Demerit, 264, 281, 317, 324, 325, 342
Desire, 108, 225,228, 295, 299, 300, 311,
n.
121
cittaviprayukta,
cittaviprayuktasamskdra,86 n.
cittaviprayuktasamskdradharma%
cittaviiuddhiprakarana,129
of, 68
Dcdavaikdlikaniryukti, 186
492
*43,
107
darjana,
189, 190; meaning
470
Craving,
212
ajndnam, 457
Citsukha, 238
325
2
Cullavagga, 108
433
Chedasutras, 171
Childers, 99^., 263 ".
China, 278
Chinese, 4, 119, 122 "., 125
Chinese translations,120
Christian, 21
cinmdtrdiritam
31
Cornell
82,
dhammadesand,
240,
Dhammapada,
380,
dhammas,
104,
58,
171
102
84
83
166
125
n.
n.
Index
82, 83, 94, 95
Dhammasangani,
100
".,
99,
n.
82
dhammavisesatthena,
82
dhammdtireka,
Dhanapala, 172
56, 122, 131, 136,137, 145, 161,
195, 197, 198, 202, 256, 257, 281, 282,
285, 286 "., 291, 292, 316,3i6"., 317 n.,
322, 323, 383, 403, 404, 405, 423, 424,
427 n., 428; meaning of, 84 n.
dharma,
dharmadhdtu,
130,
131,
151,
151*
256
dharmapanndma,
Dharmarajadhvarindra,
of perception,
dhar?naskandha,
67, 419,
420,
86 "., 94
120
dhartnasvdkhydtatdbhdvand, 202
dharmas'dstras, 278
Dharmatrata,
115,
dharmastikdya,
120
195
Dharmottariyas,
112
dhruva, 175
122
d/fc?Yz,
Dhurtta
Carvakas, 78, 79, 362
dravyaleiyd,191
dravyanaya, 177
dravyanirjard, 195
dravyaparamdnu, 121
Dravyasamgraha, 171,
Dravyasamgrahavrtti,
197^., 198 "., 199 w.
dravyasamvara, 194
dravyatva, 287, 312
dravydsrava, 194
w.
194
".,
".
203,
".,
drstisrstivdda,420
duhk'ha,86 n., 106, 133,
".
vivekinah, 365
duhkhaskandha, 86 w.
duhkham
106 n.,
dustarakunibandhapankamagndndm,
dutiyam jhdnam, 105
288
dvandva,
dvddasdnga,
""W0,
322
heyah, 265
samsarak
duhkhabahulah
".
120,
426
Btiddha, g2n.,
the
68 w.
OTjf**,
35i"
192 ".,
drstdntdbhdsa, 390
202,
35o "-,
389
236, 272
Dhydnabindu, 28 "., 228
dhydnapdramitd, 127
dhydndgnidagdhakarma, 201
Dhydyitamusti sutra, 125 w.
307,
w.
191
""#"" 349
drstdnta, 185, 186
Dinnaga, 63,
198,231,232,285,286,
317, 318,
drs'yatva,
445
dhvamsdbhdva,
293 "., 359
dhydna, 81, 102 "., 145, 150,
Dinakari,
453,
n.
dravyabandha, 193
dravyakalpand, 340
dr/, 68 w.
dWya, 444,
120
Dialogues of
365,452,
n.
10
301,
n.
3o6"., 312,313,
334" 34". 380 "., 428
304,
dravya karma,
Dharmasamgraha,
107
287, 294,
320,
dhutangas,
Dravidacarya, 433
340 ".,
ference,dravya,
; theory of in175, 197,
i55flf.
; theory
Dhdtukdya,
100
Divergence, 464
Digha, 8on., 81 "., 91 "., 108
Dlgha Nikdya, 83, 106
Dlpavamsa, 83 n., 112 "., 119
dirgha, 314 "., 315
dlrghaparimdna, 316
Dhdr
ditthi,6$n.,
137
Dharmaguptikas, 112
dharmakdya, 132, 137
Dharmaklrti,
503
70
".
".
02
306
Dvaraka,
1
307
dvipaddm
varam,
220
".,
267, 316
423
dvitva, 314
dvipas,235
dvyanuka, 314, 323,
Dyads, 314, 31 5
324,
326, 327
".
n.
Earth, 23
Earth
ball, 104, 106
Disputes, 66
Eastern
Dissolution, 324
ditthdsava, 99, 100
East
Rajputana, 172
India, i20".
Effect, 164, 165, 325, 326, 331, 332, 345,
Index
504
347" 348, 349"
3^4.
359 """
4"*", 4*7.
Effect-collocation,274, 275
116
Efficiency,
Eggeling, i3".,
Ego, in,
133,
Egoism, 301
Egyptians, 4
24
20".,
134.
225,
ekatvab Havana,
28
Garuda,
ekatvdnyatva, 148
n.
Gaudabrahmdnandi,
113
Gaudapada, 212,
418, 422, 423,
Ekdksara, 28 ".
ekdnta, 193
Ekanti, 421, 422
101
ekdrammana,
gavaya,
ckdtmapratyayasdra, 425
Gaga Bhatta,
236,
225,
441,
445,
Embryo,
490;
59,
289
306
n.,
354,
243 n.,
127,
201,
203,
436,
n.
112
n.
Genus,
Geschichte
57
391, 486
371, 417
der
indischen
".
345,
Litteratur, 35
396,397
Geiger,
107,
Empiricalinduction,348
211
242 ".,
425,
424,
Gautama,
gam,
101,
273,
420
222, 223,
435" 437
eklbhdva, 409 w.
ekodibhdvam, 105
Emancipation,
33*"-,
""
114
112,
55
202
Ekavyavaharikas,
ekaydna, 125 ".
ekdgra, 268
423
Gandharvas,
w.
458
*"*, 18
ekacittasmim, 97
gaganopamam,
n.
i2$n.
196
ghanapratarabhedena,
ghatatva, 412
Ghoshal, S. C, 193
Ghosa, 115, 116
Ghosaka, 120
n,t
n.
203
Gift,'
36
Gnostics, 14
go, 39 x"
396
Eschatological,304
identity,345
v8n.
Gopdlapurvatdpini,
28
Gopdlottartdpini, n.
410
Essential
esana,
gotra, 193
195
European,
f,
6, 9,
gotva, 317
121,
I30".,
169;
philosophy,62
evambhuta-naya, 178 n.
Evolution, 225, 245, 246, 247, 259, 311
Evolutionary course, 256; process, 259
Existence, 164, 168; Buddhist definition
of, 160
Faizabad, 39
Fallacies, 312, 390
gotvajdti,317
Gough, 2
Govardhana,
329, 330 n.
Govinda, 418, 423, 432
Govindananda,
85 "., 86
9i".,
Greek
literature,40
Greek
philosophy, 42
Greeks, 4
Guhadeva,
Flame, 162
Gujarat, \20t1.,
Forces
of Nature
adored, 1 7
Gacchas, 170
Gadadhara
Bhattacarya,308
Gaganaganja, 125 n.
89
".,
90 w.,
grahya, 409
Greek gods, 16
substances,243
Feeling-
Fallacy,301
".,
419
433
172
196, 217,
gttna, 84,
221,
222,
223,
224,
3o6".,
3""
312,
334,
313,
339" 4*3
320,
Index
506
ideas, 9;
309,
popularised,1 ;
optimism of, 76 ;
of systems
order
of,
published, 1
9 ; texts
Indians,
translatable,
not
1, 3,
169
40
Indian
Indra, 18,
228
".,
160
n.
cause,
274
61
Intelligence,
Intelligence-stuff,
241, 244, 248
Invariability,
320
Invariable,321, 322, 352, 465, 466
Isomaric, 328
isana, 199
doctrine
1906*".
;
195 ff.;doctrine
of nayas,
of
matter,
trine
176; doc-
n.
jard, 86 n.
j'ardmarana, 86, 80, 92
Jayanta, 67, 79, 160 "., 307,
n-
191;
of livingbeings, 189; doctrine
of
doctrine
emancipation, 207;
Japanese,303
Itsing,120?/.
248
192,
Janaka, 34
janma, 294
Japan, 278
itaretarcdunyatd,149
195, 199
434;
n.
Jambudvipaprajflaptiy
171
n.
iti,230
Itivuttaka, 83
irya,
394, 401,
3, 9, 175,
karma,
Infinitude,61
Inherence, 165, 285, 312, 319, 336, 349,
381, 382, 403, 450, 483
Injunction,396, 397, 403, 404, 405, 430,
436, 437, 49"
Inorganic,51
Instrumental
Jainism,
of
".,
prakrit, 171;
religion, 169;
210;
186
scriptures,
fainatarkavdrtika, 171, 1 83 ". , 184 ".,
472
280
karma,
Infinite regress,
atheism
10
272
21,
429
Indo-European,
in
432
".,
330
220,
223,
307, 311,
n.
322,
234 ".,
282 ".,
323,
324,
493
.
222
".,
365 n.
".,
337"355"",
321,
326 ".,
362
Jayaditya,231
Janakinatha Bhattacarya,308
jdta, 423
Jdtaka,83
jdti,84, 89, 92, 294, 296, 298, 301, 302,
304 """ 3!7" 3J8, 3*9" 339, 3"", 2,61,
378, 379, 38o, 381, 382, 403, 424, 445,
483, 49*
Index
jdtikalpand, 340 n
Jdtirindriyagocard,382
338
jdtyddisvariipdvagdhi,
Jhalkikar,Bhlmacarya, in.
n.,
jhdna,
405
Kantian, 4097/.
370,
378
n.t
n.
103,
102,
104,
105,
106;
paratory
pre-
425,
457,
for, 102
measures
jhdna-samddhi,102
jijndsd,302
jina, 144, 199
jiva, 75, 188, 189, 198, 238,
461, 469, 482
iivanmukta,
414,
Kalisantarana,
28
282
".
".
kalpandpodhamabhrdntam, 153
kalpas,138
kalpasutra,171
Kalpataru, 418
Kalpataruparimala, 418
Kalpdvatamsikd, \*j\n.
kalpitasamvrti, 428
".
73, ggn.,
Yoga- view
239;
74;
karmakdnda,
karmas,
190,
and
marga,
29;
191,
192,
Jaina-view
vargand,
430,
436
210
201,
karmasdmarthyam, 316
karmatva, 287
karmavijndna, 133, 135
n.
karmdsrava, 193
karmds'aya, 267
Karmins, 436
karund, 103, 104, 136, 203, 236, 270
Karundptindarlka,125
Kashmere, 39,
kasinam, 104
20".,
i20".,
Kassapa, 106
kasdya, 191, 193, 201,
Kathdvatthu, 83, 108
120
n.,
n.
256
313
".,
112,
113,
119,
18
Kathenotheism,
Katha, 28 n., 39*,
59, 60 n., 106,
45^.,
226n.,
211
227, 432/2. ; school, 31
n.,
Katharudra, 28 n.
katu, 313
kaumudi, 245 n.
Kausitaki,
n.
106
kamma,
101,
kammabhava,
87, 90
Kaniska, 129W.
Kant, 42
matter,
kausidya, 144
n.
kalala-budbuddvasthd, gin.
Kaldpa
73;
karmaphala,
fndtadharmakathds,171
133,
203,
192
131,
compared,
".
123,
193,
Jndnaprasthdna Jdstrd,1 20
jndnaJakti,402, 460
/ndnasa?navdyanibandhanam,363
jndndbhdva, 456
24
Rahasy a, 306
kapardin, 433
Kapila, 68, 216, 218, 220, 221, 222, 233
Kapilavastu,81
karanadosajndna, 375
"WW10, 54, 55, 56, 57, 72, 74, 75, 80,
86 "., 87,90,90/2., 91, 107, 108, m,
206, 207, 210, 214, 215,
228 n., 233, 248, 266, 267, 268, 285,
286, 287, 291, 294, 300, 301, 304,
306 n., 312, 313, 316 n., 317, 318,
319, 320, 324, 327, 330, 363, 366, 440;
different kinds
of, 73; Jaina view of,
492
fivdbhigama, 1 7 1 ".
jivdstikdya,189
y"owa, 189 "., 190, 199, 367, 413,
416, 417, 437, 445. 455
jndna- karma-samuccaydbhdvah ,437
jndnakdnda, 436
jndna-kdrana, 448
jndnalaksana, 341, 342
jndna-mdrga, 29, 436
382
35"" 35i,
349'
Kanada-
202,
jivanmukti,268
Jivanmuktiviveka,419
Kaegi,
507
28 n.,
30,
39".,
50,
57 n.,
kdmaloka, 134
kdmdsava, 99,
105
100
kdmya-karma, 489
Kafici, 418
Kapila Samkhya, 68
Kapya Patamchala, 230
kdrakavydpdra, 257
Index
5o8
idrana, 258
kdrana-dkdfa,
"rate, 88
".,
"ry/a, 340
kriydkalpand, 340
kriydtakti,460
kriddrtham, 424
253
kdrana-buddhi, 250
kdrana-sdmagri, 322
kdranasvalaksandnyathdbfidvah,468
kdranawruddhakdryyopalabdhi, 358
kdranaviruddhopalabdhi, 358
kdrandnupalabdhi, 358
"mia, 67, 224, 273 "., 342 "., 423
krodha, 201
krsna, 28 "., 73, 74, 266
yajurveda, 227
Krsnayajvan, 371
Kritikd,
387
Krsna
kdrmcUarira,73
ksana, i$jn.,
kdrmanaiartra, 192
"jrya, 257, 258 "., 286
".,
ksanikdh, 114
ksdntipdramitd, 127
ksdyika, 192
ksdyopaiamika, 192
ksetra, 214,
ksetrajna,214
ksipla,268
31
Kavya, 172
kdyagupti, 199
kdyendriya, 123
kdyika, 108
kdyikakarma, 124
karma,
kdyikavijtiapti
".
124
".
Khandanakhandakhddya,
318
A7/fl^
462
1 2
".
150,
151 ".,
47o
170
Ay/a, 426
layayoga, 229
Le
Gentil, 39
/*"^a, 152,
306
Pdtanjal, 233
416
Knowledge as movement,
Knowledge -moments,
412;
411,
240
Laksandvali, 3
kramabhdva, 186
laksanaparindma, 256
laksanatunyatd, 149
"., 419,
khinasava, 105
Khttddaka
nikdya, 83
Khuddaka
pdtha, 83
khydti vijiidna,
145
kilesas, 100
Kinetic, 246
Kirandvali, 306
Kirandvalibhdskara,
217
103
kdyagatdsati,
khanikaitd, 104
Kharatara
Gacchas,
M*, 427
208
202
Kdthaka,
Kesava
".
ksanikatvavydpta,
159
Katyayana,230, 279
40
10
ksanika, 161
Katyayaniputtra, 120
Kemp,
".
409
319, 427
kdryakdrana-bkdva, 320
kdryakdranabhdvddvdy 352 ".
kdryatva-prayojaka,322
358
kdryaviruddhopalabdhi)
kdrydkdia, 253
kdrydnupalabdhi,358
Kdiikd, 263 "., 371
Kasyapa, 349
Kaiyapiyas, 112
Kena,
".
343,
344,
".
412
linga-pardmarta, 351
/ftrigui,
345
/*7a,324
Lildvatl, 306
-stuff, /0M0, 100, 201
Index
lokabhdvand,
509
Mahayanists, 126
202
Lokaprakds'a,190W.
Mahisasakas,
Mas, 235
lokakdia, 189, 197, 199
Mahommedan,
39
Maitrdyani, 28"., 31, 39"., 211, 227,
236
Maitreyi, 28 n.
Maitreyi, 35 n., 61
maitri, 93 n., 136, 203, 226 n., 236, 270
Majjhima Nikdya, 83, 93 w., 99"., 100,
25".,
12,
137*.,
18, i9".,
22,
23,
n.
in
Makkhali
492
madhya, 199
madhyamaka, its meaning, 144
philosophy, 138
Madhyamaka
189
madhyama-parimdna,
Magadha, 120 n.
Magic, 127, 142, 424, 426, 428, 435,
469
force, 37; verses,
Magical, 80, 229;
36
mahat, 45, 213, 225, 226, 248, 249, 254,
3I5. 43i
255. 276, 290, 3i4"-"
mahatparimdna, 315
mahat-tattva, 249
Mahd, 28 n.
Mahdbhdrata,
79, 216, 217,
224,
307
Gosala, 79
Malabar, 432
Malebranche, 40 n.
Mallinatha, 277/*., 308, 362
man,
68
Man,
as
universe, 23
manahparydya, 191
manahiuddhi, 201
230,
231,
490
manana,
Mahamaya,
81
mahdmoha,
mahdn, 292
220
215, 225,
214,
378, 402,
manaskdra,
218, 219,
Mahdniddna
MahdniHtha,
232,
233,
manovijndna,
".
doctrine, 127
Mahayanism,
124
86
125
".
marut,
255, 310
252,
Mass-stuff, 242,
z"tfto,68
Material
244
".
cause,
323,
376,
453
377. 445,
Bhattacarya,308
Mathura
mati, 207
matijndna, 191
n.
Matter, 196
his life,
Maudgalyana, 120
Maulikya Samkhya, 217,
Max
its
125,
405
229
maranabhava,
91
marandnussati, 102
ence
differ-
166, 424;
Hinayana, 126; literature,
125 ".; meaning of, 125
Mahdydnasamparigrahas'dstra, 128
Mahay dnasutrdlamkdra, 125, 128, I46".,
147 "., 151 ".
sutras,
10
28 n., 228
Mandalabrdhmana,
Mandana
Mi"ra, 371, 418, 432
Maniprabhd, 318 "., 419, 485 n.
from
Mahayana
408
manvate,
n.
n.
125,
134,
211
mantrayoga,
173
Mahayana,
46
124,
mantradrastd,
31,
Mahdvyutpatti,120
n.
60
dtman,
mantras,
Mahdparinibbdnasuttanta, 81 ".
Mahdpratydkhydna, ijm.
Mahasangha, 112
Mahasahghikas, 112, 113, 125
Mahdsatipatthdna Sutta, 107
Mahdvdkya, 28 ".
mahdvdkya, 439
Mahdvibhdsd, 120
Mahavira, 79, 169, 170, 171;
311,
134
manomaya,
marana,
39 ".
suttanta, 92
171 ".
303,
460, 472
413,
n.
Mahdndrayana,
25,
manas,
mantra,
"., 207
mano,
279
219,
n.
Mallisena, 171
manomaya
Mahdbhdsya,
235. 465
their
351
Makaranda,
Madhusudana
Madhva,
n.
Major,
mada, 144
madaJakti, 79
Madhusudana,
119
112,
Miiller,'
10,
40".,
45
i$n.,
218
18, 38, 39
".,
n.
Mayukhamdlika,
371
n.,
Madhavacarya, ii4".
mddhyamika, 127, 138, 429
Mddhyamika kdrikd, 125 n., 138, 426
Madhyamikas, 113
n.
Index
5""
91
i44".,
425*.
Mddhyamikaidstra,
mddhyaslha, 203
100,
400
108
mdnasika,
28 ft., $m.,
Mdndukya,
".
mdrdava,
"
213
142,
141,
144,
146, 149,
424, 426,
461, 4""5"
201,
241,
227, 234,
202,
201,
235, 317
megha, 220 n.
Memory, 185, 269,316 n., 340;
n.
of,
causes
perception,
400
Mercury, 287 n.
Merit, 264, 281, 312, 317, 324, 325, 342
406
Metaphysical,
Metaphysics, 161, 166, 403, 414, 415
Metempsychosis,25,
that
Prabhakara's
Sabda
459 ;
234
Mimdmsd
372,"394
Mlmamsist, 359
mleccha, 294 n., 304
Molar,
143,
n.
220
".,
276, 300
170,
321
motion, 321
Molecules, 327
Momentariness, 158, 161, 164, 168, 209,
Molecular
281,
"".
37i,
284,
303,
346,
357"
372,
320,
212
Momentary,
".,
323,
363. 3^7,
375. 376, 382,
with
Nyaya Vai^esika,
anvitdbhidhdnavdda
yavdda, 395
122,
moksavdda, 401 n.
216
mokse
nivrttirnihs'esd,
mithyddrsti,145
mithydj'ndna,294, 365
mithydsatydbhiniveJa,148
mithydtva, 193
mithydtvanirukti,444 n.
Mimdmsd,
7, 9, 68, 129, 188, 189, 209
403;
100,
n.
Mithila, 308
370,
220
moksa, 115,
103
n.
344
371
India, i20".
Milinda, 83
Milindapanha, 83, 88, 89, 107, 163 n.
"".
self,
371
Mtmdmsa-nydya-prakdia,
Mimdmsdparibhdsd, 371
moha,
Middle
276/ 280,
394 ff.;
Mindfulness, 101,
Mind
stuff,240 n.
Minor, 351, 362
Mirok, 278, 303
pramana,
modamdna,
369.
of
as
mettdbhdvand, 104
Middle, 351, 362
343
of
view
mettd, 103
Misery, 295
hakara,
Prab-
of
sphota,
doctrine of samavdya,
381;
397 n.\
epistemology of Kumarila,
416 ff.;
epistemologyof Prabhakara, 415 ff.;
of, 69; indeterminate
general account
and
determinate
perception, 378 ff.;
inference,387 ff; influence of Buddhist
Mimamsa
logic on
logic, 388, 390 ;
Kumarila
and
Prabhakara,
372 ;
of
Kumarila's
view
self-luminosity,
Mimdmsdnukramani,
2i6n.
Mental
and
denial
127,
50,
ff.;
459;
144
Mdtharabhdsya,
woyJ,
1 2
202
mdtsaryya,
attained, Kumarila
400
201
144,
how
ittn.
356
mdnasa-pratyahsa, 343,
432
88".,
i43w""
142*.,
".,
141
".,
90".,
mdna,
mdnam,
86".,
vrtti, 85*.,
Mddhyamika
and
abhihitdnva-
comparison
with
other
104, 114,
141,
152,
299,
159, 160,
316
n.,
325,
Monotheism,
17
Monotheistic, 33
Mudgala,
28
n.
mukta-jiva, 189
Muktdvali, 307, 322 n.
mukti, 58, 202, 248, 261, 269,273, 305
324,
366,
424,
440,
491 ; general
".,
ac-
Index
of, 74;
general agreement
systems in, 74
count
Indian
of
nidars'andbhdsa,351
nididhydsana, 490
nidrd, 193, 269
asti, 67
Naciketas, 59, 60
na-ekdnta, 175
na
naigamana, 186 n.
naigamanaya, 177
naimittika-karma, 489
333,
432
Philosophyofthe
Ancient
Hindus,
Nature, 43
his
doctrine that
Nirvana
in, 142;
nothing exists,140;
pratityasamutpdda in, 139,
Nagesa, 212, 231, 235
namakalpand,
ndma-
143
340
karma,
191, 194
122,
174, 439
89
171
Ndradaparivrdjaka,
N dray ana
28
n.
Negative, 461
Nemicandra,
Nepal,
171,
nirmmitapratimohi,145
nirnaya, 294, 296, 360
28 w.
Nirnaya-Sagara,
nirodka, 149, 268, 272
nirodha
samddhi, 271
Nirvana, 28"., 75, 81, 100, 119^., 126,
127, 128, 133, 135, 136, 139, 142, 143,
151,
169, 190,
215
n.,
423
n.
nirvicdra, 271
ndmarupa-padatthdnam,
ndmayati, 91
Ndndi,
n.
145, 149,
n.
85, 86n.,
ndmarupa,
Nirvanapariksd, 425
ndma,
Nirdlamba, 28
nirdis'ati,124
Nagasena, 107
Nagarjuna, 109, 125 n.} 126, 128, 129 n.,
138, 144, 155 n., 166, 215 n., 233, 235,
279, 421, 423, 425 n., 427, 429, 465,
470, 493 ; essencelessness of all things,
141;
360,
nimittdpabandha, 256
nirabkilapyas'unyatd,
149
niratiiaydhcetandh, 228 n.
niravayava, 380 n.
Niraydvali, 1 7 1 n.
213
Nddabindu,
302,
nthsvarupatd,464
nihJreyasa,282, 285, 294, 305
Nikaya, 83
173
nirodho
na
na
cotpattih,
425
Narasimhacarya, 419 n.
Natural
New
York, 3 n.
ni, 38
Nibandhakara,
370
nidarJana, 350, 351
Niddesa, 83
Mystic, 229
Narbuda,
5ii
193, 194
n.
81
Nitttha, 1 7 1 w.
nisedha, 29
nisiddha-karma, 489
Niskantaka, 308, 362
nitya, 290, 316
".
nitya-karma, 489
nitydnitya,148
436
nitydnityavastuviveka,
nivrtti, 488
Index
5i2
Nydyasiddhdntamanjari,308
niwana,
ni, 277
300
nilabodha, 410
Nrsimhapurvatdpint,
28 ".,
".
32
Number,
320,
325,
321,
331,
332,
344
154
335"
""
NydyabodhinT, 330 n.
Nydyakandaliy 306,310
3i4".,
328
".,
337 ".,
359
""
338
"., 311W.,
w.,
3i2".,
3H
"""
3*6 ".,
351
".,
355 ".,
Nydyakanikd, 371
Nydyakos'a,2 w.
Nydyalildvatiy3 1 7 fit,
Nydyamakaranda, 420, 486
Nydyamanjari, 67, 79, i6o"., 161, 162 ".,
276, 307, 311 w., 320,
i63"., 2i2w.,
322
336,
337
of
the
".,
326, 327
"., 330
"""
340 "",
345 *""
"., 332
347.
".,
353*
Vattesika
order
of causation
345
tdddtmya
""
doctrine
and
pati'sanswer,
339 ff.;Caraka
Nydyasutras,
302
300;
causation
and
of
causes
as
the
lection,
recol-
invariable
cular
moleas
antecedence, 321 ; causation
as
motion, 32 1 ; causation
tive
operaconditions, 322 ; classification of
inference, 353 ff.;classification of negation,
359 ; conception of wholes, 380 n. ;
cism
criticism of momentariness, 274; criti-
of the Samkhya
and
the Buddhist
ff.;criticism of
Samkhya
satkdryavdda, etc., 275 ff.;
criticism of the theory of causation
by
Vedanta, 466; debating devices and
the
fallacies, 360 ff.; discussion on
of
discussion
meaning
upamdna, 355 n.\
solution,
the sutras, 276 ff.;doctrine of dison
of
view
pramana,
331
doctrine of inference,
323;
trine
doctrine
of illusion,337; doc343 ff.;
trine
of paratahprdmdnya, 372 ff.;docdoctrine
of
of perception, 333;
of substance
soul, 362 ff.; doctrine
(dravya),310 ff.;doctrine of upamdna
and
Jabda, 3546".; doctrine of vydpti,
345 ff.;epistemology,412 ff.;erroneous
perception,336; fallacies of hetu, 344;
formation
ff.; argument
280
tadutpatti,
dhist
ff.; atomic combination, 326 ; Budcriticism of nirvikalpaand Vacasas
five premisses of
',
and
365
".,
sutras
arrangement, in
favour of the existence of God, 363 ff.;
from
355 """
390
362,
".,
186 ".
Nydya sictrabhasya,
Nydya sutras, 71, 120, 276,278, 279, 294,
301, 303* 3p5 327"-" 360
Nydyasutravivarana, 307
Nydyasutroddkdra, 278
Nydyatdtparyamandana, 63, 307
63
Nydyatdtparyatikdpari"uddhi,
Nyaya-Vai^esika, 167, 178, 256 "., 281,
284, 294 "., 305, 310, 311, 312, 313,
318, 319, 320, 323, 326, 330, 335, 341,
355. 366, 367".
37 x" 4"3" 49* 5 antiquity
".,
321,
342
"
nodanavis'esa,291
Non-existence, 356, 357
Nrsimha^rama
277, 297;*.,
".,
307,
430
".
nilatvajdti,
317
niriipakhya,124
Noble path, 124
North-western
"., 229
306,
302,
".,
of
Praiastapada, 350;
radicles,329;
four
kinds
nition
GangesVs defiperception,334 "., 342 n.;
as
general epistemologicalsituation
minate
compared with Mimamsa, 367 ; indeterof
pramanas,
332 ff.;
of
and
determinate
perception,
effects to causes,
inference from
inference of a creator, 325 ff.;
297;
literature,307 ff.; merits and demerits
of
teleologicalcauses
operating as
334;
Index
5H
pdtanjalamahdbhdsyacarakapratisamskr-
parihdra, 302
parikalpa, 148
parikatnma, 102 n.
parikarma, 270
parimandala, 292
parimandala parimdna, 314
parimdna, 315, 316, 323
parimiti, 314
parindma, 53, 193, 196,468, 487
parindmakramaniyama,
256
parindmavdda, 258
parisankhyd-vidhi,404
parispanda, 320, 321, 329
pariiesamdna, 353
Parih'staparvan, 17 r
parisahajaya, 195
pariksaka, 295
pariksd, 447
182
Pariksdmukhasutra,
Pariksdmukhasutravrtti,
".,
309
171,
taih, 235
Mis'ra,371, 378
Perfuming,
power,
181 ".,
219,
232,
no,
127, 128, 133,
139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147,
150, 151, 166, 167, 168, 217, 276, 282,
".
233,
222,
227,
234,
236,
date
226 ff.
Patna, 173
pathavi, 106
paticcasamuppanna, 94
paticcasamuppdda, 84, 166;
sorrow,
as
tion
manifesta-
three lives,92
patighasaniid,96
patiloma, 158
Patisambhidamagga,83, 93
108, rn,
literature,161
Panini,
157
pdpopadc"a, 200
pdramdrthika, 439, 487
pdramitd, 127, 138
ParsVa, 129, 169, 173
Pdiupatabrahma, 28 ".
Pdiupatadariana, 235 ".
Patanjala,
233, 235
Pdtanjalamahdbhdsya,
38
".,
n.
125
n.
125
n.
Poly-bhautik, 329
Polytheism, 17
7"",333. 433
pdka, 329
pdkajotpatti,
327
Pali, 3, 82, 84, 87, 92".,
I39i 263 "., 470;
pdni, 333
58
54".,
Plato, 42
Pluralism, 175
".
Pattdvali, 171
/*".
49".,
different
Pitrs, 55
extending over
92;
45".,
Patanjalicarita,
230
pathamam jhdnam, 105
of
Petrograd, 409/2.
phala, 413, 427
phalajndna, 373
phassa, 85, 95, 96
phassakdya, 85 n.
phassdyatana, 85 n.
Phenomena,
84, 89,
212,
203,
230,
135;
Pessimism, 76
Pessimistic, 237
Petavatthu, 83
paJutva, 317
228, 229,
influence, 134,
137;
131
Persian,233
10
Positive
114,
213,
Sciences
of
246;*.,251
the
n.,
Ancient
322".,
Hindus,
326, 328
n.
posadhabrata, 200
Potencies,272, 273
26$n.,
Jaibali,33,
n.,
34
Prabhd, 308
Prabhacandra, 171, 309
Prabhakara, 69, 189, 209
389, 39o,
399, 400,
401,
37i,
231
372,
448, 459
402,
403,
415,
416, 417,
Index
Prabhdkaramimdmsd,
378
384
".,
n.,
""
Prabhasa, 306
pracchanna Baudd/ia, 437
pradarsakatva,416
pradefa, 194
pradhdna, 217
Prajapati,19, 20, 26, 32, 36, 43, 46, 47,
prajnapti, 427
Prajnaptifdstra,120
Prajnaptivddins,112,
/"y"fl,
55,
113
145,
131,
271,
272,
273,
424
prakrti,145,
219,
223,
253,
238,
468
216, 217, 218,
22o".,
379/2.,
245,
254,
255,
246, 247,
258, 259,
prakrtifcdstadhdtuki, 21 4 ".
pralaya, 214, 223, 247, 248, 261,
323,
515
prasiddhipicrvakatvat,
289, 303
Praiastapada,
305, 306, 312 w., 3i4".,
3i6"., 3i7"., 328, 332"., 337, 348,
349, 35o, 35i, 355 """ 359 """ 362
67, 306
Praiastapdda-bhdsya,
PraJna, 28
n.,
470
PraJnavydkarana, 171
pratibandha, 155
pratibhdnajndna, 343
pratijnd,185, 186 w., 296, 302, 350, 353,
389
pratijiidbhdsa,
390
pratijndmdtram, 114
Pratijndsutra,370
186 n.
pratijndvibhakti,
pratipaksabhdvand,270, 365
pratisamkhydnirodha, 121, 124
pratisancara,247
pratisthdpand,302
pratitantrasiddhdnta,
295
pratiyogi,357
,
pratika,43
pratitya, 93, 138, 139
ratityasamutpdda,86 n., 92, 122, 138,
139, r43, 147, 421; meaning of, 93
pratyabhijndnirdsa,16271.
Pratyagriipa,
419
pratyaksa, 153, 183, 294, 308, 332, 333,
342, 343, 344, 383, 384, 409 ""! 417 ""
pratyaksabalotpanna,410 ".
pratyaksa-pramd, 482
Pratyaksasutra,378 "., 382
pratyaksatodrstasambandhat389
pratyaksavisayatva,409
pratyayas, 124
324. 403
304. 33",
33i"
332,
333,
pratyayopanibandha, 143
pratydhdra, 236
pratydmndya,
350
pratyekabuddha, 137,
150,
Pratyekabuddhayana,
125
151
".
praudhivdda, 220
Pravacanabhdsya, 212, 245 "., 259 ".
pravicayabuddhi,148
pravrtti, gon., 228 "., 243, 294, 295,
Pramdna-Mimdmsd,
pravrttivijndna,134,
184
n.
Pramdnanayataitvdlokdlamkdra172,
,
181 n.,
182 ".,
183
n.,
309
3"1,
365, 375
140
302
prdmdnyavdda, 332
".
Prdndgnihotra, 28
n.
prapanca, 425
prapancapravriti,142
prapancopatama, 425
prasiddhipurvakatva,304, 349
343
prdtibha-pratyaksa,
prdtibhdsika,
445, 487
prdpyakdritva,378 w.
33"2
Index
5i6
Prdtimoksa,
Ratnakiitasutra, I25".,
145
Preceptor,66
RatnardHsutra,
125 n.
Ratndkarasutra, 125 n.
Ratnakarasanti, 156, 168, 346 n.
Ray, Dr P. C, 251 "., 254 ".,
preraka,197
Presumption, 392, 393
priti,144
Probandum,
157
322 ".,
Propositions,156 n.
Rahu,
451;
222
195,
119 ".,
n.
pudgalanairdtmya,
150
214,
Ramarudri,
gods of the, 16
20, 21,
32, 33,
216, 219,
223,
52,
43,
225,
224,
75, 213,
228 ".,
"., 241,
242, 244, 247, 248, 249,
258. 259, 260, 262, 265, 266, 267, 272,
273. 276, 330, 331, 368, 415, 441, 490,
234
493
21
n.,
307
Rastavara, 130W.
rati, 215
147
303,
353
ft.
Rhys
Radical, 291
251,
249, 250,
pluralism,
175
Davids,
108 n.,
Raghunatha
Siromani,
365 "., 419
rajas,214, 215, 224, 242,
ramyaka,
326
308,
244,
245,
n.,
246,
492, 493
n.
Mrs,
i20".,
28
Rudrdksajdbdla,
rasdyana, 235
raiandm, 404
Ratnacuddpariprcchdsiltra,
125 n.
Ratnakirti,68 "'.,
155 w., 158, 159, 160,
161, 163 "., 164, 168
99 n.,
471
n.
rasa,
252
96,
158 n.
Rishi, 24
Rohinl, 387
ropana, 158
Rucidatta, 307
Rudrahrdaya, 28
313,403
tanmdtra,
92 n.,
Roth, 20
Rber, 45
244
220
112,
418
Rahgarajadhvarindra,
Ranarahgamalla,231
rasa
n.
Ramatirtha, 419
Ramanuja, 50, 70, 71, 168, 433
Ramanuja-mata, 429
Ramayatas, 70
Ramottaratapini, 28 n.
Ravana,
Purvas, 171
piirvavat, 269 "., 281, 294, 302
rajo-guna,
249
Rdvana-bhdsya, 306
Reality, III, 418, 428, 442, 443, 446,
448, 449, 458, 462, 465, 467,468, 470,
486, 487, 488, 489, 490
32
120
Purva-Mimamsa,
Quest, 270
n.
Rdstrapdlapariprcchdsutra,
125 n.
purusdvasthamavyaktam ,216
Puspaculikd, 17 in.
Puspikd, 1 7 1 n.
Purna,
218
Rdmapiirvatdpini, 28
Rdmarahasya, 28 n.
Punyayasas, 129
purusa,
300
Diksita, 230
Ramakrsna,
371, 470 n.
Ramakrsnadhvarin,
4 19
266
1,
267,
Ramabhadra
Puggalapaniiatti,83
Punjab, 172
punya, 195, 264, 266
Purana,
40
Rajagaha, 81
processes,
Rajamrganka, 231
RdjapraJniya, 171
rdjasikaahamkdra,
Rdjavdrttika,219
198;
Rajayoga, 229
Raja, 212
Rajgir,81
pudgaldstikdya,
195
punya-pdpa,
".,
rdgadvesa, 201
Ptolemaic, 31
Buddhist, 195
321
n.
97
pubbahgama, 89
pudgala, 114, 117,
327
Ray Rammohan,
Radha, 306
prthakprasthdna,
277, 278
prthaktva,316, 382, 464
prthivl,51, 143, 295
prthivimdtra,51
Psychological,
273, 338, 406,
Psychosis,88,
140
Ratnameghasiitra, 125 n.
Ratnaprabhd, 89**.,907*., 306, 418
prdtitika-sattd,442
n.
n.
313,
403
rupadharmas, 121
rupa-khandha, 95 ; meaning of, 94
rupaloka, 134
rupasamskdra, 290
110,
Index
riipa tanmdtra, 252
rupatva, 313, 334
Rg-Veda,
12,
Samayapradlpa,
14,
517
20,
21,
samddhdnam,
samddhi, 82,
23,
24,
271,
rjusutra,178
Rjuvimald, 370
100,
136, 166,
103,
125
w.
samdkhydsambandhapratipattih 355
samdnaprasavdtmikd jdtih,298, 304
,
304
n.,
of
from, 26
their
Sabbatthivadins, 119, 120,
121;
doctrine, 121 ; their doctrine of matter,
".
".
samdna-rupatd, 196
sambhava, 298, 304
sambhuyakdri,
sabbasahgahikavasena,98
sambuddha,
samiti, 195
121
423
Sammitiyas, 112,
121
their doctrines,
119;
ii9".
giftsof gods,
minute
2 1
397;
creation
has
magical
22;
mystical potency,
of,
character
ritualistic
2t
not
22
propitiatory,
karma
law,
meditations, 37
Sacrificial,209, 211,
sad, 38
saddmudita,
Sadananda
Sadananda
220
replaced by
22;
369,370, 436
mdyopamdh,
sadasantah
Vyasa,
420
Yati, 420
125 "., 128
105,
186
abhedonllataddhi-
yoh, 411
Saimhaguhya, 129
100
sakaddgdmibhdva,
3*6.
305.
440,
487, 490
saldyatana,85
126, 234
w.,
235, 300,
363. 399.
3*7 """
4"2"
an,
36
Samaveda,
12,
30,
36
Sdmannaphala-sutta, 80 ".
sdmarthya, 159, 317 ".
sdmayikabrata, 200
sdmdnya, 164, 196, 203, 281, 285, 286,
306 "., 312, 313, 317, 318, 3*9. 3^o.
Sdmdnyalaksana, 341
sdmdnyatodrsta, v6gn., 287, 289, 294,
302 "., 303, 349" 35". 353. 363
389
sdmdnyatodrstasambandha,
sdmdnyavUesasam uddyo
3 80
sdmdnyavUesdtmaka,231
12
samabkiriidha-naya,178 ".
Samardicca-kahd,
172
samatd,
137,
130,
samatva,
135,
202,
201,
samavdya,
".,
143,
304,
334.
138
203
335.
38l"
403"
samavdyi, 286
samavdyi-kdrana,
samavela-samavdya,
198
4J3"
448"
sdmdnydbhdva, 293
sdmydvasthd, 246
samghdtaparamdnu,
samgraha, 122
samgrahanaya, 177
133
samjndkarma, 288
322,
376
335
".
r 2 1
samhdreccho, 323
Samhita, 12, 13, 30*.,
samjnd,
samaya,
sam
318 ".
Sdmdnyadusanadikprasdritd,
88
".,
345,
4i3
100
salila,220 n.
salt,61
Salvation, 77, 115,
30L
344,
".
107
sahopalambhaniyamdt
322"
343,
sdgaras, 235
290
303,
sdksdtkdritvam, 33411.
sdksi, 438, 455, 457
sdksicaitanya, 455, 486
sahabkdva,
Saint, 101
Sainthood,
siddhi, 152
sddhana, 77, 489
sddhdrana, 361
sddhdrana- kdrana, 322
sdksdtkdrijndnam, 410
sadvilaksana, 444
Sage,
Sammitlyas'dstra,119
samprajndta, 271
samprayukta hetu, 122
samutpdda, 93
samyagbadha, 217
samyagjndna, 151, 181, 408
samyagjndnapurvikd
sarvapurusdrtha"
147
n.
SaddharmapundarTka,
sadrupa, 397
sadrsa-paritidma,248
sam,
101,
272
Samddhisutra,
169
as
samddhirdjasittra,\i$n.
Samadhi
school, 236
?7tt/a,202
Rsabha,
77/, 294
120
10
127,
samjndmdtram,
samjnin,190
samkalpa,
225
114
43,
72
Index
5i8
samkhydbhava, 284
Sahghabhadra, 120
Sangitiparyydya, 120
n.
samkleia, 427
SamksepaSankarajaya,
305 n.
Satnksepaiariraka,
419, 468
28
Samnydsa,
samsdra,
201,
n.
130,
109,
135,
131,
140,
141,
237,
428
456
Sankrantikas, 112
94, 95, 96, 97, 98 ; different stages
of, 96
sanndkkkandhay 95, 100
sapaksasattdy344
sapaksasattva,i$6n. 349
saptabhangiy 180, 181 ".
SaptadaJabAumisutra, 128
Saptapaddrthiy 308
SarasvatI,301 ".
Sarasvatlrahasyay28 w.
Sarvadarianasamgrahay
68"., 79,
2,
sannd,
samsdra-dukkha, 99 n.
samsaritty 189
samskaroti, 263*1.
samskdra, 86"., 91, 122, 263, 264, 273,
281, 285 n., 290 "., 303, 316, 323, 340,
45i"
tar a,
171
samsthdna,
114 w.,
n.
332
".,
360
10
".,
1, 202
sarvaloka, 137
Sarvasdra, 28 ".
sarvatantrasiddhdnta, 295
samvrtamdtramy
sarvasamskdrahy
Sarvastivada, i20".
Sarvastivadins, 112,
114
120,
122,
senses,
202
124;
Sanaka, 222
Sananda, 222
Sanandana, 418
222
a,
114
samyoga,
Sana tan
w.
ivrttam
sarvavikalpalaksanavin
147
SarvahammanI
Hiranyagarbha, 32 ".
samvrtiy 428
samvrtisatya,144
samvrtisatyatd,146
samyama,
322
sarvajna,426
Sarvajfiatmamuni,419, 468
sarvakalpandvirahitam, 151
409
samvara,
235"."305
68 ".
Sarvadars'anavdcyd'rthahy
123
sandkdna,
89
sandigdha, 289, 349
sanmdtra-visayam pratyaksamy 382
124
10
Satipatthdna sutta,
227
satisamvara, 101
satkdranavdda, 258
"., 468
satkdryavdday 257, 258, 468
satkhydliy183 "., 384
356
satparicchedakaniy
satpratipaksa,361
jo//", 287, 317, 381, 491
sattva, 158, 160, 163 "., 224, 241, 242,
244, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 259, 415,
446, 492, 493
sattva-guna, 244
121,
125, 128,
171. 172, 309. 406,
407 ; language, 38, 39 ; literature,40,
153 "".
302
Sanskrit
I55"
170,
Philosophy,technical
and
struse,
ab-
Sanskrit
33
Texts,
20
23
".,
".,
32
".,
Sautranta-vijftanavada,
409 w.
Sautrantika, 116,
188, 302,
sarip/ia,102
3i3"-,
Sautrantikas,
112,
from
"
120,
151,
4"8"
their
savana,
36
168,
ff.;
theory
dis167; tinguished
113,
115,
the Vaibhasikas, 1 14 ;
philosophy according
ratna, 114
161,
4"9w-"
4"i
of time
in,
notion
Buddhists, 105;
1 16 ; theory of inference, 155
of perception,151
""
Sant"ndntarasiddhiy 1 5 1
santosa, 236
".
to
Guna-
Index
savicdra, 271
378, 416,
savitarka, 271
savyabhicara,360
Samkhya, 7, 9, 51, 53, 68, 71, 75, 78,
80, 95, 116, 165, 167, 168, 178, 188,
216, 217, 218, 219, 220,
228, 229, 233,
227,
223,
212,
221,
211,
519
213,
222,
purusa
view
228 ".;
Nyaya, 330
of motion
wisdom
contrasted
and
emancipation,
273
sdmkhyayogaparindmavdda, 468
281, 284
sdrlhd, 280
235 """
257,
244,
".,
325"
321,
403.
4i2"
414,
432,
434,
435,
earlyschool,
an
415,
440,
213 ff.;
Upanisads,
; theoryof
211
etc.,
220
Samkhya
221,
relation
68 ;
yoga,
with
the
viparyyaya,
Sdnka, 233
120
Sariputtra,
sdrupyam,
154
sdsnd, 349
sdsvata, 109
sdttvika
ahamkdra,
Sayana, 20, 36
Schiefner,i29".
Schools
of
karikd, 67,
223,
266
212,
218
219,
n.,
n.
Schroeder, 39 n.
Scotus Erigena, 40
Seal, B.
Sdmkhyasdra, 212
Samkhya sutra, 212, 222
Sdmkhyatattvavivecana,
Secret
212
conservation
causation
40
of
254
energy,
with
contrasted
n.
Sdmkhyatattvaydtharthyadipana
,212
and
63
philosophy,
Schopenhauer, 39,
Sdmkhyapravacanabhdsya,223
atheism
250
sdvayava, 203
Savitri, 28 n.
Schrader, 109
n.
222,
with
ff.;
Vedanta,
N.,
213,
253 n.,
doctrine, 38
Seers, 68 n.
Self,33, 34, 55, 58, 60, 61, 76, no,
in,
161, 162, 187, 215, 217, 218, 239, 240,
260, 261, 285, 290, 295, 298, 300, 303,
312,
335,
343 n.,
362, 363,
400, 401,
402,
414,
".;
sense-contact
of
as
Nyaya, 378 n.
change,
contrasted
;
nature
255
ff.;
with
of
that
tionary
evolu-
nature
of
Sense-contact,
336, 342
communis^
96
n.
n.,
262
n.
Index
520
Separateness,293
Samkhya, 259
Sesvara
thura, 170W.
sphota,238 "., 397
Sex-desire, 57
Shah
siddha, 68 n.
Siddhasena, 183 ".
Siddhasena
Divakara, 171, 309
323"
fff"t
n.,
342
n.,
Siddhivydkhya, 420
Similarity(Nyaya),318
Buddhist
Tracts, 68
Nyaya
163 "., 165 "., 168, 297 w., 313
318 "., 346 "., 371 w., 380 w.
n.,
n.,
212
24
Skanda, 28 n,
skandha, 89, 93, 149, 196; in Chandogya,
".
skandhas, 85/*.,88
127,
122,
n.,
114,
121,
119 n.,
143,
142,
263 n.
smrti, 69, 130,
316
"""
131,
37o" 37i"
134,
37*
283
^/w,
148, 281, 285, 316
snigdha, 287
Sogen Yamakami, 121, 122
124
n.
as
ulti"
truth, 75
100
3*6,3i7. 3^3.
of, 75
226;?.,
Suffering,207, 237,
285, 287;*.,
324
Suhrllekha, 144
sukha, 105, 106, 276, 305
n.,
316,
342,
414
sukha
duhkha, 144
sukham, 426
sukhasddhanatvasmrti,
336
supara, 220 n.
SuresVara, 67, 418, 419
199, 200,
202
80
Sophistical,
sotdpannabhdva,
213,
307
sunrta,
Sorcery, 81
Sorrow, 75, 76, 107, 108, no, in,
140,
166, 191, 201, 210, 237, 264, 265, 266,
324"
n.,
Sun, 23
".,
Soma, 36
Somadeva,
172
Somanatha, 371
Somasarma,
306
Somesvara, 371
mate
112
Sukhdvativyuha, 125 n.
Sumatigalavildsinl,
92 n.
sndna,
*95'30x'
ngn.,
n.
Sub-Commentary,
Six
93
sthaviravdda, 83,
Sthavirdvali, 171
Sthdna, 171
sthiti,194
Subdla, 28
n.
i20".
Skambha,
114,117??.,
".
sthiti-sthdpaka,
316
Study of Patanjali, 208
238 n., 397 n.
Study of Sanskrit, 40
Siddhdntatattva, 420
Siddhartha, 173
siddhi, 163 n., 220
siddhis, 234
Simananda,
Sita, 28 n.
351, 409
121,
469
Sindh,
403
Stcherbatsky, Prof.,
294, 295
Siddhdntacandrikd, 390 n.
Siddhdntaleia, 420, 491 n.
Siddhdntamuktdvali, 339, 339
n.
sphotavdda, 232
Spider, 49
Spinoza, 40 n.
Jahan, 39
Shuja-uddaulah, 39
siddhdnta,
Ma-
India, now.,
India, 172
323,
316
n.
Southern
spandita,428
sparta,90, 92, 143, 314
a tanmdtra,
spars'
252
Species, 156, 285, 287, 317, 345, 389
sutdra,
siitra,
220
n.
n.,
285, 292
294,
n.,
296
Sutrakrta, 171
Sutrakrtdnganiryukti, 18 m.
Sutrakrtdngasutra,237
sutras',
62, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 79, 233,
236, 278, 279, 293 n., 294, 297 "., 306,
430,
433
as
lecture-hints, 62
veloped
de-
64 ; how
by commentators,
written, 65 ; traditionally
they were
explained,63
Sutrasthdna,
Sutta, 82
280
Nipdta, 83
Suttapitaka,120 n.
suttas, 82, 83, 166
Suvarnaprabhdsa sutra,
Sutta
125
".,
301
".,
n.
161
Index
522
Sivaditya,308
Talavakaras, 30
and
Ji/a, 144, 166, (stla)
104;
100, 102,
it consists of,
what
sainthood, 100;
Talavakdra
Upanisad,
tamos,
224,
215,
30
246, 249,
244,
242,
252,
101
illabratapardmaria^
145
Slokavdrttika,
67,
tamisrdy
220/2.
".,
355 n.,
tamo,
386 "-,
tamo-guna,
370,
/*.,
220
/2.
244
226, 251,
tanmdtra,
161
51,
Tantravdrttika, 371
Sravakayana, 125/2.
Sridhara, 306, 312, 313, 316/2.,317
337, 338, 359 "". 379 ""
Sriharsa, 419, 462, 465, 492
Tandulavaiydlt, 1 7 1
".,
tott'"z,
85, 87, 88,
".
107
tanhd-jatd,100
Srikantha, 70
"rilabtia,
90
226, 270
Srimadbhagavadgitd,
421
Tarkabhdsd, 307
Tarkapdda, 371
128
Srimdldsimhandda,
Tarkarahasyadipikd,79,
306
Srivatsacarya,
/r", 11
"ruta" 207
/r"/z, 11, 12, 19111., 447
iubha, 202
52,
78/*., 211,
227,
150
Tathagatayana,126/2.
tatprakdrakdnubhava, 337
tattva, 216
Tattvabindu, 397
Tattvacintdmani,
".
308,
332
".,
337 ".,
""
Tattvadipikd,419, 465
212,
239/2.,
243/2.,
239/2.,
245/2.,
Tattvapradipikd,238/2.
/*.,
39/2., 49,
281, 282
".,
469
Tattvasamdsa, 212
Tattvavaiidradi,
212,
143
saddarianay 08
Saddarianasamuccaya,
2,
Sastitantroddhdra,220,
68/2., 114,
176/2., 186 ".,
222
222
tadutpatti,345, 351
tadyogyald,458
taijasaahamkdra, 249
taijasadtmd, 424
tairthika, 68**., 138
28/2.,31, 39, 46/2.,51, 226/2.,
Taittiriya,
43*
115 ".,
Tattvakaumudi,
301
50,
tathatdlambana,
114,
378
/".
tattvdntaraparindma, 247
tattvdnyatvdbhydm anirvacaniya, 442
1 75
Tattvdrthddhigamasutra, 171,
176/2.,184/2., 195 "., 237, 309
tdddtmya, 156,345, 351, 352
tdmasika
ahamkdra,
Tandins,
30
/ara,
".
249
220/2.
Taranatha, 129/2.
Tdrasdra, 28/2.
tdratdra,
220/2.
".
.
TaittiriyaAranyaka, 26
TaittiriyaBrdhmana, 23, 26, 226
Taittiriya
school, 30
Takakusu, 119, 120/2., 128/2., 218
tattvdntara,
w.
Tdtparyatikdpariiuddhi,
307
Index
Teachers, traditional transmission
from,
2,
523
trtiya-linga-pardmarsa,
346
tuccha, 443
tejas,51,
252,
255,
295,
310,
313,
314,
329. 377
te/as-atom,253
323"
Tejobindu, 28 n.
Telang, 421, 423 n.
Teleology, 247, 248, 254, 258, 267, 269,
tuldjndna,458
Turtydtlta,28
tusti,220
Tvastr, 21
tydgdnvaya,
Tahka, 433
n.
ngn.
thdpand, 157
thiti,93
Tuptfkd,
371
325
ubhaydnubhaya, 148
Philosophy,
n.
Bengal,
in
n.
310
Theragdthd, 83
83,
112,
113,
119, 120,
125,
150
Theravadins,
The
125
Rigveda,
18, 19^.,
15 n.,
20
n.,
Therzgdthd, 83
Thilly, Frank,
Causes, 90
3"5"
n.
thina, 100
thtnamiddham,
105
Thomas, E. J., 84^., 155
Thomas, F. W., i2gn.
Thought -stuff,241,
172
upamana,
341 ; power
335
323
tray i, 277
tryanuka,
trsnd,
314,
315,
324,
215
trsnd-vaipulya,90
n.
400
n.
145,
492
148,
174,
i25".,
in,
326
143,
333,
212,
n.
308,
Upamitabhavaprapaiicakathd,
172
223,
227,
175,
234,
208, 210,
239,
263
211,
i*j6,
437, 438,
423,
429,
430,
431,
442,
447, 47o,
49""
cause,
432,
n.,
421,
as
28
304,
4*2
n.
28
103
297, 302,
Jabda, 47
upamiti,
of Aitareya Aranyaka, 36 n.
Translation
of the Upanisads, 38 n.
Transmigration, 26, 27, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58
Tripddvibhutimahdndrdyana,
Tripurd, 28 n.
Tripurdtdpini,28 n.
triputi,459
triputipratyaksa,
343 n., 384,
294,
upamana
influence, 331
"""
""
275
354. 355"39r"
Translation
trikdndaka, 92
".,
305
Unmanifested,
tiryag-gamana, 329
tiryaksdmdnya, 196
Traditionaryexplanations,65
trasarenu,
".,
upacdrasamddhi, 102,
Upadeia, 128
upadhdranam, 101
upajivya,447
upalabdhihetu, 330 ".
upalambha, 302
Time, 311
tirohita,257
Tirthahkara, 169, 170, 173
Transcendent
"""
Unconditionality,320
Universals, 165
242
contact,
327
n.
Transcendental
228 n.,
309"
342
Uktha, 36
Uluka, 71,
Thought-photograph,241
Tilakamanjari,
3"7"
337 """
303
100
Udyotakara, 63,
des Douze
n.
udbhutariipavattva,290 ".,
udbhutavrtti,254
uddhaccakukkuccam, 105
Udgitha, 36
udhacca,
i\n.
Thiorie
Theistic systems, 8
Theravada,
uccheda, 428
ucchedavdda, 143
Index
524
interpretorof,
tions
emancipationin, 58 ff.; interpreta-
duty of
53;
42 ;
of,
influence
cause,
modern
karma-doctrine
41
31;
matter
not
produced by
nature
51;
pared
com-
ksattriya
matter-combinations
on,
78;
as
urdhvasdmdnya,
78;
cause,
to
theory
becomes
man,
Brahwise man
of, in;
58 ; world as field of karma, 56 ;
world in, 51 ; world-soul,52
upapatti,91
upapadukasattva, 91 n.
uparati,490
282
286 ".,
288 ".,
283, 284
".,
197
to
Gunaratna, 114
Vaibhasika
Sarvastivadins,their difference
from other Buddhists, 122
ahamkdra,
vaindsika, 257
249,
250
Vaipulyasutrasy125
vaird^ya, 271
Vaisali, 173
Vaisesika, 7, 9, 68, 177, 280, 281, 283,
285, 289, 290, 302 n., 303, 304, 305,
314
n.,
340,
Vatiesika
upasamdnussati,102
Upaskdra,
//.
173
Uha, 213
urdhva, 199
urdhvaloka, 199
iirdhvamfila, 234
pounding,
com-
subjects,31;
48 ; place
systematicphilosophy,
of, according
names
in,
Buddhistic, 107;
with
as
transmigration, Uvdsagadasdo,
of
doctrine
self, no;
290 n.,
".,
291 n.,
285
".,
292 n.y
dtmd,
332 ".,
355, 359
424
vaisamya, 246
Vaisnava, 8, 21, 28
n.,
70,
77, 221,
420,
422
vaitathya,424
453,
468,
112
Vajjiputtakas,
Vajracchedikdsutra,125 n.
28 n.
Vajrasiicikd,
updddnanisthdtyantdbhdvapratiyogitva- Validity,268 n.
Vallabha, 70, 317 n.
laksanamithydtvasiddhih,445
Vailabha-mata, 429
updddrupam^ 94
Vanavdda, 380
upadhi, 181, 347, 348, 35"" 39"' 45"
Varadaraja,308, 362 n.
Updngas, 171
Vardha, 28"., 228
Updsakadaids, 171
Varddhamana, 63, 173, 307
updJrayas, 173
Varddhamdna-purdna, 193 n.,
updydsa, 86 n.
Varddhamdnendu,
63, 307
upekkhd, 103, 106
Varuna, 18
upekkhako, 105
vas, 263 n.
upeksd,236, 270, 271
469
updddna-kdrana, 438
n.
194
Uruvela, 81
Usas, 14
Vassilief,112, 2i8".
Utpala, 327 n.
utpatti,374
utpdda, 138, 175
utpddasthitibhangavarjjam^1 46
1 50
utpddasthitibhangavivarjjanatd,
u/prekfa, 182
utsargasamitiy199 n.
vastunastatsamattdkd'nyathdbhdvahpari-
uttamdmbkas,
vastu,
220
n.
Uttarddhyayana, 171
Uttarddhyayanasiitra,169,236
Uttara
Mimamsa,
Uttarasailas, 112
Uttara
7, 70, 429
Samkhya, 217
Uttanapada,23
176
ndmah
vivarttah,
tadvisamasatldkah
468
vastuprativikalpavijndna
,145
vas/uvddt, 424
219,
233,
221,
222,
223,
224,
225,
271/*.,
Index
278, 307,
277,
351,
341,
330 ".,
352, 355
n.,
338,
337,
371,
340,
469,
490;
223 ff.
his
vdcika, 108
'vdcikakarma, 124
and
dtman
opposed
self-
to
ajnana, 457;
ness
conscious-
finition
Nyaya doctrine of causation,466 ; deof ajiidna,452 ff.;definition of
perception, 473;
dialectic, 419, 420,
ferent
461; dialectical arguments, 465; difkinds of illusion,
487 ; discussions
31
vdk, 333
with
vdkovdkya, 276
vdkyadosa, 302
vdkyapraJamsd, 302
Vdkydrthamdtrkdvrtti,397
nature
".
231
vdrttd, 277
"., 353*.,
Varttikakarapada,
370
Vdrttika-tdtparyatlkd,
63
vcesand, 73, 128, I30".,
Kumarila
and
Prabhakara
on
the
of
of knowledge,
self-luminosity
459 ; doctrine of duties, 489 ; doctrine
of inference,
473; doctrine of jivasdksi,
480; dualistic interpretations
of, 70;
ekajiva doctrine, 477; epistemology of
Kumarila,
416 ff.; epistemology of
Prabhakara
Mimamsa,
mology
415 ff; episte-
vdnaprastka, 283
150,
151,
167,
263,411
of the Sautrantika
Buddhists,
of the category of
408 ff.; examination
of the
difference, 462 ff.; existence
jiidna
objectiveworld, 480; function oi vrttiin perception, 481; generai
count
acof, 70 ; historyof the doctrine of
of the
Vasavadatta, 230
Vdsudeva, 28 n.
Vata, 17
as
vdggupti, 199 n.
vdgvikalpa,148
Vajapyayana, 232
vayu,
; dtman
as
vdcyatva, 354
"vrt"/a,
294, 296, 360
Vamana,
jlva, 475
vdcikavijiiaptikarma,124
Vajasaneyischool,
525
tanmdtra,
252
relation
"
not
negation,
455;
rana
and
its vrttis,472;
dtman,
474;
; drstisrsti
doctrine,478
with
other
systems, 492
ff.;
with Vedic
khya
duties,490 ; Sarnepistemology,414!?.;self-validity
of knowledge, 484; Sankara, the Brahand the Upanisads, 429 ff.;
ma-sutras
not essential for illusion, 452 ;
similarity
theory of causation, 465 ff.;theory of
illusion,486 ff.; theory of perception,
470 ff.;three functions of the subject,
480; three stages of jiva, 476; views
on
samavdya,
^ign.; vivartia and pari468; vrtti and consciousness,
ndma,
sub449, 450 ; world-appearance not a
iective creation, 452;
mology.
Yogacara episte-
relation
is illusion,
451
".,
Index
526
Veddntasdra, 420, 490 n.
Veddntasiddhdntamuktdvali,
Veddnia
as
420
interpretationsVibratory, 327
of
Upanisad texts, 70
Veddntatattvadlpikd,
420
305
Prof., 28
Vanamall,
Vedantatirtha
".,
""
Veddrthasamgraha,
Vedas,
vidhi-vdkya,405
vidhiviveka, 371
433
'6,II,
1,
13,
14,
20,
25,
24,
234,
40,
297,
403,
489
3*6, 333
304"
"",
355,
294,
394,
4"i,
404,
;
the, 26 ; authorship
of, 10 ; bearing of, to Hindu
law, 1 1 ;
classification of, 12 ; doctrine of karma,
of
earliest record, 10;
idea
210;
later
influence of, on
morality, 210;
in
thought,
10;
monotheistic
not
6, 10,
396, 404, 436
Vedic,
25;
by hearing,10;
migration
tendency in, 19 ; translearnt
developedin, 53
belief in
1,
14,
punishment of evildoers,
do
25 ; commandments
depend
not
conceptionof
on
vidhlyate,146
Vidvanmanoranjini, 420
vidyd, in, 277, 278, 293, 332 n.
I28"., 172, 279,
Vidyabhiisana,DrS.C,
309 w-" 350 w-" 388"-, 42 r
Vidyaranya, 419
vihdras, 173
vijdnana, 89
vijnapti,94, 124
vijndna, 86 n., 90, 91 "., 123, 124, 132,
143, 146, 409W., 428, 460; determining
ndmariipa, 91 ; in relation to skandhas,
91 ; meaning of,in Sanskrit works, 86 n.
VijftanaBhiksu, 212, 220, 221, 222, 223,
225, 226, 229, 257 "., 260, 262, 494;
Vacaspati,2236".
Vijhdnakdya, 120
vijhdnamaya, 60
vijndnamaya dtman,
46
i, 128
Vijndnamdtrasiddh
seat of thought, 26 ; conception of the
vijiidnaskandha,
124
86"., 127, 128, 145, 166,
origin of the world, 25 ; cosmogony
Vijfianavada,
167,
(mythological),23 ; cosmogony
sophical),
(philo302, 417, 421, 429, 465, 493, 494;
reason,
29 ;
creation
23;
manas
as
hymn,
24;
doctrine of dtman,
25 ; doctrine that
soul could
be separated, 25 ; duties,
different from
Upanisads, 29 ; eschatology, 25; law of karma, 21; moral
Vedic
16; have
no
Greek
gods,
ments
fixed leader, 18; instru-
of sacrifice,22
aspects of
sattva
tathdgatagarbha, 149 ;
pratityasamutpdda, 148 ;
that
all things are
doctrine
mental
creations, 146; its literature,128
rdtmya
and
doctrine
of
Vijfianavadin,
113,
184, 233,
301,
Vijndndmrta
127,
332,
128, 147,
409
bhdsya,
".,
220,
223,
'
26
n.
sacrifices,
271
Vedic texts, 68, 69, 276, 372, 399
vega, 286, 316
vegasamskdra, 291
Verikata,222
VenkatesVara, 423
Vibhajjavadins,112,
115;
115;
Vibhahga,83, 90
Vibhdfd, i20".
n.
schools
1
15
kdbuddhi, 148
vikalpapratyaya,410
n.
n.
Vikramaditya, 370
viksepa,472
viksipta,268
112
of,
".,
vikalpa, 129,
vikathd, 193
vikdra, 232
vikdritvam, 203
vibhdga, 316
239
n.
vikaipita,
409
Vedic
Vesali,
243
167,
415
Vimalaklrti, 128
Vimalakirtinirdeiasiitra,125
Vimdnavatthu, 83
Vinaya, 82
vinaya, 193
n.
Index
Vrsnidaids,1 7 1 ".
146, 268, 269, 378 "., 444, 448,
481, 482,
449' 45o. 457" 460, 472,
483
vrttijndna,455, 458, 481
vyakti, 298
Vindhyavasin, 218
Vinltadeva, 152 n., 163 "., 168
vinndna, 85, 86, 94, 96, 109
vitindnakkhandha, 100
vipaksa,186
w#i,
344
".,
527
186 ".
vipaksa-pratisedha,
vipaksa-vyavrtti,
344
vyatireka, 353
vipaksdsattva,156W., 349
vipartta,193
viparltakhydti,
337, 384, 385
viparyaya,220, 269, 332 "., 337
viparyydsa, 140
Vipdka, 171
viriyasamvara, 101
Virocana, 46
346
vyattrekavydpti,
virodha, 357
viruddha, 360
Vyadi, 232
vydghdta, 347
vydpaka, 388
vydpakaviruddhopalabdhi,358
vydpakdnupalabdhi, 358
vydpddo, 105
viruddhakdryopalabdhi,358
358
viruddhavydptopalabdhi,
visadrJaparindma, 247
Visibility,
292
Visuddhimagga, 83, 88, 99".,
102
103 ".,
".,
104 ".,
vyavahdra,
vyavasdya,
eptpo,
".,
101
105, 106
".,
in,
161
306
312,
".,
313,
vitesanajndna,412
visesanatdvacchedaka^ 339
vitesanatdvacchedakaprakdram, 339
i 338
viiesanaviiesyabhdvdvagdh
,
Vihsdvas'yakabkdsya,171, 176^., 178
w.,
179W.
vis'esyavis'esanai
359
viiista,455
viHstabuddhi, 412
".
175
vydpdra, 330
w.
252,
vyoman,
Vi^uddhadvaitavada,
70
vis"va,424
Visvakarma, 19, 20, 32, 43, 52
Vi"vanatha, 281, 307, 339
Vitvandtha-vrtti, 307
135,
343
Vyoma^ekharacarya, 306
VyomavatT, 306
vyuhana, 122
viHstavaitistyajndnam,339
wwaya,
302,
vyavasthdpyavyavasthdpakabhdvena,
154
Warren,
108 ".,
Weber,
W"?/Y a/j
457
".,
107 ".,
inn.
13 "., 230
J-PiV/I?
w"a?
Vorstellung,40
Wenzel, 144
West, 3
Western, 4, 5
Visnu, 18, 39
Visnupurdna.) 433
vitakka, 105
vitandd, 294, 296, 302,
vitarka, 271
Western
360, 407
Whole,
Windisch, 203 w.
Winternitz, 34, 35 "., 39
Prof., 231, 233
Woods,
Vitthales'opddhydyi,
420
Vivaranabhdvaprakds'ikd,419
Vivaranaprameya, 457
Vivaranaprameyasamgraha,
486
".
271
viryapdramitdy 127
Vodhu, 222
Void, 127
Voidness, 126, 147, 166
Vows, 74
Vrjin, 112
Rajputana, 172
165
419,
457,
World-appearance,
447, 449,
489" 491
451,
,.
World-soul,
its
442,
441,
452,
".
446,
443,
mythicalcharacter, 52
yajna, 283
Yajfiadatta,176, 290
Yajur-Veda, 12, 30
106, 235, 236, 270, 317
yamaka, 83, 157
Yantrikd, 28 ".
Yaiastilaka, 172
;fl"fl, 59"
n.
Index
528
Yaioda, 173
Ya^omitra, 114,
yatna, 316
120,
167
yatharthahpratyayaky485
Yadavacarya,308
28 w., 34**., 35".,
Yajfiavalkya,
44" 54
Yoga compilation,
230
Yogacuddmani, 28 n.
Yoga discipline,
235, 237
Yoga editor,231, 233
Yoga ethics,269
yogaja,341
Yogakundali,28 "., 228
Yoga meditation,270, 271
in relationto other Indian
Yoga philosophy
', 203 n., 21 1"., 213,
systems of thought
Yudhisthira, 79
yugmapradesa, 196
226
yugya,
yuj, 226
yuj samddhaUy 226, 227
yujiryoge, 226, 227
Yuktisnehapuraniy390 w.
Yuktisnehapurani siddhdnta
-
PRINTED
AT
IN
THE
ENGLAND
CAMBRIDGE
candrikd,
yutasiddha,246, 319
yutasiddhyabhdvdty
293
der
Zeitschrift
schafty
203 ".
Deutschen
Zeus, 18
n.
37i
Zend-Avesta, 39
238n.
Yoga Psychology
', 270
BY
J.
B.
UNIVERSITY
PEACE,
M.A.
PRESS
Morg.
Gesell-