A

HISTORY

OF

INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY

of

of

all

people,

threads

with

time,

apertures

new

like

knowledge

minds

the

of

the

through

links

who

He,

May

of

garland

flowers,

be

pleased

thread

this
to

though

accept

of

offered,

thought,

Eastern

my

it

be

small,

with

the

devotion.

greatest

HISTORY

OF

PHILOSOPHY

INDIAN

BY

DASGUPTA,

SURENDRANATH
PROFESSOR

OF

SANSKRIT,
IN

LECTURER

GOVERNMENT

BENGALI

IN

COLLEGE,
THE

UNIVERSITY

VOLUME

Ph.D.,

MA.,
CHITTAGONG,
OF

BENGAL,

CAMBRIDGE

r^"3
Zl-

CAMBRIDGE
AT

THE

UNIVERSITY

1922

PRESS

UNIVERSITY

CAMBRIDGE
C.

LONDON

NEW

CLAY,

F.

Manager

LANE,

FETTER

CALCUTTA

MADRAS

TORONTO

MACMILLAN

AND

MACMILLAN

THE

CANADA,

Ltd.

RIGHTS

IN

OREAT

CO.,

CO.

MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA

ALL

fc"tN7ED

CO.

BOMBAY

TOKYO

E.C.

MACMILLAN

THE

YORK

PRESS

RESERVED

8RITAIN.

Ltd.

OF

TO
HIS

LAWRENCE
EARL

RONALDSHAY,

OF

it

AND

please
The

some

in

the

by

me

which

the

Convocation

in the

of

advantage
with

name

The

work

is

an

problems
That

often

both
find

be

what

is

humble

do

work

of

uniting

gradually accomplished

through

The

best

your

of the

are

great

in

each
may

is

in

even

already begun

Excellency
ancient

country.

after

ideals

remain,

of

those

identical

which

to

the

more

is

be

very

in various

your

return

esteem.

Loyally

spiritof

see

that

tasks
for

omen

can

aid

measure

this

and

of

if this

happy

may

country

sincerely yours,

SURENDRANATH

the

thinkers.

Excellency,
and

of

the

of India.

your

take

to

appreciation

ways
to

With

Europe

very

small

become

other's

with

mutual

shall

we

each

India

to

thought

auspicious

an

letters

European

realise

holding

and

the

still holds

with

the

Excellency's

thought

often

they

volume

process

This

of

wish

your

present

should

that

and

to

kind

work.

this

deepest respect

West

future.

only

East

of

attempt

identical

of

associating

it is studied

more

are

mark

its best.

at

the

and

India,

the

as

India

in

with

already

therefore

of Indian

the

honour

thus

composition

opportunity

study

subsequent

has

name

Calcutta,

from

the

in your

permission,

this volume

present

Ancient

and

this

and

honoured

kind

I had

that

of

going through

by

to

delivered

remember

ever

work

my

the

of the

received

suggested

University

shall

that
in

with

connected

the

first

Excellency

special need

occasions,

Excellency's

your

BENGAL.

was

your

students.

Excellency's

peculiarly

UNIVERSITY

OF

work

of

conversations

various

on

Your

the

showed

you

this

which

encouragement

that

manuscript,

me.

address

Indian

by

gratitude

you

at

GOVERNOR

writing

emphasised

you

philosophy

with

of

idea

ago

THE

THE

OF

Excellency,

your

Rectorial

years

interest

CHANCELLOR

CALCUTTA

G.C.I.E.,

DUNDAS,

LUMLEY

JOHN

OF

May

EXCELLENCY

DASGUPTA.

this

sent
reprething
some-

ON

NOTE

OF

PRONUNCIATION

THE

SANSKRIT

TRANSLITERATED

AND

almost

pronounced

vowels

The

WORDS

PALI

the

in

same

are

Italian,

in

of

that

ft

of

in
a

cerebrals,

except

correspond;

t,

t/i,

dk,

dentals;

dy

/,

church

in

kk,

almost

d,
n

gh,

the

sounds

simple

is

the

an

French

is
gn;

ri%
as

sh.

and
s,

as

jh,

plus

are

aspiration;

ch"

pure

are

bh

ph,

dhy

army.

cy

English

which

to

as

ch

English,

in
as

are

th,

that
a

are

d,

approaches

of

and

but,

in
or

consonants

sound

the

bond

in
o

The

that

except

as

way

usually

pronounced

PREFACE

old

THE

sided

civilisation

the

science

far

so

philosophy.

It

practical and

theoretical

amidst

unity

It

produced.
of

of
this

It is

the

law

of the

India

The

events

the

like
of

India

is

of this

countries.

It

is therefore

who

to

appreciate

has

that

therefore
should

empires

India

is to

be

obedience

superior

as

to

done

thing
every-

very

indispensably
should

properly

become
of the

estimate

of its

But

it is not

more

and

that
more

has

Indians

past history of Indian

all those

the

round

Much

harm

other

the

It is

peoples
teristics
charac-

true

form

the

that

abstract.

as

and

history

nucleus

and

with

thought

other

from

opinions

well

acquainted

and

potentialities of

of

as

it is

progress

grown.

dreamy

was

affected

for

the

is

mere

passivity of

borrow

and

circulation

India

political

understand

which

in India

these

creative

necessary

significance

political

of her

may

the

of

necessary

she

the

never

become

unity

the

and

season,

If after

fundamental

the

of

which

to

by

philosophy

order

again going
that

Pathans

people, for

culture.

highest

and

the

changes

physical

anything

they

is best
been

already
and

of

controlled

the

or

philosophical thought

all that

culture

for

not

culture

Indian

which

in the

politicalchanges through

of the

Hindu

and

of

unity

and

minds

or

civilisation

Indian

peoples

times, in the

Scythians,

land

hurricanes

account

wish

the

the

natural

centuries
on

all the

the

spiritualintegrity of

mainly

by different

regarded

were

Huns,

ruled

never

were

some

complex

spiritualaspirations and

outlived

occupied

phenomena
the

the

foreign invasions,

the

of

point

passed.

who

machinery

that
of

of

was

highest

the

which

different

at

monarch

which
spirit,

Greeks,

Moguls

history

the

it indicated

inhabited

days.

thought
all

of

goal

those

in

Indian

diversities

kingdoms

it has

of
the

as

area

the

in

essentiallyone

else, and
which

vast

great

understood

was

apparent

is not

that

or

it

as

activities,and

over

independent

sought.
to

the

of culture

growth
rise

all

of many-

unity

concrete

art, architecture, literature,religion,

regarded

was

was

achievement

important

most

India

in

developments

morals, and
But

of

correct

special features.
only

for the

sake

of

the

right understanding

of

Preface

viii

philosophy should be read, or only as a record

For
of the problems that
the past thoughts of India.
most
in modern
in
still debated
philosophicalthought occurred
Their
less divergent forms to the philosophersof India.
or

India
of
are
more

Indian

that

solutions

discussions, difficulties and

with

connection
the

on

the

of the process

course

discovery
thought. The
philosophicalthought, and
turn

may
the

as

modern
of

out

also

the

due
as

has

been

work

however

publicationof
of

of them

some

of

presence

has

have

that

It is unfortunate
of

Indian

those

work

who

chief

translations

systems

the

Indian

system, but who

of

in most

familiar

not

are

pursue

study

not

been

interested

in

philosophy.

in the

of

way

the

important texts, and translations

been
attempted. But owing to the
in advanced
Sanskrit
terms
sophical
philo-

containing some

of the

has

of

also

the
literature,
to

task

the

thought

done

already been

technical

many

Indian

largenumber

of

investigationof

the

to

of these
scholars
have
study, for most
in mythology, philology,and
historythan

Much

light

of modern

features

field of
more

throw

may

reconstruction

important

re-valuation
on

few

very

times

own

comprehensive scale. Sanskritists

exceptions have neglected this important

undertaken

with

in

properly grasped

ficance,
appreciationof their full signiphilosophy
important to modern

researches.
philological

been

yet

of

Sanskrit

and
re-interpretation

our

of the future

be

to

of

discovery

of

problems

when

cases

the

with

is necessary

for those

telligible
in-

themselves.

texts

of the

general account

hardly

are

mutual

tions
rela-

intend

who

to

particularschool. This is also necessary

for lay readers interested
in philosophy and students
of Western
philosophy who have no inclination or time to specialisein any
what

they

about

can

at

are

the

Indian

philosophy.
Yoga Philosophy in

Study of Patanjaliand
Systems of Thought I have

attempted

interested

time

same

to

In

books

two

my

know

to

The

relation to other Indian

interpretthe Samkhya

and

Yoga systems both from their inner point of view and

the point of view of their relation to other Indian
systems.
with
deals
the
present attempt
important features of these as
of

all the other

systems

and

seeks

to

show

of

some

their

from
The
also
inner

philosophicalrelations especiallyin regard to the historyof their

development. I have tried to be as faithful to the originaltexts
as

I could

terms

and

for the

have

help

always given
of those

who

the

want

Sanskrit
to

make

or

Pali

this book

technical
a

guide

ix

Preface
for further

indeed

essential

followingthe
treatingthe
be

to

these

is

likely to

of

ways

to

much
while

of

to

put any

them

from

what

had

fore
there-

each

on

Indian

on

pressure

system

in

thoughts

as

appear

tried to arrange

manner

which

appeared

and

indications

the

In all other
been

not

made

It is

because

and

sense

the

justifiedby
of what

Some

have

will appear

also

themselves

system

with

missed

contexts

obscure

also

philosophy

which

are

used

I would

cated
unsophisti-

an

in

meanings as are
which
they are used.
I hope be
system may

attention,for unfamiliarity

right comprehension. But

suggestive links
giving the proper
way

in

such

in any

and

care

of

condensation

have

of

as

in the

places where

many

and

passages

of

of technical

sense.

in

those

sense

words

which

words

clear

English

that

Indian

choose

of technical

with

them

of

me

acquirement

those

take

the

to

the words

sort

to

associate

stands

sometimes

the

to

places that

terms

appeared

tried to

for
difficult,

readers

if it is re-read

removed

it

in

their

to

few

by

terms

approach

nearest

is

systematic whole

in very

only

Indian

philosophy always acquire some

therefore request my

in

strictlyfaithful

places I have
dangerous by

however

This

senses.

I did

them

me

the

of

some

philosophy,and this
were
approximately
term.

to

suggestions.

translated

may

of works

of

knit

I have

have

is

methods

and

altogetherdifferent
philosophy. Materials

large number

thinkers

the

he

European. This will explain

of what
But
might appear quaint to a European reader.
keeping all the thoughts and expressions of the Indian

order

have

that

sure

is

terms

together and given a shape which

to
intelligible
people unacquainted with
time I considered
thought. But at the same

quite undesirable
make

the

from

more

be

to

thoughts.
style of argument

work

been

be

wishes

of these

of the

topics are

modern

have

Sanskritic
it

different

something

who

anyone
course

collected

and

understand

treatises

find in any

we

for

actual

Sanskrit

In

To

study.

was

inevitable and

sometimes

insoluble

is without

its dark

the

systems

difficulties,for
and

in

no

uncomfortable

corners.

Though
manic
The

stage, my
be traced

systematic.

begun

treatment

beginnings of

they can
nor

I have

my
of

the evolution

work
this
of

in the later Vedic

from

the

Vedic

and

Brah-

period has been very slight.

philosophicalthought,though
hymns,

are

neither

connected

Preface

while

I could

and

Europe

the

those

who

wish

have

to

into

details

myself

to

it worth

this

epoch.
fully,but
published in
certainlygo

been

already

go

therefore limited

I have

them.

to

subject

on

works

many

think

not

thought of
period more

Upanisad

the

with

dealt

have

of

shreds

broken

the

elaborate

to

I do

but

Brahmanas,

in the

is found

More

will

the dominant

current

flowing through the earlier Upanisads. Notices of other currents

of other
with the treatment
of thought will be given in connection
with which
they are more
intimately
systems in the second volume
noticed

It will be

connected.
is in

places of

some

that

inconclusive

an

of

treatment

my

dhism
Bud-

early

This

character.

is

of the texts
which
character
were
largelydue to the inconclusive
of dialogues and
in the form
put into writinglong after Buddha
directness
the precisionand
where
required in philosophy were
of theories
has given rise to a number
not contemplated. This
of the philosophicalproblems of early
the interpretations
about
Buddhism

decide

to

easy

one

being dogmatic
allow

to

But

difficulties.
of my

that

will be found
in

have

worked

space

for

entering into

I leave

those

of

the

the

literature

any

expressions and

strict exactitude

of
a

and

discussions

English.

and

I have

school

systems

in the
books

last six
which

who

writing of

who

acquainted
may

be

school

of

us

that

most

invention

of

these

the

are

almost

untranslatable

incorporatedwhat

been

in

intelligible

important differences

find in it. Discussions

be very

bibliographygiven of the
chapters is not exhaustive

those

different

scholars

are

in the

it

emphasis put on the necessityof

absolute precisenessof logicaldefinitions

however

have

theories

are

European

consist

philosophicalpoints of view I could

purely technical character could not

like this. The

textual

polemic, but

the

of this

contributions

technical

and

of

of

subject to decide which of

dealt elaboratelywith the new
in the right. I have
not
Logic (Navya-Nyaya) of Bengal, for the simple reason

with

limited

it will be for scholars

wrong

it to

risk of

places formed

the

and

the

discussions

in many

rightor

always

also too

was

of
interpretations
those offered by some

them

on

elaborate

it is not

running

work

my

from

cases

some

no

are

and

without

of my

scope

in very

they

scholars

the other

still I also have

I had

judge.

to

the

; and

whether

own,

or

way

indulge

to

me

Buddhist

modern

among

fruitful in

different
but

actually studied
chapters. Exact references

or

Indian

consists

work

systems

mostly

consulted
to the

of

pages

of

in

the

of

the

Preface
have

generallybeen given
difference of interpretation
was

texts
a

that

reference

where

the

It

to

the

opinions of modern

gives me

gratefulness

make

bear

of the

the

entire

of the

Bengal

Sir

of this

name

noble

made.

But

His

the

and

of the

other

scholars

of

of

much

am

he

volumes

him

above

I have

given me
feelingsof

the

ever

former

and

indebted

of

also

am

large

whole-hearted
assisted

to

esteemed

my

rebirth

English

my

indebted

for

number

of

sypipathy

and

with

me

"

many
for the

studies

my

gratefulness

for utterance.

they improved
I

him

pursuitof

friends

his

advice

the

exposition of

owes

something

the

his

in

J.Thomas
Douglas Ainslie

Sanskrit

the

to

words,

points

many

Buddhist

doctrine

of its treatment

to

with

of

course

To

the

tion
transliteraalso

and

great friendliness
on

in the

places.

many

attention

E.

Dr

University Library and Mr

kindly revising the proofs of this work,

which

has

friendship,
Like

to

Cambridge

their

giftshe

seen.

attachment

about

Bodhisattva

indebted

in the

in

about

to

and

veritable

giftof

come

sympathy

deeply

am

total

word

educational

to

education

has

my

deep

too

are

of the

with

both

made

made

is far

that

men

Bengal,

that

researches,and

for him

himself

man

amiabilitymake

noblest

encouragement

of

kindly promised

household

he has

sterlingcharacter,universal

his kindness

for

has

is almost

man

for the

"200,000.

Manindrachandra

publication of

magnanimous giftsthat
and other causes.
he has
Up till now
^"300,000,of which those devoted
to

and

clearer,or

matter

present work.

The

one

felt

incorporated.
acknowledge my deepest

Maharaja

expense

it was

been

Nundy, K.C.I.E. Kashimbazar, Bengal, who

to

where

cases

where

the

have

pleasure to

Hon'ble

the

in those

anticipatedor

writers

the greatest
to

in footnotes

would

text

xi

for

which

detail,in
of the

repeated

cause

the
he
ticular
parof

discussions

him.
I

N. K.

also

wish

to

express

Siddhanta, M.A.,

Mademoiselle
rendered

Paule

my

gratefulnessto

late of the Scottish

Povie

for

the

kind

my

Churches
assistance

friend

Mr

College,and
they

have

My obligationsare also due to

preparing the index.
the Syndics of the Cambridge
University Press for the honour
they have done me in publishing this work.
To the Hon'ble
Sir Asutosh
Mookerjee, Kt.,C.S.I.,M.A., D.L.,
in

D.Sc, Ph.D.,

the

Vice-Chancellor

of the

University of Calcutta,

Preface

xii

for

the

this

would

have

work

than

greater

materialised

if

can

by

other

the

here,

express

which

with

publication

for

he

had

especially

kindly

Calcutta

agreed

University,

circumstances

had

to

which

changed

not

arrangement.
of

scholars

To
of

far

enthusiasm

generous

accept

this

is

which

debt

owe

reading

book

my

Indian

who

and
and

shortcomings

who

philosophy
be

may
I

defects,

can

do

may

impressed

with

only

in

pray

the

me

honour

its
the

able
inevit-

words

of

Hemacandra:
Pramdnasiddhdntaviruddham

atra

Yatkinciduktam

matimdndyadosdt

Matsaryyam
Prasddam

way

have

errors

of

wrong

ddhdya

noble-minded

the

May

whatever

been

scholars
here
and

interpretations

taddryyacittdh

utsdryya

instead

committed

visodhayantu1.

of

through

cherishing
the

dullness

ill

feeling
of

my

kindly

correct

intellect

in

misstatements.

S.

College,

Trinity
Cambridge.

February,

1922.

D.

the

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

INTRODUCTORY

II

CHAPTER
THE

BRAHMANAS

VEDAS,

The

Vedas

and

The

place

Classification

The

Samhitas

The

Brahmanas

The

10

mind

Hindu

in the

Vedas

10

literature

Vedic

of the

PHILOSOPHY

antiquity

their

of the

THEIR

AND

1 1
12

13

10

Aranyakas
The
Rg-Veda, its civilization
The
Vedic
gods
Polytheism, Henotheism, and Monotheism
Growth
of a Monotheistic
tendency ; Prajapati,Visvakarma

11

Brahma

12

Sacrifice ; the

13

23

14

Mythological and_Philosophical
Cosmogony
Eschatology; the Doctrine of Atman

15

Conclusion

26

7
8
9

The

The

5
6
7
8
9

of the

First Rudiments

place

.21

25

(700

600

B.C."

literature

B.c.)
28

....

influence
Upanisads ; Non-Brahmanic
and
the Early Upanisads
Brahmanas
The
meaning of the word
Upanisad
The composition and growth of diverse Upanisads
times
of Upanisad studies in modern
Revival
The
Upanisads and their interpretations
of the

30

31

38
38

....

The

after Brahman

quest

the

struggle

and

of Brahman

Unknowability

the

and

failures

the

Negative

39
41
...

42

...

44

Method

doctrine

1 1

Place

12

The

World

13

The

World-Soul

14

The

15

Doctrine

Atman

45

in the

of Brahman

48

Upanisads

51
52

of Causation

Theory

52

Transmigration
Emancipation
of

53

58
IV

CHAPTER
OF
1

In

Growth

what

The

Some

sense

"

THE

SYSTEMS

PHILOSOPHY

INDIAN

History of Indian Philosophy possible?

Philosophic Literature
of Philosophy
systems
is

Indian

fundamental
Karma

The

Doctrine

3
The

The

Doctrine

Pessimistic

Faith

Unity

in the
in

agreement

theory
of Mukti
of Soul
Attitude

71
71
74

75
towards

the

World

and

the

Optimistic

end

Indian

endeavours)

points of

62

65
67

of the

The

ON

OBSERVATIONS

GENERAL

19

III

in Vedic

Upanisads

of the

names

The

of Karma

Law

UPANISADS

EARLIER

10

16

17
.

"

THE

14
16

20

CHAPTER

14

75
Sadhana

(philosophical,religiousand

ethical
77

Contents

xiv

CHAPTER

'

PHILOSOPHY

BUDDHIST

PAGE

Philosophy in

of

State

The

Buddha

Early Buddhist

The

Doctrine

The

Khandhas

Avijjaand

7
8

Slla and

before

Buddha

78

....

his Life

81

Literature

82

Connection

of Causal

of

early Buddhism

84

...

93

Asava

99

Samadhi

100

106

Kamma

Buddhism

and

Upanisads
The

11

Mahayanism

12

The

109

of Theravada

Schools

10

Buddhism

112

125

Tathata

14

15

Sautrantika

16

Sautrantika

17
18

The

The

or

the

of

the

or

Nihilism

"

of

.129

School

.138

Buddhism

Vijnanavada

145
151

Perception

of Inference
Doctrine of Momentariness
Doctrine
of Momentariness

The

school

Sunyavada

Idealism

theory
theory

As'vaghosa (80A.D.)

of

Philosophy

Madhyamika
Uncompromising

13

India

155

158
and

the

Doctrine

of

Causal

Efficiency(Arthakriyakaritva)
19

OntologicalProblems
diverged

20

Brief Survey of the Evolution

Some

163

which

on

The

Origin of Jainism

Two

The

Sects of Jainism
Canonical
and other

General
Some
Life of Mahavlra

The

Fundamental

7
8

The

The

Doctrine
Doctrine
Doctrine

The

Indian

Systems
.

of Buddhist

CHAPTER
THE

the Different

JAINA

Thought

164

.166

VI
PHILOSOPHY

169
170

Literature of the Jains

Characteristics of the Jains

.171
172

173
Ideas

of Relative

of

Jaina Ontology
(Anekantavada)

Pluralism

of Nayas
of Syadvada
its value for us

173
.175

176
179

183
185

13

Knowledge,
Theory of Perception
Non- Perceptualknowledge
Knowledge as Revelation

14

The

^8

15

Karma

16

Karma, Asrava and Nirjara

Pudgala
Dharma, Adharma, Akaia

10
11
12

17

18

Jivas

Theory

:1a and

Samaya

181

186

190
192

i95
197

198

Jaina Cosmography
Jaina Yoga

199
I99

22

Jaina Atheism

203

23

Moksa

20
21

(emancipation)

207

Contents

xv

VII

CHAPTER
THE

AND

KAPILA

SAMKHYA

PATANJALA

THE

(YOGA)
PAGE

208

Review

Germs
Samkhya
Upanisads
and Yoga Literature
Samkhya
An
Early School of Samkhya
karika, Samkhya
Samkhya
sutra, Vacaspati
The

3
4

in the

of

211
212

213

Misra

Vijnana

and

Bhiksu

7
8

Samkhya and the Yoga doctrine

Thought and Matter
Feelings, the Ultimate Substances

Patanjali
of Soul

The

The

10

and

226

Yoga

222

Prakrti and

Pralaya

238

241
242

its evolution

245
of the

the disturbance

and

Prakrti

Equilibrium

247

248

Ahamkara

and

13

Mahat

14

The

15

Principleof

and

Tanmatras

Paramanus

the

Causation

and

the formation

of Energy
Conservation
of new
collocations

16

Change

17

Causation

18

exists before it is generated by the movement

and Yoga Theism
Samkhya Atheism

19

Buddhi

20

The

21

Sorrow

22

Citta

23

Yoga

24

The

as

and

that

(the theory

Satkaryavada

as

effect

the

251
254
255

potentially

of the cause)

257

258

Purusa

259

CognitiveProcess

and

some

.261

of Citta

characteristics

264

its Dissolution

and

268

PurificatoryPractices (Parikarma)
Yoga Meditation
CHAPTER
THE

243

12

Purusa

Gunas

11

or

Criticism

270
271

VIII

NYAYA-VAISESIKA

of Buddhism

and

PHILOSOPHY
the

from

Samkhya

Vaisesika
sutras
Nyaya
Vaisesika
Does
represent an

standpoint

Nyaya

and

274

276
old

of Mlmamsa

school

280

5
6

Philosophy in the Vaisesika sutras

Philosophy in the Nyaya sutras
Philosophy of Nyaya sutras and Vaisesika
.

285
294

sutras

301

....

'

7
8
9

The
The
The

Vaisesika and
main doctrine
six Padarthas

Literature
of the Nyaya- Vaisesika

Nyaya

305

Philosophy

.310

Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Visesa, Sama-

313

'

10

vaya
The

1 1

Dissolution

12

Proof

13

The

/14

The

5
/i6

The

17
18

"

Theory

of Causation

(Pralaya)and

of the

Existence

323

of ISvara

325

326
330
332

Perception(Pratyaksa)

333

Inference

243
354

Upamana

Negation

20

The

and

Sabda

in

Nyaya- Vaisesika
necessityof the Acquirement

of Salvation

22

313
319

(Srsti)

Creation

Nyaya- Vaisesika Physics

Origin of Knowledge (Pramana)
four Pramanas
of Nyaya

19

21

The

of Soul
Doctrine
Isvara
and Salvation

355
of

debating devices for the

seeker

360
362
363

Contents

xvi

IX

CHAPTER
MIMAMSA

philosophy
PAGE

The

Comparative

3"7

Literature

Mlmamsa

of

3"9

and

Nyaya

the Svatah-pramanya

Mlmamsa

37
Determinate

Perception
Perception

Problems

connected

in

place of Sense-organs

The

of

doctrine

Paratah-pramanya

The

doctrine
4

Review

and

Indeterminate

Some

The

Nature

The

Psychology

Inference

Ontological

375

378

with

the

of

Doctrine

ception
Per-

379

382
384

of Knowledge
of Illusion

387
Arthapatti

10

Upamana,

11

Sabda-pramana

12

The

13

Self, Salvation, and

14

Mlmamsa

(anupalabdhi)

Non-perception

"_".".*

and

Mlmamsa

of

Dialectic
2

Vedanta

Literature

Vedanta

in

Vedanta

and

The
In

/7
'8
9
10
11
12

13
/

14

15
/ 16

main
what

idea

403

VEDANTA

OF

Issues

more

essential

than

the

Review

408
418

Definition

of the

420

(788

of the
is the

sense

nature

820

"

Vedanta

A.D.)

philosophy

world-appearance

world-appearance,

of Ajnana

established
and

429

(nescience)

by Perception and
of Ajnana,
Ahamkara

439

false?

phenomena
.

443

17

Vedanta

Ethics

18

Vedanta

and

and

other

Vedanta
Indian

452

....

Inference

Emancipation
systems

445

....

454

....

and
Antahkarana
Object
and
Vedanta
the
dialectic
Anirvacyavada
The
Theory of Causation
yedanta theory of Perception and Inference
and
Atman, Jlva, IsVara, Ekajlvavada
Drstisrstivada
Vedanta
of
Illusion
theory

INDEX

406

situation

Sankara

The

Locus

Gaudapada

The

Ajnana

-399

Controversy

philosophical

The

Philosophical

of the

Comprehension

"

SCHOOL

SANKARA

Ritualism

as

CHAPTER
THE

397

....

God

Philosophy

as

394

of

Pramana

39

.457

461
465
470
.

474

485
489
492

495

ambiguous
problems in a clear and unconceiving philosophical
is an important feature of Sanskrit thought,but
manner
the ninth century onwards, the habit of using clear,definite,
began to develop in a very strikingmanner,
preciseexpressions,

tendency
from
and
and

as

to

result of that
These

invented.

have

began
properly explained,and

seldom

are

the reader
of them.

knowledge

of technical

largenumber

terms

presupposed that

who

Any

wants

in olden

one

he from

teacher,and

philosophy,for
had

few who

his. There

idea then

the

otherwise

was

the works
who

times

do

with

so

himself

it is

should

took

to the

teacher,who

had

got it from

fitness,deserved

their

to be

tendency to popularize
that only the chosen

no

prevalent was

shown

terms

read

to

study of any system of philosophy,had to

explained those terms to him. The teacher
his

[ch.

Introductory

become

to

{adhikdri)of philosophy, under the direction of a

teacher.
Only those who had the grit and high moral strength
life to the true understanding of philosophy
their whole
to devote
fit students

and

the

rebuilding of

philosophy

were

Another

allowed

to

study

which
difficulty
the

sometimes
different

senses

meaning

of

which

life in accordance

it occurs,
He

the matter1.

technical
and

with

used

are

The

is

meet

in

student

reference

must
to

the

this,that

extremely

to

the doctrines

of other

in

system

dictionarywill enlightenhim much

have to pick them
up as he advances

Allusions

the

know

no

will

used.

finds them

terms

term

of

truths

high

it.

in different systems.

each

the

beginner will

technical

same

with

about
and

systems and

during the discussions of similar doctrines

particularsystem of thought are often very puzzling even
be expected to know
well-equipped reader; for he cannot

all the

doctrines

and

their refutations

it often

of

other

becomes

refutations

which

There

systems
difficult
are

two

without
to

poured

follow
forth

going through them,

the
in the

series

of

important compendiums

to

so

and

answers

of these

course

in any

sions.
discus-

in Sanskrit

giving
some
principalsystems
thought,
summary
viz. the Sarvadarsanasamgraha% and the Saddarsanasamuccaya of
are

of

Haribhadra

with

of the

the

commentary

of Indian

of

Gunaratna;

but the former

is

sketchy and can throw very little lighton the understanding

of the ontologicalor
epistemological doctrines of any of the
It has been
translated
by Cowell and Gough, but I
systems.

very

able Sanskrit

called
terms
dictionaryof technical philosophical
Nyiyakosa has been prepared by M. M. Bhimacarya Jhalkikar,Bombay, Govt. Press.

Recently

very

Introductory

i]
am

afraid

the

translation

be

not

may

found

intelligible.

very

Gunaratna'scommentaryisexcellentsofaras Jainism is concerned,

and
it sometimes
other
about
gives interestinginformation
short bibliographical
systems, and also supplies us with some
or
notices,but it seldom
goes on to explain the epistemological
doctrines
which
discussions
for the
or
are
so
ontological
necessary
right understanding of any of the advanced
systems of Indian
of a book
which
could give us in
thought. Thus in the absence
brief the main
epistemological,
ontological,and psychological
for a good
positionsof the Indian thinkers, it is difficult even
Sanskrit scholar to follow the advanced
philosophicalliterature,
of the technical
even
though he may be acquainted with many
I have spoken enough about the difficulties
philosophicalterms.
of studying Indian
self
a person
can
philosophy,but if once
get himused
different

technical

Indian

thinkers

terms

and

and
their

the

general positionsof
of expression,he

modes

by patienttoil. The technical terms,

of inestimable
at the beginning,are
difficulty

the whole

master
a

the

to

of

source

helping us
writers

understand

to

who

used

the

well-known

and

them,

misunderstanding them

are

that avoidance

philosophicalworks
The

art

the

chances

reduced

to

of

to

have

value

in

It is I think

has often

terms

liable

writingis indeed

expect

are

meaning of the
misinterpretingor

minimum.

of technical

can

definite

unduly verbose, and

of clear

philosophercannot

preciseand

which

the

it. But

rare

to

tation.
misinterpre-

virtue

when

rendered

and

every

technical

pressions
ex-

himself
writer can
make
a bad
properlyformed, even
In the early days of Buddhist
understood.
philosophy in the
Pali literature,this difficulty
is greatly felt. There
some
are
are

technical

terms

here

which

are

still very

elastic and

in different

their

repetition
heighten

less different senses

or
places in more
of understanding the real meaning intended
the difficulty
to be
conveyed.
that a historyof Indian philosophy should
But is it necessary
be written?
There
are
some
people who think that the Indians
rose
never
beyond the stage of simple faith and that therefore they
of the term.
have any philosophy at all in the proper sense
cannot
Frank
Thus
Professor
Thilly of the Cornell Universitysays in
his Historyof Philosophy1 A. universal historyof philosophywould
include the philosophiesof all peoples. Not all peoples,however
"

New

York,

1914, p. 3.
I

"

[ch.

Introductory

thought, and

of

real systems

produced

have

speculationsof

the

only a few can be said to have had a history.Many do not rise

the theories
of Oriental
beyond the mythologicalstage. Even
peoples,the Hindus, Egyptians, Chinese, consist,in the main, of
mythologicaland ethical doctrines, and are not thoroughgoing
systems of thought: they are shot through with poetry and faith.
Western
to the study of the
We
shall,therefore,limit ourselves
countries,and
on

whose

culture

doubtless

with

begin
our

necessary

for what

follows

to

will

will have

to

is another

different

vast

for

reasons

that

literature

sources,

are

each

on

his

separate

in each

systems

could

systems, I

of

Indian

philosophy

to

in the

not

yet

accounts

for

come

points of

Two

is

view.

vast, and

so

of the systems, that it is not

materials

graphical
biblio-

philosophy.

different

two

afraid

am

It

such

possible
original

directly from the

are
prepared by specialists

the

truth
particularsystems. There is some
but although in some
of the important systems
in this objection,
the literature that exists is exceedingly vast, yet many
of them
less repetitions
of the same
more
or
are
subjects,and a judicious
of twenty
selection
each
of the
or
on
thirty important works

exposition.
always drawn
tried to
appear

chosen

certainlybe made,
In

collect
at

their best.

many

excused

My

features

the

the

materials

my

had

to

which

undertaking

own

my

directlyfrom

important I
problems and
to

of

from

Indian

collect

working

definitelyand

more

of the different

given

exists

before

know

to

history

field of

to

want

originalsreferred
the chapters.
opinion,that the time has

are

the

anyone

There

in part, rests."

the

to

write

to

attempt

is said

go
of

notices

an

Greeks,

ancient

and
people who hold such uninformed
only show their ignorance of Indian matters.
say anything in order to refute these views,
I hope show
the falsity
of their beliefs. If

they are not satisfied,and

elaboratelyabout the contents

There

of the

other

many

It is not

they

philosophy

civilization

own

which
beliefs,

untrue

the

which
leave

give a fairlycorrect

in this

originaltexts,

from

space

would

has

those

out

to

many

diverse

historyof philosophy which

There

are

indeed

many

and

always

have

and

be

to

me

discussions

of

of the

This

does

not

they
I have

the

each

defects and

have

in which

limited

very

important bearings of
interesting
aspects of philosophy.

in

sources

been

appeared

direction

hope
aim

most

difficult

systems
may
at

be

pleteness.
com-

shortcomings,and

Introductory

i]
would

these

the

than

present

imperfectionsof
whose

better

In the
and

much

one.

At

the

and

ought

attempt

been

have

second

called

place it

records

historical

accurate

would

one

earlier
a

first

at

beginnings

efforts

that

are

defect

dates

some

Indians

of

fourth
and

chapter.

and

it is not

of that

state

the

supersede
form
was

course

point

of

often

of

types

the same,

and

probably

of
and

almost
been

time;

but

only

of the systems
their

mutual

observed.

The
in the

on

and

philosophy
it with

contrast

for the later state

showed

did not
coherent

more

the

to

but

in

of

coherent

more

India, though

the

development through historymade

and

thought became
In

in

are

priorityand

of the

development

determinate.

the

existing side by

coherent.

of the

originalsystem but
through historyhas in Western

the

through

state;

dates

out

Most

in the earlier stages, but

existent

schools

systems

their

much

so

very

the state

later

forth

coherent

more

undifferentiated
different

Evolution

brought

objection

touched

particulartime

philosophic thought,

remained

take

generally true

was

proper

early beginnings
development through the succeeding

previous state,

determinate.

countries

were

at

system

it,which

more

more

at

had

no

times, we

well

been

fections.
imper-

us

the

most

be

its

This

centuries

has

systems

possibleto

particularsystem

the

of

not

As

it. No

it is therefore

affect

in later

to

development
of the

Most

continuous

centuries,and
of

this

had

for,though

in the case
of other thinkers.
posteriority
developed side by side through many
relations also developed, and these could

specialnature

of

the

those

to

supersede

account

does

obscure, yet,

very

stimulus

will

the

that

hoped

biographiesand
Indian
philosophy.

sight suppose;

affirm

position to

will be

abler

writer

and

impossibleto write a historyof

valid. But this
is also partially
as

be

impossible on
is said

of

case

it may

rate

any

competent

be

to

less in the

present attempt

more

side
and

more
some

criticism

cases

the

of

they

the
were

types
them

parts
in

conflict of

and

parts of each

of

an

the
the

determinate,
differentiated,

more

this

development

has

been

have
the earlier forms
cases
imperceptible,and in many
lost, or so inadequately expressed that nothing definite

could

be

could

be

it. But
interest

made
made

I have
should

of

out

in the
never

be

them.

interests

considered

subordinated

such

Wherever
of

philosophy, I

it desirable
to

the

differentiation

have

that the

tried to do

philosophical

chronological.It

is

no

[ch.

Introductory

doubt
a

that

true

chronologicaldata
about
a general notion
different systems by mutual
of the development

the

that

opinion

fair amount

growth

association

would
the

considered

be
little

of

and

ing
help in formdevelopment of the

and

conflict. If the

of

philosophy in India had

Europe, definite chronologicalknowledge
much
more
one
indispensable. For, when

in

as

same

of

thing, yet I am
have give us
we

desirable

very

chronologicalinformation

definite

more

dition
con-

been

the

would

be

system

supersedesanother, it is indispensablynecessary that we should

But when
the systems
which
know
precededand which succeeded.
and

richer

their

these

at

systems

of the

dates

with

all dealt

the

as

knew

we

earlier

features

of

invalidatingthe
definitelythe
could

we

times

thing twenty

and

of

best

ascertainable,

system

same

tried

system, and

more

earliest literature

The

the

as

not

European philosophy,without

same

same

type of thought in

same

the

in

be

not

may

if

even

is done

unnecessarilyrepeating
they

tried

regards

as

considered

of the

thinkers

as
separately,

them

treat

be

never

Moreover,

programme.

correct

I have

the

rather

earlyoriginhas

notions

stages in detail

these

yet this,I think, could

whole

interest
of their

general

in

are

systems, but though the various

of the

some

the

getting them
with
regard to

we

philosophicalinterest.

certain

form

to

stages of

when

environment

and

historical than

I could

forms,

better

conditions,nature
a

by side, and

side

developing

are

India

bring

to

determinate

more

is the

over;

Vedas.

out

for
the

forms.
These

consist

gods, such as fire,wind, etc.

mostly of hymns in praiseof nature
of the later parts of the work
of the hymns
Excepting in some
there is not much
philosophy in them
(probably about iooo
B.C.),
in

our

of the

sense

It is here

term.

that

interestingphilosophicalquestionsof a
of poetry
character
expressed in terms
later Vedic

mostly

called the Brahmanas

works

in prose,

followed

which

tendencies,viz. one

that

sought

to

and

hymns,

the

feebler than

ritualistic

philosophy
express,

but

tendency

the

later

there

are

had

the

former,

unmistakable

are

two

the

and

latter
it

tendency was
might appear that

actuallyswallowed

parts of the

there

magical forms of
indulged in speculative

worship, and the other which

thinkingthrough crude generalizations.This
much

Aranyakaswritten

the

establish

ritualistic

indeed

less

or

Vedic

intensely

cosmological
imagination. In the

more

and

the

first find

we

Vedic

up

hymns

marks

that

what

were

this

little of

trying

to

tendency

Introductory

i]
existed

and

of
also

but

reasoned
or

felt

statements, but

of

to

B.C.

from

about

century

systems

of

the

Hindu

The

systems.

too

which

to

that,though

the

Jains

splitinto
another

the

Mimamsa),
Of

these

different

and

of

is

schools

thought

became

systems.

so

former
to

Nyaya

or

mixed
with

other

of Vaisnava
to

by

Jains

like

and

Buddhist
ideal

religionand
be

may

It is

other

interesting

dissensions

some

to

seem

with

some

guess.

less

or

of Hindu
the

are

amongst

differingfrom

(known

up

Buddhist

and

thought.

These

Samkhya,

the

(generallyknown
as

The

also

as

not
one

Mimamsa

Vaisesika

as

and

Yoga

Vaisesika

and

the

was
as

Yoga,

Purva

are

Nyaya

early times

greater than

fundamentally
have

the

Mimamsa).

Uttara

in

Jaina

six systems

Samkhya

that, though

regarded

and

it came

alluded

there

will contain

Mimamsa

system.

be

or

did.

thought

Vedanta

one

one

tenth

not

forms

is seldom

more

known
differently
of

the

contact

some

to

us

been

of this work

the

in

that

creeds, Jaina philosophy has

thought

Hindu

and

of the
similarity
Nyaya, they came
same

have

Vaisesika, the

what

later times

there

the six systems

of orthodox

Nyaya,

in

explain it, but

dogmas

first volume

philosophy and

in

of their

it is difficult for

Buddhist

India

tried to refute the Hindu

extent

schools

many
as

The

about

believe

it does

Buddhists, though

non-aggressive nature

reasons

note

much

came

later

Gunaratna

certain

as

Buddha

to

about

Buddha,

times, Jaina thought

to

of the

thought. Excepting

and

in

old

as

the

with

reason

time

some

are

except in its earlier days, when

doctrines

or

carrying great
probable

beginnings of the other Indian

the age
between
to be sought chiefly
B.C.
Jaina philosophy was probably

200

But

writers

Haribhadra

is

not

are

earliest

Jaina thought

in later

thought

singularistic

These

It is very

develop

to

till

also

are

the

systems of Hindu

may

various

intuitively
perceived

them.

There

B.C.

The

Buddha.

the

that

the

contain
or

philosophy began

forms

about

to

in conflict with
me

written

indubitable,and

continued

A.D.

thought

Buddha

priorto

treatises

parts of this literature

500

vigorous

eleventh

and

Buddhist

philosophy

of its

of the

earliest

B.C.

time

Buddhist

of truths

utterances

persuasivenesswith

the

700

some

other

certain

come

the

unquestionably real

as

many

500

this

to

called

verse

force,vigour,and
that

Next

Upanisads, which
philosophicalthoughts mostly monistic
some
pluralisticand dualistic ones.

in prose
sorts

worked.

and

but
in
the

that with

almost

therefore been

the

treated

[ch.

Introductory

theistic systems began

together.In addition to these systems some
A.D.
They also probably
to grow
prominent from the nintlvcentury
had their early beginnings at the time of the Upanisads. But at
on
problems
probably concentrated
that time their interest was
of morality and religion.It is not improbable that these were
associated with certain metaphysical theories also,but no works
available.
of
One
treatingthem in a systematic way are now
their most
important earlyworks is the BJiagavadgitd.This book
of the greatest masterpiecesof Hindu
is rightlyregardedas one
thought. It is written in verse, and deals with moral, religious,
It is its lack of
and
metaphysical problems, in a loose form.
akin
which
gives it its peculiarcharm more
system and method
to the dialectical and
to the poetry of the Upanisads than
matic
systeninth
onwards
the
From
Hindu
thought.
attempts
century
ideas
which
loose theistic
made
to supplement these
were
were
floatingabout and forming integralparts of religiouscreeds,by
is often dualistic and pluralistic,
metaphysical theories. Theism
and

so

all these

are

systems, which

that their systems

to show

commentaries

also wrote

taught in

were

thereon

commentaries

wrote

to

on

the

of these

of theistic works
also

had

their

are

known

They
with

which

thus

as

the Saiva
volume

and

more

thought can

100

200

be

It is

B.C.

and
interpretations,
the

Tantra

classical

In addition

sprang

another

up

eclectic
old

thus

as

the

class
These

nature.

the

to

position
ex-

Upanisads.

thought,and

are

dealt

of this work.

that the earliest

see

Hindu
or

of

there

wished

Upanisads,and

Upanisads.

beginnings in periods as

in the second
We

were

different schools
thinkers

Brahmasutra,

thinkers

Vaisnava

the

their

prove

of the philosophy of the

works

as

of the Vaisnava

philosophy. Most

of Vaisnava

known

are

traced

to

extremely

beginnings of
some

time

difficult to

the relative

most

between

systems of
600

B.C.

to

anything about
degree of certainty.

say

priorityof the systems with any

Some
in this work
with
conjecturalattempts have been made
of the systems, but how
far they are correct, it
regard to some
will be for our
readers to judge. Moreover
during the earliest
manifestation

of

As

on

time

went

by side. Most
were

of

crude

outlines

only are traceable.

the systems of thought began to develop side
them
were
taught from the time in which they

firstconceived

unbroken

chain

of Hindu

thought

of

system

to

some

about

teachers
has

its

own

the
and

seventeenth

century

A.D.

in

an

each system
pupils. Even now
adherents, though few people now

CHAPTER
BRAHMANAS

VEDAS,

THE

The

to

the

be

is indeed

difficult

to

Bal

kept

4000

historical

record

of

The

mouth

from

to

the

who

were

that

when

people

but

old

that

time, though

of

Vedas

by hearing

or

history

with

of

India

periods, since

little

had

the

in India.

or

no

suffered

time

of

the

reverence

the

highest religious authority

all times.
at

paid
Even

to

at this

the

day

Vedas

that
for

all the

birth, marriage, death, etc., are

all

as

revealed

Vedic

it has

sections

old,
in

some

no

scrupulous

been

of

the

all.

The

changes

had

the

literature

in

civilization, but

they

of

at

the

course

find

probably

was

that

sages

beginning

was

such

God

very

mind.

considerable
Vedic

only

was

we

Hindu

interpolations at

the

Thus

creation.

whole

the

the

to

of each

preceptors,

through

us

It

men.

taught by

not

there

But

the

got

their

faithfullyto

more

the

composed,

who

it from

in

to

Hindus

composition

been

beginning

Vedas

were

Brahmins,

most

years

of the

place

by

least, no

have

to

the

hymns.

the

political
mouth

; and

were

them

upon

the

at

writing prevalent

the

look

believed

were

period

the
of

system

of the

B.C.

seldom

from

revealed

they had, theoretically at

remote

When

they

after

elapsed
to

come

they

The

heart

had

either

of themselves

were

had

down

true.

2400

Hindus

composed

never

that

Haug

ancient

antiquity

were

been

incontestably

B.C.,

1200

handed

{mantradrasta)

time

some

unknown

they

"seers"

the

Vedas,

zeal

that

or

be

to

positions
com-

have

guesses

literary,religious or

unknown

they

shrewd

It

race.

of these

portions

The

B.C.

believed

generally

Indo-European

be

to

their

generally supposed

sages,

so

that

the

earliest

were

of

period

generally believed
therefore

Vedas

PHILOSOPHY

are

proved

date

the

Tilak

achievements.

Vedas,

be

Garigadhar

any

antiquity.

Many

can

supposed

Miiller

their

the

existence.

of them

none

THEIR

of

when

say

into

AND

India, the

literary record

offered, but

and

of

earliest

came

Max

and

Vedas

books

sacred

THE

II

mitted
trans-

last

3000

religious
the

latter

such

was

remained

ever

of

by

the

obligatory

duties

performed

according

as

Hindus

of the
to

at

Hindus
the

old

Vedic
a

Classification
of the

u]

ch.

ritual.

day

The

the

are

two

into the life of

that

the

Hindu

of

old

Vedic

three

used

were

little

that

been

has

of which

Most

of the

base

upon

Sanskrit

them

Brahmin

quarrel with
that

prove

Vedas

flourished

that

literatures

validity,and

own

of Hindu

and

others

it and

it alone

rites of the

Hindus

systematized

held

be

to

such

draw

claims

to

details

is unnecessary.

its

as

upon

the

as

say

in

spite of

the orthodox

Hindu

adumbration

of the

its

lightall through

the

Vedic
the

beginner

of later Sanskrit
when

he

meets

who

of

source

drama.

which
life,

of the

is introduced

and
but

be

to

To

that

are

British

had

into

Vedas,

past,

in
this

enter

the

far
still

are

all literatures

almost

in short

Thus

is

Vedic

has

time

in the

we

wrought,,

main

ceased

never

may

as

an

shed

to

likelyto

first time

appear

texts
"

generic name
in its wider

literature.

for the

authoritative

subjectshaving the same

to hear) ; for Veda
sru

which

past.

literature
with

the

followed, and

changes
still be regarded

life may

of

under

Even

of the

that

many

would

laws

said

are

Vedas.

the

literature

poetry and

Classification
A

dead

origin and

except purely secular

that

their allegiance

The

is

suffice it to say

But

as

property, adoption, and

Law

authority from

being regarded

looked

of

them

to

teachings, and

authority.

inheritance

the

Vedas

religiouscustoms

Vedic

legal transactions,Hindu

other

from

their

rituals.

follower

views.

and

old

money

superiorityby trying

present day

of

memories

obligatory on

administration, in

the

to

even

at

of them

one

faithful

represented correctlytheir

regulate the social,legal,domestic

mere

its

the

was

Even

after the

only own

of each

maintain

his

of

appeal

philosophy not

and

with

so

sacrifices and

Vedic

the Vedas, but the adherents

to

to

teaching of

their

authority.Systems
often

and

insight

ordered

orthodox

an

dispense with image-worship if he likes,but not

daily Vedic prayers or other obligatory ceremonies.
this day there are
who
bestow
immense
sums
persons
performance

as

grafted

are

can

for the

times

present day will show

the

Thus

rites.

as

ago.

image-worship is one
regular obligatoryduties

the

to

years

1 1

says

verses

of

the
life,

according

now

of Vedic

thousand

ordinary

an

system

his

upon

three

or

Brahmin

selections

same

verses

prayer

that

prayers

literature

Vedic

sense

somewhat

of diverse

Veda

to

"

is not

or

the

study

confused

purport
"

the

Sruti
name

"

and

(from
of any

over

this

long period,say

literature

in different

directions

necessitybe of a
this huge literature
subjectmatter, we

diversified

people

Samhita

from

both
literatures,

holy that
them

the

in

types, namely the

learnt

by

and

looked

were

verse,

thought

of their preceptors

mouth

Indian

four different

and

it was

therefore

they were

of the

manas,
(sam together,hita put), Brahthe Upanisads. All
treatises ") and

prose

early times

As

so.

verses

Aranyakas(" forest
these

or

years

tending
ex-

long period,it must of

character.
If we
roughly classify
points of view of age, language, and

the

of

collection

or

particularepoch

achievements

for such

point out

can

Philosophy [ch.

thousand

two

total

the

represents

of

literature

of the

but

particularbook,

their

and

Vedas, Brahmanas

The

1 2

almost

heart

by

sacrilegeto

the

so

write
from

Brahmins

called

hence

were

as

upon

ally
(liter-

sruti

anything heard)1.
The
There

Yajur-Veda

Sama-Veda,
Veda

the

probably

is

collections

four

are

Samhitas.

Samhitas, namely

or

Of

Atharva-Veda.

and

independent value, for it consists of stanzas

only 75) entirelyfrom the Rg-Veda, which

has

to

sung

of chants.

The

reference

were

called the Veda

be contrasted

that

there

all the
the

the
who

poems

god

with

verses

are

are

adored

addressed

Indra

and

so

of

Yajus

almost

the

formulas.

is

solelywith

sacrifice;the

to
on.

primitivestage

with
exclusively

sacrificial prayers.

"

tents
con-

in the

Rg-Veda

These
in

generallyarranged in accordance
in them.
Thus, for example, firstwe
Agni
The

the

Fire-god,then

fourth

collection,the

or

"

more

to

originalprose
Soma

the arrangement

Veda, probablyattained its present

the Rg-Veda.
In spirit,
however,
it is not only entirely
different from
much

book

the

arranged in the order in which the

actuallyemployed in the various religioussacrifices.

may

gods

be

to

in addition

Sama-Veda

in the

use

called

be

contains

of the

verses

place and
Yajur-Veda are

It is therefore

the

the

their

to

of the

to

of

thus

may

Yajur-Veda however
from
the Rg-Veda
many

arrangement

verses

melodies, and

The

taken

verses

fixed

certain

(excepting

meant

were

Rg-

practically

taken

no

the

these

Sama-Veda

The

earliest.

Rg-Veda,

the
1

of

form
as

the

thought.

higher gods

Panini,

III.

iii.94.

Rigveda
While
as

the

get

Atharva-

Macdonell
but

with

all those

considerablylater

Professor

this,

than
says,

represents

Rigveda
conceived
by a

deals
com-

The

n]
parativelyadvanced
book

demon

world,

and

among

the

immemorial
other

in

lower

13

refined sacerdotal

and

is,in the main

Brahmanas

of

spellsand
with

teems

grades

of

Atharva-

the
class,

witchcraft

about

current

from

population,and derived
two, thus complementary

the

antiquity. These
contents
are
obviously the

important

most

the

appealing to

incantations

notions

Veda

each

to

of

an

the

four

VedasV
The
After
called

the

type.

They

familiar
the

there
which

Brahmanas,

of

"

Samhitas

the

different

the

with

spiritof

full of

details.

those

to

in which

its

who

Professor

the

time

fanciful

ceremonials
the

when

at

But

the collections

of

Thus

complicated.

there

priests. We
system

became
the

subordinated
the
1

A.

Weber

which

A.

to

prayer

they were,
versed

was

brahman.'''

the

the

for the

in Vedic

revealed

Brahmanas

instruction and

for the

most

and

But
as

were

so

thus

was

result

guidance

part, the authoritative

31.

"that
signifies

Brahmana
1.

p.

lxvi)says

sacrificial lore and

in view

priests(brahman) generally;

competent

of the fact that

the

of such

utterances
to

act

Brahmanas

as

was

symbolic

called "probably either because

of

only

sacrifice

and

sacramental

Miiller [S.B. E.

Max

the

sacrifice,and

fanciful

most

when

religiousminds was
speculative thinking

the

more

period when

that

whether
in the general
"originally the sayings of Brahmans,
of Brahman-priests."
more
specialsense
Eggeling (S.B E. xii.

"
priests.

much

the

and

in the

xxii) says that

intended

this

History of Sanskrit Literature, p.

(Hist.Ind. Lit., p. u, note) says that the word

meant

one.

of

of

service

from

tribution
necessityof the disamongseveral distinct

MacdonelFs

relates

or
priests,

p.

the

to

production

Free

rituals.

down

and

wise

so

composed.

more

becoming established,and

engage

its elaborate

and

that

assume

lations
specu-

never

were

being handed

were

about

came

probably

were

works

field of sacrificial

the

in

ceremonials

may

was

could

thing which

trated
concen-

and

symbolism

of the different sacrificial functions

caste

Macdonell,

activityis

early hymns

hymns

generation to generation the

the

already

significance."These

imagination

sacrificial

elaborate

of

ficance
signi-

not

are

all intellectual

originand

unbounded

The

classes

sacred

the

explain

sacrifice,
describing its ceremonies, discussing its

an

when

theologicaltreatises
different literary
distinctly

and

dogmatic assertions,

of

the

reflect,"says

an

value, speculating on
are

rituals

"They

the

on

up
of

were

them.
age

grew

in prose,

written

are

Brahmanas2.

as

Brahmans

were

were
or

mana
Brah-

Introd.

they
or

of

sense

were

because

thoroughly
ing
superintend-

also supposed to be

the Vedas, the present writer thinks that Weber's

view

as

is the correct

later than

not

was

Aranyakasor

the

thus unable

In

men

had

period

these, meditations

great merit, and

certain

on

not

symbols

they gradually began

forest and

requiringa
be procured
supplant

get

the

were

multitude
in forests.

supposed

were

to

we

probably

were

into the

sacrifices
could

however

works

These

retired

articles which

and

of accessories

who

perform elaborate

to

It is

Brahmana

Brahmanas

of the

treatises.

forest

for old

composed

of the

Gnostics.

Aranyakas.

development

further

the

500 B.C.
The

As

Philosophy [ch.

among

close

the

that

generally believed

now

but

unparalleledanywhere

system,

their

and

Vedas, Brahmanas

The

14

be of

to

sacrifices

superiororder. It is here that we find that amongst

section of intelligent
a certain
people the ritualistic ideas began
the nature
of
and philosophicspeculationsabout
to give way,
take an
in their place. To
truth became
gradually substituted

as

being of

instead

that

the

from

illustration

of

( Usas) as

the

head

the

its

life,and

are

of

claims

Brhadaranyaka

find

we

actual

there

as

the

performance of the horse sacrifice

the dawn
directions
for meditating upon

the

{asvamedhd)
air

of

beginning

horse, the

the
so

the

as

is indeed

This

on.

sun

eye

of the

ment
advance-

distinct

horse,

the actual
over
speculationor meditation
of sacrifice. The
performance of the complicated ceremonials
as
growth of the subjectivespeculation,
being capable of bringing
the highestgood, gradually resulted in the supersessionof Vedic
ritualism
and
of the claims
of philosophic
the establishment
of the

meditation
find

we

and
that

thinking
which

self-knowledgeas

the

tried

had

of

Aranyaka
gradually to

fettered

it for

the
was

age

shake
a

long

highest goal
a

of life. Thus

period during

off the

shackles

time.

It

which

of
thus

was

free

ritualism
that

the

Aranyakas could pave the way for the Upanisads, revive the
of philosophicspeculationin the Vedas, and develop them
germs
in

which

manner

that

arose

made

the

in the

world

The

The

hymns

singlehand
were

and

of the
do

Upanisads

Rg-Veda,

Rg-Veda

of

Hindu

the

source

of all

sophy
philo-

thought.

its civilization.
are

neither

the

productions of

they probably belong to any singleage. They

composed probably at different periods by different sages,
it is not
of them
were
improbable that some
composed
nor

the

before
handed
the

entered

Aryan people
from

mouth

additions

that

down

new

It

generations.
considerable

its civilization

%g- Veda,

The

n]

the
it

India.

collection

increased

had

were

to

very

in the present

probably arranged

was

They

and

made

were

that

extent

plainsof

graduallyswelled through
by the poets of succeeding

to mouth

when

was

the

the present
which
to
previous forms
its origin.They therefore reflect the civilization
arrangement owes
of the Aryan people at different periods of antiquitybefore and

form,

after

in

or

they

vanished

had

age

other

some

to

come

is of

This

India.

great aesthetic

unique

value, and

genuine poetry. It enables us to get an

societywhich produced it the oldest
of sustenance
The
were
principalmeans
and

of the

soil with

the

ground

watering

"The

chief

food

plough
when

consists,"as

is little

used, and

flour and
the

on

only

and

wagons,

also

as

understood

women

they
and
tribe

and

smiths

Metal-workers,

delicate

more

the

tribe

under

was

the

the

much

in pots,

portant
im-

more

built war-chariots
and

artistic cups.

their

mats,

weaving

sheep

into

trade.
and

The

sewing

clothing for

strongly prove

how

persuaded

were

that

inviolable

were

realm

of nature, and

as

punished
to think

The

the

and

men

that the

the

sin

ordinances
and

act,

wrong

had

even

cases

by

the

"

the

the
the

the

rulers
as

hymns
people
of the
in the

unconscious,

it is
a

of

justice,right and

only rightand
pretty high degree
2

13.

some

limited

matters

Thus

attained

Rigveda, by Kaegi, 1886 edition, p.

of

moral

expiated2."

Aryans

of

in

Thus

in mental
every

ideas

the head

or

Kaegi says,
prominent minds in

eternal

that

the

father

absolute, but

developed

deeply

world

proper

nowhere

present in the country.

were

of the

sway

probably hereditaryand

family. Kingship was

electoral.
Kingship was
will of the people. Most

was

the

butter,many

of individuals
The
forming a
covering for animals.
group
the highest political
unit; each of the different families
was

forming

law,

of

wool

bread,

spitsor

works

potters continued

plaitingof

the

manufactured

carved

hoe,

great feasts and

at the

family gatherings. Drinking plays throughout

part than eating1."The wood-worker

the

and

"together with

says,

race.

artificial canals.

with

necessary

probably eaten

was

primitive

mattock

harrow,

preparationsof milk, cakes of

vegetablesand fruits;meat cooked

of

that is

Aryan
cattle-keepingand

and

Kaegi

much

of the

long

of the

book

of various
sorts

contains

estimate

"

cultivation

of

monument

Ibid. p. 18.

and

Vedas, Brahmartas

The

nowhere

of civilization,but

the

was

Philosophy [ch.

their

spiritof

sincere

the

Aryans

essential and
which
the most
was
religion,
all the hymns, except a few secular
feature of almost
dominant
Thus
Kaegi says, The whole significanceof the Rigveda
ones.
in

than

manifested

more

"

in reference
been

pointedout

to

the

us

in modern

the

to

times, rests

this,that

upon

it presents

of

Vedic

The

praiseof

repeatedly
earliest
and

its

composed

in

man1."

to

The

has

religiousconceptions from the

deepest apprehension of the godhead

development

beginnings
relation

as
general historyof religion,

the

to

the

hymns of
the gods.

The

Gods.
all

almost

Rg-Veda

were

social and

other

materials

of

are

secondary

dentally
inciimportance, as these references had only to be mentioned
to their feelingsof devotion
to the god.
in giving vent
The
personalities
presidingover the diverse
gods here are however
of nature
or
They have
forming their very essence.
powers
like the
therefore no definite,systematic and separate characters
Greek gods or the gods of the later Indian
mythical works, the
The

Puranas.

thunder,

such

nature

closelyassociated

are

associated

of

powers

with

them

with

also

are

the

as

and
personalities
like the

mortal

them

with

characters
of nature.

Kaegi
in

has

in

this,that

they display are

To

take

it,as

butter

melted
a

horse

"

that

suddenly

sacrificer takes

pour
like

he

and

but

the

Agni

or

in the

the

springs forth
on

their

wonder

Tht

love
at

to

see

actual

and

expressionsof

fire

by

lost

sorrow

contrasted

is

described, as

softer

rubbing

the

as

the powers

in

wood,
the

as

early

gleaming brightness.
When
the priests
wood.
in

him, he leaps up cracklingand

men

forth

later

be

may

few

In the

became

joy

same

in

impersonal nature,

an

the

only

gods

thus

gods

lies concealed

lays him

upon

he whom

prosperity. They

of

mostly
"

the

their tales of

Vedic

example,

an

one

are

until, called

morning hour,
The

they

it is

of nature, and

The

The

another.

Puranas

having

below.

here

chamber,

characters

and

gods

the

in character.

epithetsare attributed to different gods

specificqualitiesthat they differ from one
the

rain, the

another, and

one

similar

mythological compositions of
character
as
hypostaticpowers

the

storm,

neighing

increasinglike their

him, when,

decking

Rigveda^ by Kaegi, p. 26.

himself

own

with

people as
fresh.

At

accord

of

gods

in the

find

we

well-defined

aesthetic character, and

peculiartrait of

This

time.

adored

it. The

of their mind

admiration

or

of

HenotheismorKathenotheism

the

most

Max

hymns

"a belief in

to

multitude

that

They

overawed

its beneficent

deitywhich

was

the Vedic

the

creed.

nature

gratefulnessand joy by

with

filled them

or

to

monotheistic

force

hypostatizedunconsciously any
them

existence

in

for them

ripeenough

not

was

universalize them

to

Philosophy [ch.

highly impressionableand

were

time

and

consistent
nor

hymns

the

this stage

their

and

Vedas, Brahmanas

The

votion
the de-

moved

for the

supreme
Muller

or

has called

singlegods,eachin turn

since the gods are

thought of
standing out as the highest. And
in their special
as
spheres,the singers,
speciallyrulingin their own
and
concerns
desires,call most of all on that god to whom
they

ascribe the

most

say so, their wish

may

that

god, before
no

offence

urged," as

is present to the mind

is associated

being

time

are

god 1." Against

other

any

"

Varuna
the

since
rest,'

and

not

Asvins

god

no

Surya
submit

is

spoken of
laudations,such

are

subordinate

to the
as

or

force,through the

chief

modifications

or

their

of

Zeus

as

tendency of
exaggerate
1
9

Tht

the
the

lack

of any

constant

head

and

than

Vedic

Thus

others.

and

to

in

monotheistic

suppliedby

the

text
con-

is therefore

an
reality,

an

appearance

undeveloped anthropomorphism,

god occupying

the

position

pantheon, by the natural

extollinga particulargod to

of the

priestor singer in

his greatness

the

even

(i.ioi),Varuna

Henotheism

"

the

that

temporarily

corrections

even

by

frequent

more

..Even
when
(i.156)..
(eka),as is natural enough

verse8."
by the same
appearance,"says Macdonell, "rather
produced by the indefiniteness due
or

Indra

to

lose

statements

theory

of Visnu

power

unique

this

rightlysays in his Vedic Mythrepresented 'as independent of

religionbrings its gods into

and varied juxtaposition and
combination, and
made
are
dependent on
mightiestgods of the Veda

all the

thing
every-

"

Macdonell

deities

Vedic

"that
"l"gy2"

alone

if I

department

being; he is the highest,the only

disappear,there being in this,however,

depreciationof

or

to whose

"

divine

all others

whom

been

it has

for the

him

be said of

can

matter,

belongs.This god

suppliant; with

of the

in the

power

to

ignore other

gods, and

by

the

Rigveda,by Kaegi, p.

See Ibid. p. 33.

27.
See also Arrowsmith's

note

Macdonell 's Vedic Mythology,pp. 16, 17.

on

theism.
it for other references to Heno-

Growth

n]

tendency

19

belief in the

growing

unity of the gods (cf.the refrain of 3, 35)

might be regarded as a type of the divine1." But

of whom

each

Monotheistic

of a

whether

call it Henotheism

we

of the powers

of the

the

or

deity in

temporary

mere

tion
exaggera-

question,it is evident

that

this

nor
monotheistic,
properlycalled polytheistic
which
had
them
one
a
both, although it
tendency towards
not sufficiently
developed to be identified with either of them.
extreme
tendency towards
exaggeration could be called a

stage
but
was

The

neither

can

bias

monotheistic
deities
was

be

in germ,

the

whereas

correlation

of different

independent of one another and yet existingside by side

tendency towards polytheism.
as

Growth

of

Monotheistic

tendency; Prajapati, Visvakarma.

extollinga god as the greatest and

tendency towards
highest gradually brought forth the conception of a supreme
Lord
of all beings (Prajapati),
not
by a process of conscious
but as a necessary stage of development of the mind,
generalization
able to imagine a deity as the repositoryof the highestmoral
and
be percannot
physical power, though its direct manifestation
ceived.
This

epithetPrajapatior the Lord of beings,which

to be recognized
came
an
epithetfor other deities,
originally
it is said
separate deity,the highest and the greatest. Thus
Thus

was
as

in R. V.

beginning rose

In the

This

2:

121

x.

Born

the

the

as

earth

only

Hiranyagarbha,

lord of all existence.

settled firm and

he

What

god shall we adore

Who
gives us breath, who
All creatures
must
obey,
Whose

shade

heaven

with

established

oblations ?

our

givesus strength,whose
the

bright gods

is death, whose

shadow

even

bidding

lifeimmortal

What

god shall we adore with our oblations ?

Who
the monarch
by his might alone became
Of all that breathes,of all that wakes
or
slumbers,
and beast, the lord eternal :
Of all,both man
What
god shall we adore with our oblations ?
Whose
might and majesty these snowy mountains,
The

What

extended

arms

god

shall

Who

made

Who

fixed the

Who

measured

What

god

Macdonell's

the distant stream

and

ocean

Whose

we

are

adore

exhibit ;

these

with

spreadingregions:
oblations ?

our

the heavens

bright,the earth enduring,

of heavens
firmament, the heaven
;

shall

out
we

the air's extended

adore

with

Vedic Mythology, p. 17.

spaces:
oblations ?

our

The Rigveda, by

Kaegi, pp. 88, 89.

2"2

to

is said to be father

and

He
(All-creator)1.

that

It is to him

He

uncreated.

himself

though

also

are

the
is

Who
Who

sage

Philosophy [ch.

their

ascribed

attributes

Similar

and

Vedasy Brahmanas

The

20

the

Visvakarma

deity

procreator of all beings,

the

generated

primitive waters.

says,

our

father,our

every

place doth

By

whom

alone

To

him

all other

creator, maker,
and every creature,
know

gods their

to

creatures

names

given,

were

to ask him2.

go

V. x. 82. 3.

R.

Brahma.

conception of Brahman
Vedanta
philosophy of

The
for the
the

the

from

Rg-Veda

which
later

associations

has

the

been
had

days
of the

highest glory
in

hardly emerged

sacrificial mind.

The

of the Vedas
meanings that Sayana the celebrated commentator
givesof the word as collected by Haug are: (a)food,food offering,
or
text,
(b) the chant of the sama-singer, (c) magical formula
(d) duly completed ceremonies, (e)the chant and sacrificial gift

together,(/)
says

it also

that

of

of

only

the

created

has

is the

to

the

itself went

made

the

sphere beyond,

into these
two,

worlds ?

Form

and

it

Name
the

are

so

two

these two
In another

Universe

considered,

Whatever

See The Rigveda,by

"

Kaegi's translation.

"

See

with

Kaegi,p. 89, and

translation
Eggeling's

of

which
form

to

one
: as

ception
con-

the

this

Agni

far

these

is name;

and

knows

by

there

as

himself

be the ultimate

Prajapati,Purusa

also Muir's Sanskrit

S. B. E.

its

are

form,
Form

indeed
knows

great force*.

thing in
and

Texts, vol.
vol.

up

of

means

that

the

again

(universe).These
he who
and, verily,

Satapatha
Brahmana

the

gods.

I descend

can

name,

becomes

is said

is identified

the

worlds:

again by

this

great forces of Brahman

'How

has

far,indeed, extends

place Brahman

behind

force

these

descended

great forces of Brahman;

and

to

Then
Surya the sky....
sphere beyond. Having gone

and
again which has no name
this is (of a certain)
form,'that is

and

forth

as

beginning this (universe)

the
gods; and, having

ascend

that
1

itself

air,and

the

It then

Name.

the

created

them

to

up

'

manifests
reaches

and

moving

(neut.).It

gods, it

which

soul

Verily in

"

world, Vayu
(terrestrial)
Brahman

the

Roth

priest,(g) great.

that the
Satapatha Brahmana
acquired a great significanceas

Satapatha
says,

the

hotr

in the

Brahman

Brahman

the

the

devotion

the

"

means

principlewhich

supreme

was

it is

of

recitation

satisfaction

longing and
gods." But

Thus

the

XLIV.

I v.

the

Prana
pp. 5-1 1.

pp. 27, 18.

the
n] Sacrifice;

First Rudiments

of the

Law

ofKarma

is described
(the vital air1).In another place Brahman
the Svayambhu
who
(self-born)performing austerities,
his

self in the

own

and

thus

compassed

all creatures2.
the

The

Rg-Veda
with

three

parts transcend

fourth

the

On

the

to

be

hand,

contributed

the

however

of the

or

by

to

Vaisnava

details.

these

monotheistic

as

influence.

melted

"

notes

butter

in the

which

The
to

the

be

the

on

kind

which

could
sacrifice

taken

teristics
charac-

magical

the

were

not

Christian

under

as

give

whole

is

ceived
con-

of

other," the

minute

the

familiar

are

we

sacrifice
a

offeringsat

The

with

to

dignity of

institution

an

gradually
growth
unimportant
relatively
were

direct result of this

The

raise the

to

piece must
tallywith
a
performance of even
of the

the

once

of Karma.

ritualism

relegate the gods

sacrifice

Haug

as

remaining

is at

Law

that

suppose

complicationsof

to

devotion

He

of the

Rudiments

fruits of themselves.

dictated

the

the

wrong

position,and
desired

region beyond.

in their elaborate

growing

pervades

man

supreme

sacrifices.
gradually supplanting the polytheistic

were

other

the

self,

own

(Purusa)in

man

supreme

part of Himself, whereas

First

It will however
tendencies

the

offered

lordship over

future8.

present, past and

Sacrifice;

of

being

as

in his

creatures

sovereignty and

that

supposes

world

the

supremacy,

conception

also

only

and

creatures

2 1

machinery in which every

slightestdiscrepancy in the

ritualistic
the

or
fire,

detail,say

in the

pouring

placing of

proper

utensils

straw
misplacing of a mere
sufficient to spoil the whole
contrary to the injunctions was
sacrifice with
whatsoever
it might be
earnestness
performed.

employed

word

Even

if

might

follow.

production
was

reversed

the

sacrifice

there
detail,
of the

mistaken

to the

and

would

be
of

accent

able
a

the demon

could
was

who

demon

the

even

mispronounced the most

when
Tvastr
performed

was

Thus

of

Indra, owing

or
sacrifice,

no

produced was
duly performed

be
power

which

could

dreadful

kill his

to

killed

by

down

to
or

for the

sacrifice

singleword

arrest

results

enemy

the

Indra.
the

object
But

if

minutest

delay the

fruition

fulfilled not
objectsof a sacrifice were
by the grace of the gods, but as a natural result of the sacrifice.
The
performance of the rituals invariably produced certain
mystic or magical results by virtue of which the object desired

object.

Thus

See S. B. E.

See Ibid.

xliv.

the

xliii.

p.

pp.

418.

59, 60, 400

and
8

xliv.

R.

V.

p. 409.
X.

90, Purusa

Siikta.

sacrificer

the

by

natural

to

itself

world

the

from

existed

was

eternitylike
even
regarded

like the

course

physicalworld.

in the

law

have

fulfilled in due

was

the

fruit of

of

believed

was

The

Vedas.

the

fulfilment

sacrifice

The

as

Philosophy [ch.

their

and

Vedas, Brahmanas

The

22

of

creation

sacrifice performed

an
as
Being. It exists as Haug says
by the supreme
of electricity
and is like the latent power
invisible thing at all times
in an
machine, requiringonly the operation
electrifying

of

in order

suitable apparatus

offered

not

from

to

god

with

on

earth

welfare

him

to

view

to

be elicited."

propitiatehim

obtain

to

or

rewards

; these

bliss in Heaven

or

sacrifice is

The

are

directlyproduced by the sacrifice itself through the correct performance

which
interconnected
ceremonies
of complicated and
sacrifice certain
in each
constitute the sacrifice. Though
gods
the gods themselves
received
the offerings,
invoked
and
were
but

were

the
is thus

by

duty, and

for

bad,

it

law

was

also called

was

was,

moral

sacrifices which

in

or

pleting
com-

that

these

regarded
karma

almost

as

or

only

for

mystical ceremonies

good
of

kinds

(for there were

many
performed for injuring one's

were

the

kriya (action)and

immoral

or

rank

to their divine

stated attained

of sacrifice. Sacrifice

of

sacrifice

the

about

mystical ceremonies

it is sometimes

unalterable

the
or

regarded as

means

kind

bringing

composing it. Sacrifice

to
possessinga mystical potency superioreven

of

course

gods, who

the

in

instruments

enemies

or

of others)
at the cost
gaining worldly prosperity or supremacy
destined to produce their effects. It is well to note here that
were
the first recognitionof a cosmic
order or law prevailingin nature
under
in the
the guardianship of the highest gods is to be found
of the word
of things). This word
the course
Rta (literally
use
also

was

in

the

world

used,

moral

world

effects. It is
we

such

day.
hymns

as

sacrifice or

as

that

Macdonell

as

'

"

interestingto

Thus
on

we

of

towards

realityof

find

the

denote

'right' and

its unalterable

the

in

the

law

of
that

in this connection

of the law
over

to

Indian

simple faith

of

karma,

thought
and

which

up

"

order

it is here
exercises

of the

present
Vedic

hand

monotheistic
the

or

philosophicknowledge of

universe.
1

Macdonell's

Vedic Mythology \ p, II.

'

religious
producing

to the

devotion

'

being supplanted by the growth of a complex

sacrificial rites,and
the other bending their course
on

one

system

control

and

note

find the first germs

dominating

and

truth

rite1

observes,

the ultimate

n]

Cosmogony

Mythologicaland philosophical

"

Cosmogony
The

Mythological

"

of the

cosmogony

Rg-Veda

aspects, the mythological and

aspect has in general two
"

The

regards the

one

the

work

represents it

find

Rg-Veda

we

the

and

wood

and

the

as

earth2?"

The

Brahmana
which

heaven

also sometimes

are

is sometimes

this

hymn5

attracts

noticed

above

has been

earth

having
spoken of as

and

The

notice.

is there

said

all

his
the

his head
the

ear

Sun

four

Being
The

sages7.

of the

some

passages

the

world

from

sprang
existent
sprang,

soul

being is
called

the

In

from

in which

hymn

Macdonell's

R.

Macdonell's

BR.V.
7

R. V.

Muir's

x.

x.
1.

"

the

the

Vedic

also

golden

atmosphere
earth;

to

blew

of

in which

the

and

effect

the supreme

as

these

existent

gods, the

first age

of

the

thereafter
most

gods, the

the

regions

remarkable

90.
72 ; Muir's

and

philosophicspeculation

Br.

Taittt

; also R. V.

164. 46.

In

births

u.
3

the

by

names

forth

the

from

is movable

many

and

(Hiranyagarbha8).

Qgg

the

already

has become

hymns

extolled

of

x.

have

statements

the first germs

translation of R. V.

parentage

inanimate,

all that

The

p.

came

sometimes

are

posts4. They

the

other

Uttanapada9."

Mythology,

Earth

the

came

non-existent:

Mythology,p.

from

universe,whatever
and

are

earliest age

the

and

we

by

In

tree

immortality who

his feet

81. 4.
Vedic

as

whole

Brahmanaspati

the

the

with

it is called

non-existent.

thereafter,from

V.

though

it is said

sprang

sublime

man

(atmari) of
are

Taittirlya-

semi-pantheisticMan-

his navel

from

There

is one,

blacksmith.

the

quarters. Again there

supreme

Lord

like

sky;

is immovable6.

the

that

arose

is called

all that

the

; from

was

Daksa.

and

be

in

parents, and

things animate

everywhere among
out of him
beings came

from

Heaven

supported

shall be ; he is the lord of

diffused

Brahman

supreme

to

duction,
pro-

built heaven

they

question

and

philosophicalaspect
our

says,

of mechanical

which

universal

Aditi

to

Macdonell

in the

this

been

mythological

generation1." Thus
one
place says, "what

made3."

were

two

other

of

to

wood

as

attributed

Under

result

from

at

joiner'sskill; the

out

given
the

and

described

sometimes

tree

answer

is "Brahman

the

the

as

poet in

the

was

looked

Professor

as

of natural

the

be

The
philosophical.

carpenter'sand

that

philosophical.

may

currents,

result

what

the

universe

of

and

23

n.

R.V.

1.

R. V.

x.

Sanskrit

11.

8. 9. 6.

15 and

iv.

56.

115.
m.

Textst vol.

V.

p. 48.

and

T/ie Vedas, Brahmanas

24
with

regard
found

are

is the

atmosphere

The

covered

What

all ? and

neither death

Then

2.

Alone

that

breathed

Other

than

one

It

was

That

which

Alone

by

And
In

6.

there

whether

then

The

source

And

whether

know

from

from

which

it was

what

on

this

were

there

nor

become
a

this

the Rishi

"

or

"

arisen?

does

'

know1?

probably
that

in the

"

129.

1),'There

This^Mind. -when

and

it has

did
been

then

neither

it were,

neither

was
as

was,

existent;

existed

Wherefore

for Mind

beginning

nor

it were,

as

in the

passage

non-existent

Mind.

X.

risen,

He

not

says

neither

(Rg-Veda

has

uncreated,
highest heaven

this is

only that

non-existent.

manifest,

the

1) which

the existent

nor

or

(universe)was

then

was

the non-existent

it

as

it has

this universe

made,

5. 3.

(universe)was
the beginning

surely

has risen?

tillafter it the gods lived ?

not

can

tell us

can

this universe

how

Satapatha
Brahmana(X.

existent

hidden;

desire,

arose

here

Who

earliest commentary

by

distinction.

calmly, self-supported,
aught above It.

only knows, who from

Rules, the all-seeinglord

declared

existed;

no

nor

He

exist:

yet

was

of mind, within

and

what

Who

not

the

is it knows

And

in

it.

it.
primal germ
sages, searchingin their heart, discovered
Nothing the connecting bond of Being.

From

The

sky

undistinguishedwaiej;.
emptiness lay hidden
of fervor was
developed.

power

was

Who

7.

not-being.
above

in void and

for the firsttime

Which

nor

first in darkness

at

world

the

by what protected ?
?
abyss of waters

none,

was

originof

X.

deathless

nor

night there

Then

nor

where

Of day and

there
3. Darkness
The universe was

4.

not,

was

the fathomless

there

Was

of R. V.

neither being

was

Philosophy [ch.

of the

mystery

29th hymn

there

Then

1.

wonderful

the

to

their

created;wished

to

morexlefined^jiica^-su^stai^

self^aJjodyjnTjDrac^

In the

Atharva-Veda

universe
Thus
forth such

find that

we

comprehended

were
we

also

find it stated
within

the

that

all forms

god Skambha3.

in the

period of the Vedas

philosophicyearning,at least among
some

The

Sc"

A. V. x. 7.

even

Rigveda,by Kaegi, p. 90. R. V.

Eggeling'stranslation of S. "., S.
10.

of the

there sprang
who

x.

119.
B. E. vol.

xliii.

pp.

374, 375.

could

of the

often

more

of the

enjoyments

works

when

conception

the

and

of

sorrows

with

notion

the

of rta, and

Rg-Veda
which
to

are

the

vital breath.

mean

emotion, and

and

the

dwelling in
atman

dead

realityin

man

came

man

and

atman

the

first-born,
being

born

from

the

him

ask

that

it is said that
with

his

Self

him

is

no

pre-Upanisad
denote

of

"

or

at

least

one

the

world

"

thence

blood, and

Who

has

how

seen

world

of the

the

was

Who

vital

went

to

TaittiriyaAranyakaI. 23, however,

having created his self (as the world)
it is said

he

that

Thus

the self of the

this last stage that

who

find

we

probably

atman

then

the

TaittiriyaBrahmana

it. In

evil deeds.

in man,

was

that

world, and

we

knows
in the

first used

find the

to

sinless and

man

of

out

essence

the
as
looking at the self of man
principleof the universe,the knowledge of

supreme
makes

the

into

by

It is from

man.

growing tendency

In

literature

vital breath

"

self in

the

Vedic

ultimate

is however

(asu) to

omnipresent, and
stained

more

going

man

poet penetrating deeper and

the

{atman)

self entered

is called

atman

how

understand

(the shapeless)? where

Prajapatiafter

own

There

of

as

says,

Bone-possessing (the shaped world),was

it2?"

knows

however

dtman

difficult to

separablepart
regarded as the

where

Boneless

breath, the blood, the

the

in the

soul

Macdonell

regarded,as

be

self of

the

and

thought is generallyused
regarded as the seat of thought

the vital breath

inmost

or

Indian

universe.

Rg-Veda

the

as

the

denote

word

be

law

of Karma

Law

The

It is however
as

bad

and

good

inviolable

an

which

asu.

is

to

seems

to

from

deeper passes
to

it

breath, or

in the

passage

Manas

heart1.

vital

as

the

in later

famous

became

his

was

words

and

dtman

manas,

connection

gradually growing with

unalterable
law which
produces

transmigration. The

of

ordinary good

necessary

of

the effects of sacrificial works, led to the

doctrine

than

with

man

already seen

have

we

of a
possibilities

of the

combined

order, which

Philosophy [ch.

of sacrificial duties

nature

ideas

These

works.

their

and

VedaSy Brahmanas

The

26

to

then
traces

present
omniwhich

pure.
Conclusion.

Looking

at the advancement

find first that

only looked

not
1

Macdonell's

'

R. V.

Ethics.

I.

fabric of
upon

Vedic

164.4 and

the

thought in the Rg-Veda we

thought was gradually growing which
universe

Mythology,p.
Deussen's

of

166 and

article

on

as

R.

correlation

V. vin.

Atman

in

of

parts or

89.
Encyclopaedia of Religion and

n]

Conclusion

made

construction
emanated

from
with

one

being
of

the

universe

doubts

even

knows

the

on

whether
of

growth
of

the

effects

of

themselves.

being

the
of

character

and

his

world
of

on

be

earth,

is

as

of

and

the

supreme

approached

the
soul

the

his

also

self
and

the

great

first

when

see

man

as

Atman

certain

is

that

of

doctrine

the
of

in

idea

the
has
the

of

again

begun

the

born
re-

may

doctrine

place

one

in

be

this

later

universe,
the

another
that

and

in

some

separable
in

passages,

atman

as

being

could

it

spoken

trace

we

well

that

seeds

(atman)

we

in

in

or

in

doctrine

the

the

multiple

enjoyment

deeds;

etc.,

and

their

as

deities

fate,

our

tendency

and

bad

or

at

the

and

described

suffering

their

of

importance

world

is

unalterable

produced

diminished

man

Secondly,

the

monotheistic

plants,

hinted

Aranyakas
essence

good

sowing

world,

to

to

go

The

the

of

subject

could

the

express
"Who

not?"

actions

the

gradually

to

transmigration.
essence

of

masters

and

man

lessened

to

creation

establish

to

mother

the

as

as

"

or

(sacrificial)

also

advanced

body

regarded

the

henotheism

according

soul

which

of

as

times

is

bold

so

created

ever

helped

has

which

be

to

other

at

questions

was

It

Thirdly,

quarters.

world

by

times

at

fundamental

most

supreme

tendency

from

law

it, and

spirit

having

as

described

sometimes

is

agnostic

seen

sacrifices

nature

as

is

this

who

it

explain

to

surpassing

the

it;

thought

sought

being

and

from

separate

but

them,
great

one

philosophic

the

of

27

the

of

as

the

Brahmanas

to

and

Upanisads.

mean

has

the
thus

III

CHAPTER

The

it

THOUGH
attached

treatises

separate
that

yet it

Brahmanas,

subjects which

are

introduced

into

are

sometimes

fused

This
1

shows
There

that

11

18

mahamsa,

are

28

Brhajjabala,

nirudra,

32

Subala,

33

19

Ksurika,

34

mavidya,

Atmabodha,

Yogatattva,

52

^arabha,53

rahasya,
61

44

48 Yogacudamani,
Skanda,

62

72 Ekaksara,

vitri, 79Atman,

80

90

Bhasmajabala,

95

Mahavakya,

50

Upanisads.
with

which

of

and

purport
the later

106

The

Upanisads
Muktika

Kalag-

31

37

Su-

Brah-

42

Daksinamdrtti,

51

56

60

Vasudeva,

59

Rama-

Mudgala,

65 "ariraka, 66 Yoga^ikha,
70 Aksamala,

82

Avyakta,

71

78 Sa-

77 Kundika,

83 Tripuratapini,

Avadhuta,

89 Yogakundall,

Rudrahrdaya,

88

87 Bhavana,

chapter

Varaha,

102

Upanisads

the earlier

were

These

doctrines.

with

in

in Volume

this

composed

will be

II.

chapter
even

Amongst
others

are

as

The
do

late

which

as

later date.

the

later

deal

referred

later
not

With

Upanisads.
less

or

more

ones.

these, there

systems

dealt

of

are

Jabali,

Sau-

109

shiko, Aurangzeb's brother, contained

list of 108

gives a

108

Ha-

104

Muktika.

112

Dara

by

Sathyayaniya,

103

Kalisantarana,

107

translated

of them

are

of

the Vaisnava
of those

of those

Garuda,

Upanisad
most

repeat the purport

the Yoga

Parabrahma,

81

Yajflavalkya,

101

Upanisads

in this

consideration

Mai-

27

55 Advayataraka,

76 Adhyatma,

75 Aksi,

Sarasvatirahasya, niBahvrca,

no

collection

of the first
dealt

Krsna,

Dattatreya,

105

bhagyalaksmi,
The

Pasupatabrahma,

Para-

22

94 Tarasara,
91 Rudraksajabala, 92 Ganapati, 93 Jabaladarsana,
96 Paftcabrahma,
GopalapurvatapinI,
Pranagnihotra,
98
99 Gopa97

100
lottaratapini,

yagrlva,

Mandalabrahmana,

50

74 Surya,

85 Tripura, 86 Katharudra,

Narayana,

45 Naradaparivrajaka, 46 Tri"ikhibrahmana,

69 Paramahamsaparivrajaka,

Annapurna,

73

Brahma-

Dhyanabindu,

41

58 RamottaratapinI,
64 Maha,
63 Bhiksuka,

67 Turiyatlta,68 Samnyasa,

16

36 Niralamba,

Sarvasara,

35

5 Mun-

Brhadaranyaka,

Jabala,

NrsimhottaratapinI,

30

Tripadvibhutimahanarayana,

Paingala,

one

"Nirnaya-

the

AtharvasHkha,

26

Ramapurvatapini,

57

Sandilya,

84 Devi,

21

Nadabindu,

40

Nirvana,

49

54

Narayana,

Yantrika,

39 Tejobindu,

43

20

Nrsimhapurvatapinl,

29

karahasya, 38 Vajrasucika,
Slta,

15

in

up

Prasna,

10

14

Atharva"ras,

25

teaching.

grew

Chandogya,

Kaivalya,

Garbha,

Amrtanada,

24

trayanl,

47

materials

Upanisad

3 Katha,

Kena,

cases

some

published by

been

Isa,

Maitreyi,

13

Arunika,

Brahma,

23

have

which

Taittiriya, 8 Aitareya,

Kausltaki,

Hamsa,

17

These

of

as

inaBrahmana

gradually

literatures

Upanisads
191 7.

Mandukya,

"vetasvatara,12

bindu,

three

in

Aranyaka

the

bulk

great

find

discussed

and

Aranyakas
the

be

to

distinction

their

we

usually-

are

again attached

are

that

Thus

expect

into

112

Sagara" Press, Bombay,

daka,

the

these

about

are

should

we

which

said

observed.

always

is

be

cannot

literature.

Upanisads

Aranyakas

the

to

the

that

B.C.)

600

B.C."

Vedic

in

Upanisads

generally held

is

appendices

as

the

to

of the

place

(700

UPANISADS1.

EARLIER

THE

to

there

ones

with

the

Upanisads

which

or

exception
Upanisads
are

some

"aiva,3akta,

in connection

require further

the fourteenth

the
The

with

the

only repeat the

mention.

Some

of

the.fifteenth
century.

The

in]

ch.

placeof the Upanisads in

development

of

and

literature 29

Deussen

probably regarded as parts

in spiteof the differences in their subject-matter.
literature,
that the principleof this division was
to be
supposes

found

in this,that

process
of

one

the
the

into

ancient

as

to

of

the

world

to

intended

were

for those

who

forests

and

attain

ultimate

for the

in their old

the

withdrew

age

for those

Upanisads
salvation

holders,
house-

who

by meditation.

might be said about these literaryclassifications the

philosophersof India looked upon the Upanisads as being

Whatever

of

the

were

Brahmanas

Aranyakas

solitude

renounced

the

they

Vedic

entirelydifferent type from the rest of the Vedic literature

dictatingthe path of knowledge (jnana-mdrga) as opposed
the path of works
forms
the content
(karma-mdrga) which

an

of the

latter.

orthodox
Veda

It is not

Hindu

is to

be

out

holds

view

of

place

that

here

mention

to

whatever

may

commandments

interpretedas

that

the

be written

in the

perform

certain

to

actions

{vidhi)or prohibitionsagainst committing certain others

the stories or episodes are
to be so interpreted
(nisedhd).Even
that the real objects of their insertion
might appear as only to
and to blame
the
praise the performance of the commandments
of the

commission

why
to

particularVedic

any

reason

can

why
have

the Vedas
to show

the

therefore

the

been

revealed

path

true

Vedic

of

it is

as

commandments

happiness.

The

to that of the

Karma-marga or
etc. The
sacrifice,
Upanisads

of

performance

of any

action,but

only

at
a
reality,
knowledge of which
Readers
of Hindu
philosophy are aware

and

controversy

on

(Upanisads) and
to the other

that

the

that

they

held

this

point between

those

of the Veda.

parts of the Vedic

Upanisads
should

should

also

be

to

the
For

as

and
any

reveals

the

and

prohibitions
teaching belongs
performance of Vedic

the

however
reveal
once

do
the

require

not

ultimate

emancipates

that there
adherents

is

very

of the

the latter seek

literature to establish

truth
a

man.

strong

Vedanta

in

analogy

the

principle
be regarded as an
not
exception,but
so
interpretedthat they might also be
of

duties

; but

of the Vedic

the

ture
litera-

reference
the slightest
to
they do not make
duties,but only delineate the ultimate
realitywhich
highest knowledge in the minds of the deserving.

assert

Vedic

effect that

Vedic

the performance
commending
former dissociate the Upanisads from the rest
out

no

fails

reason

certain

argue

followed,for

only because

leads

act

rightto

any

is to be

that,and

certain

has

person

commandment

discover

ever

find out

duties

prohibitions.No

that

Earlier

The

3"d

"arikara the

eminent

most

of the

exponent

ceased

such

have

to

deserving

belong

duties

student,

the

Those

duties

Vedic

latter who

above

are

longer

no

eager
fit to

are

the

perform

who

those

alone

an

or

for his ultimate

who

but

be

may

householder

to

that

duties

there

revealed

been

have

stage inferior

it is the

emancipation, and

the Vedic

Wheresoever

knowledge.

true

to

of

fruits

for the

care

the

and

emancipation
Vedic

Upanisads

the

ascetic,for him

he

be

person,

already

are

for whom

attraction.

any

holds

Upanisads

who

for such
superior men
they are meant
and
worldly or heavenly prosperities,
have

[ch.

Upanisads

for

final

hear

the

Upanisads1.
The

Upanisads

The

they

believed

are

Upanisads

of the

names

also

are

to be

Non-Brahmanic

known
last

the

by

influence.

another

Vedanta,

name

portionsof the
the philosophy

{veda-anta,
Upanisads,

Vedas

of the
that
by this name
the Vedanta
philosophy,is so familiar to us. A modern
that in language the Upanisads approach the
knows
Sanskrit ; the ideas preached also show that they are the
it is

end) ;

intellectual achievement

the

of

Vedic

which

names

schools

schools

Sama-veda

the

attached

Upanisads.

Kausltaki

Those

called

are

to

no

along

longer any

in different

memory

directions

with
the

and

the

to

classical
tion
culmina-

they

retained

their

they
of

name

the Vedas

different

the

studied2.

were

of the

Brahmanas

Aitareya

respectivelyAitareya

Chandogya

Talavakaras

and

Talavakara

and

of the

Taittirlyaschool

those who

are

of

(or

Yajurveda

{adhikdribheda).Those

Upanisads and

and

who

fit to

hear

perform
the

nisads
Upa-

necessityto perform the sacrificialduties.

texts

had

become

fixed, they
substantially

parts of the country and

transmitted

from

were

for the practicalperformance of sacrificial duties.

prose

compositions, the

diverse kinds

of modifications

committed

teacher

to

The

pupil
latter

Brahmanas.

These

accordingto

the special tendencies

however

were

which
recited. Thus
after a time there
they were
people among
the
of
the
of the
in
of
the
Brahmanas
texts
even
readings
divergence
great
the
known
Veda among
different people. These different schools were
name
by

needs

occurred
same

of

matter

graduallyliable

the

student

great epoch. As

of the Tandins

of the

fitto hear the

the Samhita

When

formed

not

the

which

is called the difference of fitness

This is what

the sacrifices are

have

from

to

of the Vedas

called

are

Kena) Upanisads.Those
1

took

(sdk/id)
among

Upanisads

Kausltaki

and

they

branches

or

the

Thus

concluding parts

the

formed

thus

of

as

of the

"akhas (e.g.Aitareya,Kausltaki) with which the Brahmanas

were
ciated
assoparticular
of the different
named.
or
According to the divergence of the Brahmanas
Sakhas there occurred the divergencesof content
and the length of the Upanisads

of

associated

with them.

Brahmanas

in]
the

form

Taittiriyaand
of

Kathaka,

the

the

school.
be

cannot

with

But

regard

forms

has

these

to

the

school

Katha

the

The

MaitrayanI.

part of the Satapatha Brahmana

The

Isa

school

and

of

school

MaitrayanI

the

traced,

Early Upanisads

Mahanarayana,

Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
of the Vajasaneyi schools.
latter

the

and

which

the

probably
Upanisads

been

to

belongs to the
Svetasvatara
belongs
also

Upanisad

lost. The

is that

tion
presump-

they represent

the

which
enlightened views of the particularschools among
they
and under
whose
names
flourished,
they passed. A large number
of Upanisads of a comparatively later age were
attached
to the

Atharva-Veda,
Vedic

of

most

schools

but

which

named

according to the
subject-matterwith which

were

according

the

to

not

they dealt1.
It may

be

not

frequent episodes
described
of

in the

having

as

of

out

and

well

from

from

the

to

philosophy, as

Brahmanas

that among

in which

from

that

the

mention

to

that

the

Ksattriyasfor the

as

of

the

from

the

Brahmins

are

ledge
highest know-

the

disparatenessof
general doctrines of

the

allusions

speculationsamongst
inferred

here

Upanisads

gone

Upanisad teachings

place

the

to

people in

of

existence
Pali

works,

the
the

sophical
philo-

it may

be

the

Ksattriyasin generalthere existed earnest

be regarded as having exerted
philosophicenquirieswhich must
an
important influence in the formation of the Upanisad doctrines.
There
is thus some
probabilityin the suppositionthat though the
Upanisads are found directlyincorporated with the Brahmanas
it

not

the

production

alone, but

that

non-Brahmanic

was

the

set

their

formulation

their culmination

in the

Brahmanas
The

Upanisad thought

is

and
hands

of the

the

Indian

probably

monotheistic

some

developed,but
the
1

some

Upanisads
Garbha

these
as

Upanisad,Atman

exceptions such

as

well

mind
the

the

either

fruitful assistance
achieved

Early Upanisads.

We

from

most

know

the

Brahmanic

remarkable
that

Ptolemaic

from
and

event

in the

conceptions of great
as

have

must

rendered

dogmas

Brahmins.

differ in their nature

much

of Brahmanic

cultivation,though they

historyof philosophicthought.
hymns

as

have

afoot,or

and

of the

passage

growth

thought

doctrines

Upanisad

to

of the

in the

were

absolutism

the

the

later Vedic

excellence

the

to

of

Copernican

Upanisad, Praina Upanisad, etc. There

the Mandukya, Jabala, Paingala, Saunaka, etc.

were

however

into the

Hiranyagarbha
to

seems

admit

that

doctrine

when

to

of the

Brahman

the

and

atman

though
improbable,

be very

to

me

translation of Visvakarman

direct

The

systems in astronomy.

[ch.

Upanisads

Earlier

The

32

swallowed

conceptionswere
it had developed to

these

sads
Upani-

quitewilling

am

by the atman
Throughout

up

extent.

proper

or

is to be found of Visvakarman,
Upanisads no mention
Hiranyagarbha or Brahmanaspati and no reference of such a
is to be found
nature
as
can
justifyus in connecting the Upanisad
the earlier

conceptions1.The word purusa no doubt occurs

the association
and
frequentlyin the Upanisads, but the sense
that come
along with it are widely different from that of the
of the Rg-Veda.
of the Purusasukta
purusa
ideas with

When
as

those

from

creator

they
and

"

for

pray

whence

worldly benefits.
from
the principle,

was

has

god, who

side

on

arms,

shapes
karm
and

the

with

grant

to

is

and

arms

thy friends

man
Visvakarall-seeing
sky by his might ? The

every

side

producing

the

generous

may

every

earth,

highestobjectof

the

who
disposer,

here

remain

son

is wise,energetic,

find "Visvakarman

creator,

sky

and

wings....Do thou, Visvathy abodes which are the highest,

those

we

face,on

his

with

middle...

R.V.X. 82

father,our

our

feet,when

disposer,and

creator, the

who

his

lowest,and the

to us2" ; again in

the

side

which
position,

the

the

on

to whom

events,
the

was

which

side eyes,

every

every

them

an,

on

What

disclosed

produced the earth,and

one

of mundane

controller

outside,a

him

it describes

Visvakarman

describes

Rg-Veda

the

intuition. ...He
all

knows

spheres and

the
to him
gods their names,
other creatures
resort for instruction8." Again about Hiranyagarbha
in the beginning;
find in R.V. I. 121,
we
Hiranyagarbha arose
the
the one
lord of things existing. He established
born, he was

creatures, who

alone

assignsto

the

"

sky ; to what god shall we offer our oblation ?

May he not injureus, he who is the generator of the earth, who
rulingby fixed ordinances, produced the heavens, who produced
earth

this

and

the great and

other

brilliant waters
is lord

thou

than

obtain that,through
become
1

HI.

The

4 and

masters
name

iv.

"

to

what

created

all these

over

desire of which

of riches4."

we

Speaking

god, etc.

have

things:

invoked

manaspatidoes

not

Muir's Sanskrit

occur

refers to

thee; may

of the purusa

at

occurs

all in the

Texts, vol.

IV.

only

in the

later Nrsirnh.

we

may

the

9. The

we

Rg-Veda

VisVakarma

Deussen

Prajapati,no

in a vet. iv. 17. Hiranyagarbha appears

appears
firstcreated
but
the
as
being. The phrase Sarvahammani
only
12,

which

word

in Svet.
yagarbha
Hiran-

Brah-

Upanisads.

pp. 6, 7.

Ibid. p. 7.

Ibid. pp.

16, 17.

Earlier

Tke

34
self has

wants

but

fails

Gargya

to

AjataSatru replies(following Garbe's

natural

the

to

contrary
from

and

warrior

him1."

that

the true

unusual

was

thousand
to

Janaka

to

run

and

story of Svetaketu

regard to

with
of

way

tell him

the

speak

to

the

him.

Brahman

order of
Brahman

At
to

asking

the

about

Brahman2.

The
be

one

people
second

clusive
fairlycon-

transmigrationdoctrines,

and

gods (devaydnd)

beginning
Balaki

pay

to

the

to

since all

Jaibaliseems

to

things a

Brahman,

the

is

instruction

Brahmin

promised

fact that

this

To

about

Pravahana

man

Brahman,

true

the

of Brahman?

knowledge

if he could

coins

find

to

conversation, AjataSatru had

the

the

it

boastful

receive

latter to declare

the

expect

Brahman

imply that in the natural

taught the knowledge of

always

Ksattriyas,and
Ksattriyaabout

used

that

order

Ajata"atru

translation)"it

own

this not

Does

Brahmin

of

and

by him, Balaki Gargya is

to teach the Ksattriya Ajata"atru the
it to be
wants
and then
taught by

(Brh. II. i) referred

who

story of Balaki

In the

produced.

[ch.

Upanisads

the

of

way

fathers

the

the Ksattriyas,
but it is without
(pitrydna)had originatedamong
any relevancywith regard to the originof the superiorknowledge
of Brahman

The
is

the

as

story of Aruni

third

hardly
what

Aruni

; but

and

convincing, for

more

know

self.

true

the

and

Brahman

the

self were,

to

went

Uddalaka

about it he accompanied
sufficiently
them
to the Ksattriya king Asvapati Kaikeya who
was
studying
the subject. But Asvapati ends the conversation
by giving them
certain
the

as

instructions

import
self

true

only

he did not

Asvapati Kaikeya (Cha. V. n)

here five Brahmins
wishing to

about

Brahman.

few

We

discussingand
Brahmins

as

hasty

too

been

in

shared

given by
1

Garbe's

Brh.

him

owing
expressed in
his judgment.

to some
to

article,"Hindu

atman

The

iv.

about

that

the

cases

passages

the

essay
seems

also,and
are

structing
inwere

.thus

led

feelingagainstthe

opinion of Garbe

Winternitz

am

are

were

Brahmins

knowledge.

the

there

Ksattriya kings

the earlier part of

Monism"

anything

say

his bitterness of

by
Upanisad

also Brh.

(yaisvdnara agni) and

also to consider

in all other

to

extent

the

not

where

instructingthe

11., compare

brahmavidyd.

does

ought

But

that Garbe

think

fire doctrine

exceptional cases

the Brahmins.

to

the

of its sacrifices. He

as

the

know

had
to

been

have

the references

also the

same

as

we

p. 74.
3, how

speaks
Yajfiavalkya

to

Janaka about

the

in]

and

Aranyakas

the

Upanisads

35

be this,that the
to
to me
just examined1.
^JPnetruth seems
took
interest in the religiosome
women
Ksattriyasand even
in the Upanisads. The enquirers
philosophicalquest manifested
were
so
eager that either in receivingthe instruction of Brahman
and
in imparting it to others,they had no considerations of sex
or
definite evidence
for thinking
to be no
birth2; and there seems
the Ksattriyas
that the Upanisad philosophy originatedamong
be traced
of its growth could not
in the
that the germs
or
the productions of
Brahmanas
the Aranyakas which
and
were
Brahmins.

the

into the Aranyaka thought is

change of the Brahmana
signified
by a transference of values from the actual sacrifices to
meditations
which
and
their symbolic representations
were
garded
reas
being productiveof various earthlybenefits. Thus we
find in the Brhadaranyaka (1.1) that instead of a horse sacrifice
The

the visible

eye, wind

dawn

is the horse

to
significant

most

suitable

the most
animal.
of

an

the

and

lost their

value

side

with

chosen

the
and

the

bare

meditations

ritualistic sacrifices

from

the

external

world

of these

as

took

such

is

as

mere

their

place. Side
generalityof the
thinking and symbolic

of the

in the eyes

imports were

Winternitz's

The

Jabala and

story of

of these

taken

men

Geschichte der indischen

his teacher

sun,

up

and

it

not

and

only

etc.,from

the senses,

but

believed

that

was

the greatest

Sacrifice in itself

was

ductive
pro-

losingmysticalsignificances

diverse

be considered

197 fF.

Litteratur, I. pp.
3

was

their real truth3.

as

Yajfiavalkya(Brh. II. 4) and

(Cha. iv. 4).

matter

wind,

the
and

and

highest and

results.

beginning to

Maitreyiand

as

the

vital functions

the

of great beneficial

and

is

sacrificial rituals

accurate

was

the meditation

value

of it

meditation

and

elaborate

most

his various
body
arbitraryalphabetswere

even

the

which

substitute of the sacrifice of the horse,the

of man,

the

and

is the horse

universe

springing up a system where

meditations
were
taking the place of gross
involved
These
in sacrifices.
symbols were

Brahmins,
action

is the

sun

the year is its soul,and so

in the field and to what
good

moving

mind,

horse, the

of the

^Thought-activityas meditation, is here taking the place

external
worship in the form of sacrifices. The material

substances

by

This

meditated

and

and

that grazes

its sacrifice lead?

can

horse

as

is the head

fire is its mouth

is its life,

What

on.

The

such.

as

upon

is to be conceived

universe

that of

Cha.

v.

Satyakama

if,

3-2

son

of

identified
(verse)of Rg-Veda was
Aranyaka under several allegoricalforms with

Uktha

The

of the Samaveda

Udgitha
water,

II. the

Chandogya

; in

eye

identified

was

Saman

sacrifice ; his

identified with

in

Aitareya

Prana1, the

the

identified

was

the

and

Om, Prana, sun

with

Chandogya

in

Prana, etc.,

seasons,

[ch.

Upanisads

Earlier

The

36

III.

with

Om,

16-17

was

man

with

hunger, thirst,sorrow,

rain,

tion
initia-

of the Mantras
laughing,eating,etc., with the utterance
restraint from
asceticism, gift,sincerity,
injury,truth,with

and

Indians
of

anxious

was

thought had
to our

most

seed

of food

seed

is this

word

The

The

seed

The

seed

of seed

The

seed

of the heart

Brahman

the

fathers."

at

sound

the

It
of

with

of herbs

pure

origin

of the
is food.
The

is creatures.

is the mind.

gods
The

seed
The

The-act

of

seed
done

it is

Sayana

the

hotr

spoken

of in

ceremonies,
that

to

existed,"and

as

meant

mantras

priest,the great.
R.V.
as
being new,

"coming

into

being

from

originatesfrom the seat of the Rta, springs forth

the sacrifice,
begins reallyto exist when the soma

juice is pressed
endures

seed

speech is action.

according

hitherto

having

not

of

the

comes

The

as

of Brahman2."

(magical verses),the
Hillebrandt
points out
"as

find "Then

of rain is herbs.

seed

considered

often

was

things

of instrumentality

kind

Any

gods.

abode

the

man

connection.

II. 1.3 we

speech. The

is

find in the

we

fanciful unifications of

and

the

is seed.

of the mind

result of that

Prajapatiare

is the heart.

creatures

as

no

Vedic

cultured

of these

unity,but logicalprecision

some

effect

an

in Ait. Aran.

seed of

The

is rain.

little or

producing

identity.Thus
The

to

come

grotesque

have

eyes
in

of food.

to

developed,and

not

Aranyakasthe
which

giftedmind

{daksina).The

sacrificialfees

the

and

the

help

of

hymns are
the gods even

recited
in

at

the

battle,and

savana
soma

rite,
is its

guardian (R.V. VIII. 37. 1, VIII. 69. 9, VI. 23. 5, I. 47. 2, VII. 22. 9,
the strength of these Hillebrandt
the
VI. 52. 3, etc.).On
justifies
which
a mysterious power
can
conjectureof Haug that it signifies
be called forth by various
ceremonies, and his definition of it,as
the

magical force which is derived from the orderlycooperationof

hymns, the chants and the sacrificial gifts8.I am disposed to

the

think

that

this

meaning

find it in many

we

The
1

meaning
Ait.

11.
Aral?.

Hillebrandt's

in

is

passages
many

in the
these
"

1-3.

article

of

closelyconnected

on

Brahman,

the

meaning as
Aranyakasand the Upanisads.
be midway
between
to
seems

Keith's
".

with

R. E.

Translation

of Aitareya Aranyaka.

"

and

magical forced

rather

old

meditations, the
and

remained,
of the

as

great force
natural

Brahman

actual

the

of

external

the

in

of the

sacrifice

sacrifices

in many

with

is

replaced by
still

passages

meditating

identified

functions

the

that

which

be

to

of

of

thinking

interest

performance

began

find

$7

between

power

we

being

as

main

this

upon

diverse

symbols,

body.
transferred

was

world

from

certain

to

its
of

forms

find that the

understanding of particularallegories
sacrifice having a relation to particular
kinds of bodily functions
regarded as Brahman, without a knowledge of which nothing

meditation, we

was

the

in

are

"

objects,parts and

When

of

belief

Upanisads people
"

sacrifices

the

result of that

Upanisads

"great," transition

when

easy.XEven

the

and

Aranyakas

in]

of the
as

Pancagnividya
efficacyof

real

the

When

the

that

man

if any

the

that

gods

Kena
such

whole

all the

abstracted
There

are

and

from

each

know

of

so

away,

and

all the

and

that

these

were

the

of

deluded

self of

man

the

inner

unpleasant

all the

Upanisads

that

the

as

being

with

for

of the

magic

for

the

10.

being
power.

after the
first only
power

etc.

moon,

with

symbolical

time

were

power

was

dominating

the

at

was

with

the

presentations,
re-

idea

gradually found

solution*and

final

i. 4.

the

"The

work,

search

to

Brahman

the supreme

as

various

these

as

originated.
Brh.

the

which

Brahman,

to

(wind)

(unalterablelaw)

themselves

of

powers

through
could

man

conceived

satisfactory.But
came

the

unpleasant for

it is

it is

shows

Rta

and

functions

inadequate,they

beasts,so

many

that

that

senses

with

stories in the

and

meditations.

Agni (fire)to burn, Vayu

the sacrifices and

mental

such

that

think

this great truth1.

imperfectlyrealized. They identified it with

of the natural objects of wonder, the sun,
bodily

Upanisads

to

came

it is

as

it indicated

associated

many

by

and

man,

taken

are

of this great power

nature

nourished

Upanisad thought

of
as

some

Brahman,

upon

gods

process

of sacrifices

that

as

in the

to

people
depended upon

was

find

we

referred

culminating conception,that he is
the gods to be different from him, they

man

by

allegorical
interpretations

the

should

men

blow, depended
that

that

of his beasts

the

In

each

as

these

much

so

thinks

nourished

were

gods

to

rose

sages

gods
the

are

sacrifices

reallyignorantwho
thought

fact that

doctrine, shows

secret

The

obtained.

be

could

highest truth

the
the

doctrine
Brahman

of

Muller

and Max
(tosit),

act of

sittingdown

him.

In his introduction

of

and

teacher

sad

with

prefix

the

the

meant
originally

to
submissivelylistening

says, "The

he

Upanisads

the

to

the root

that the word

says

near

Upanisad.

word
from

Upanisad is derived

word

The

[ch.

Upanisads

of the

meaning

The

ni

Earlier

The

38

history

that
language
a session
session,particularly
consisting
Upanisad meant originally
round
their teacher1."
distance
assembled
of pupils,
at a respectful

genius

the

and

Sanskrit

of the

that the word

pointsout

Deussen

and this is borne

in this

in the

sense

of secrecy

or

great Indian

There

of the

destroy and

used

was

of the

communication

and

restraint

that it is

to

desires
the

however,
word

the

called

so

student

noble

Sarikara

Upanisads, derives

supposes

sads
Upani-

tions
great injunc-

only be given

them.

hear

deserving to

of the

find that

for the

moral

tion,"
instruc-

that the word

we

it should

supreme

''or"secret

secret

also agrees

observed

that

exponent

sad to

the root

his

by

himself

proves

be

to

little doubt

of the passages

many

Muller

it is said

pupil who

means"

Upanisads2.

are

doctrines,and

by

out

Max

themselves.

leave

from
it

because

destroys inborn ignorance and leads to salvation by revealingthe

the many
the
texts in which
rightknowledge. But if we compare
that
in the Upanisads themselves
it seems
word
Upanisad occurs
Deussen's

meaning

have

in

some

verses

As

written

similar

is easy

is it in its

archaic

are

very

of diverse

growth

and

Upanisads

oldest

classical Sanskrit.
more

fullyjustified3.

composition

The
The

is

to

to

Upanisads.

in prose.
that

those

Next

see, the

older

The

earliest

language.

to

are

the

to

these

be

found

Upanisad

Upanisads

we

in
the

have

mysterious forcefulness in their expressionsat least to

Indian
ears.
They are simple,pithy and penetrate to the heart.
read and
read them
We
over
can
again without
getting tired.
As such they have a charm
The lines are always as fresh as ever.
The word
apart from the value of the ideas they intend to convey.
an

almost

Upanisad
doctrine

as

we

have

seen,

in

the

of

sense

instruction"; the Upanisad teachings were

or

conveyed

to be

high morals

used,

was

in strictest secrecy

superiorself-restraint

and

Max

S. B. E. vol.

Deussen's

Mttller's Translation
1.

to earnest

for the purpose

of the Upanishads,S.B.E.

p. Ixxxiii.

Philosophy0/ the Upanishads^ pp.

10-15.

"secret

also

tended
in-

enquirersof
of

achieving

vol. I. p. lxxxi.

Revival

in]

It

emancipation.
when

it once

attraction
find

for the

other

late

earliest

and

forms

of

result of that

as

and

prose

and

had

verse

we

been

position
language, the Upanisad form of comstopped. Thus
though the earliest Upanisads

Sanskrit

not

compiled by 500
the spread of
as

were

the greatest charm

to possess

came

39

Upanisad styleof expression,

the

religiouspeople ;

when

even

had

that

into use,

came

for earnest

that

adapted

thus

was

studies

of Upanisad

B.C.,

continued

they

Mahommedan

be

to

written

influence

so

even

The

India.

in

important are probably those that have been

commented
namely Brhadaranyaka, Chandogya,
upon by Sarikara
and
Aitareya, Taittirlya,Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka
and

most

It is

Mandukya1.

important to
separate Upanisads differ much
their
them
the
the

and

content

methods

philosophy

Revival
the

How

undertook

with

regard to

while

exposition. Thus

of the

of

some

of

manuscript

of

resident

Anquetil

in

translated

This

1802.

it

the

in modern

introduced

to be

eldest

the

Pandits

Faizabad
it into

at

Latin

by

the

with

supposes

that

Kausitaki

is also

think that Maitrayani also belongs to

Schroeder

Emperor

Delhi, who
In

Persian.

was

of

Le

1775

received

Gen

til,the

Shuja-uddaulah.

published in

1801-

read by
was
though largelyunintelligible
It had, as Schopenhauer
great enthusiasm.

admits, profoundly influenced

Deussen

to

his friend

which

an

his stay in Kashmir

Zend-Avesta,

court

is

translation

Schopenhauer
himself

of the

into

of the

him

presented to

eight.

Europe

into

Benares

translatingthem

be

times.

son

from

discoverer

and

hundred

one

thus

may

6arira Upanisads.

and

Upanisads during

several

work

the

to

Shiko

and

body,

studies

came

Dara

invited

the

number

Upanisad

of

Anquetil Duperron,
French

the

up

Upanisads

He

1640.

four

another

Yoga, Saiva, Visnu

the

interestingstory.
Shah
Jahan heard

counts

one

of

anatomy

or

in all make

These

from

the

that

busy laying great stress upon the monistic doctrine of

self as the only reality,
there are
others which
lay stress upon
practiceof Yoga, asceticism,the cult of Siva, of Visnu and

respectivelycalled

in this connection

are

the

in

of

note

one

the

his

of

philosophy.
the earliest.

earliest group,

Max

Thus

Miiller

whereas

he

and

Deussen

divides the Upanisads into

comparativelylater production. Winternitz
he
the
first
In
includes
Chandogya, Taittiriya,
Brhadaranyaka,
period
periods.
it

as

he includes
In the second
Kathaka, Isa, "vetasvatara,
Aitareya,Kausitaki and Kena.
includes
he
and
in
the
third
Prasna, Maitrayani and
Mundaka,
Mahanarayana,
period
in the fourth period.
The
rest of the Upanisads he includes
Mandukya.

Earlier

The

40
writes

preface

the

in

if,indeed, in addition

"And

conferred

by

is in my

Upanishads,

the

still young
that

did

than

deeply

eyes

the

revival

Wille

is

Vorstellung1,
of the
to

benefit

through

us

greatest advantage which

because

ones,

literature

Greek

of

und

partaker

previous

over

Sanskrit

of the

influence

the

the

[ch.

which, opened

to

access

enjoys

century

als

this he

to

Vedas, the

the

Welt

his

to

Upanisads

I believe

will penetrate

literature

less

not

fifteenth

the

in

this

has
also
and
if, I say, the reader
already received
assimilated
the sacred, primitive Indian
wisdom, then is he best

century:

of all

prepared
the

which

is

by

each

the

case."

pervaded by
there

world
and

so

of my

and

study

with

and

Germany

the
the

their

as

impart, though

in the

Upanishads

every

line

display

From

every

meaning!

whole

In
spirit...

the

whole

of the

originals,so beneficial
It has

death

!2"

attracted

been

the solace

Through

hauer
Schopen-

much

general

way

deduced

the

of my

of

press
ex-

thoughts arise,and

that

growth

might

disconnected
be

to

does

earnest

Upanisads

found

Sanskrit, they

"How

Oupanikhat.

life,it will be the solace

of

found

be

and

holy

of the

that

going

am

sublime

and
may

harmonious

study, except

no

elevating as
the

of

is

high

individual

is to

Again,

deep, original,and

sentence

him.... I

to

say

Upanishads

thought

thought

my

to

of the

one

up

the

the

means

no

I have

firm,definite,and throughout

its

is

that

converse,

what

make
from

consequence

the

that

opinion

aphorisms
a

hear

to

attention

interest

into

other

has

however

in the

in

study

parts of Europe

as

well.
The

study

impetus by
only

not

of

the

the

earnest

translated
them

Samaj

Bengal,

derived

his

at

the

directly from

Translation

Max

by Haldane

Mliller says

of

attempts

them*

published
in

Upanisads
into

own

expense,

main
the

and

Ram

Mohan

Hindi

and

our

Bengali,

gained

but

great

Roy

who

English

founded

religious doctrines

the
of

and

Brahma

which

were

Upanisads.
Kemp,

in his introduction

vol.

I.

pp. xii and

xiii.

the

Upanishads (S. B. E. I. p. lxii ; see

also pp. lx, lxi)"that Schopenhauer should
have spoken of the Upanishads as 'profluctt of the highestwisdom'...
that he should have placed the pantheism there taught
to

high above the pantheism of Bruno, Malebranche,

Spinoza and
in 1681,
brought to lightagain at Oxford
perhaps secure
may
receptionfor those relics of ancient wisdom
than anything that
favour."

Scotus
a

more

I could

Erigena, as
considerate
say

in their

which

worked

not

are

in

out

[ch.

Upanisads

Earlier

The

42

each

Thus

systematic manner.

favourable
his own
to
the texts
interpreterin his turn made
doctrines
prominent and brought them to the forefront,and tried
But
others
comparing the
or
explain them
to
away.
repress
find that the interpretati
we
various systems of Upanisad interpretation
offered by Sarikara very largelyrepresents the view
of the general body of the earlier Upanisad doctrines,though
the doctrines of other
foreshadow
distinctly
systems, but in a crude and germinal form. It is thus that Vedanta
of Sarikara
and
the interpretation
with
is generally associated
Sarikara's
system, though
system of thought is called the Vedanta
which

there

are

some

there

are

many

the
Under

claims
a

these

of

circumstances

of the

Upanisads

these

exponents,
but

systematic treatise
the

thought

"

still in

state

rather

or

by

modern
that

all

should
and
as

turn

look

fusion,though

the

It is in this way

find in them

quest

The
is that

the

the

after

Brahman:
idea which

or

If

man1.

Plato

or

at

tendency towards
realityor the essence.

same

Sarikara,

purport of

better

that

meanings,
which
they

in

detect

the

we

tendencies

struggle

and

runs

through

the

look

at

of

change

with

Greek

that

of

the

of

germs

thus

thoughts.

failures.

earlyUpanisads
there
which

is

an

Brh.

iv.

4. 5,

12.

changeable
un-

underlies

philosophy

in

philosophy in Kant, we find

glorifyingone unspeakable entityas
I have
said above that the Upanisads
modern

their

context

the

underlying the exterior world

is identical
realitywhich
in

of

were

system, but take the

can

of those

of

of the ancients

claims

determine
the

as

currents

the

It will be

we

not

systems in the Upanisads, and

Indian

earliest records

fundamental

essence

menides

other

that

alone

diverse

regarded as

texts.

absolute

Upanisads

doctrine

the monistic
be

the

terpreter
in-

philosophicideas

all later

in which

interpretershould not agree to the

the Upanisads represent a connected

thoughts of

The

the

upon

independently and separatelyand

though keeping an attentive eye on
the

senting
repre-

modern

to

ear

repositoryof

largestmajority of

deaf

texts

appear.

that

it is necessary

approach thereto,may

an

far the

melting pot
of

as

doctrines.

Vedanta

true

put forth their claim

systems which

other

Parthe
the
are

The

in]

treatises

systematic

no

There
is

are

doubt

no

pedantry

no

but

of the

sages.

They

of

there

have

from

is Brahman?

controller

nature

of this

yet only

was

the

as

sun

at

the

But

eye

function
show

to

or

So

prana
also

as

of

meditated

upon

meditated

visible material
or

the

prana,

sun
we

for actual
after the

and

had

could

none

Could

it
to

the

us

The

sages

and

man

was

the

identified with

it be

it no deity
deity or was
historyof this quest and

new

render

the idea that there

with

presiding over

was

the various

and

aroused.

been

to

this quest

life of

Brahman.

So

also

Brahman.

as

beneficial

most

of

and

manas

sacrifice.

Thus

discovery of

kinds

it is that

Brahman.

We

find

This

results.

(space) is
Aditya (sun)

by side with the

the pervading Vayu,

side

of meditations
there

the

exalting

the

as
representationof Brahman
the immaterial
representationas akasa,

find also the various

are

meditations

to the

presence

Again

not

most

as

depend.

eternalityakasa

and

such

organs,

functions

the

the

as

anecdotes

many

bringsus

leading to
owing to the

as

omnipresence
upon

regarded

the other

prana

have

we

symbolic {prattka)

of

and

it all other

of
superiority

as

and

man,

superiorto

on

that

find that

we

(vitalbreath)was

it is

that

find

characters

are

Prana

Brahman

we

hand

one

tried,but

were

Aranyaka ideas

that

the

this

achieved.

for the

and

ear,

recognitionof
on

Nature,

But

Brahman.

and

on

its nature?

was

merely

worship.

essential

man

essence

or

the

of

out

the Samhita

deity. The search as to the

Upanisads. Many visible objects

already started

were

look

we

yet gone

related

that

is his nature?

the wind

Upanisads present

results
When

what

deities of

all ? The

of

in

controller

of the

forms

had

about

the

to

great ideal that

Upanisads

universe.
any

the

to

supreme

in the
or

psychologicalfunctions
in the

risen

of the

deitybegan

such

satisfaction

What

Purusa, Brahmanaspati

divine

them

eagerness
the nature

conception of a single
universe, variouslycalled Prajapati,

had

controller

instruct

to

casual

enthusiasm

and

the earnestness

there

most

during the closingperiod of

who

but

place to place with great

Where

that

the

logic. Even

with

competent

Visvakarman,

of nature

struck

run

people

and

creator

be

noticed

were

of

anecdotes.

simple discussions

there

teacher

of Brahman.
We

and

gymnastics

or

cannot

collations

here

reader

in search

of

43

singlehand, but are rather

floatingmonologues, dialogues or

compilations of

or

Quest afterBrahman

was
a

an

stratum

as

manas

or

substitutes

earnest

of

quest

thought

Earlier

The

44
which

that the sages

shows

this

stillblinded

were

meditation

and though
associations,

yet

Upanisads

had
for

hardly adequate

was

[ch.

by

taken

the old ritualistic

the

placeof sacrifice
of
highest attainment

the

Brahman.
meditations

of the

failure

to the

Next

have

we

notice

to

the

in which
the sages sought to
historyof the search after Brahman
with
the presiding deity of the sun, moon,
identifyBrahman
of
lightning,ether, wind, fire,water, etc., and failed;for none
these could
It is
satisfythe ideal they cherished of Brahman.

tiresome
as

here

needless

indeed

only

not

well.

They
was

could

got

undergo

in this summary
of value

are

the process

toilsome
be

multiply these

to

of;

rid

before

they

what

in this that

which

the

old

strugglesand

reached

for

they

in the

they

are

original

indicate

how

ritualistic associations

failures the

knowledge

but

treatment

only

by

examples,

of the

had

sages

true

to

of

nature

Brahman.

of Brahman

Unknowability
It is indeed

in which

The

of the

minds

Vedic

He

poets

deities of visible manifestation

idea

of

seeking after

involved
in the
almost

conceived

was

Method.

Negative

magical element
lingeredfor a while

discharge of sacrificialduties
worship of Brahman

the

the

that

true

and

could

not

deity.

worship

to

easilydispense with

definite

positiveand

symbolic
as

long accustomed

so

in the

the

of Brahman.

content

and also many

of the sublime
of nature
They tried some
powers
symbols, but these could not render ultimate satisfaction. They
did not
know
what
the Brahman
was
like,for they had only a
and

dim

could

which
was

dreamy

be

not

enough

vision

lead

to

of

it in the

translated
them

into
to

on

anything short of the

found
that by whatever
definite content

positiveand
they failed.
point out
to that

like

the

Positive

the Brahman

what

which

aught
Stman

is not

for he cannot

untouched,

be
for

was

we

find in

this,nor

their souls
But

terms.

permanent

this

were

goal,for they could not be

highest.
means
they tried to give a
ultimate
the Brahman,
reality,
impossible. They could not

like in order

unutterable,they could

was

that

of the

definitions

of

the

satisfied with

They

deep craving

to

give an

only say

utterance

that it was

not

experience. Yajfiavalkyasaid "He

this {netineti).He
is inconceivable,

conceived, unchangeable, for

nothing touches

him

; he cannot

he

is not

suffer

by

changed,
a

stroke

m]

The

of the

sword,

for the

which

Brahman

is known

to

but

are

he, and

the

yet

experience,whatever
unlimited, the

universe

can

we

basis

of all. "That

beginning or end, greater

He

knows

causalitydo

and

and

essence

smallest

the

of the

is

of

him

all

rules all that

of all limitations

the

of

said

however

forth

second

do

you

it is thus
describe

by
it by

here;

as

the

by

therefore

He

which

cause

the

no

denial

definitions.

time, and

of space,

sir,the

reverent

silent.

third time

or

the vast, yet

than
and

their

empirical

"

"most

understand

not

cannot

to

remained

forms

once

questionedby Vaskali, he expounded

him
"Teach
by maintaining silence

was

Brahman

Vaskali,

Bahva
a

Bahva

Space, time

there,there

as

objectivelypresented,and

When

nature

me,"

is

at

possible,otherwise

is

(makat),thefixed.

of death2."

empirical attributes,relations

independent

universe.

here

once

is the

he

smelt,eternal,

is the infinite and

He

small, at

of him

characterisation
to

them.

transcends

can

inaudible,intangible,

for he

appertain to him,

not

is

jaws

we

limited, but

the great

than

ourselves

We

be tasted, nor

the

from

him.

is. Whatever

is

which

cannot

without

it is released

by

he

express,

which
invisible,
indestructible,

who

what

such

as

he is being,for he alone

subsists

not

45

non-being,

is asat,

understood

to be

is,is not

know

we

doctrine

injury1."He

by experience; yet

us

supremely real,for

the Atman

and

suffer any

he cannot

being

being as
is

Negative Method

But

when

he

"

of

nature

the

question was

is not

neti

neti^it

any

positivecontent

you

indeed

The

way

I teach

answered,
Atman
is silence3."

; the

Brahman."

this,it

is not

which

is

put
but
to

this.

dicate
in-

We

limited

always

by conceptual thought.
The
The

and

sum

equation Atman

word

Atman

the

ultimate

breath

in

Brahman

is

Atman
1

Later

IV.

15.

5.

passage;

asito has

has

been

ever

been

adduced

Katha

Sankara on

in.

shads, p. 156.

on

to

in the
the

inmost

Miiller and

Max

an

on

former

evidentlythe ablative

we

Roer

of

on

have

the

the

other

see

that

sense,
essence

adjectiveor

involved
that the

alreadyseen

denote

to

Upanisads

in the

as
interpreted

; it is

have

universe, and

denote

Deussen,

We

Rg-Veda

the

generallyused

is reserved

Brh.

in the
of

essence

man.

Brahman.

used

was

Upanisad teaching is

of the

substance

in the

doctrine.

Atman

while

hand

one

the

vital

the

word

the

word

and

in man,

the

all misinterpretedthis

though
participle,

no

evidence

asi, a sword.

15.

Brahmasutra,

III.

2.

17, and

also

Deussen, Philosophy of the Upani-

Upanisads
the

and
of

Earlier

The

46

emphatic

are

involves

man

Thus

far

so

is called

which

this

Behind
the

it

This

live,who

could breathe

it is he who

behaves

the

bliss. For

self

himself and

are

and

vessel

find.

They

hair,and

of water

and

answered

to

"

the nails."

is the deathless

and

the

tell him

We

SelfInvisible,

fearless

he

slightdifference,

from

old age, from

death

desires

for,that
who

that self2." The

and

whole

Virocana

this self from

them

of self

much

our

and

cogitations
be enquired;

is to

knows

how

self

true, whose

are

said,"Well,

that
fearless,

support, he

"The

see, this

And

bliss? For

not

on
gods and the demons
hearing of this sent Indra
to enquire of
as their representatives
respectively
Prajapati. He agreed to teach them, and asked

into

could

Prajapatisaid:

all worlds

(the

rapture;

who

that

true, that is to be searched

he gets all his desires

bliss

is the

in that

But

dtman.

pure

he

self

it the

is fear for him1."

there

Again in another place we find

(dtman) which is free from sin,free
whose
from hunger and thirst,
grief,

as

(dkdsa) was

whoever

this Atman

of

vital breath

the

blissful. For

surpassing,Unspeakable, Supportless finds

finds even
fearless. But whoever
reallybecomes
between

the sheath

within

"Truly

say:

if this space

as

behind

vijhdnamaya

gets this rapture becomes

for whoever

varietyof senses.
food (i.e.
the physical

contains

essence

texts

self

The

(prdnamaya dtmari).
"consistingof will" called

called the

dnandamaya dtman). The

one

breath

again

the final

to

are

consistingof

vital

as

consciousness"

come

we

But

annamaya.
self

in

of

essence

is the other self

dtman.

"consistingof
behind

self

the

essence

it is used

of the

other

again there

manomaya

of man?

is called
is the

there

body

inmost

is the

consists

parts of man) he
this

that the two

ambiguity,as

an

man

as

in their declaration

what

But

same.

[ch.

Upanisads

they could

self,even

that

is the

is the Brahman."

look

to

to

the

self,that

They

went

pleased, but Prajapati thought, "There

they go away,
without
having discovered,without
having realized the self."
Virocana
the
with the conviction
that the body was
came
away
self ; but Indra did not return
afraid and
back
to the gods,he was
back to Prajapatiand said,"just
pesteredwith doubts and came
away

as

the self becomes

dressed

when

the

decorated

body

is

when

the

body

eye, and

mutilated
1

Taitt

II.

when
7.

decorated, wellwhen

well-dressed,well-cleaned

that image
body is well-cleaned,even
so
the body is blind,injuredin one
eye when
one

is

the

body

blind

self will be
the

body

is

mutilated,and

is
2

Cha.

vm.

7.

1.

the
when

injuredin
it perishes

Atman

in]

changeless

as

47

therefore I can see no good in this theory."

body perishes,
Prajapatithen gave him a higher instruction about the self,and
who
said,"He
enjoying dreams, he is the self,this
goes about
Indra
is the deathless,the fearless,
this is Brahman."
departed
the

when

but

again

was

back

and

said "that

the

when

body
injuredand

so

disturbed

with

the dream

though

affected

is not

by

its

its destruction,
but yet it is as if it was
and

if it wept

as

higherinstruction
does

know

not

in this I

"

filled with
self in
he

doubts

deep

know

any

other

and

the

when

the

came

blind

body
killed

is not

overwhelmed,

is

by

if it suffered

as

good." Prajapatigave a still

fast asleep,
in total contentment,
self,this

is the

departed but
returned
again and

and

know

not

become

Indra

the way,

on

eye

not

defects,and

this is the

is Brahman."

sleep does

one

and

no

man,

dreams,

any

fearless,this

the

"When

see

afraid

was

self does

blind,or injured in

is

and

doubts,

himself,that

deathless,

again

was

said "the
does

this,nor

am

existingobjects.He is destroyed and lost.

I see no good in this." And
now
Prajapatiafter having given a
of successively
course
higher instructions as self as the body, as
and
the self in deep dreamless
the self in dreams
as
sleep,and
having found that the enquirerin each case could find out that this
truth about
the self that he was
not the ultimate
was
seeking,
ultimatelygave him the ultimate and final instruction about the
full truth about
the self,
and said "this body is the support of the
deathless

bodiless

self

self. The

embodied

as

by pleasureand pain,the self when associated with

get rid of pleasureand pain,but pleasure and
the bodiless

touch
As

This

inmost

the

body
pain do

not
can-

not

self1."

shows, they sought such

the anecdote

in

essence

is affected

man

as

beyond

was

been

has sometimes

essence

consciousness, the
object-less

and

constant

the limits of any

described

and
reality,

the

as

change.
subject-

pure

bliss.

changeable
un-

He

is the

of all

of all
seeing,the hearer of all hearing and the knower
knowledge. He sees but is not seen, hears but is not heard, knows

seer

but

is not

of

with
salt,

known.

entirelyof
but

consists

not

an

is thus
has

no

or
as

through

likened

reached

inner

savour;

attribute

is the

He

outer, which
in truth

and

of it but
unto

lightof

the

this bliss is

lights.He is like a lump

consists through and through
all

this Atman

has

no

inner

through entirelyof knowledge.

it is bliss itself. The
of dreamless

state

beyond
1

Cha.

any

viii.

fear.
7-12.

state

outer,

or

Bliss is

of Brahman

sleep. And
It is dearer

to

he who
us

than

son,

brother,wife, or

and

by

it that

who

live,if

who

behaves

has

then

he

attained

is the

universe,the
There

is

atman

universe

Now
of the
we

much

in its
their

attracts

and

one

Brahman

the

is
of

no

clay
of

is made
is known

ancl the

man

essence

it is Brahman.
be called

may

do

the nature

and

sound, taste,

in other

are

but

everything else

not

smell.

But

represent

the

"ankara

sake
the

dualistic

of

so

the entire

empirical aspect
yet declare
forth

come

and

of himself

it out

and

No

and

attempts

unity and

of

diversity

that it is all
it will

to

and

then

is thus

Brahman

find it asserted

forms,

as

it

entered
a

glaring

its controller,

as

emphatically that

most

when

Brahman

at

reconciliation

is known
are

made

the

consistency of conceptual utterance, as

does by explaining away
great professorof Vedanta
The
universe
is said to be a reality,
but the
texts.
alone.

in it is Brahman

fire burns

Brahman

{antarydmiri).Here

and

is known.

the

it and

of matter

placeswe

names

the

it has

controller

dualistic

though

between

created

trait of the world

the

is made

Brahman

Upanisads

the

affirm

notice,they

its inner

real

what

to

as

that

the

and

there

all that

in

same,

objectsof

is this atman.

that

iron

atman

of colour,

into it as

the

the

arise

world

has himself

He

return.

for

his fearless

therefore

clay all

essence

diversity.When

From

Brahman.

these

this

contradiction

the

even

nature

It is he

conceptionalsystem of philosophy as visions of the seers

possessed by the spiritof this Brahman,
They do not

are

notice

man

breathe,

(dkdsa)?

Brahman

and

black

The

remember

also

who

are

of

of

when

so

is known.

phenomenal

must

could

in all

but

; and

atman,

lump

question may

the

ingot

an

known,

everything else
of the

from

from

iron is

Upanisads.

alone

man

the world

outside

As

pluralityat all.
black

When

finds his peace,

in the

in

not

the moon,

sun,

as

highest bliss.

man

par

peace.

of Brahman

nothing

known,

dearest

fraughtwith pain;

is

filled this void

when

is for it

invisible,supportless,
inexpressible,
unspeakable

Place
There

is the

not

bliss. For

as

in that

support
one,

bliss had

that

It is the

us.

is he full of bliss ; for who

this rapture, then

receives

to

[ch.

prosperity. It

or

All limitation

that

alone

infinite

it is the

dear

Atman.

inmost

Upanisads

wealth

husband,

things appear

our
excellence,

is

Earlier

The

48

and

the

universe,and

wind

It is
blows.

yet the

most

account

on

He

is the

of

Brahman

active

passiveand

that

principlein

unmoved.

The

spite of

in

But

theism

that

in its true
of

atman

but

evil deeds,

by

lower

He

the

world

lord

the

Thus

other

again
immanent

grow

no

one

can

burns, the
the

it. This

the

overlook

currents,
found

in

expression

identifies

in

the

universe

is that

current

controlling the
melting pot,
out, that

the

others

develop

in which
later

none

consistent

over

the

of

Maya

fire

Death

and

look

is the

Atman

of

the

that

is this

this

besides

Brahman.

or

upon

Brahman

these

ideas

which

The

that
third

the

as

is

Lord

still in the

were

systematically worked

were

meanings
is

has

pantheistic creed

Vedanta,

which

main

the

to

thought which

of

current

of the

development

texts

systematic philosophy

doctrine

the

its fear

thought

them

the

in it

other

looks

exponents

whose

supported

that

texts

of

is that

and

only realityand

It is because

quarrelled

the

is that

of

which

world.

in the

majority

the

once

on1."

of

the

at

there

Indra, Vayu

its fear

are

current

with

of theism

.from
.

strongest

The

of

many

are

and

is the

There

upward

Upanisads

else is unreal.

found

be

the

that

is the

{atman)''

being

it is said

"

he

he wants

soul.
as

that,

whom

soul

is my

in
low

nor

universe, he

the

Brahman

shades

in the
the

whom

universes

is

run

different

Brahman

the

or

everything

and

that

deeds

grow

the

from

two)

Brahman

find

we

Atman

to

transcend

If

bad

is.still my

roots

All

other

of

Thus

whose

shines, and

sun

conception

regard

downward.

fifth (with the

we

his greatness

tree

deeds

lord of all; he

which

read

we

good

of

protector

the

of the exalted

do

one

commit

transcendent.

eternally existing
and

and

passages
and

branches

is the

spite of

in

makes

ledgement
this acknow-

offshoot

an

doubt

great by good deeds

is not

him

and

sional
occa-

no

principle. Thus

supreme

He

3. 9,

makes

down.
of

master

the
"

also

was

be

to

seems

the

and

tendency

prominent,

never

Lord

it is he

raise,and

to

wants

was

as

Upanisad

Kausltaki

theistic

ftena, there

or

sense

supreme

the

position of

Isa

[ch.

Upanisads

this apparent

word

the

of

use

to

Earlier

The

5"d

"ankara,Ramanuja,
of
out

in

texts

order

of them.

slightlyhinted

Thus
at

once

and
thrice in 6vetasvatara,
becomes
tion
Brhadaranyaka
the foundaof "ankara's philosophy of the Vedanta
in which
Brahman
alone

is real and

Katha

II.

all else beside

6.

and

3.

him

Brh.

is unreal2.

11.

5. 19,

6vet. 1.

10,

iv.

9,

10.

to

it
in

in]

World

The

The

have

We

already

has

Brahman,
to

it. But

as

the

its

World.

that

seen

in

essence

51

the

has

universe

back

will also return

and

Brahman,

of

out

come

its character
as
spite of its existence as Brahman
held
Sankara
represented to experience could not be denied.
world
that the Upanisads referred to the external
and accorded
with the purpose
of treatingit as merely
to it consciously
a reality
unreal
soon
as
as
real,which will eventuallyappear
relatively
in

truth, the

ultimate

remains

be

to

modified

is known.-

Brahman,

to

this extent

that

the

This

however

sages

had

not

to
probably any conscious purpose of according a relative reality
the phenomenal world, but in spiteof regarding Brahman
the
as
highest realitythey could not ignore the claims of the exterior
of this
to it. The
world, and had to accord a reality
inconsistency
realityof the phenomenal world with the ultimate and only
was
attempted to be reconciled by holding
realityof Brahman

that this world

beside

is not

and

in him

is maintained

but it has
back

it will return

to

of

out

come

him,

it

him.

spoken of in its twofold aspect, the

organic and the inorganic. All organic things,whether
plants,
have souls1. Brahman
animals
or
desiringto be many created
men,
fire {tejas\water
the self-existent
{ap) and earth (ksiti).Then
entered into these three,and it is by their combination
Brahman
The

world

him

bodies

that all other

as

result of

Samkhya

gross

composed
IV.

we

natures,

school)of

elements, and
find
e.g.

of the parts of these three

division

of the

primitive
(especially
(tanmdlra)

of the later distinction

pure

the

thingsare produced

infinitesimal substances

theory that

each

gross

substance

is

of the

of the atoms

And
in Prasna
primary elements.
the gross elements
distinguishedfrom their subtler
earth (prthivi),and
the
of earth
subtler state

(prthivlmdtra). In
is also

So all other

alloyingor compounding
this theory of the threefold

lies the earliest germ

elements

and

formed2.

are

an

together.In
in the

is sometimes

described

the

as

II. 1, however, ether

Taittirlya,
{akasd)
from
and
the
other
Brahman,
proceeding

elements, air,fire,water,

directlyfrom
1

Cha.

the

vi.

and
one

11.

earth,
which

described

are

as

directlypreceded
2

ibid.

vi.

each
it.

2, 3, 4.

4"2

ceeding
pro-

World-Soul.

The
The

soul of

he

from

the

is said

primeval

two

in the

point of
Atman
or

the

view

has

twice

the

as

X.

121.

1,

of creation

referred

been

It is indeed

strange

very

of the earlier

Upanisads.

spoken of,his mythical

been

of

one

as

creation, but

development

the

in R.V.

firstborn

regarded

cosmic

of

universe

the

12.

in any

to

is

of

process

IV.

he has

He

is apparent.

products
from

in which

as

being

III. 4 and

referred

passages

character

This

the

to

the first time

forth

sprung

waters.

is not

being

this

In the

have

to

in
6vetasvatara,

to in the

that

related

conception of a world-soul
for
to his body is found
man

where

[ch.

Upanisads

Earlier

The

^2

the

earlier

his

importance
the theory of

of

nothing. The fact that neither the

the Hiranyagarbha played an
the Visvakarma, nor
Purusa, nor
important part in the earlier development of the Upanisads
that the Upanisad doctrines
not
leads me
to think
were
directly
the
from
the
monotheistic
tendencies
of
later
Rg-Veda
developed
speculations.The passages in Svetasvataraclearlyshow how from
Brahman

is almost

that

eminence

the supreme

in R.V.

he had

121,

Hiranyagarbha

of the created

beings. Deussen
of the Hiranyagarbha
in explaining the philosophical
significance
doctrine of the Upanisads says that the "entire objectiveuniverse is

had

brought

been

only in
possible
subject as

all individual
the

individual

far

so

one

it is sustained

as

of the

sustainer

without

them

by

and
not

from
has

an
no

seems

but

the

derived

are

in space

and

from

does

them.

For

objectiveuniverse

tinues
con-

therefore

exists

; there

with

in

whom

the

eternal

it is sustained.

ingly
subject. It is itself accordbelong to time, and therefore

this

not

empiricalpoint of view it is in general non-existent; it

This however
empiricalbut only a metaphysical reality1."
the Hiranyagarbha
to be wholly irrelevant,since
to me

doctrine
in the

time

is manifested

identical

means

knowing subject also {hiranyagarbha) by

Space

knowing subject. This

objectiveuniverse

objectsbut is by no
objects pass away

exist

to

to the level of

X.

be

cannot

supposed

to have

any

philosophical
importance

Upanisads.
The

There

tried

of

Causation.

no
practically
systematictheory of

was

Upanisads. Sankara,
always

Theory

to
1

show
DtussaCs

the later exponent

that

the

Upanisads

causation

of Vedanta
looked

Philosophy of the Upanishads% p.

upon
201.

in the

philosophy,
the

cause

in]

Transmigration

ground
realityhad only

of

change

an

appearance

mere

as

the

of

strength
Upanisad (VI. 1)

on

spoken of
the jug or

in its

the other

for the

So

jug.
the

as

been

the

upon

is the earth

the

it may

though

to

appear

mirage imposed

pot,

unchangeable

world

This

which

call it the

you

cause,

outside.
a

that

is also

effect

side

the

as

such

though
in

expounded

there

manner,

world

appearance,

however

seems

having

as

ultimate

constant,

manifold

whether

same

the

in them

of

distinctions

suffer

is thus

only

Brahman,

upon

excellence.

real par
It

the

ever

ever

unsubstantial

the

clay, is

e.g. the

cause,

only empty

are

only thing real

it is that

remains

Brahman,

an

material

these

jug,yet

remains

essence

change

the

form,

plate,or

the

the pot,
as
only realityin all its transformations
the plate. It is said that though there are
so
many
of appearance
is called the plate,the other the
that one

and

name

in which

the

as

diversities

pot, and

though unchanged in itself in

of sufferingchange. This he did
of examples
in the
Chandogya

which

series

53

the

the

product

of

other

real

be

may
in

Upanisads

side

by

view

regarded
imperfect

an

looks

which

view

change wrought

in the

of the elements
through the action and combination
of diversityin it. Thus
when
the different objectsof nature
have
been
spoken of in one
place as the product of the combination
of the three elements
and earth,the effect signifies
water
a real
fire,
change produced by their compounding. This is in germ (as we
itself

cause

shall

by

see

the

hereafter)the Parinama
Samkhya school1.
Doctrine
the

When

Vedic

they supposed
to

wind,

the

of the
the

universe.

of

though

and

human
had

speech
They

recompense

own,

soul
but

In

good
we

of the
the

to

and

bad

the direction

of

limbs
as

we

of

dead

to the sun,

went

actions

body

his breath

the different parts

to

have

in

already seen

in worlds

other

than

our

of the
things as the passage
tendency towards transmigration

however

time.
we

transmigrationin

idea of

burning

of such

into trees, etc., the

Upanisads

man

believed

also

hear

the

fire,his

little developed at the

the

the Vedic

the eye

advocated

Transmigration.

people witnessed

that

his

of

of causation

theory

two

Cha.

vi.

2-4.

clear

distinct

in the other

recompense
1

find

development

stages. In the

world

is combined

in

one

with

of

transmigrationcomes

idea

of

after

digging of wells,etc., follow

(J"itrydna\in which the soul
then into night,the dark half
the

; after

moon

deeds

good

residence

born

again.
world

in the

by

Here

we

moon,

way

is the

as

the

enters

but

at last reaches

of his

remnant

of the

womb

of

again

and

mother

only

not

re-born

was

way

the

as

fathers

first into smoke,

etc.,and

long

the

as

of the

way

enters

that the soul had

see

of the

other

The

he

man

the

that

it is said

publicworks

the

again through ether,wind, smoke,

lation
and seed, and through the assimi-

mist, cloud, rain,herbage, food

of food

death

of the month,

he descends

remains

such

after death

there

Thus

or

deeds

doctrine

the

supersessionof

in

world.

other

in the

performedcharitable

who

those

forefront

the

to

recompense

in the other

transmigration,whereas

of

the doctrine

[ch.

Upanisads

Earlier

The

54

is

recompense

in this world1.
for those

gods (devayana),meant

(tapas).These souls at death

enter
successivelyinto flame, day,bright half of the month, bright
half of the year, sun,
lightning,and then finallyinto
moon,
Deussen
that "the meaning of
Brahman
to return.
never
says
whole

the
of

faith and

cultivate

who

the

is that

asceticism

soul

in
light,
ever-increasing

and

radiant

as

stations

the

on

the

lights'"(jyotisamjyotihy.
The
other line of thought

is

direct

with the idea

transmigrationunmixed
his deeds (karma) by passing through the

of

to the

reference
the

Yanas.

Thus

Yajfiavalkya says,

to the doctrine

reaping the

other
of the

of the ways

doctrine

bright
'lightof

the

reference

of

"when

regions

all that is

Brahman

to

way

reaches

gods

is concentrated

which

on

of the

way

fruits of

worlds

and

out
with-

fathers

and

gods,

soul

the

becomes

of the body with

owing to the weakness
(apparent weakness
it were, these senses
which
and falls into a swoon
it is associated)
as
within itself and
it. It (Soul)takes these lightparticles
go towards
weak

itself

centres
turns

only

back, then

heart.

in the

the soul cannot

one(with him) ; (peopleabout

become
one
(with him), he

the

Thus

when

know

colour; (thesenses)become

him) say
does

not

in the eye

person

he does not

see

; (thesenses)

smell,(the senses) become

one
(with
(with him), he does not taste, (the senses)become
one
him), he does not speak,(the senses)become
(with him), he
does not
one
hear, (the senses)become
(with him), he does not

one

think, (the senses)become

senses)become
1

Cha.

v.

one

10.

with
8

one

him,
Deussen's

with him, he does

he

does

not

not

touch, (the

know, they

say.

Philosophyof the Upanishads,p.

335.

The

in]

Transmigration

tip of

his heart

When

he

other
the

with

self after

separate
small

coming

all
He

out.

such

as

any

and

he

comes

as

this

collects

movement

separate

collects

so
itself,

body, removing ignorance,by a

Just as a goldsmith taking a

itself.

behaves

he

so

virtuous

desires.

he

attached.

was

of the

end)
world

for

himself,

who

his

self itself
frame
life.

At

the
and

senses

work

and

body
body

at

here"

own

not

Thus

verse

the

time

of

our

and

faculties

in this world
is

had

desires

and

self

that "he

are

vague

as

an

is of
and

reaped in other

the

and

newer

up

it reached

in the

and

that

shows

passage

built

after death

or

are

1-7).

above

the

that

immortal

becomes

in

attains

all the

iv.

has

and

desires

in his

says, when
mortal

have

desires,who

no

Brahma

body

regarded

it is said

deeds

as

this

to

who

being

of the

death,

back

He

(Brh. IV.

possiblethat there is a

the fruits of

is full

works,

those

with

satisfied

out.

go

activitywhen

rebirth

takes

deeds,

man

he

so

returns

case

end

of the

the

fairer

present
itself all

within

collected

previous knowledge,
The
fallingoff of the

all its

experience accompanied him.

the time
of death
is only for

either

It is

it is the

desires,is

consideration

its

wills

he

and

acts

bad

by
The

vice.

here, he

does

desires,who

no

the

destroyed

by

by

wills,as

got rid of, the

are

close

he

so

he

do

Thus

Brahma

and

So

all

senses

heart

attains

has

from

Brahmahood.
his

that

doing karma1,

himself

freed

vicious

he

gods,

it

so

karma

He

desires.

.As
being...

the

is also a verse,
being
happens. There
which
he
he wants
karma
that
to gain by
to
the
to
Having reaped the full fruit (lit.gone

that

to

deeds
desires

is done

attached

other

becomes, good by good deeds, bad

As

work

Pitrs,the Gandharvas,

of any

or

virtuous

by

of the

as

Brahma

Prajapatior

follows

previousexperience (prajna)
caterpillar
going to the end of a blade

as

destroying

fairer form

and

thus

and

by

or

and fairer form, so the soul

gold,gives to it a newer
destroying this body and removing ignorance fashions a

newer

in

well

in

{prdna)

out.

goes

bit of

after

the

the deeds

movement

(prdna)

consciousness

Just as
by undertaking

of grass,
this

vital function

him.

accompany

vital function

determinate

Knowledge,

out.

of

the

by that shining this soul

through the eye, the head,

the

body,

follow

senses

and

either

out

goes

part of the

is then

of

shines

55

other

the

building of

worlds.

The

newer

self which

gories.
aggregation of diverse cateof understanding,
the essence

obscure
worlds.

reference

here to the doctrine that

vital function, of the visual

of the
the

of the

of

the

turning off

of

essence

(manifest)and

all anger,
of

adharma,

of

essence

from

that

and

psychologicaltendencies,
physical world.

the

the fruit

wills

he

whatever

and

he

The

happens.

its fruits is held

The

self that

within

the

on

of it

through

will and

is

whereas

theory is
in the

indeed

self itself

its

by

rebirth and

not

wills,and
born

by

is

karma.

desires and

Thus

changes

the

for he

hand

one

"

and

When

up, but

by

the

of

of diverse

physical elements

self continues

to

it

wills he

this

The
fruition

desire

and

beings.

seems

of these

rebirths

and

sometimes

is effected

to

The

distinctive

most

the

the

as

by

in
the

desire,it suffers

if it ceases

as

But

point. The Pitryana

only to form a part

worlds

of

of rebirth

cause

no

feature

connecting link

that whatever

between

desires he

man

acts.

place

"

he

who

knowingly desires

but
places(accordingly),

fulfilled and

(Mund

celestial

as

in other

for it is said

in those

here"
the

moral

elements

the consequent

it refers to desires

it is said in another

is effected

and

and

all its transformations.

the

only comes

he

whatever

desires vanish

his acts

of the

unity

wills

karma

being a combination

immortal.

Karma

been

genesisof

is

of the self and

course

this,that

rebirth

desires have

with

in accordance

the

desires,and

own

his desires

desires,he

he

comes

the

becomes

this doctrine
and

of his

of rebirth

All

too.

moral

process

rebirth

given

largerscheme

this world

5).

whole

are

not

iv.

The

reaped by those born

emphasis in the Upanisads on

no

is this

again to this world for performing

is generallyregarded as the field for performing
other worlds
are
regarded as placeswhere the

world

fruits of karma
there

all that

which

on

act.

the fruit and

karma,

of

dharma,

elements

principleof

of all this is the desire

This

of

all the

tendencies

root

acts.

essence

other.

moral

itself the

act, it reaps

of the

of

also of

him,

undergoes

psychological and
holds

of anger,

but

logicof

whole

within

up

physicalworld

the

essence

essence

acts, and

psychologicaltendencies

and

the

his ; for whatever

of

this nature

from

follows

of desires,

essence

(unmanifest or latent)"(Brh.IV.
undergoes rebirth is thus a unity not only of

self that

the

up

is that

The

compose

the

make

the

needs) or

desires,of

of restraint of

essence

its

of

auditory sense,

would

(which

with

in accordance

physicalbody

[ch.

of the

sense,

elements

five

the

of

essence

the

Upanisads

Earlier

The

56

who

III. 2.

rightknowledge

has

2).

realized

This

of the

for him

self.

"

whose

himself,all

destruction
He

is

his

of desires

who

knows

Earlier

The

58

Upanisads

[ch.

Emancipation.
The

which

doctrine
of

is that
of

doctrine

the dead

where

had

then

to

never

were

the

of the

of the

Thus

suffer

fathers

those

rebirth.

{pitrydnd)

in another

find that

we

formed
per-

gods through

and

recompensed

the

that

faithful and

world

the way

tion
connec-

know

we

were

way

to the

time

suffer rebirth.

to

by

with

for

who

those

return

contrasted

be

that

(tapas) went

stages

could

This

held

Devayana

in this

attention

our

emancipation {mukti). Already

asceticism
successive

attracts

next

and

world

who

ful
faith-

are

and

different type of goal from

perform sraddha had a distinctly
those who
performed ordinary virtues,such as those of a general
This distinction
altruistic nature.
attains its fullest development
doctrine

in the
in the

of

emancipation. Emancipation
the

Upanisads

when

he

knows

ceaseless

course

his

ignorant. The

knows

Brahman

no

and
He

himself

beholds

him

the

For

him

all doubts

antipathies,all
ignoble and small in
We

exists

emancipated
to

seem

true

do

and

us, all that

"

we

are

but

of

knowledge

emancipation itself.
so
long as we do not
and

only goal of

and

essence

of
1

true

All
know

man.

Deussen's

affect him.

ever

free.

are

pure
we

result

do

our

lead

sufferingsand

simply

self.

because

It is the

not

of other

not

of any

troubles

self.
to

Thus

is not

always

are

to

seem

thus

action,but

We

nature.

our

of

is

us

ourselves.
knowledge
do
the infinite;
we
are

Emancipation

We

nature

finite in

is

"

"

thousands

our

and

is transient

of

passions

our

experience, all that

effect,or

self does

man

becomes

once

deepest,
asunder,

of

immortal.

Truth

the

always
the

know

of all

himself

the fact that all

limitations

our

suffer rebirth and

not

at

are

solved,

by anything, for

as

who

those

nothingness1.

acquisition,
product,an

always

we

are

become

know

not

suffer death, for

new

it

do

limited

not

are

not
a

We

loftiest and

of the self reveals

and

false.

for

divested

can

The

Brahman.

Brahman,

kind

attains

fetters of the heart break

his works

knowledge

"

be

to

that

For

has

means

man

becomes

who

of any

bondage

And

The

however

man

who

thus

that

transmigration is only

wise

passions and

infiniteness

self and

own

of

of

state

Mukti

or

be

so

only because

Emancipation

but

are

true

is the

of

our

Philosophyof the Upanishads^ p.

own

352.

is

only

natural

it represents the true

realization

the

it is that

emancipation

limitations

and

nature

nature

that

m]

Emancipation

is called
our

emancipation. Since
true

own

for

necessary
the

and

nature

all illusions of death

Upanisad
the

that

only desideratum
that

of

can

rebirth.

wipe

off all false

of

death, promised Naciketas,

to

grant him

three

Naciketas, knowing

that

his father

Gautama

him, said, O

let Gautama

son

Gautama,
death

"

his anger
second

known

There

of

that

boon

made
"

against me."

is this

instructed

by

say

This

not

This

is my

inquired of old, even

Subtle

it.

say

thee.

it,but

There

and

is

there

exists

This

I should

boon."

; for

choose

who

grandsons

cattle ; choose

if thou

and

the

enjoyer of

gain

in the world

those

fair

them

but

replied,

they only

weaken

obtain

long

song.

as

thou
"

who

the
hast

takes

object of
abandoned

the
man.

All

to

those

gods

easy

be found

; choose
as

it

like
sons

of

herds

wide

the

wishest.

thou

togetherwith

wealth

I will make

earth.
that

desires

it

was

not

choose

years

ask

not

difficult

are

thou

at

their

musical

thy pleasure;
ments;
instru-

cannot

long

as

be

All

senses.

Man

satisfied

be
did

we

life is short, with

not

which

thing is good,

another

good,
But

but
thou
These

he

who

with

reach

boon

them.

Do

said, Choose

the wide
those

stand
under-

to

"

horses

chariots,with

not

pleasest. The

said, One

All

to

years,

many

on

the

was

I will give
gained by men.
ask
the question regarding death."
not
of to-morrow
and
those enjoyments are
are

the

wealth, as

Yama
he

"

and

king

their

do

Naciketas

dance

Be

mortals, all

like of them

thee,

to

of

boon.

like this choose

all desires.

with

nymphs

the

and

gold
thyself as

boon

far-extendinglife.

thee
to

knowest

another

hundred

elephants and
live

easy

like this." Yama

live

may

expanded earth, and

Or

boon

other

no

it is not

speaker

It

"

sayest that it is

other

no

said,
death

said,

by

be

like to know

Yama

Even

the

should

after the

gods

is

gained

soul

to this." Naciketas
said,
compel me
and
thou O Death
even
inquiredbefore,

understand

asked

the

"

to

forget

and

Naciketas

third

is its nature,

with

being granted

exist.

the

by

is

choice.

offended

was

heaven

also

it does

thee.

his

at

be

which

by

enquiry, some

; others

man

him.

to

boons

pleased in mind
being granted Naciketas

This
fire

the

knowledge,

story is told in the Katha

The

lord

the

Yama,

already and

are

which

and

all

always in
such
emancipated, the only thing
fore
so.
we
are
Self-knowledge is therewe

as

is to know

us

59

thee

wealth, we

you

I choose

we

live
I have

the

could

only

as

said."

pleasant. Blessed is
chooses
the pleasant loses
is

considering the objects of desire,

two,

ignorance (whose object is

what

known

are

and

far asunder,

be

to

what

knowledge (whose object is

pleasant)and

is

[ch.

Upanisads

Earlier

The

60

lead

to

is

good),
goals.

different

to

Believing that this world exists and not the other, the careless
That
knowledge which thou hast
youth is subject to my sway.
I know
piness
asked
is not to be obtained
worldly hapby argument.
is not to be obtained
is transient for that firm one
by what

Brahman

Brahman.

he

wise

The

the

slain,though

house

knows

is not

man

is slain ; subtler

does

what

than

to

obtains
not

die;

soul

Unborn, eternal,the

anywhere.

body

is open
him

he

born;

Thee

joy.

door

whose

is

subtle,

is

far,lying it goes

is great, sittingit goes

what

greater than

like

him

soul,knowing

grief and

deathless, whoever

produced from

is not

not

is

he wishes.

whatever

be

to

both

leaves

behold,

to

I believe

Naciketas,

the

by concentratingon

wise

it is hard

whom

The

firm.

is not

where.
every-

bodies, firm among

as
unbodily among
Thinking
off all grief.The
soul cannot
casts
fleetingthings,the wise man
be gained by eloquence,by understanding, or
by learning. It

the soul

be obtained

can

its own

nature1." So

he wills and

acts

present and

in

highesttruth

about

of the

in his

gross

kosa)
thoughts and
maya

and

willed

Man

within

is

kosa),the

of

and

him

and

will

in other
in that

to

know

the

and

ciple
prin-

sense

to

the

were

epitome

fine constituents

the

(prUna-

(manomaya) and
long as he keeps
a

series

created

of

these

come,

by

have
truth

ultimate

vital functions

desire

lives to

the
it

as

himself

(vijnanamaya),and so
spheres and passes through

by

fruits in the

the

comes

realizes

body (annamaya

in the present life and

are

all desires

holds

its desires,

highestessence

ideas

in these

it reveals

him

and the infinite,he

ceases

infinitude.

life,the

To

reaps
he

he is the

immortal

he

and
when

But

himself,that

own

it chooses.

them

to

lives.

receding from

of the universe
of the

according
future

whom

the Self identifies itself with

long as

universe,the

and
desires,
of himself

alone

him

by

him.

the
self
him-

experiences
experiences
He

suffers

if he retires from
But
pains,disease and death.
he
these into his true unchangeable being, he is in a state where
is one
with his experience and there is no
ment.
change and no move-

pleasuresand

What
One

concepts.
not

any
1

which

Katha
may

this

of those
II.

be

The

state

could

is cannot

only

indicate

concepts found
translation is not

explained by the use of

it by pointing out that it is
ordinary knowledge ; it is not
be

in

continuous.

differently
interpreted.

There

are

some

parts in the extract

in]

Emancipation

whatever
and

It

tuum.

in

self

true

will

knows

one

dissolve

but

only

of

this

vanish

existences)
(Brh.

state

pure

II.

of
back

retires
of

in

our

to

absolute

blessedness.

4.

and

it

of

water

and

them
The

infinitude

can

be

then

of

longer
pure

all

in

no

be

salt

intelligence,

and

when

the

put

salt,

so,

consisting
(phenomenal

phenomenal

found

infinite

separately

out

these

but

existence

limitless

manifests

existences,
no

menm

find

we

and

itself

self

true

no

taken

taste

is

this

of

lump

infinite

there

phenomenal
it

as

we

In

phenomenal

our

cannot

manifesting

12).

itself,

it

reality

great

in

"Just

neti).

diversity,

all

water.

intelligence

pure

processes

in

portion

does

Maitreyi,

{neti
no

which

in

disappear

this

and

difference,

no

ocean

salt

whatever

in

is

an

like

will

water

there
like

is

this

as

itself

ultimately
in

them.

pure

ledge"
knowin

all

the

when
It

being,

it
is
and

IV

CHAPTER

what

In

in the

In

written.

been

the

work

these

chronologically arranging
of

influence

the

from

change
Here

in

school

one

time

their

beginning

it is

hardly possible

or

to

treatises

systematic

half-sentences

detail, but
of

{sutras)
served
of

memory

only

sentences

or

how

to

like

elaborate
to

example

of which
esteem

by

later

record,

and

they began,

time

of

foundation

so

many

probability these

in all

did

had

been

posed
com-

than
claimed
and

half
to

respect

writers

that

so

be

which

he

that

these

the

which

they

in which
whenever

gave

sutras

threads

was

already

pithy

rise to

in later

of the

Vedanta

nature

of
that

had

these

faithful
writers

they

had

one.

Such

of the
any

new

had

is indeed

days

were

system,

Badarayana

they

gave

divergent interpretations,each
only

half-

significance,

their

Brahma-sutras

ambiguous

the

of

in

lost

It

subject.

extent

subject

who

for those

the

on

sutras

dozen

the

hints, intended

pregnant

the

reader

therefore,

It seems,

the

discussions

of

the

before

and

short

elaborate

not

instructions

from

were

in

written

were

hold

lecture

oral

guess

far the

more

had

philosophy

Upanisads

earliest

The
originally intended
by them.
"arlraka-sutras or
known
the
as
for

the

to

philosophy.

scanty

what

at

disquisitions with

elaborate

were

difficult

but

period, for

which
to

thoroughly acquainted.

direct

early

so

of

general

arranged.

or

The

at

led

that

of

in

upon

the

upon

currents

have

correctly

say

just after the

formulated

were

to

or

and

we

consists

commenting

principal systems

influence

divergent systems

tides

of which

in times

the

compute

another

upon

the

India, however,

in

came

speculations

historian

and

views

in the

time

to

independent

modern

have

thinkers

times,

philosophy

philosophy

European

their

of

Indian

of

earliest

the

offered

The

of

histories

possible

Philosophy

history

from

and

philosophy.

on

attempt

Europe

another

after

one

which

in

manner

to

Indian

of

History

hardly possible

is

It

is

Sense

PHILOSOPHY

INDIAN

OF

SYSTEMS

THE

ON

OBSERVATIONS

GENERAL

was

sutras

the
were

rise
one

high
held

speculations to

Schools

iv]

ch.

offer,these

reconciled

were

the

existing systems,

the

system

these

systems

foundation

the

other

of these

systems

schools.

Their

of

faith

of

producing

to

systems

with

systems

succession

of

propound

and

rival schools

and

the

example,

free-lance

to

one

or

naturallybrought
All

teachers.
and

enchained

thinkers

having
had

the

dependence
inthe

by

of

Instead

attached.

establish,India

the

sutras

earliest

called the

their

brought

of

own

forth

this

At

school.

is attributed

written

all

rival schools

Buddhist

these

on

To

Misra

this second

number

the

work

was

these

answer

this commentary
the

on

the

maintain
a

an

also called

This
to

on

wrote

take

sutras, called

and

Dinnaga,

it failed to

originalforce
old

dignityof
called

commentary
where

commentary,

he

tried

objectionsagainst the Nyaya system made

by other
and particularly
by the Buddhists. This commentary,

Nydya-tdtparyatikd,had

another

by

tdtparyatlkd-parisuddhiwritten
had

commentary

prakdsa
Gangesa.

to establish

Gautama,

to

by Vatsyayana.

Vacaspati

on
Vdrttika-tdtparyatikd

in order

of other

philosophy consistingof

commentary

lost,and

was

attacks

they adhered.

Udyotakara wrote a commentary

Bhdsyavdttika1. As time went

of this work

to refute

which

to

system

Vdtsydyana bhdsya,was
sharply criticized by the
criticisms

against the

they constantlyattacked

or

The

Aksapada.

them

Nyaya system

half-sentences

called

of their

views

defended

which

superiorityof

the

thus

since

teachers

orthodox

pupils were

hold of

the

was

philosophy belonged

of

of

pupils who carried the traditionaryviews of particular

from
pounded
generation to generation,who explained and exthem,

of

Such

all the

other

or

of

schools

the

the

one

of
interpretations

faithful

as

limited
thinking was
which
to
they were

their

school

the

that

63
of

doctrines

commentaries.

of the

in accordance

up

of

scholars

upon

the

with

put down

and

form

in the

of Philosophy

another

written

by

This

again

had

the

the

another

great
called

commentary

Varddhamana

called

commentary

son

commentary

Nyaya-

day ana.

This

Nydya-nibandhaof

the

called

illustrious
Varddha-

Misra, and this again had

by Padmanabha
another
named
Nydya-tatparyamandana by Safikara Misra. The
of Vatsyayana, Vacaspati, and
names
Udayana are indeed very
they contented themselves
mentaries
by writing comgreat, but even
mdnendu

upon

on

I have

Dignaga as

it

commentaries,

preferredto spell Dinnaga

it is generallyspelt.

and

did

after

not

try

to

formulate

Tatparyatika (p.i)and
Vacaspati's

any
not

Observations

64

India

As

passed

system

of

in support

originallyformulated
to

solve, but

in

which

which

the

make

opposition

and

the

sutras

is weak

and

take

of

it

the

seventeenth

strong and
to

write

all the

had

then

their

Indian

system

and

grew

growth

is

is therefore
it attained

adequate
by

In

the

phases of

case

of

and

elaborations

ages

systems

involved

but

to

served

to

it

successfully

own

system

babe, but
the

to

studied
the

as

successive

no
as

as

place

No

study

and

were

Each

of any

history of

the

system

all the

growth

ages

possible to suggest

this

Indian

the commentators

livingthrough

it is indeed

for systems

of its adherents

throughout

champions,

of

whole1.

one

targets of criticism.

history,and

it is

ages

lived

they

untiring energy

of

but

interpreted in

systems

have

man

possible

not

and

if

beginning

fullydeveloped

long

it is taken

of its

one

whose
of

or

history.
two

earlier

be carried all through, for the suppleprinciplecannot

mentary
the
later
often
as
commentators
by
given
arguments
appear
in conflict with them.
of the earlier writingsand are very seldom

the system, but this

information
harmonious

some

the

its conflicts.

kept

problems

It is therefore

we

so

only

unless

its

down

rival

philosophy

work

the

selfless toil for it had

1

the

remembered

historyof

with

successive

of

other

on

newborn

as

be

should

developed by

all the

through

opposition

philosophies of India,

importance only

forgotten or

as

acquired through

its conflicts

historyof

the

it appears

successive

system

problems

rival schools.

developments

in all its limbs.

it has

growth

history from
which

each

that

was

in all its parts, and

hold

of the

shapeless

century

history of

any

it to

attacks

its

harmonious

necessary

In

with

along

few

of

it

as

commentators

complete

more

enable

to

stronger

but

less

or

the

discover

system

teeth

opinions

successive

and

more

pared.
pre-

given before.

the

the

against

the

more

were

been
of

system

and

stronger

we

had

them.

least

ingenuity and

to

probably

in

its way

original views

all their

use

attacked
had

the

on

in the

not

was

positions,and

offer consistent

to

contributions
each

it

own

that

fought

attention

no

The

in

it

as

which
to

of

man

unexpected opponents

meet

in the sutras

schools, it had

other

their

rival schools

of the

defects

greatest

Bhagavadgita.

to

therefore

had

Its adherents

subtlety

for

criticisms

troublesome

and

it had

on

the

and

Upanisads,

the

Brahma-sutras,

the

spent his life in writing commentaries

Buddha,

after

"afikara,probably

Even

original system.

Philosophy [ch.

Indian

Systems of

on

Observations

66

Philosophy [ch.

Systems of Indian

on

of the traditionarysuch
modify and even
suppress
cult
views with which
they did not agree or which they found it diffiBrilliant oppositionsfrom the opposing schools
to maintain.
for them
it necessary
to offer solutions
often made
to new
problems

views

to

or

of

before,but put

of

unthought

In order

rival school.

offer such
into

by

illustrious adherent

some

reconcile these

to

parts of the system, the

the other

them

forward

commentators

These

hesitated

never

of the doctrines

slightmodifications
a complete whole.

solutions with

new

harmonize

could

as

elaborations

or

to

modifications

generallydevelopedthe traditionary
system, but did not effect any
serious change in the system as expounded by the older teachers,
for the new
to the explanations
exponents always bound themselves
of the older
would

only

teachers

only interpretthem
in those

It is not

This
when

there

is

systems

only mean
speciallynew

fact that

each

in order

to

forming
had

system
its

the

rately.
sepa-

is to

system

be

commentators

with

contend
left its

has

own

system

whole.

one

to

of any

repetition.Except
of the

jointwork

silent.

commentators

development,

as

hold

growth

unnecessary

the basis of the

contributions

the

things

new

say

remained

had

teachers

of the individual

contributions

would

interpretedon
treatingtheir
The

older

possibleto describe

therefore

by treatingthe

the

ideas,or

own

They

them.

contradicted

never

to suit their

where

cases

and

rival

other

mark

permanent

are
always
philosophic literatures of India which
written
in the form
of disputes,where
the writer is supposed to
rival schools
be always faced with objectionsfrom
to whatever
he has got to say. At each
certain
objections
step he supposes

all the

upon

put forth againsthim

of the
is thus

their

destination.

can

styleof

so

that

answers

Most

referred to in

often

brief

catch them.
most

the

the

To

add

that
to

of the commentaries

Sanskrit,and aims so
literary
leadingto the use of technical words
of

an

study

of

these

becomes

expert preceptor;

widely

read

in all the

writer

can

objectionsof

manner

from

that

and

he answers,

pointsout

the defects

It
objectoror shows that the objectionitself is illfounded.
through interminable
byways of objections,
counter-objections
and

views

which

so

his way

rival schools

only

who

know

are

the

Sanskrit

and

different

condensed
at

precisionand brevity,
in the diverse

current

systems,
the

impossible without

it is difficulttherefore

different systems

to his

difficulties the

much

often

the

those

these
is

wend

to

for all who

follow

any

are

aid
not

advanced

6J

DifferentTypes of Literature

iv]

particularsystem, as the deliberations of that particular

with
system are expressed in such close interconnection
the views of other systems that these can
hardly be understood
without
them.
Each
(at least in
system of India has grown
particularepochs) in relation to and in oppositionto the growth
work

of

any

of other systems of

to be

philosophy

all the

thought,and
should
study

one

of Indian

thorough student

mutual

their

in

systems

opposition and relation from the earliest times to a period at

which
for
to a stop
a
they ceased to grow and came
purpose
which
work
like the present one
a
only be regarded as
may
forming a preliminaryintroduction.
"

Besides

treatises

the

kind.

In

commentaries,

Vdrttika
of

the

called

verses

course

to these

or

to

systems in

kdrikd

may

these

there

also

were
on

be mentioned

were

also advanced

to

kdrikds,which

as

work

any

Kumarila

examples.
In
explain them.
on

of this

written

system

as

treatises

succinct

long dissertations,

varttikas;the Slokavdrttika,of
may

also independent

are

system in

any

be mentioned

their commentaries

there

called

verse

general observations

of Suresvara
had

there

commentaries

important topicsof

Sdmkhya

addition

their

the

on

the

try to summarize
manner;

and

the sutras

the systems

or

in
the

All these
addition
in prose

selected
some
nominally followed
sutras
Of the former class
or
proceeded independently of them.
the Nydyamanjari of Jayanta may
be mentioned
an
as
example
and of the latter the Prasastapdda bhdsya,the Advaitasiddhi
of
Madhusudana
SarasvatI or the Veddnta-paribhdsdof Dharmaraof a
remarkable
of these treatises were
jadhvarlndra. The more
masterlynature in which the writers representedthe systems they
adhered
to in a highly forcible and
logicalmanner
by dint of
their own
also had their
and genius. These
great mental powers
commentaries
The
elaborate
them.
to explain and
period of the
growth of the philosophicliteratures of India begins from about
ends in
500 B.C. (about the time of the Buddha) and practically
the later half of the seventeenth
now
some
century, though even
minor
out.
publicationsare seen to come
in which

the

writers

The
The

Hindus

namely, the
not")views

Indian

Systems

the systems
classify

ndstika
are

either

those

and

the

which

of
of

dstika.

neither

Philosophy.
philosophyinto
The

nastika

regard the

Vedas

two

classes,

(na asti "it is

as

infallible
5"2

68

Observations

on

Systemsof Indian Philosophy[ch.

These are
authority.
three in number, the Buddhist,Jainaand the Carvaka.
principally
schools are six in number, Samkhya,
The astika-mata or orthodox
known
Yoga, Vedanta, Mlmamsa, Nyaya and Vaisesika,generally
the six systems (saddarsana1).
as
The
Samkhya is ascribed to a mythical Kapila, but the
earliest works
the subjectare probably now
lost. The Yoga
on
attributed
is
called
and the original
to Patanjali
sutras
are
system
the PatanjalaYoga sutras.
The
generalmetaphysicalposition
of these two systems with regard to soul,nature, cosmology and
the final goal is almost
the same, and the difference lies in this
that the Yoga system acknowledges a god (Isvara)
distinct
as
from
Atman
and
lays much
importance on certain mystical
for the achievement
as
(commonly known
practices
Yoga practices)
of liberation,
whereas
the Samkhya denies the existence of
Isvara and thinks that sincere philosophic
thought and culture
sufficient to produce the true conviction of the truth and
are
therebybring about liberation. It is probablethat the system
of Samkhya
associated
with
Kapila and the Yoga system
associated with Patanjali
but two divergentmodifications of
are
an
Samkhya school,of which we now get onlyreferences
original
counted
here and there. These systems therefore thoughgenerally
should
two
more
as
properlybe looked upon as two different
schools of the same
Samkhya system one may be called the
Samkhya.
Kapila Samkhya and the other Pataftjala
the
rational
root
to think
The Purva Mlmamsa
man
(from
cannot
properlybe spoken of as a system of philosophy.
conclusions)
code of principles
in accordance
with
It is a systematized
for purposes of sacrifices.
which the Vedic texts are to be interpreted

try to establish their

nor

own

their

on
validity

"

"

The

word

in the

"dariana"

of true

sense

of Kanada

philosophic
knowledgehas

(IX.ii. 13)which

I consider

itsearliest

pre-Buddhistic.
called
the
"
ditthi"
drsti
heretical
The Buddhist pitakas
(Sanskrit
B.C.)
(400
opinions
Haribhadra (fifth
from the same
root dri from which darsana is formed).
a.D.)
century
in the

use

Vaiiesika sutras

as

"

in the

Darsana

the word

uses

rthah"Saddarianasamuccaya
word
sanam

(1 33
The

{sarvadars'anavacy"?
philosophy
the tenth century A.D.)uses

the

dars"anedariane nanaprakaram sattvalakuktamasti." Ksanabhahgasiddhiin Six Buddhist Nyaya tracts,p. 20). Madhava

also in the

1 A. D.

word

sense

same

("Yadi

"mata"

or
view)was
(opinion
no

word

Buddhists used to callthose who

"jtidnin"etc.
sense

nama

Sarvadarsanasamgraha.
) callshis Compendium of all systems of philosophy,

systems. But there is

the

of systems of

sense

I.).Ratnakirtti (end of

of

"

or

used in
also freely

quotingthe views of
in the technical sense.
'philosophers'

held hereticalviews

in the
philosophers
"perfects."

do not denote

seers"

to denote

"

tairthika." The words

modern

sense,

other

The

"siddha,"

theyare used

rather in

Purva

iv]
Vedic

The
and

texts

often

people

sentence

of the
the

regard to
applied

relative

The

context.

which

to

for all these

arrive

difficulties.

similar

regard

perception,inference,the validityof
order

that

order

of the

of

nature

universe

the

and

its relation

of

mantras

the

the

solutions

these

its main

objects,it

external

Vedas,

to

Veda

complex

uniform

the

to

in

exact

and

sacrifices with

might perform

man

the

ing
accordprinciples

some

Preliminary to

indulges in speculationswith

to

it maybe

the

or

sentences

rational

at

which

to

use

importance

formulated

Mimamsa

could

one

other

with

reference

with

sentence, the

in

also differences of view

were

its relative

mantra,

of

meaning

words

of

relation

importance

There

sentence.

of its connection

nature

Vedic

as

the

to

as

69
for sacrifices,
(incantations)

mantras

as

disputed

their mutual

or

general drift
with

used

were

Mimamsa

man

the

like,for

mantras,
or

in

definite

positionand

the

and

demonstrated

be

must

or

world, soul,

Though its interest in such abstract speculationsis

but secondary yet it brieflydiscusses
these in order to prepare
a
and their practical
rational ground for its doctrine
of the mantras
established.

utilityfor

It is

man.

discussions

in the
Its

philosophy.

bhasya

Mimamsa
and

his

and

that the master

day

Kumarila

place

to

the

by
1

his

mention

that

the maxims

called

of

system

interpretationof
to

even

this

Jaimini,and Sahara
in the historyof

to

names

Sahara

to call him

are

Kumarila

Bhatta

opinionsof his master

guru (master)in sarcasm,

as

guru-mata,

bhatta-mata1.

as

pass

be

preliminary

criticized the

who

used

here

great

Jaimini and

these

legalvalue

attributed

two

opinions pass

Bhatta

reservation

any

it. The

upon

are

for the

have

are

pupil Prabhakara,
this

to

of

Mimamsa

it may

maxims

sentences

literature after

much,

so

and

there

as

that

principlesand

import of words
day. The sutras of
a

far

so

Mimamsa

the

wrote

only

Hindu
and

Law

whereas

It may

not

the
be

{smrti)accepts

views
out

of

without

principlessettled and formulated

Mimamsa.

There

is

story that Kumarila

could

not

understand

the meaning of

Sanskrit

Atra
tunoktam
tatrapinoktam iti paunaruktam"
(hence spoken twice).
phoneticallyadmits of two combinations, tu noktam (but not said)and tuna
uktam
tatra
(saidby the particletu) and tatrapinoktam
(notsaid also
as
api na uktam
first interpretation
the
and
Under
tatra
uktam
there)
apina
(said there by the particleapi).

sentence

"

Tunoktam

spoken here, not spoken there,it is thus spoken

twice." This puzzled Kumarila, when
Prabhakara
taking the second meaning pointed
that the meaning was
out to him
"here
it is indicated by tu and there by api,and so it is
the sentence

indicated twice."
at

this.

would

Kumarila

"

mean,

was

so

Not

pleasedthat

he

called his

pupil"Guru"

(master)

Observations

jo

siitras, also called

Veddnta

The

Philosophy [ch.

Systems of Indian

on

Uttara

by

written

Mimamsa,

the
the Brakma-sutras, form
as
Badarayana, otherwise known
The word Vedanta
means
originalauthoritative work of Vedanta.
sutras
are
"end of the Veda," i.e.the Upanisads, and the Vedanta
but a summarized
of the general
statement
called as they are
so
work

Upanisads. This
adhyayas and each adhyaya is
of the

views

first four

The
are

and

to ask
(i) How
decay,(3)This

the

The

(2) From

whom

from

second

second

the

Vedanta

chapter

Catuhsutri

as

have

testimony of

birth

forth,

come

Upanisads.

the

is devoted

book

book

is

to

of the

attacks

against the

of the second

or

chapters.

or

proceed

the Vedas

him

chapter of
the

padas

known

harmonious

justifyingthe positionof
rival schools.

into four

commonly

Brahman,

is because

first

of the

whole

The

about

by

is shown

(4)This

divided

of the work

sutras

into four books

is divided

dealingblows at rival systems. All the other parts of the book

of
the disputed interpretations
of a number
devoted to settling

Upanisad
limited

is thus

work

the

to

siltra

which

system.

views

all the

the

of Vedanta

school

philosophy
We

to

as

that

the

largely and
of the

also pass

to be the real

by

same

the

often

the

mentaries
com-

logical
theo-

many

is not

found

is that

Brahma-sutras

works

follow

that

of dualistic

forms

"aivas,
Ramayatas,

originalpurport

apostles of

dualistic

of the

Brahma

creeds

such

Srlkantha,
Baladeva,
by themselves
in the

These

systems

intended
interpretations

as

by

is the

these

show

view

of

These

"arikara'sinterpretations

attacked

of Vedanta

to

Brahma-sutras.

as

etc., have

the Brahma-sutra

on

vehemently

sutras.
name

like

philosophy,though

Vaisnavas,

the

differed

the

second

however

now

the

Variant

monism).

philosophy as elaborated
the Upanisads and as summarized

them

Vedanta

dividual
in-

properly to be called Visuddhadvaitathe Vedanta

philosophy
philosophy (i.e.

express

find

which

other

are

of the Brahma-

that is

and

Ramanuja, Vallabha, Madhva,

written
independent commentaries
that

contain

first commentary

known

absolute

thus

however

of
interpretations

representedby

as

claim

etc., also
sutras.

of

portions are

commentaries

are

school

other

earliest commentary

popularly
philosophy ought more

vada

The

the first and

and

by Baudhayana,

written

The

now.

together with

of

Upanisads,

great 6ankara. His

of the

this

The

probably

was

available

his

book.

of the

views

the first four sutras

to

second

the

chapters of

reallyphilosophicalportion of

The

texts.

in

busy

expounded

as

are

the Vedanta

by

also claimed

(Upanisads)

Some

iv]
and

the

Veddnta

Points
Of

sutras.

of Agreement

these

the

7
of

system

has

Ramanuja

great philosophicalimportance.
The
and

Ny

the

ay

Vaisesika

represent the

attributed

sutras

attributed

sutras

called also

Kanada,

to

Aksapada,

called also

Gautama,

to

Uluka,

for all

They are
practicalpurposes.
in later times considered
to differ only in a few
points of minor
the Nyaya sutras
importance. So far as the sutras are concerned
lay particularstress on the cultivation of logic as an art, while
the Vaisesika
deal mostly with metaphysics and physics.
sutras
In addition
had also philososix systems, the Tantras
to these
phies
system

same

which

of their own,

of the
largelyas modifications
contributions
though their own

it

materialists

Carvaka

all the

Agreement.

Theory.

that
other

with

systems

the

exception
on

agree

of

the

mental
funda-

some

pointsof importance. The systems of philosophy in India

stirred up merely by the speculativedemands
of the
not

were

mind

human

which

has

of

the

religiouspurpose
aims and
postulates,
be

to

identical

postulatesfor
of

deep craving after the

life. It is surprisingto
for such

other

It may

matters,

all the

be worth

realization
that

note

far

so

as

state,the

be

general

sum

mum

in
practically

systems

were

while

note

to

of
the

may

the

in

found

were

Whatever

of the transcendent

concerned,

indulging

realization

conflicting
systems.

opinion in

thorough agreement.

for

inclination

the realization

were
life,

natural

conditions

in all the

their differences of

bonum

thought, but by

abstract

at

noteworthy.
of

Karma

remarkable

is,however,

also

Points

The

I.

may

are

fundamental

Some

generallybe looked upon

Samkhya and Vedanta
systems,

however

of them

some

this stage.

First,the theory of
in

agree

believingthat

leaves

behind

it

ordain

for him

joy or

or

be
has

bad.

take

and

whatever
sort

some

the

When

enjoyed
to

Karma

action

of potency

fruits of the

actions

in the present life

or

another

man

as

in

a
or

All the Indian

is done
which

in the future

sorrow

birth

rebirth.

are

the

systems

individual
power

to

according as it is good
such that they cannot
the
life,

human
any

by
has

an

other

individual

being in

order

to

suffer them.

at

The

Vedic

belief that the mantras

the

sacrifices with

the

proper

uttered

in the correct

observance

of

accent

all ritualistic

Observations

72

automaticallyto produce the

after a lapse of time, was
probably

virtue
or

the adrsta

be

operandi of
commits

who

performs good

These

wicked

of

which

the

built

established

up
but

(new),that by it the
for the
mysterious manner,

desired

in

the

notion

is unknown.
as

is also

Karma

with

the

these

bad

or

elements

it is said

Upanisads, where

actions

rta, the

pretty well

find

we

will have

men

he

pleasures.

conception
probably the

are

in the

he

whereas

of

which

theory

emphasized

world,

highest material

the

enjoys

modus

already noticed, that

have

suffers in another

associated

according to good

There

we

things. Thus

not

magical virtue,called

unseen

an

sacrifice is performed,

the

the apurva

deeds

inviolable order

that

such

deeds

probably

were

visible

When

Samhitas,

who

effects

effect.

apurva

the

prevalent in

certain

and

achieved

the

time

instrumentalityof

(theunseen) or

object will

belief that certain

of the

leaves

the

of

process

agents of ordinary cause

action

form

earliest

postulatesa semi-conscious
can
produce at a distant

mystical actions
the ordinary
without
the

the

It

doctrine.

Karma

the

without

slightest
something like a magical
desired
object immediately

had
trifle,

smallest

in the

even

directions

the

details,exactly according to
error

Philosophy [ch.

Systems of Indian

on

good

bad

or

births.

To

notice other

doctrine

as

believed

that

established
the

required some
merited
and

punishment
the

his next

life.

wicked

or

it could

items

be

of

birth

next

of

be

could

by

his

maturing actions
him by his action

for

realized in the life of

As

goat.

process,
actions

there
so

no

is

no

lives of the

most

dormant

he has any

of
are

ultimate
time

varied
in the

have

which

has

life of every

particularbirth

any

had

nature, and

as

been

of

nature

made

will die and

man

beginning

at

life. The

the

by

in

ready for
this life. If the experiencesdetermined
such that they are possibleto be

goat, the

experiences. Man

or

life exist

there

is

the

doer

extremely

are

in this

is determined

man

the

for the doer

which

reaped

was

often accumulate

would

actions

pleasurableor painfulexperiencesthat
him

giving

it

generally

action

sufferingand enjoyment

the fruits of those

Only

fit for

the Karma

find that

we

of the

These

enjoyment.

particularlygood

of the

nature

or

systems

{adrsta)potency

before

with

connection

astika

in the

unseen

time

prepare

pointsin

relevant

an

the

in time
person

be

of this
first

instincts

or

that

or

his

past

kind

thus

animal

world

of

of each

as

began

infinite number

individual,and
this

born

of

ever
whenman,

Observations

74
idea

be

and

purged

adherence

contemplation, all

karma
soul

the

having ceased,

universe,where

of the

Buddhism

also

theory which
metaphysics

the

will be

previously
take

it must

and

body

to the

liberated souls stay for

ever.

some

traits

new

the

to

The

2.

top

karma

with

being intimately connected

later

of the

all activities
up

treated

effect

last stage of

in the

Thus

goes

contributes

however

has

being annihilated, and

the

is

and

worldly existence

the

its end.

leaves

conduct,

moment

sage

bably
pro-

by contemplation and the strict

karma
is generated,and
no
new

when

towards

rules of
a

which

was

is free from

man

for

the

within

exhausted

are

rapidly draws

person

that

five great vows,

karmas

all the

when

lasts but

karma

But

away.

the

to

which

predestined limits

its

system

Jaina view. But when a

strict compliance with the

passions,and acts in
his actions produce karma
annihilated.
then
Every
has

Yoga

the

suggested by

earned

of the

karmas

and krsna

sukla

of the

Philosophy [ch.

Systems of Indian

on

their

on.

Doctrine

of Mukti.

of the
only do the Indian systems agree as to the cause
in the share of sufferings
and enjoyments in the case
inequalities
of different persons, and the manner
the cycle of births
in which
and rebirths has been kept going from beginninglesstime, on
the
Not

basis

of

the

of

happenings
this

the

running

its end.

This

in

distant

some

leads

to

us

all such

neither

this

from

on

not

was

realized

upon

in

some

the

self of

stage

also

agree

in

its

as

artificialor

by

the

of the soul with

births

distant

be

to

if

rebirth.

sought
could

divest

we

as

some

within

lead

neither
When

us.

births,
re-

time

or

Karma
of

ourselves
we

suffers

the

and

somewhere

action

to

us

nor

should

enjoys,

Indians, weaned

worldly events, sought for and

peaceful goal could be found, they
of

man.

The

belief that the soul could

being permanently

these

the

divested

conclusion

worldly elements

illusory.In its true nature

and
impuritiesof our ordinary life,
even

of
fruits,

at

the

believingthat

be attained

action,feelings
or
ideas,led logicallyto
connection

with

has

turmoil

somewhere

actions

self which

undergoes
and

one's

beginninglesstime

desires

or

of

and

but

the endless bustle

that

they

was
kingdom,
endless
cycle,and

nor

generallyhit

to

the actionless

us

works

believed

be

end

but

of karma

emotions, ideas

find within

by

world,

beginninglesschain
this

connection

mysterious

was

of
that

all
the

extraneous,

the soul is untouched

it is through

ignorance

Pessimism

iv]
and

inherited

passion as

less time

that

cycle of

births
the

of the

dissolution

called

the

Nirvana,

of which

nature

The

shall discuss

we

the

to

admit

systems except Buddhism

Indian

entity variously called

permanent

of Sou/.

Doctrine

the

exact

nature

of

of

view.

Thus

while

soul

this
the

atman,
there

the Vedanta

implied in

consciousness

pure

being {sat). But

in its nature
form

and

that

in

all

absolutely

it

unconscious

entity,
ness,
conscious-

pure

point of unity
(anandd),and pure

(at),pure bliss
holding that it is pure

impuritiesof

part of it. The

real

all agree

gences
diver-

indeed

are

of

jlva.

or

purusa

fundamental

it is that

that

says

the existence

calls

Nyaya

qualitylessand characterless,indeterminate
Samkhya describes it as being of the nature

action

passion do

or

of

bonunt

summum

unsullied

and

all

The

Pessimistic

Attitude

Optimistic

towards
Faith

the belief that the world

Though

equally prominently emphasized

considered

as

in

utterance

in

being shared by all

Samkhya, Yoga, and

the
the

not

life is attained

of the
and the pure nature
impuritiesare removed
thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other
connections
with it are
absolutelydissociated.

when
is

in the ultimate

is to be found

on.

All

As

beginning-

realization of this

The

these.

of karma

process

3.

of

from

karma

cycle of

it with

75

of this endless
goal and final achievement
did
Buddhists
The
and rebirths through karma.
of soul, but recognized that the final
existence

realization

later

the

Optimism

is the

state

admit

not

from

connect

we

transcendent

and

World

self
traneous
ex-

the

and

end.

is full of

has

sorrow

in all systems,

Buddhism.

been
be

it may

yet

It finds

of them.

not

its strongest
interminable

This

looked
as
painfulexperiences was
upon
but embroiling and entangling us in the
What
as
pleasures
karma, rebirth,and sorrow.
appear

pleasurableand
nearing no peacefulend
chain

of

meshes
are

but

of
a

mere

painful,there
anxious

to

for the attempt

appearance
is

have

pain

when

them.

we

When

lose the
the

to

keep

them

pleasuresor
pleasures are so

steady is

when
much

we

are
ciated
asso-

but duped
We
are
painsthey are but pains themselves.
when
seek pleasures,
for they are
to lead us
to pain. All
sure
we
and
sorrowful
our
ultimatelysorrowexperiences are essentially
of the
truth of this process
is the ultimate
begetting. Sorrow
with

Observations

j6
world.

That

appears

to

which
wise

to

be removed

also be avoided

by

forced

it is

is

life of

action

by

uproot

sorrow

leads

action

elevation

highest moral

towards
from

all

in its true

When

this is

with

passion

dissociated

or

done

the

attain

rid of

get

knowledge

true

the

can

Thus

is

nature

dispassion

rightlyconceived.

again

never

at

associated

be

ultimately

this stage
it the

within

contains

actions.

absolute

body, mind, and speech

the self
mind
is so purified,

It becomes

citta which

emotions, ideas,and

to

to

retire in

self

ignorance.

from

lead

will but

our

may

its true

light,and

once

It cannot

continually

are

way

greatness and

man

world-experiencesand
When
worldly concerns.

shines

only

it comes,

ignorance that the self

with the experiencesof life or its pleasures,
and
arouses
ment
passion in us for the enjoyother
and
activities. Through
emotions

pleasures and

of
the

to

us

in.

we

suicide

The

for all. It is

once

intimatelyconnected

that

rebirth.

as

comes

suicide,for

or

of moral

sorrow

sorrow

nature, and

our

and

sorrow

the culmination

by

which

to

inaction

mere

for each

another

yogin

turbance
grain of disworldly experiencescannot

of

sorrow

experiences.The
the smallest

even

by bringing in remedies
it is remedied

another

world

with

This

for the moment

being

to which

the eye

is unbearable.

pleasurable

seems

person

yogin who has a clearer vision as

knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness
to

or

person

pupilof

is like the

ordinary

an

dissatisfaction

and

sorrow

to

greater the

painful.The

Philosophy [ch.

Systems of Indian

on

emancipated

the

of

root

self for

all

ever

important, however, to note in this

connection
that emancipation is not based
on
a general aversion
with the world or on such feelingsas a disappointed
to intercourse
all

conquers

person
as

the

creed

have,

may

supremely
of each

shirk

the

but

the

on

blessed

details

The

developed
There

system.

duties

appreciationof

one.

have

system

peculiarto each
to

It is

sorrow.

of this

was

of

the

the

pessimistic

logicalnecessity
tendency
slightest
them

rise above

to

mukti

the

from

never

but
life,

of

the state

through

a
right performance and right understanding. It is only when
rises to the highest pinnacle of moral
man
glory that he is fitfor

aspiringto

that

realization

of selfhood

all

the joys
worldly things or even
shrink
into insignificance,
but appear
sorrowful
all

and

loathsome.

ordinary joys that

In fact it

seems

to

me

It is when

he

of

sincere

comparison

Heaven

in their

his mind

strive towards

can

that

in

would
true

with

which

only

not

character

has thus turned

as

from

his ideal of salvation.

religious
craving after

some

iv]

in

Unity

ideal

and

blessedness
from

fact

complex

that

which
of

The

we

view

confidence

in

one's

and

all terror

loses

self

own

no

and

of

India

fear

for

but

the

logically
remember

we

ourselves.

in

in

absolute

ultimate

the

of

be

if

us

mental
funda-

many

can

blessed

it closes

as

the

is indeed

philosophy

has

us

sorrowless

naturally

pessimistic

her

civilization

around

sorrow

are

the

jj

self-realization

only

not

phenomena

deduced.

of

quiet

Sadhana

The

optimistic
and

destiny

of

goal

emancipation.
Indian

in

Unity

Sadhana
ethical

and
As

for

injury

for

desire

of

high degree
mind

his

his

of

for

regard

to

the
later

adopted

same

as

almost

universal
secured

there

their

goal

the

advocated

there

all the

Indian

in
for

and

India
India

for

of

attitude

the

unique

systems.
this
in

uniformity

of

all her

the

the
the

Thus
various

world

being

and

funda-

practical sadhana

sadhana

aspirations

only
more

thought.

among

the

tially
essen-

It is

religious craving
of

are

but

occupy

goal {sadhana)

The

There

system.

towards

unityin

with

names,

to

seen

differences

life,their

Yoga

is

prepare

everywhere

schools

Vaisnava
many

was

unity

the

by

of

almost

very

attainment

purpose.

technical

are

are

and

the

all

which

unanimous

are

the

or

(bkakti)

were

it for

trolled,
con-

that

attains

man

systems

be

and

done,

upon

followed

to

are

strengthen

steadying

purification

in

to

details

attainment

same,

the

and

be

principles

are

has

Indian

devotion

that

for

means

mentally

those

be

When
he

certain

for

though

yet

checked,

agreed

must

passions

should

employed

place specially

that

systems,
the

in

the

be

to

means

times

of

most

be

prominent
was

purifying

divergences

means

be

greatness

further

the

to

indeed

in

moral

ideal; and

form

acknowledged.

universally

almost

all

all

are

which

That

any

should

pleasures

systems

conduct

ethical

life in

to

Indian

salvation.

of

attainment

the

no

of

of

religious

endeavours).

the

expected

general principles

the

it

be

might

(philosophical,

and

has

has

been

therefore

strivings.

CHAPTER

V
PHILOSOPHY

BUDDHIST

scholars

MANY

be

may

been

to

every

and

the

of

has

largely
of

systems

have

we

Moreover
that

that

conflict

of

opposition

should

but

the
had

it is well-known

knowledge

and

relation

them.

them

philosophic enquiry
A

Yoga

It is also

view,

with

in

of

most

is

different

Buddhism.

to

begin

the

Buddhism

of the

right understanding

the

India.

of

such
as

philosophy

for

and

inspirationfrom

in

Buddhism.

therefore

desirable

seems

treatises

thought.

mutual

of its

Yoga

stimulated

Hindu

in their

systems

much
truth

Hindu

indispensable

therefore

Samkhya

some

after

written

student

Buddhists

drew
is

systematic Samkhya
decidedly

the

systematic speculations

there

that

that

opinion

Buddhism

that

suggested
It

earliest

the

represent

of

are

with

It

Buddhism

first.
The

of

State

difficult

is indeed

It

these

that

atheistical
and

had

"

time

everything
destiny

or

through

of

these

referred

flourished

SvetasVatara,

that
Lokayata (literally,
name

by which

the Lokayatas.

to

svabhabo
which

all carvaka

schools

in later

and

doctrines

the

thought
all these
that

inexorable

happenings,

Of

Carvakas

to

the

no

Upanisad

(Dhurtta
the
But

See

and

time
it

in

seems

iti cintyam.

general) seems

vfere generally known.

or

diverse

also, but

yonih purusa
in

world

others

an

literature,though

aiaong

of

that

literature

people

the

diverse

to

References

niyatiryadrccha bhutdni

and

not

some

rightly be discovered2.
is found

before

were

origin

known.
of

different

known,

these

accidental

Buddhist
are

India

with

general.

views

two

cannot

the

in

these
the

kalah

in

found

of

of

in

(svabhdvd),

accordance

in

the

all,others

nature

concourse

are

the

of

of

references

discussed,

own

combinations

I. 2,

that

cause

forth

fortuitous

materialists
are

their

by

accounts

Su"iksita)

on

there

ultimate

come

heresies

detailed

which

had

matter

of

kinds

type

forth

sprung

find

But

Buddha.

well

are

find

we

sometimes

the

was

Upanisads

Upanisads

were

"

sketch

prevalent

were

of the

We

creeds1.

its processes

that

been

in the

Even

ones.

short

the

before

brieflydescribed.

been

already

have

only

doctrines

The

India

give

to

philosophical speculations
Buddhism.

in

Philosophy

to

have

Gunaratna

Carvakas

v]

ch.

however

probable
the

in

Upanisads

Carvakas
other
and

that

did

the

refers

in the

holy scripture.According
consciousness

just

red

as

colour

the

was

yellow or as the power

{wiadasakti).There is

no

there

nor

is neither

long

virtue

them

to

there

Life

of matter,

the combination

mixing up white with

was
generated in molasses

of intoxication
and
after-life,

it lasts it is needless

any

soul.

no

was

or

of

result

Life

vice.

Vedas

the

authority of

The

schools.

similar

to

or

products of

the

were

materialists contained

to the

these

to

believe

not

allusion

79

of

for

only

is

think

reward

no

actions,as

enjoyment.

So

of

anything else,as everything

will end
the body is burnt
with
at death
death, for when
be any
rebirth.
there
to ashes
cannot
They do not believe in
the validityof inference.
Nothing is trustworthy but what can
be directlyperceived,for it is impossible to determine
that the
as

of the

distribution

the

validityof
inference

any
there

is

comes

Dhurtta

Carvakas

elements

of
of

atomic

virtue

or

vice.

soul

They

written

quote

that

not

of which

The

body

was

Carvakas
that

no

held

it also

was

case

fact and
because

religiousor
to

carv

that the

There

but

any

eat.

nothing but

was

and
fire,

Susiksita

the

from

there

air and

other

accept any

upon

might destroy

called Carvaka

were

comes

combination.

apart from

body

the

was

self

four

but the

soul, no

or

that

The

there

was

destroyed with

of the

destruction

atna

held

earth,water,

result

was

it.

only eat but would

The
word
responsibility.

moral

the

about

would

they

absence

depended

not

If in
particularpiece of inference.
accidental
to be true, it is only an

any

certitude

no

(hetu)has

term

condition, the

extraneous

some

middle

to

body. The originalwork of the Carvakas

probably by Brhaspati. Jayanta and Gunar-

in sutras
two

from

sutras

it. Short

of this school

accounts

may

be

SarvadarsanasamJayanta'sNydyamahjarl, Madhava's
Tarkarahasyadipikd. Mahdbhdrata
graha and Gunaratna's
gives
called Carvaka
of a man
account
an
meeting Yudhisthira.
of the Carvaka
Side by side with the doctrine
materialists we
found

of

reminded

Gosala, probably
Ajlvakas of which Makkhali
and a contemporary
renegade discipleof the Jain saint Mahavlra

are
a

in

Buddha

of the

and

Mahavlra,

determinism
for
responsibility
Makkhali's
or

remote,

denying
any

the

was

the

so-called

leader.

free will of

good

system is this,that "there

for the

depravity of

This

or

is no

beings or

was

and

man

evil.
cause,

The
either

for their

going
thoroughhis moral
essence

of

proximate
purity. They

Buddhist

80
become

without

so

efforts

own
on

for
effort,

human

any

efforts of

the

there

The

human

to

fate,to

their environment

that there

no

was

world,

other

nor

we

can

do

an

end

at

There

or

was

this

prevents

the

That

to

come

the

any

evil deeds

or

had

nor

due

are

taught

; there

parents

is

nor

no

any

this life.

Nothing that
being wholly brought to

to

from

and

country

traditional

custom

those

to

basis

behind

There

were

probably

on

then

Samkhya

is the

change

nihilistic

do

but

away

without

the

realityand

pass

of circumstances

conceptions
or

schools,philosophy had

by

some

probably

Yoga practicesprevalentin
accepted partly on the strength of
the

were

were

sections,and

certain

and

which

had

these

But

they

rational

no

These

they could lean for support.

just tending towards being affiliated
which

doctrines

had

which

grown

virtue

partlyby

physical power

performed them.

them

which

abides

concourse

among

who

gave

ultimate

that everything comes

abiding reality,

intellectual
spiritual,

of the great

secondly the Upanisad

the

form

Thirdly

of these

these

the
thought: firstly
magical rites of which any

self,is

permanently

In each

of

currents

and

name

fortuitous

the

this is self.

deadlock.

nebulous

but

law, no

fate.

unknown

energy,

time

nature1."

desired ;

he

anything

which

no

being by

into

good

force of the

Brahman,

true, and
is

the

by

all else

there

that

or

power

by Ajita Kesakambali

alike

us

at

own

real;

at least three

attain

that

abide.

real and

led

result of

of

any

thus

could

being,and
not

conditions

one's

on

nothing depends

thing as

their

one

short

either

death2.
were

teaching

and

fruit

sacrificial Karma
person

such

no

efficacywith respect

lives any

former

is

school
sophistical

Another

others, in

varying

or

exertion.

[ch.

Nothing depends

cause.

any

on

or

Philosophy

certain

among

up

the

to

erecting
juncture that we find Buddha
a new
superstructure of thought on altogetheroriginallines which
of philosophy for all posterity
thenceforth opened up a new
avenue
motionless,
If the Being of the Upanisads, the superlatively
to come.
sections.

It

was

at

this

only real,how could it offer

speculations,as it had already discarded
the

was

interest ?
of

direction
1
a

If

everything

was

due

create

any

philosophy of

S"mannaphala-sutta,Digka,
II. 23.
Simaiiilaphala''sutta,

II.

could

circumstances, reason
to

to

io.

the

for further

all other

reasonless
not

Hoernle's

scope

article on

further
The

unreason.

the

of

matters

fortuitous

proceed

new

course
con-

in the

magical

E.
Ajivakas,

R.

E.

[ch.

Philosophy

Buddhist

82

study can be collected. But from what we now

possess
and
that it is one
of the most
wonderful
it is proved incontestably
wisdom.
It is impossible to oversubtle productions of human
estimate
the
civilization
that
culture
and
the debt
philosophy,
to it in all her developments for many
of India owe
succeeding
such

centuries.
Buddhist

Early

Scripturescontain three different collections :

the Vinaya (relating
to the
Sutta (relating
to the doctrines),
Buddhist

The
the

of
discipline
to

the

Pali

and

historyof

modern

technical

canonical

however

composed

s/probable
completed

before

before

the

241

B.C., the

of Buddhistic
to

of the

fix any

Buddhists.

of

the

definite dates

The

suttas

and
canonical

of the

date

religious

different parts of the

Abhidhamma

whole

the

yet

as

of the

literature

almost

that

failed

have

(relating
generally
with
them
in a
dealing

Scholars

composition

or

aforesaid

but

suttas

manner).

times

collection

the

the

subjects as

same

the Abhidhamma

and

monks)

the

scholastic

for

Literature.

third

were

it is

very

works
council

were

during

The
suttas mainly deal with the doctrine
reignof King Asoka.
of the Buddhistic
the Vinaya deals
faith whereas
(Dhamma)
of the monks.
only with the regulationsconcerning the discipline
is mostly the same
that
The
as
subject of the Abhidhamma
the

of

the

suttas,

the

namely,

interpretationof

the

Dhamma.

to Atthasalini,the commentary
Buddhaghosa in his introduction
the Dhammasangani,
is so called
on
says that the Abhidhamma

(abhi and dhamma)

related

in the

it describes

because
in

suttas

more

the

Dhammas

same

intensified

as

{dhammatireka)

are

and

The
Abhidhammas
specialized(dhammavisesatthena) manner.
doctrines
that are
do not
in the suttas, but
not
give any new
elaboratelywith those that are already found
they deal somewhat
in the suttas.
the specialfeatures
Buddhaghosa in distinguishing
of the

suttas

of the

former

from
leads

the latter leads

of

this statement

one

the
one

Abhidhammas
to

attain

to attain

probably

wisdom
lies in

says

meditation

that

the

acquirement
{samadhi) whereas

(paundsampadam).
this,that

the

The

force

dialoguesof

the

chastening effect on the mind, the like of which is

not
to be found
in the Abhidhammas,
which
in
busy themselves
doctrines and
in a
enumerating the Buddhistic
defining them
technical
which
is more
fitted to produce a reasoned
manner,
suttas

leave

v]

Buddhist

Early

Literature

83

insightinto the doctrines than directlyto generate

for the extinction
for followingthe path of meditation
Abhidhamma

The

known

Abhidhammas

other

in the

form

of

opponents

the

schools

questions and
often

are

to

absurdity.The

to

shown

be

to

of

sorrow.

the

the views

reduce

discussions

and

answers,

craving

differs from

Kathavatthu

this,that it attempts

in

of the heterodox

as

the

based

proceed
of the

answers

contradictory

on

assumptions.
The
These

contain

suttas

of collections

five groups

(1) Digha Nikaya,

called

called the

Nikayas.

of the

length
contained
in it; (2) Majjhima Nikaya (middling
of the suttas
of the middling extent
of the
Nikaya), called so on account
contained
in it ; (3) Samyutta Nikaya (Nikayas relating
suttas
of their being
to
specialmeetings),called samyutta on account
delivered owing to the meetings (samyoga)of special
persons which
for them ; (4)Anguttara Nikaya, so called bethe occasions
cause
were
in each succeedingbook
of this work the topicsof discussion
increase by one1; (5) Khuddaka
Nikaya containing Khuddaka
patha, Dhammapada, Udana, Itivuttaka,Sutta Nipdtay Vimdnavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragathd, Therigathd,Jdtaka, Niddesa,
Patisambhiddmagga, Apaddna, Buddhavamsa, Carydpitaka.
Abhidhammas
The
Patthdua, Dhammasahgani, Dhdtuare
and
Kathavatthu.
kathd, Puggalapannatti, Vibhanga, Yamaka
are

exists also

There

works

of the above
Panha

so

literature

largecommentary
known

as

account

on

atthakatha.

The

on

diverse

work

parts

known

as

Milinda),of uncertain

(questionsof

date, is
King
value.
of considerable
philosophical
/
The
doctrines and views
incorporatedin the above literature
"/
Theravada.
is generallynow
known
Sthaviravada
On the
as
or
Theravada
(the doctrine of the elders)Dipaoriginof the name
met
vamsa
(elders)
(atthe first council)
says that since the Theras
Milinda

and

collected

does

not

the doctrines

appear

it

known

was

that Buddhism

as

as

it appears

the Thera

Vada2.

It

ture
in this Pali litera-

the
developed much since the time of Buddhaghosa (400 A.D.),
writer of Visuddhimagga (a compendium of theravada
doctrines)
and the commentator
of Dighanikdya, Dhammasangani, etc
Hindu
to have been influenced
fluenced
philosophyin later times seems
by the later offshoots of the different schools of Buddhismism, but
it does
1

See

not

appear

that

Pali

Buddhaghosa's Atthasdlini, p.

had

Buddhism
25.

any

share

in it. I

Oldenberg'sDipavamsa,

p. 31.

6"2

/
V

Buddhist

84
have

considered

be

as

The

word

in four

senses:

(hetu)and
these

Hindu

being acquainted with

Pali.

point
philosophy

last

did

not

these

is

But

phenomena?
away
"

out

"

happens

of

or

realityhow

else

what
not

others

exact

series

and

become

of

this

has

Nikdya (II.5)

This

produced.

what

find
else

phenomena
being V
happening \

there

the

is called

{paticca-

it is difficult to understand
The

dependence.
the

which

it with

to

The

that

others; by

But
origination.

nature

happening
see

passing

was

else is not."

some

are

and

the Buddha

we

that*}

for the J

account

happening

What

being

to

all

pheno-

question arises

we

with

what

also

dependent

is the

is,"

are

are

"

determining

unsubstantial

The

the

What

"

the

dhammas.

in

Samyutta

Buddhism1.

{nissatta mjjzva*). Of

entity as

were

being
and

samuppddd)

it

main

events

what

with

happening
phenomena there

some

fixed

called

are

certain

could

is

phenomena
point of interest

the

What

"

soulless

accept any

substance

no

and

early

who

particularly
important from
The
philosophy.
early Buddhist

Buddhist

were

and
which

meaning
of

reality;the only things

mena

of

writer

Buddhistscripturesis used generally

(i) Scripturaltexts, (2) quality(guna),(3) cause

of view

if there

Connection

(4) unsubstantial

and

any

in the

Dhamma

it is the

the

discover

to

of Causal

Doctrine

The

old

able

been

not

[CH.

Philosophy

question

Buddha

as

started

miserable
condition
this: in what
was
attainingBuddhahood
the people ! they are
born, they decay, they die, pass away
and
the path of escape
born
are
they do not know
again ;

before
are

and
from

this
How

and

""

know

to

death.

and

and

decay, death
the

Then

way

it occurred

death, depending

deeply

into the

death

and

on

him

to

do

this

what

they

there

misery

of

decay
decay

being there,are
come

it occurred

matter,

when

occur

from

escape

what

of the

root

only

can

misery.
to

he

As

to

him

is birth(jdti),
so

thought

that

decay

they depend

Co
1

There

of the

twelve

Buddhist

differences of

some

are

links of

view,

Samyutta does

as

this doctrine of the twelve

and

as

it

gives us

discussions
*

start
to

in

desana

where

substances.

not

represent the oldest

are

it in the

regarded

philosophyI
Dr
also

have
E.

not

as

i.e. Dharmmas

senses

are

take the doctrine

part of the

fundamental

thought it fit

J. Thomas

other

could

one

Samyutta Nikdya

teaching.The
religious

gunadravyapurvaka dharmmd,
and

find

the earliest form.

it means

whether

to

we

became

causes

Atthasaiini, p. 38. There

dhamma
as

as

as

causes

opinion as

drew

my

in which

which

earliest

the

But

Buddhist

to

enter

attention
the

word

into
to

as

doctrine

tural
conjec-

this fact.

is used,

as

described Dharmma

Lahkdvatdra
those

as

suttas.

are

associated

as

butes
attri-

Doctrine

v]
What

birth.

on

of

Causal

being there, is
it occurred

there

could

birth

depend?

Then

previous existenc"^"kava)1.But on
depend, or what being there is there

were

existence
occurred

hirn^Jiatthere

to

It occurred

to

depended.

There

what

him

occurred

be

can

could

be

not

that

be

must

it occurred

him

in order

that

contact

there

there

depend

contact

do

there

must

depend
there

be

the

be

may

the

word

This

(La Vallee

janakam

be

does
be

may

be

must

feeling4.If
to

him

fields of

six

is

the

this

deed

there

vaca

it

question

that

rather

should

as

be

Jthere

no

sense-

six

are

(ayatanay.

does

sense-

But

on

him

that

that

there

to

in order

what

sense-

does

what

on

on

namarupa

consciousntsstyinndna)

what

which

'

depend, or
feeling(vedand)h To this
sense-contacr
a
{phassa)

contact:

but

But

samutthdpayati kayena

there

(tanhd)*.But

vedana

that

interpretedby Candrakirtti

as
edition)

?_ To

that without

namarupa8.

no

bhava

him

to

it

did

depend?
body\ndmarupa)

and

if

this

Then

unless

It occurred

ayatanas

be

bhava.

existence

feeling.But

no

only

feelirtg
(vedand) in order

fields of contact5;

Poussin's

kar?na

may

be

the mind

six

be

there

the

are

six

It occurred

could

there

It occurred

contacts, there
what

on

birth

does

what

is desire

desire

be

what

that

would

if there

be

must

But

there,that

to

was

there

there

does

upadana depend?
which
on
desire~(tan/id)
upadana

upadana

can

be desire.

may

what

him

to

it

that

being there,

there

that

holding fastiupaddna)2. But on^what

were

him

what

birth,on

there

to

85

Connection

being
in his

brought

there

would

vrtti,p. 565

Madhyamika

about

there

rebirth (punarbhava-

ca).

manasd

AtthasalinT, p. 385 upadanantidajhagahanam. Candrakirtti in explainingupadana

,

desires he holds
fast to the materials necessary
for
thing a man
says that whatever
attainingit (yatra vastuni satrsnastasya vastuno
vidhapanaya
upadanamupdWjanaya
dalte tatra tatra prdrthayate). Madhyamika
vrtti,p. 565.
3
Candrakirtti
describes trsna as asvddanabhinandanddhyavasanasthanadatmapri-

yariipairviyogoma
that

there

not

may

prdrthand

bhut, nityamaparitydgo bhavediti, yeyam

ever

be any

from
separation

those

pleasures,etc., which

"

desire

the
are

dear

to

Ibid. 565.

us.
4

We

read

also of

phassayatana and

phassakaya.

M.

N.

11.

261,

III.

280, etc.

drakirtti
Can-

sadbhirayatanadvaraih krtyaprakriyah pravarttante prajnayante.

tanndmarupapratyayam
sadayatanamucyate. sadbhyakayatanebhyahsatsparsakaydh
says

M.

V.

565.
the six senses
together with
Ayatana
Field of operation." Salayatana means
six senses
has ayatanadvaraih.

pravarttante.
5

"

that

means

I have

followed

Compendium,

p. 271.

the translation
This

seems

to

of Aung
me

to be

their
as

is
objects. Ayatana literally
kirtti
operation. Candra-

six fields of

mind
and body,
as
rendering namarupa
called
The
four
skandhas
c
orrect.
are
fairly
us
give
(mind
(matter)
namarupa
rupa
in

birth. These
together with
body) which
being developed render the activities through the six sense-gates
possibleso that there may be knowledge. Ci.M. V. 564. Govindananda, the commentator
nama

and

in

each

Cc/vv^J

*\%

be

But

vififtana there

be

mieht

and

difficult

actuallywished

hand

Bhavacakra

He

those

the
signifies
of them.

or

rather

as
a

could

be

what

to

the

Buddha

of existence

existence). Decay
happened if there was
this

at

the

point

the

of

theory

and
no

difficulty

rebirth

was

as

and

name

agree

the womb

of

and

Govindananda

means

See
the

is the

sense

exact

to introduce

of the

that

physicalbody

nama

built

out

produced

were

Veddntakalpataru^ pp. 274, 275.

D. N. II. 63.
compare

On

womb

of the word

The

here.

proper philosophical
the
he had often to use
terms

and

called rupa.

holding

of it namariipa

account

on

in

the visible

produced,

are

blood

and

black, semen

with

and
that alayavijfiana,

hence called nama)

are

and

into
vijnafia

Some

senses.

the permanent is Avidya ;

and infatuation ; from

terms
philosophical

at

least

Buddha
and
same
are

was

logy
phraseoword

in

therefore

compared with the terms of preciseand definite meaning which we find

abkisankharonli"
thought. Thus in S. N. III. p. 87, Sahkhatam
it is transthat which synthesises
the complexes. In the Compendium
lated
"

will,action.

different

the

method
philosophical

less different

means

will be

vinnana

antipathyor anger,
foetus is produced; from

while rupa

ovum

entrance

distinct

Sanskrit

ignorance

of

the momentary

of previous karma.

association

elasticwhen

later

sankhara

in

the

It is difficultto say what

more

in

think

To

of the firstfew earliest thinkers

with

as

of attachment,

Amalananda

and

semen

is

sarikharas

stopped

But

that

produced the white

are

the doctrine of the

1

"

thought of

entered
Vijfiafia

through the

one

not

(which are objectsof

Vacaspati and

Both

says

the samskaras

there the first vijfiana

or

from

the

it occurred

of
the Brahmasutras
(n. ii.19),givesa different interpretation
probably refer to the Vijnanavada view though we have no means

on

may

verifyit.
come

have

clear.

be

remember

which

Here

cycle of dependence

(wheel

could

must

the four elements

and

this

We

to

there

by

to

"ankara'sbhasya

from

be

seems

Namariipa

be

definite

to

This

begins.

at

mean

{jardmarana)

birth8.

on

to

called

sometimes

could

there

on3.

so

It is indeed

death

then

stopped

if the sarikharas

stopped,and

orderHthat

in

if there

be

only

can

be

that

conformations^awMtfra)1.

the

the sarikharas

there

avijjacould

'

stopped

must

are

him

to

be

sarikharas

the

that

him

{avijja).If
o

there

being

what

to

it occurred

Here

vififiana.

[ch.

Philosophy

Buddhist

86

sense

Mr

Aung thinks that it means

from

what

we

the

find in the word

same

as

sahkhara

karma
khandha

; it is here used

(viz.mental

in Dhamma
get a list of 51 mental states forming sankhara khandha
Sahgani, p. 18, and another different set of 40 mental states in Dharmasamgraha, p. 6.

states).We

In addition to these fortycittasamprayuktasamskdra, it also counts

thirteen cittaviit as meaning attachment, antipathy and
prayuktasatnskara. Candrakirtti interprets
the commentator
Sankara's Brahma-sutra
on
infatuation,
(11.ii.
p. 563. Govindananda,

19),also interpretsthe

word

in connection

with the doctrine of Pratityasamutpdda

as

attachment, antipathyand infatuation.

a
8

Samyutta Nik"ya, II. 7-8.

duhkha
ing),
(sufferJara and marana
paridevana(lamentation),
bring in soka (grief),
and
of
wretchedness
and
miserableness)
(feeling
daurmanasya
upayasa (feelingof

extreme

the death of other dear ones.

at the prospect of one's death
or
destitution)
M.
and are the results of jati(birth).
V. (B.T. S. p. 208).
up suffering
in his bhasya counted
series
from jara,separately.The whole
all the terms

All these make

Sankara
is

to

be taken

as

of
the entirety
representing

duhkhaskandha.

v]

Theory of Rebirth

enunciated
as

in the

insect

an

collects

Upanisads.

going

another

Carvakas
vaka

believed

doctrine.

The

criticize it. This

infinite number
few

future.

Buddha
be

If bhava
it to mean,

determined
a

as

better

as

depend

people

desired.

had

This

the
of

"

born

The

word

and

There

The

word

used

was

could

betaken

not

our

of the

betaking

not

oneself

to

only
note

tadabhi"bhava"
to

suit

used

rather

found

in the

scripturesfor the

on

been

themselves

what

does

this

previous existence
things or works
they

actions

ance
things in accordupadana. In the Upanisads we read,
whatever
betakes himself to, so does he work"
one
( Yatkraturtatkarmma
bhavati
kurute, Brh. IV. iv. 5). As this betaking to
the thing depends upon
desire (trsnd),
it is said that in order
with

desire

to

or

is called

"

there

that

also
himself
the

The
as

we

be

upadana

read

there

"Whatever

to"

(sa yathakamo
upadana nor trsna

word
1

such

may

attempts

the

to

prove

Nyaya, etc., are

one

bhavati

the doctrine

be

must

tanha.

desires

so

In

the

does

he

sads
Upanibetake

tatkraturbhavati).Neither

(the Sanskrit
of rebirth

in the

and inadequate.
slight

which

Upanisad

is not

Pali

But

have

takes

could

kurute

probably

the

the

bhava

in

{bhava).

Candrakirtti

karma

was

of

present birth

of
interpretation
to
me
karma) seems

philosophicalterm.

people, and

present birth

( Yat

an

case

previousexistence

lectin

of them

existence
as

not

had

in the

1
1

this

does

iv. 5). Candrakirtti's

IV.

Upanisads

to

reminded

are

be

kammabhava.

first time

if

we

will he

"existence."

looselyfor

bhava

that

(punarbhavajanakam

than

earlier

also

what

another

upon

mean

all

by

Car-

refute

to

which

except

brings rebirth

of the works

so

sampadyate,Brh.
Karma

which

account

does

man

came

did

infinite number

an

to think

fall back

to

it. Here

"

have

the

of the

us

one

T)e^Uv

been

disprove

or

fact and

as

of

end

presupposes

prove

to

which

strongly believed

it would

then

place on

as

would

as

only

comes

new

the

philosophy except
they

it

accepts

ones

karma

means

of

what

say

before,and

he

to

just

effort

seldom

has

little is known

so

also

was

due, had

life thus
there

attempt

lives

also, when

might

take

It

This

that

says

by a
coming to

soul

schools

life therefore
of

emancipated

in the

All

in it and

Buddha

the

serious

any

it is difficult to

that

sutras

I remember

as

rebirth1.

of

Brhadaranyaka
leaf of grass

another.

far

after Buddha

or

doctrine

the

So

The
of

does

so

itself in

existence.

before

end

itself in another

life collect

this

the

to

87

word
Hindu

corresponding
works
philosophical

t
UACA"vaC

Buddhist

88

in the earlier

tanha) is found

to

in them

similar

are

Sense-contact

whole

psychosis of

or

the

in the

in

reality2.Buddhaghosa
"

Name

"

the

meant

are

elements

four

He

further

and
that

says

as

also

cannot

produce
the

crippleand

blind

this word

derivative
itself

when

and

when

any

such

cardinal

the

sound

movements

all the

same

way

those

without, come
and

/rupa taken
body,
to

but

operate
the

The

of "field
*

having

will not

the

sense

functions

in the

viftfiana

word
or

Candraklrtti

I.

can

Form

not

nama.

in each

saha

or
"

both

not

go

the compass

form

But

like
and

to

collection

but

just as

of sound

from

come

of the

any

;...inexactly the

those

with

and

form

having previouslybeen
existence
pass away6." Namathe

mean

and

see

the

whole

body

with

that it may

of

which

mind

be said to

watchman

has
at

the

and

found

are

{salayatana). If

sense

take

we

depend

been

pared
com-

middle

of

places in the earlier Upanisads in the sense

9. 10, but sadayatana does not occur.
as
Vedanddayd rupinaScatvarah skandhdstatra tatra
riipaskandhtnaca nama
riipam ceti namarupamucyate.
III.

birth
specific

act

as

name.

in Translations,p. 184.
185, Visuddhimagga, Ch. xvn.
Ibid. pp. 185-186, Visuddhimagga,Ch. XVII.

Ibid. p.

heap

it does

it does

So

in many

5, Brh.

nama
interprets

M.
V. 564.
namarupa.
*
Warren's Buddhism

we

Pahha

ayatana is found

place,"Cha.

of

doors

elements*.

another

one

(consciousness).Consciousness

Milinda

bhave ndmayantiti
The four skandhas

six

"Form"

after

into

come

by

sensation

itself.

previous store

no

being

sense

in the

of

into existence

in this sense,

namarupa
upon

points of

in this

only

is

it ceases,

elements

four

changes by

into existence

when

intermediate

or

there

upon,

that

says

the like.

or

they mutually help

comes

; and

store

/non-existent

played

and

forms

produce physicalchanges,

can

changes4. But there exists no

for the production of Name
and

lute is

sads
Upani-

indefinable

the

effectuate the
of material

in the

determinate

from

the

together)

beginning with
predisposition);
by

of those

any

mind

indeterminate

the

by

name

the

groups

eating,drinking,making

such

the

form

operation1.

presuppose

Visuddhimagga

three

(i.e.sensation, perception and

the

and

Desire

sense-contact.

again

of

the

the

"kdma."

fields of

as

would

sense

from

distinguished

as

and

senses

familiar with

are

it is used

there

six

(the body

man

We

called namarupa.

names

the

the ideas contained

feeling or

on

operating fields

six

senses

"kratu"

depend

to

[ch.

Upanisads, but

words

presupposes

These

but

the

to

said

is then

{tanha)

Philosophy

These

together with

rupa

make

Buddhist

90

r*-

[ch.

Philosophy

suggested,namely, the works {karma) which produce the birth1.

trsna
leading to positiveclinging2. It
Upadana is an advanced
is produced by trsna
(desire)which again is the result of vedana
is of course
vedana
with
(pleasureand pain). But this vedana

but as
ignorance (avidyd),for an Arhat may have also vedana
[he
has no
cannot
avidya,the vedana
produce trsna in turn. On
into upadana. Vedana
its development it immediately passes

means

side

it

pleasurable,painful or indifferent feeling. On the one

the other it is produced by
and on
leads to trsna (desire)
{sparsa).

sense-contact

Prof.

"rilabha distinguishes three

the

is

Poussin

sticks heat

is the

and

the

between

contact

of

production

and

sense

is the

there

takes

also

here

place simultaneously with rubbing,so

takes

by vijnana,and

namarupa

of the

mother

of which

and

the six

five elements

of

karmas

past
We

of the

Govindananda

that from

Vibhanga,p.

of

the

find that the

137

dying

of

the

of the

product

and

man

on

anything becomes,

and

Warren's

Buddhists

believed
the

determined

man

in his j?a/"a/raMa

which

is a contraction
Prof. De

principleor

upholding

mother

Sankara's

his

past

merit

as

Buddhism

in

of

la Valine

"

kammabhava"
Poussin

or

in his

last
next
"

"

Translations, p.

Karma

the

of his

nature

201.

includes kammabhavo

Thiorie

that

bhasya,il.ii.19, explains bhava

and
demerit
{dharmddi).See also

Abhidhammatthasahgaha,
an
existence)and upapattibhavo(the passive side).And
2

the

It is the

dying

p. 189, that bhavo

bhava

out

namarupa,

too.

sometimes

I thoughts

as

means

of the

there.

body

new

(sahkhara)

consciousness

probably

in the womb

the

womb

in the

specialized.

are

of consciousness

germ

descend

to

five skandhas

the

produce

senses

is said

Vijfianain this connection

as

the

that

says

place simultaneously with sparsa for they are

(sdmagrzY"
produits par un meme
complexe de causes
SparSa is produced by sadayatana,sadayatana by namarupa,

vedana
"

in

processes

Poussin

knowledge of the object,and then

the vedana.
Depending on Majjhima Nikaya, iii. 242,
gives the other opinion that just as in the case of two
then

object;

there

first there

Thus

vedana.

Valine

la

De

"

Aung

in

says

(theactive side of
commentators

say

that

becoming i.e. karmic activity.

des

S"listambhasutra

the

Mr

Douze

Causes, p. 26, says

that

"

trsna vaipulya or
explains the word
"upadana" as
hyper-trsna
and Candraklrtti also gives the same
M.
V.
T.
Govindananda
S.
meaning,
(B.
p. 210).
i.e. the active
explains"upadana" as pravrtti
(movement) generated by trsna (desire),
in
of
if
desire. But
tendency
upadana means
"support" it would denote all
pursuance
"

the five skandhas.

Thus

Madhyamaka

paflcopdd"naskandh"khyamupdddnam.
*

Poussin's

Thiorie des Douze

vrtti says
M.

V.

Causes, p. 33.

up"danam
xxvil.

6.

pancaskandhalaksanam
.

Consciousness

v]

Rebirth

and

vijnana produced in the womb

is determined
by the past vijnana of the previous existence is
of a reflected image, \
authorities of the nature
according to some
like the transmission
of learning from
the teacher
to the disciple,
birth1.

The

like the
of

so

death

lightingof

stamp

on

New

skandhas

pans

of

balance

lightedor

skandhas

the

next

the

principleof

to

are

the

new

be

At

life,

great break,

no

manner

the death

or

It is in this

the

lamp

man

the

as

of the

and

This

matured.

life.

is

same

(animal, man

vijnanas enters
gods) in which
forms

vijnana thus
vijnana that

name

associated.

(rupa) become

form

and

(ndma)

in the
fall,

of that mother

in

and

previous karmas

his

impress

changing

are

; there

like the

or

coming into being.

simultaneously as the two scale

is reflected.

image
vijnana resultingfrom
an

into the womb

skandhas

change

as

and

rise up

lamp

of destruction

sort

produced

are

another

all the

similar

uniform

same

As

is but

the

from

lamp

wax.

also

but the

is

in which

manner

and
product of the samskaras
the sort of birth in which
{ndmayati)
vijnana should bring down
determined
the
the new
existence
is
samskaras2, for
{upapatti)
by
lation
in realitythe happening of death
(rnaranabhavd)and the instilThe

vijnana is

of the

bhava)
the

they

then
chain

This

and

the

beginning

no

of the

the

life

new

latter

{upapatti-

succeeds

just

it is to

of twelve

samskara

at

signifythis close succession that

simultaneous.
If the vijnana had not entered
could have appeared3.
namarupa
and

said to be

the womb

direct

simultaneous, but

be

moment,

are

avidya

vijnana as

cannot

next

indeed

causes

of the

extends

over

past life produce

three

lives.

"

Thus

namathe~vljnana,

gardens, the woods, the trees and the plants, findingthe

make
resolution, ' May I be a cakravartti
house, Citta, ill said
your
king in a next existence,'" Samytitta,IV. 303.
2
"sa
ndvakrdmeta, na tat kalalam kalalatvaya
ceddnandavijndnam matuhkuksim
M.
sannivartteta"
V. 552. Compare
Caraka, SdrTra, ill. 5-8, where he speaks of a
of which
the soul with body and by the absence
"upapaduka sattva" which connects
when
the character
it is in a
is changed, the senses
become
affected and life ceases,
the previousbirths ; character, purity,antipathy,
remember
one
can
even
pure condition
deities of the

The

of the

master

memory,

"

fear, energy,

all mental

are
qualities

produced

out

of it.

Just as

chariot is

made

by the combination of many elements, so is the foetus.

vrtti (B.T. S. 202-203).Poussin
Madhyamaka
quotes from DTgha, II. 63, "si le
la namarupa
vijnana ne descendait pas dans le sein maternel
s'y constituerait-il?
Ankara's commentary on the Brahma-sutras
Govindananda
on
(11.ii. 19) says that the
of the previous
firstconsciousness (vijnana)
of the foetus is produced by the samskaras
3

"

birth, and
and

red,

from
semen

produced.

that the
and

ovum,

four elements
and

(which he calls nama) and

the first stage of the foetus

from

that the white

(kalala-budbuddvastha)is

Buddhist

92

[ch.

Philosophy

sadayatana, sparsa, vedana, trsna, upadana and

of the present actual
life.
life)
(leadingto another
produces the jatiand jaramarana of the next life1.

the

rupa,

to
interesting

It is

three

in

extending

of

manifestations
determine

of

birth.
'

mind

Again

have

been
and

(upadana)

twelve

is

'sorrow,'etc.

term

another.

"

taken

into

(karma)

for also.

In

(karma) becoming

and

the

and

when

the

of

actions

the

fivefold

accounted

fruit,to

wit

And

for.
causes

in the

Five

causes

Now

the

Present,
group

in the

These

the

the

consequences
of

actions

when

the

craving,grasping

into account,

ignorance
for,also

accounted
(implicitly)

death

taken

are

and

Now

to

into

account,

and

in the
in

3. bhava

the

even

rest

are

fruit.'
'

fruit

'

make

(i. sahkhara

and

Present

and

group

up
and

the

jati)and

resultant

Past, one
the

fivefold

Connections

tanha,

group

fivefold

come

Three

group

causal

one

'

composite

craving (trsna),grasping
counted
implicitlyac(bhava) are

taken

are

yet

and

causal

(one

groups

and

vedana

vififtana,2.

the

Past

Modes,

Twenty

and

consciousness,
(rebirth),

thus

Five

'

manner

been

birth,decay, and

the

account,

same

mind

chain

all but

incidental

show

to

becoming

have

in the

are

For

factor.

ignorance

the

and

is

meant

when

lives

bhava

This

ally
bringing in of which they naturThus
Abhidhammatthasahgaha

terms

only

links

twelve

three

over

to the

one

of these

each

"

says

sections

sorrow

these

that

note

bhava

four

in the

resultant

one

consistingof five modes)2."

interdependent links (dvadasahgd) represent

Future,

twelve

each

group

the

paticcasamuppada (pratityasamutpada)doctrines (dependent

which
themselves
but sorrow
and lead to cycles
are
origination)3
of

The

sorrow.

has

been
1

This

ghosa

paticcasamuppada

term

differentlyinterpreted in
explanationprobably cannot

mentions

Abhidhammatthasahgaha,
the past; "birth,"
It is

be

it in Sumahgalavildsini
viil.

"decay

3.

and

on

later

found

in the

Mahdniddna

Ignorance and

death"

to

or

the

pratityasamutpada
Buddhist

early Pali

texts

suttanta.

We

actions

of the

the future; the intermediate

literature4.
; but

Buddha-

find it also in
mind

belong to

eight to the

ill.
(havingthree branches) in Abhidharmakoia,
and
"sa
in
the
future
in
middle
the
20-24.
eight
past branch, two
pratityasamutpddo dvddaidhgastrikdndakah purvdpardntayordve dve madhyestau."
2
Aung and Mrs Rhys Davids' translation of Abhidhammatthasahgaha, pp. 189-190.

present.

Two

The

trikandaka

styled as

in the

twelve

of the Buddha,

links

are

not

always

constant.

Thus

in the listgiven in the Dialogues

and sankhara
have been omitted
and the start has been
23 f.,avijja
with consciousness, and it has been said that "Cognition turns back from name

made
and

form;
4

M.

11.

it goes

Kp.5f,

not

beyond."

v]

in

Avijja

Samutpada
tltya

after

which

there

the

same

used

in

These

of the

originof

the

Thus

when

it is meant

instrument

the

which

through

(cause)and

often

are

that

in \

used

is also

paccaya

it is said

that

sarikharas,is

the

however

words

hetu

interchangeable. But

are

of sarikhara

called

are
arising,

two

specificsense.

of

kind

some

and

sense

paccaya

of

is

(ground).

paccaya

or

appearance

find,arisingafter
on

93

arising(prddurbhdva) and pragetting {prati+i+ya)\ combining the two we

getting(something). The elements, depending

means

means

Paticcasamuppada

avijjais

the

avijjais the ground (thiti)\

ground of their movement,
stand

they

of
{nimittatthiti),

their

ayuhana (conglomeration),of their interconnection,of their

of their conjointarising,
of their function
as
cause
intelligibility,

and

of their function

as

are

determined

them.

by

ground of sarikhara
though avijjaitself is

the

the

When

take

think

of

anything

else

cause

sarikharas

reasonable

regarded

as

not

be

unwise

to

nine

that

in the

developed

proceed

further

word

khandha

generally used

and

is

seen

that
when

people held
they reallyonly found
that

them.

The

states

which

See

ground
it

seems
sense

this

inti
point

texts

it would

trunk

of

Khandhas.

mean

group

there

they

was

found

are

aggregates

immediate

with
I.

p. 50 ;

see

much

also

have

of

psychical

Nikdya,

Majjhima

one

any

divided

are

tree

(soul). He said
spoken of soul,

together or
of bodily and
and

us

We

aggregate3.

the

five khandhas

the

atman

no

the

vol.

of the

some
as

the

it.

or

Patisambhidamagga,

take

the

in

avijja2.But

to

that

cannot

we

above,

early Buddhist

with

grounds1.

we

be

to

were

means

khandhas
are

said

(Skr.skandha)

said that

Buddha

when

is

future,

into the nature

sarikharas
of

in the

chain,

mentioned

ways

the

The
The

avijjais

which

ways

other

by

causal

better vision

nine

also

its turn

those

to

these

succession, but

specialmanifestations

further

was

all

past and

in

when

the

think

to

but

Thus
in

reference

aspect of the

have

can

ground.

as

of the

we

in the

determined

hetu

aspect

paccaya

both

the

we

ground with
Avijja in

into
I.

five

67, san-

avijjdsamudaya avijjdjdtikdavijjdpabhavd.
khara...avijjaniddna
2

Yoga derivation of asmita (egoism),raga (attachment),dvesa (antipathy)

(selflove) from avidya we find also that all the five are regarded as the
five specialstages of the growth of avidya {pancaparvd avidyd).
In

the

abhinive^a

and

The

word

adhyayanam
VII.

11.

skandha

ddnam)

is used

in the

sense

in

Chandogya,

of branches

and

II.

23

{trayo dharmaskandhdh

in almost

the

same

sense

yajiiah
in

Maitrl,

Philosophy

Buddhist

94

[ch.

(four elements, the body, the senses), sense

differen
indata, etc., (2) vedana
(feeling pleasurable,painful and
thetic
(3) saftfia (conceptual knowledge), (4) sarikhara (synthe syntheticfunctioning of compound
and
mental
states
sense-affections,compound
feelings and compound
concepts),
classes:

(i)

rupa

"

(5) vinfiana (consciousness)1.

-"/ All these states rise depending
and

samuppanna)

only

deludes

The

word

as

find

in the

Nikdya,

samgraha
the

of

as

cattdro

proceeding from
ghosa explains
and

it

of

affections
are

them.

called

makes

he
as

appear

blue
not

make

yellow,red, or

or

white

to

the

or

the

makes
stone

to

not

themselves

the

five

Dharma-

sensations,

in

sense

In

rupa)3. Buddhafour

the

means

six

these

nor

blue

themselves

make

updddrupam), so
created
by
appearances
{oddtam

on

the

the

four

"Just

hard

as

gold

Bhikkhus

Samyutta Nikdya
it is called rupam

we

not

selves
them-

(nilam upddd rupam),

of

yellow,red
their similarity
as

magician they

Samyutta Nikdya,

Abhidhammatthasahgaha,J. P.
Dhammasahgani, pp. 124-179.

III.

find that the Buddha

because

it manifests

called

are

says, "O

how
{rilpyati)\

86, etc.
T. S. 1884, p. 27 ff.
4

himself

mahabhuta4."
In the

appear

as

makes

though

appear

account

as

including

appear

bird

elements
as

appear

is not

gold

is not

ghost

says

bhutas
maha-

them

senses

Buddhaghosa
which

that

and

explaining why

water

ing
defin-

mahdbhutdnam

is called

the

ceptions
per-

begins by

elements

or

rupa

which

bird,so

white

according

rupa

included.

though

ghost

the

mind

of

depending {nissdyd)on

mahabhutas,

the

himself

In

also

are

magician (mdydkdra)
hard,

arise

is also

also in Sam-

catunnahca

that

by saying

material

states

or

Dhammasahgani

of that

grasping

which

those

modification

elements

the

and

p. 16, and

mahabhutas

four

(the

of these.

more

associated

mahdbhutd

ca

self he

"rupa"

But

of five senses,

of

discussion

rupam"

updddya

just as

I.

Rupaskandha

the aggregate

or

affections

Yamaka,

(paticca-

perceivesthe

data2.

sense

other

for matter

stands

organic

pure

86.

III.

elaborate

rupa

as

the

Khandha

means

"

their

and

he

only perceivesone

implicatory communications
{vijnapti).

The

he

the

upon

that

says

rupakhandha

senses,
sense

yutta
and

in

rupa

in the

we

man

himself,for

the
qualities,

used

when

one

Atthasdlini, p. 299.

v]

Theory of Matter

does
as

it manifest?

It manifests

thirst,it manifests
and

sun

If
for

the

the somewhat

consideration

our

what

is meant

rupa,

itself to

the

senses

seems

to

the

and

were

and

the

by
the

it may
and

be

The

four

were

therefore

were

which
or

called

called

the

senses

elements

all that

together with
called

and

rupa

the

Samyutta

mahabhutas

were

of the

mental

and

and

But

communication

also

on

or

appeared
features

ayatanas
and

them

with

the

(the classes

sense-contact

were

of

sense-

that

for the

account

also

of the

sanfiakkhandha;

is the

and

hetu

Samyutta Mkdya,
Dhammasangani,

in.

but

sense-contact

Safina
86.

p. 124 ft".

is that

of

where
2

paccaya

sense-contact

the

Thus

of the vifinanakkhandha."
of the

tact
Con-

is

of the sankhara-

for the communication

namarupa

four

"the

tion
communica-

and

the hetu

"

of the communication

cause
was

they j

^-s-

said

paccaya

four

or

sensations).

and

arise therefrom.
1

that

mahabhutas

it is

ancP

forms

rupa2. The

khandha

the hetu

paccaya

do,

tion
opposi-

an

states

in association

(ill.10 1)

communication

with

now

rupakkhandha {rupakkhandhassa panhdpandyd).

also the hetu

arise

affection

The

rupa3.

Nikdya

feelings(vedana);

kkhandha.

such

in certain

other

(sense-contact,phassa) is the
for the

start

in the

of

rupa

materials,sense-data, senses
In

lowed
fol-

were

we

as

that

mention

forms

appeared

formed

their

sensations

changing manifestations,

but

themselves

were

mind

also called

were

called

also

were

; the

them

with

appeared

the

probably

not

themselves

many

rupa

and

as

Upanisads nor in the

as
pre-Buddhistic.
regarded by some

is

rupa

sense-data

the

and

and

neither

tinction
dis-

No

rupa.

the sense-data

did

place to

fested
mani-

only numerically different

the
was
dependent upon

were

matter

manifested

elements

called

which

physical world

conditions

of

found

which

Samkhya- system

the

above

to

to understand

as

that

between

Buddhism

of

so

the sense-data

certain

duality were

also

but

out

referred

that

was

sensations

of division

not

made

They

senses

them

organs

been

sensations.

kind

same

And

the

"

find

we

existing in

rupa." Under

"

and

of the

appearance

sense-data

I think

sensations.

as

combine

to

try

have

colours,smells,etc., as
appearance

mosquitos, wind, the

it is called rupa1."

of gnats,

conflicting
passages

and

by

heat, as hunger and

as

snake; it manifests, therefore

take

we

cold,and

as

the touch

as

95

paccaya

only feelings

not

safina

for the

and

sarikhara

specificknowing

Khandhayamaka.

or

Buddhist

96

[ch.

Philosophy

distinctive
conceiving takes place. This is.the stage where the specific
knowledge as the yellow or the red takes place.
Mrs
Rhys Davids writing on saftfta says: "In editing the
of the Abhidhamma
book
second
pitaka I found a classification
between
distinguishing

sanfta

cognitiveassimilation

as

occasion

on

cognitiveassimilation of ideas by way of

naming. The former is called perceptionof resistance,or opposition
(patigha-sannd).This, writes Buddhaghosa, is perceptionon

of sense,

and

occasion

of

impact

of

as

sight,hearing,etc.,when
latter is called

(mano), when
is thoughtful: "What
speech.' Thus

his
I.
are

is

of the

aware

we
things as different,
might
perception of the equivalent word or

{adhivachand-sannd) and

name

consciousness

of external

impressions;

The

say.

sanfta

there

by

is seated... and

e.g. 'one
are

is exercised

you

thinking of?"

are

two

the

asks

sensus

munis
com-

another

who

perceivesthrough

one

stages of saftfta-consciousness,

what
to know
2. ability
contemplating sense-impressions,
they
by naming1."
read in Samyutta Nikdya (ill.
sankhara
About
we
87) that it

is called
that

it

it
synthesises{abhisankharonti),

conglomerated rupa

which

saftfta, sankhara

as
as

because

sankhara

sankhara

as

It is called

consciousness.

as

conglomerated

rupa,
and

consciousness

because

sankhara

is

saftfta

(vinndna)
it

synthesises

conglomerated {sahkhatam abhisankharonti). It is thus a

synthesises the passive rupa, saftfta,
synthetic function which
the

and

sankhara

states

activityon
probably the

that
states

and

at

we

which

the

conglomerated

the
word

that

sankhara
elements

is used

sankhara

or

consciousness

already seen

have

that

also

fact

hear

we

of

52

exercises

its synthetic

in

to

in two

it,goes

senses,

as

show

mental

syntheticactivity.

as

Viftftana
as

and

The

elements.

viftftana

sankhara

the

meant

in the

intellectual

according to Buddhaghosa,

previous section, both

process

started

and

also

the
the

stage
final

resultingconsciousness.
Buddhaghosa in explainingtheprocess of Buddhist psychology
first comes
into touch {phassa)with
(citta)
says that "consciousness
its object(drammana) and thereafter
feeling,
conception {saniid)
and

volition

(cetand)come

palace,and the rest are

(dabbasambharasadisd).But
a

Buddhist

in.

This

but

the

it should

is like the

contact

pillarsof

superstructure built upon

not

Psychology,pp.

be
49,

thought

50.

that contact

it

Buddhist

98
whether

they are faultyor

various

excellent

tastes

and

not

the

to

[ch.

Philosophy
king,and

expert,and master, eats whatever

offers the food of

afterwards

he

king,being lord,

the

even
likes,

so

the

tasting

mere

enjoyment of the object

by the cook is like the partial
by the remainingstates,and as the cook tastes a portionof the
and
food,so the remainingstates enjoy a portionof the object,
as the king,
beinglord,expert and master, eats the meal according
his
to
pleasureso feelingbeing lord expert, and master, enjoys
the taste of the objectand therefore it is said that enjoyment or
experienceis its function1."
The
is said to be the recognizing
specialfeature of sanna
of a sign(abhinndnend).
(paccabhiiiiia)
According to
by means
another explanation,
takes placeby the inclusion
a
recognition
of the totality
The work of
(ofaspects) sabbasangahikavasena.
volition {cetana)
is said to be coordination
or
binding together
and makes
"Volition is exceedinglyenergetic
(abJiisandahand).
of the food

"

a
*

double
Volition

a
effort,

double

is like the nature

exertion.
of

Hence

landowner,a

said

Ancients

the

taking

cultivator who

was
to the fields to reap. He
fifty-five
strong men, went down
his
and exceedingly
strenuous
exceedinglyenergetic
; he doubled
strengthand said "Take your sickles" and so forth,pointedout
the portionto be reaped,offered them drink,food,scent, flowers,
The simile should be
etc., and took an equalshare of the work/
thus applied:volition is like the cultivator,
moral
the fifty-five
factors
which
arise
of consciousness
like the fifty-five
states
as
are
like
the
time
of
doublingstrength,
doublingeffort
strong men
;
effort of
by the cultivator is the doubled strength,doubled
volition as regardsactivity
and
immoral
acts8." It
in moral
that probably the active side operatingin sarikhara was
seems
designatedas cetana (volition).
separately

*"

"When

one

all the khandhas

that

that

says '1/ what

combined
or
was

he
any

does
one

nowhere

Tor

was

and

could
not
Just as one
the
belonged to the petals,
say that the rupa
of the other khandhas

any
to be found in the khandhas
1

of them

'I.'

fragranceof the lotus

pollen,so one could not
vedana

is that he refers either to

was
was

deludes
say that
colour or

'I'

Ibid. p.

Samyutta Nikaya, III.

130.

or

'I am3'."

the
the

that the

'1/ There

Atthasalini,pp. 109-110; translation,

pp. 145-146.
in
; translation,
pp. 147-148.

self
him-

is

v]

Ignorance
Avijja
As

the

to

there

question how

be

can

no

fruition is

in its train,and

which

it

cycleof

never

has

ever

existence

and

with

goes

existence

and

that

sorrow

them

either

beginning1. Its

any
the

started

that

say

comes

all. Thus

beginning,it determines

cyclesof

bring about

could

we

and

comes

say that it has any

never

can

avijja(ignorance)first

for existence

in the

seen

Asava.

the
for

answer,

desire

ignorance or

and

99

as

we^J

the elements

is itself determined

by
only
place
in and through the changing series of dependent phenomena, for
be said to have any absolute priority
there is nothing which
can
It is said that it is through the coming into
in time or stability.
or
into
being of the asavas
depravitiesthat the avijjacame
being,and that through the destruction of the depravities
{asava)
the avijjawas
These
classified
in they
asavas
are
destroyed2.
others.

certain

This

mutual

determination

take

can

and
as
kamasava, bhavasava, ditthasava
Dhammasangani
avijand thirst
means
desire,attachment, pleasure,
jasava. Kamasava
associated
with the senses;
after the qualities
bhavasava
means

desire, attachment

holding of

the

means

to

come

an

end,

for existence

heretical

views, such

that the world

non-eternal,or

or

will

and

or

that

the

will

body

ditthasava

as, the world

to

come

and

birth;

or

the

an

soul

is eternal

end

or

are

one

will not
or

are

the

its cause,
its
ignoranceof sorrow,
of extinction.
and
extinction
its means
adds
Dhammasangani
four more
of
supplementary ones, viz. ignorance about the nature
anterior mental
khandhas, anterior
khandhas, posteriormental
and their mutual
and posterior
together,
dependence3. Kamasava
and bhavasava
can
as
as
Buddhaghosa says be counted
one, for
they are both but depravitiesdue to attachment4.

different;avijjasavameans

Warren's

M.

Davids

N.

Buddhism
1.

p.

in Translations

Childers

54.

"intoxicants."

as

The

translates
word

(Visuddhimagga,chap, xvii.),
p. 175.
and
Mrs
"asava"
as
Rhys
"depravities"
in Skr.

"asava"

means

wine."

"old

It is derived

it is "cira
produce by Buddhaghosa
meaning
like
time
of its being stored up for a long
wine). They
pdrivdsikattkena''''
(on account
work
through the eye and the mind and continue to produce all beings up to Indra.

from

As

"su"

and

to

wines

those

which

kept long
long time. The

are

are

the

called

that

"asavas"

so

he

gives to

these

are

also

called

Buddhaghosa gives is
that they are called asava
of their producingsamsaradukkha
(sorrows of
on
account
in
of karma
the world), Atthasdlint, p. 48. Contrast it with Jaina asrava
(flowing
after
difficult
word
to translate it in one
Buddhaghosa, I have
matter). Finding it
for

asavas

translated
3

See

remaining

other

it as "depravities,"
after Childers.
Dhammasangani, p. 195.

alternative that

Buddhaghosa'sAtthasalinl, p.

371.

7"2

Buddhist

i oo

The

in the

[ch.
false

with

the true

and

metaphysical

Buddhistic

of one's

in the way

{andgdmimagga)

Nirvana

of

way

stand

kamasavas

The
the

by clouding the mind

way of one's adopting

ditthasavas
stand

views

Philosophy

trines.
doc-

entering into

bhavasavas

the

and

avijjasavasstand in the way of one's attainingarhattva or final

the Majjhima Nikdya says that from
the
emancipation. When
rise of the asavas
avijjarises,it evidentlycounts
avijjathere as
in

separate from

sense

some

attachment

desire

and

about

for

they

are

but

to

us,

such

as

infatuation

pride

arrogance,

kilesas

these

the

with

the

intertwined

are

and
This

and

and

counted

these

loosened

asavas.

three

as

kilesa.

sannakkhandha,

From

of heart

result of the

(lobha,

They

are

sarikharak-

arise the three

kinds

of mind1.

Samadhi.

all

through outside
{tanhdjatd),and the only

desire

inside

and
way

by

by

which

the

these

centration
conby the practiceof rightdiscipline
{sila),
{samadhi) and wisdom
(pannd). Sila brieflymeans
desisting from committing all sinful deeds
{sabbapdpassa

by it one
thereby
serves

is

With

akaranam).
for

{dosa)"

hardness

called

are

vedanakkhandha,

vinnanakkhandha.

and

often

are

together

Sila

be

hatred

or

(ahirika) and

they

actions,of speech,of body,

may

ledge
know-

true

or

proceeddirectlyas

varieties

and

dosa, moha)

tangles of

of

vanity (mdna), heresy

idleness (thina),
boastuncertainty{vicikicchd),

{moha\

{anottapa);these
In spiteof these

We

veil the

(Jobka),anger

covetousness

doubt
or
(dittki),
shamelessness
fulness (udhacca),

of

those

as

from
the asavas
do not
differ much
{kilesas)
the specific
passions in forms ordinarilyfamiliar

The

khandha

which

of existence

such

asavas,

sorrow.

afflictions

associated

other

the

sila therefore
to

ceases

to

the

remove

all actions

do
the

removes

inrush

of

kilesas,and
lead

sila would

of the

first start

the

be

to

made,

prompted by bad desires

dangers and disturbances.
therefore
to

one

has

the

the

proper

first two

formance
per-

successive

stages of sainthood, viz. the sotapannabhava (the stage in which

is put

one

stage when
is

one

are

right current)and

has

advanced

more

kilesas

in the

only

one

and

destroyed
1

the

birth

more

effort,for by

the

sakadagamibhava
to

it all the

tanha

Dhammasahgani,

or

undergo).
old

desire

p. 180.

roots

(the

Samadhi

of the

is removed

old
and

v]

Conduct

Right

101

is led to the more

of a saint.
It
advanced
states
by it one
directlybrings in pafina (true wisdom) and by pafina the saint
final emancipation and
achieves
becomes
what
is called
an
arhat1.
Wisdom
{pafina) is right knowledge about the four\
I
and
its cause
ariya saccas, viz. sorrow, its cause, its destruction
of destruction.
Slla

those

means

which

by

desists

who

and

mental

on

the

(cetana),2.

the

associated

man

himself

maintains

control

3. mental

from

and

{samvara)

mental
actual

4. the

of

control

which

control

of

as

being

of

saves

him

five kinds.
who

Khantisamvara

(the

samvara

abides

(the

control

of

mindfulness

by

which

looking at

any

himself

bring

can

from

proper

adherence

may

{kammd)
nant,

ledge),
know-

of

Satisamvara

in the

means

right and

good

Even

when

of his mindfulness

being tempted by avoiding

by thinking on such aspects of

which

as

its

(the
(the

patience),5. Viriya-

general.

tempting side and

lead in the right direction.
remain
can
one
unperturbed

of

of

using one's cognitive senses.

tempting object he will by virtue

(sati)control
think

(the control

when

associations

samvara
self-restraint).Patimokkha-

in

one

Samvara

Satisamvara

by it),2.

control

active

all self-control

means

right

i.

Patimokkhasamvara

Nanasamvara

mindfulness),3.

4.

1.

actions

(cetasika)
non-transgression
already in the mind

of conduct
speech) of the course
preceding three silas called avltikkama.

by the
spoken

etc.~"

states

(in body and

the

states,

committing sinful
right path. Slla thus means

volition

particularvolitions

"

is that

Khantisamvara
in heat

cold.

and

to

it

by
the

By

bodily,mental and vocal activities

duly systematized,organized,stabilized {samddhd-

are

to slla all our

upadhdranam, patitthdy.

The
number

who

sage
of

parts3. The
the

are

called

practiceof

course

the concentration

the

mind

should

course

rules with

reference

dhutarigas or

slla and

of samadhi.
of the

full

the

healthy monastic

dining,etc., which
adopt

adopts

the

Samadhi
bent

on

also
to

pure

we

have

dress,sitting,

disciplinary

dhutarigashelp the
as

follow

seen

rightendeavours

sage

to

means

(kusala-

cittekaggatdsamddhik) together with its states upon one particular

to
object{ekdrammand) so that they may completely cease
shift and change (sammd
ca
avikkhipamdnd)\
1
3

Visuddhimagga Nidanadikatha.
Visuddhimagga, II.

2
4

Visuddhimagga-silaniddeso,
pp. 7
Visuddhimagga, pp. 84-85.

and

8.

Buddhist

102

The
in

particularways,

that

so

be

it may

of

concentration

chief

the

practised slla

has

who

man

[ch.

Philosophy

meditation

his

train

must

first

mind

possiblefor him to acquire

called jfiana(fixed and
,

of the mind
preliminary endeavours
steady meditation). These
for the
acquirement of jhanasamadhi eventually lead to it
tinguished
called upacara
samadhi
and
are
(preliminary samadhi) as disthe
from
jhanasamadhi called the appanasamadhi
he
firstly
(achieved samadhi)1. Jfius as a preparatory measure,
has

continuallyto view with disgust the appetitive

eating and drinking {ahare patikkulasahna)by

train his mind

to

desires for

the

emphasizing in
in seeking food

mind

drink

and

continually habituates
of

associations
them

to

food

drink, he

and

and

only awaiting the day when

will come2.
Secondly he has
parts of

them

takes

simply

made

all the

ksiti

and
(earth),
tejas(fire)
ap (water),

are

his

wind

man

disgusting
ment
attach-

any

of

all

mind

of

up

unavoidable

an

habituate

to

body

the

final dissolution

the

that

our

as

formations
trans-

When

have

to

ceases

associated

are

loathsome

ultimate

nauseating bodily elements.

himself
to
emphasize

various

as

their

and

that

troubles

the various

the

like
(air),

sorrows

the

to

four

evil,
idea

elements,

the

carcase

shop. This is technicallycalled catudhatuvavatthanabhavana

(the meditation of the body as being
made
his
up of the four elements)3. Thirdly he has to habituate

of

mind

butcher's

at the

cow

think

to

greatness of the

Buddha),
the

the

gods

good effects

about

the

again {anussati)about
Buddha, the sarigha(the monks

again

nature

and

and

the

of

slla,and

of

death

and

qualitiesof
(upasamdnussati)4.
nature

As

law

(dhamma)
the

making

final

virtues

or

following the

of

the

of

gifts(cdgdniissati),

(marandnussati) and

the

the

extinction

of

Buddha,
about
all

the

about

deep

phenomena

it is not

be the main
its accessory

possiblefor me to enter into details,I follow what appears to me to

showing the interconnection of jhana (Skr.dhyana) with
stages called parikammas (Visuddhimagga,pp. 85 f.).

line of division

mark
the intense pessimisticattitude, "/mail
Visuddhimagga, pp. 341-347;
ca
ahare
patikulasaHMm
rasatanhdya cittam patiliyati,
anuyuttassa bhikkhuno
patikuttati,
pativattati
viya puttamamsam
vigatamado
; so, kantdranittharanatthiko
dhdreti yavad eva
dhdram
dukkhassa
nittharanatthdya,"p. 347. The mind of him who
inspireshimself with this supreme
disgustto all food, becomes free from all desires for
palatabletastes, and turns its back to them and flies off from them.
As a means
of

pana

getting rid

of all

the flesh of his

1

own

he takes

sorrow
son

his food

without

any

attachment

as

one

would

to sustain himself in crossinga forest.

Visuddhimagga,pp.

347-370.

Visuddhimagga,pp.

197-294.

eat

Meditation

v]
Advancing

further

called

which

directlylead

The

continue

mind

the

this stage the

notice

and

from

and

convince

are

the

into
This

of the
their

as

the

and

the

on

This

parts and
mind

As

body2.

him

body.

his

mindfulness
the

concentration

to

less unconscious

enter

to

from

continual

aid

an

help

away

the

of the

constituents

this will

and

processes,

or

the

as

they1. This is called asubhakamperceivethe impurity of our bodies.

anatomical

more

he

inhaling

the

instead

that
he

manner

be

may

breathing quickly or

is

counted

numbers

of inhalation

is called

and

same

slowly; he ought to
definitelyby counting numbers, so that by fixing his

it

process

the

essence

the

whether

mind

in

quietplace and fix his mind on

exhaling (dssdsa)of his breath, so

sit in

breathing in

mark

and

grounds

as

to

of the

nature

{passdsa)

aware

they being

jhana by leading his

called
the kayagatasati or

should

sage

cremation

the

to

go

first part

In the

Nibbana.

goal

mind

the

last attempts

represent the

first

is

about

to

loathsome

as

think

well

as

that

the endeavour

or

should

body

has

sage

himself

carcases

matthana
He

its final

to

appanasamadhi

strengthening of

these

other

and
carcases
horrifyingchanges of the human
nauseating,loathsome, unsightlyand impure they are,
bodies
his mind
this he will turn
to the livinghuman

how

dead

also,but

parations
pre-

highest samadhi.

of the

achievement

03

diverse

the

think

called the

meditation

or

those

to

come

we

purificationand

in this stage
lead

which

of

of

processes

samadhi

and

to the

preliminary meditations

the

upacara

of concentration

sources

of

the

from

the

and

he

may

or

the whole

on

in all stages of its

exhalation

anapanasati

fix his mind

the

mindfulness

course.

of inhalation

exhalation3.
Next

this

to

we

Brahmavihara,

to

come

the

tation
medi-

fourfold

karuna
pity),
(universal
(universalfriendship),
mudita
(happiness in the prosperityand happiness of all)and
of preferment of oneself,his
kind
to any
upekkha (indifference
of

metta

friend,enemy

or

the meditation
how

happy,

he
how

and

have
that

the
his

on

then

himself

should
pass

like to root

over

to the

He

VI.

idea

should

friends,his enemies,

all

out

like to avoid

himself

desires.

Visuddhimagga,

oneself

party). In order to habituate

should start
universal friendship,
one
third

should
he

same

and

Ibid.

pp.

that

thus

misery

death

fully,
live cheer-

himself

habituate

239-266.

and

become

beings would

other

all those

ing
think-

with
and

with
3

whom

Ibid. pp.

to

to

he

also

think
is not

266-292.

Buddhist

104
connected
to

such

should

He

by

his

offended

by becoming

think

should

he would

anger,

if he

that

should

has

also do

himself

he

findingfault

were

done

with

the

(indulge
in

being

he should

anger? Moreover

(khanikatta);

momentary

are

for

was

that

there

he at any
on

affected

by

carefullypractising.
injury,
by inflicting
could

If he

it ?

at

angry

that

he

himself

all the dhammas

longer

no

He

so

angry,

think

any

of others.

account.

be

to

by being

same

others

he

vile action

that

on

himself

his slla which

spoilall

If anyone

allow

should

and

of doubling
futility

of the

vexed

or

sorry

find

not

injuriesinflicted

of the

think

fix himself

Should

person.

any

account

on

enemies, he should

sadness

his

with

angry

would

he

safetyof himself

happiness or

become

never

feel himself

time
him

the

between

difference

that

should

He

happy.

in this meditation

extent

an

become

all live and

might

[ch.

Philosophy

existed

the

tion
the inflicinjury,and moreover
who
of any
was
injurybeing only a jointproduct,the man
in the production
injuredwas himself an indispensableelement
inflicted the injury,
the man
who
and
of the infliction as much
as
for making him
there could
thus be any
not
respecialreason
after thinking
/^jponsible and of being angry with him. If even
khandhas

in this way

the

indulgingin
his bad

him.

free his
in

he could

anger

he

subside, he should

not

only bring mischief

further

should

think

think
himself

on

the

that

by
through

other

himself

mischief

that

man

but

not
to
only producing
be able to
By thinking in these ways the sage would
from anger
mind
self
himand establish
against his enemies
of universal
attitude
an
friendship1.This is called the

angry

was

In

should

one

does

anger

metta-bhavana.
also

inflicted the

deeds, and

by being
to

had

which

foes alike.

The

the

meditation

sympathize

with

of

the

universal

pity {karuna)

of his

sorrows

friends

and

keen-sighted will feel pity for

being more
those who
are
apparently leading a happy life,but are neither
endeavouring to proceed on the way to
acquiring merits nor
lives of sorrow2.
Nibbana, for they are to suffer innumerable
We
the help of material
next
to the jhanas with
come
things
called the Kasinam.
These
as
objectsof concentration
objectsof
concentration

sage

may

either

be

earth, water, fire,wind, blue colour,

yellow colour, red colour, white

(paricchinndkdsd).Thus
and

concentrate
1

his

the

mind

Visuddhimagga,pp.

sage

upon

295-314.

colour, light or
may
it

as

take
an

brown

earth
2

limited

space

ball of earth

ball,sometimes

Ibid. pp. 314-315-

Buddhist

106

be

[ch.

like sometimes
would
properlyand carefullywatched
istics
charactertwo
back to the enjoyment of pltiagain. The
turn
sukha
however
and ekaggata. It should
of this jhana are
that though there is the feelingof highest sukha
noted
here,

mind
to

Philosophy

if not

is indifferent to it
to it but
only not attached
{atimadhurasukhe sukhapdramippatte pi tatiyajjhdneupekkhako,
tattha sukhdbhisangenadkaddhiyatiy The earth ball (pathavi)
na
still the object of the jhana.
is however
the

is not

mind

In the fourth

the last

or

the dukkha

and

and

This

(misery)vanish away
antipathiesare destroyed.
and

supreme

in all the

growing

indifference

absolute

various

(happiness)and

the sukha

both

jhana

all the

of attachment

roots

is characterized

state

(upekkhd) which

by

slowly

was

tics
characteris-

stages of the jhanas. The

jhana are therefore upekkha and ekaggata. With the

final perfectionand total extinction
mastery of this jhana comes
of the citta called cetovimutti, and the sage becomes
thereby an
of this

arhat2.
and

There

absolute

is the

there

production of

further

is no

the

of all

cessation

khandhas,

sufferings

and

sorrows

rebirth,

no

"

Nibbana.
Kamma.

Katha

In the
with

that

comes

also

only

again

and

read

how

we

otherwise

result of deeds

that

they suffered

if the

earliest
do

we

soul

the

departure of
1
*
*

vicious

nor

better

or

his

that

in

his

apt illustrations.

his

in the

other
if

in order

death

of any

tell

to

or

us

world, that

they

spiteof taking the

of the

fruit

arguments

return

life in store, and

time

soul,and

of

there

are

nor

is there

nor

he

in support

reasons

virtuous

suicide

thus

Digha Nikaya

the

Some

enjoyed happiness

certainlycommit

out,

the

life;he

future

world,

parents,

is blinded

who

other, and

any

other

ill done3."

or

find at the

not

goes

not

any

from

opportunity,that

his

with

or

had

virtuous

in it,they would
the

the

is there
than

done

well

neither

that

were

believe in

not

and

fool

"

again within my grasp." In

Payasi was tryingto give his

of his belief that "Neither

beings,reborn

does

life exists

this

that

says

of riches

infatuation

the

thinks

(n. 6) Yama

to

best

believed

get it

at

tions
precau-

person

that

of
body weighs less on account
so
on.
Kassapa refutes his arguments
But in spite of a few agnosticsof

Visuddhimagga, p. 163.
Majjhima Nikaya, I. p. 296, and Visuddhimagga, pp. 167-168.
II. pp. 3176".
Dialoguesofthe Buddha, II. p. 349 ; D.N.

Deeds

v]
Payasi'stype,
of rebirth

and

Milinda

difference

taken

rich

and

and

some

chapter that
Upanisad sages.

other

karma

life

the

could

only

when

But

when

"

then

covetousness,

deeds

inasmuch

palmyra

and

tree

become

non-existent

the

by

the

any

fatuation.
in-

without

occasioned

are

of the

and

out
withthese

is gone

covetousness

as

in

or

performed

are

and

covetousness

life

low

antipathy and

covetousness,

man's

seen

this

some

of

some

enunciated

abandoned, uprooted,pulled out

are

and

was

were

some

weak,

some

in

some
sickly,

some

of views

effect

In

alike,but

have

its

of in the

through

it is

"

doctrine

Buddha.

the

We

produce
there

spoken

all

not

are

the

foolish1."
sort

arise without

covetousness,

deeds

some
same

often

was

healthy and
powerful and
high degree

of

some

and

wise

third

But

men

ugly, some

poor,

degree, some

that

lived,some

some

that

accepted fact by
Nagasena saying

find

we

short

in this

an

karma

in their

handsome

as

Panha,

long lived,some

and

107

believe

to

reason

every

worlds

in other

Upanisads
the

have

we

Desires

and

like

ground

liable to

spring
craving{tanhat

not

again in the future2." Karma

by itself without
is incapable of bearing good or bad
fruits. Thus
read in th"|
we
this craving, potent for rebirth,
Mahdsatipatthdna sutta, "even
that is accompanied by lust and
faction
self-indulgence,
seeking satisup

craving for the life of

the craving
sense, the craving for becoming (renewed life)and
for not
rebirth)3." Craving for things
becoming (for no new
visible,craving for things audible, craving for things that may
here,

now

there,to wit,

now

the

"

be

smelt, tasted,touched,

for

things in

recalled.

memory

These

things in this world that are dear, that are pleasant.

does craving take its rise,
there does it dwell4." Pre-occuThere
of sensual
gratification
pation and deliberation
giving rise to
And
this is the first
comes.
craving is the reason
why sorrow
arya satya (noble truth).
the

are

The

cessation

cessation
it up,

the

1
3

Warren's

it and

desire

becomes

that will bear

sorrow

can

disenchantment

renouncing

When
sage

of and

of

an
no

Buddhism

or

fruit.
in

Dialogues of the Buddha,

about

An

the

arhat

deeds
cannot

Translations, p. 215.
11.

that

emancipation from
craving (tanhd)

arhat, and

p. 340.

with

only happen

very

"the

utter

craving,giving

it5."
has

that

he

have

any

Ibid. p. 341.

ceased

once

do

may

good

Ibid. pp.
5

or

the
after
bad

216-217.
Ibid.

p. 341.

Buddhist

1 08

finds

of

its scope

giving

it is

For

he does.

fruits of whatever

[ch.

Philosophy
through
the

With

fruit.

karma
all

of desire

cessation
and

ignorance,antipathy and grasping cease

determine
rebirth.
can
is nothing which
effects of the deeds done
by him in some

that

desire

consequently there

An

arhat

suffer the

may

previous birth just as

of his past karma

Moggallana did, but in spiteof the remnants

account
arhat was
on
an
an
emancipated man

of the

of

cessation

his desire1.

Kammas

said

are

to

of three

be

{kdyika,vdcika and mdnasikd). The

volition (cetana)and the states
however

mind
is

but

them,

cannot

body, it would be
body. But the merest
into effect

carried

ikay.

But

the

bodily and
Kammas

four

not

or

vocal

be

cannot

be

be

which

mind

of the

present

as

absent, as

(mdna-

the

of

root

in the

case

at all for him.

kammas
the

whether

illwill alone

or

for if this is
any

long search,
not
actually

could

kamma

must

from

classes,viz. (1) those

after

even

thought

would

kammas,

divided

are

bad

of

mitting
gives an order for comis not
actuallycarried out
by speech {vdcika)and not

misdeed

it2. If

with

if he

if it

kamma

mental

arhat, there

an

and

kamma

of this

associated

for he

one,

body. So

the

the

all

his

there

bodily

misdeed,

similar

by

with

the deed

commit

with

is not

root

into the forest in search

out

goes

of them

get any

misconduct

his

of

to kill animals

wishing

man

and

kinds, of body, speech

point

of

of view

effects into

and

bad

produce impurity,
are
(2) those which
good and productive of purity,(3) those
which
are
partly good and partly bad and thus productive of
both purity and
impurity,(4) those which are neither good nor
of impurity,but which
bad apd productive neither of purity nor
contribute
Final

\y

to

the

destruction

extinction

of

tried

to

various
Poussin

(nibbdna)takes place as

of desires.

meaning

have
interpretations
has

an

the

Professor

Pali

texts

De

la Valine

Nibbana

has

tion,
happy state, as pure annihilainconceivable existence
or
as
a
changeless state5.

See KathSvatlhu

Atthas"lini%p.

"

Prof.

De

in

have

happening, and

ultimate

offered.

the natural

of Buddhism

Scholars

of this

been

pointed out that

been represented as

sometimes
as

the

discover

of kammas4.

sorrow

result of the destruction

are

and
88.

la Vallee

Warren's
8

Buddhism

in

Translations, pp. 221 ff.

4
See Atthasalini, p. 89.

See Atthasalini, p. 90.

Poussin's article in the E. R.

E.

on

See

Nirvana.

Cullavagga, ix. i. 4 ; Mrs Rhys Davids's Psalms

of the early Buddhists,
Introduction,p. xxxvii; Digha, 11. 15; Udana, vin.; Samyutta, ill. 109.

I.

and

also
II.

Nibbana

v]
Mr

in

Schrader,

identified

{akasa)

after death

is

no

texts.

It

in

terms

Nibbana

in which

cessation

is not

think

of

of

one

who

and

eternal

give any

or

which

that

of

the

exist

in

whether

quiteagainst the spirit

be

to

me

which

at

stage

described

all

either

worldly
positive

as

form

been

Nibbana

is either

of non-existence

discarded
times

it all

what

or

But

regarded

hereticaU

as

satisfied

not

are

it is not
all these

positive/

annihilation,/

in Buddhism

means.

Buddhism

since

answer

existing as well as not

existingnor non-existing. Any!

state

mere

or

is

whether

in modern

we

some

he

is neither

has

know

to

want

we

infinite space

as

hopeless task
worldly experience,and there
indicate it than
by saying that

hardly be

can

discuss

to

state

view

It is true

to become

sought

eternally do not
Buddhistic
a
question,for it is a heresy to
proper
Tathagata as existing eternally(sdsvata)or not-

seeks

and
to

seems

all sorrow;

existing (asdsvata) or
existingor whether he

takes

who

SocietyJournal,

of the world

new

better

can

we

experienceshave ceased
or
we
negative. Whether
exist

soul

the

be very

to

me

Buddhistic

way

it is

to

seems

explain

to

with

that those

Text

{vihnand) attained to a state in which

corresponding feelingof infiniteness without having
their individuality. This
latter interpretationof

they had a
really lost
of the

held

in Pali

09

consciousness

or

Nibbana

discussingNibbana

that the Buddha

1905, says

with

it,for

possibleto
questionsas
,_

illegitimate.
Later

Buddhistic

Nothing existed,and

for
the

as

of

between

difference

no

all appearances

samsara

they

We
(bliss)1.
some

the self
the self

had

Upanisads
could

Tait.

11.

and

5.

and

preted
inter-

of all existence.
ence
exist-

never

existed

during

in Nibbana.

annihilated

Buddhism.

discovered

be

character

be

not

that

that

the

early

true

self

was

ananda

tacitly presupposes

Buddhism

probably thought that ifthere

'The Upanisads had asserted

ideavItwas

(attd)it must
{dtman) was

Buddhism

question regarding the

any

could

suppose

such

early

non-essential,they

Upanisads
te

of

Candraklrtti

and

anything would be meaningless. There

the wordly stage (samsdra) and Nibbana,

are

that

so

Nagarjuna*

non-essential

therefore

non-existence

or

is

attitude

advantage of this
it as meaning the

took

like

writers

bliss.

indestructible
2

and

Brh.

iv.

eternal 3. If we
5. 14.

Katha.

v.

are

13.

was

that

allowed

Buddhist

1 10

[ch.

Philosophy

tt^make explicitwhat was

implicitin early Buddhism
the self it must
./conceive it as holding that if there was
it

because

This

eternal.

was

who
reason

But

eternal.

the

point

there

that

found

in the

are

Upanisads

that

and

could

netiy./But
find

out

only

such

not

was

^/The

self

and

sorrow

self

true

of

in terms

looked

was
as

it that

all

All

tify
iden-

belief

with

bliss could

these

belonged

be

not

that

it,nor

what
did

defined

(tieti

nowhere")

changing phenomena

to

self, in ourV

constant

any

con-

this

could

we

is

essence

this, not

not

as

non-self,and

it were,

the

of

existence
in

what

Upanisads
for

and

non-self

was

it

belong

to

know
and
found

the

noble

the

forms

Samyutta Nikaya,

See Brh.

iv.

iv.

III.

and

himself
in

only

mental

me

this self

his

pp. 44-45

Chandogya,

viu.

self

be
or

pointed out

categories.

was

the

not

not

exist.

The
But

widely spoken

so

the

of

the

they

said

reply

when

mental

experiences
did
ignorant ordinary man

not

was

to

but

scendental
tran-

it could

be

it did

that

saw

that

experience ? To this
people perceived there

truths

considered

could

of

matter

said

they

anything,but
the changing
and

that

was

the

they perceived the self was

either individually
or
together. The

or

this permanent

but

that

men,

was

pure

were

into the mind

demonstrated

Buddha

not

the

associated

essence,

with

was

there," behind

Buddha

of

as

therefore

mine, neither

described

how

sidered
con-

often

we

was

indicated

be

experience as
as

it

lies

self3.

my

"

that

permanent

doubtless

Upanisads

early Pali scriptureshold

the

changing experiences.
therefore

there

that

Upanisads

the

the blissful. They

unchangeable self,

sidered that this permanent

this, but

The

the

self1.

is not

sorrow

impermanent. yBut

well, and

as

the true

was

eternal

not

was

experiences which

many

which

part

permanent
which

were

from

parted

self.

the

is

whatever

Buddhism

self, but

with

and

is sorrow,

which

at

what

be

to

appear

experiences of

in the

be

indeed

not

emphasized clearly in
is that
important postulateof the Buddha
not

Upanisads. -The
is changing
which
The

that

statement

converse

does

sorrow

was

as

has

connection

bliss,

be

anywhere definitelypronounced in the Upanisads, but he

but
think
that -the
carefullyreads the Upanisads cannot
why the Upanisads speak of the self as bliss is that it is

been

as

causal

could

we

trained

endowed
the

self

in the way
with
in

the

of wise

form

(rupd)

forms.

He

ff.

7-12.

Samyutta Nikaya,

in.

45.

Buddhism

Upanisads and

v]

in

the self or experienced

experienced the thought (of the moment) as it were
the
endowed
himself
with thought,or
as
thought
being
in the self or the self in the thought. It is these kinds of experiences
the perceptionof the self1.
that he considered
as
The Upanisads did not try to establish any school of discipline
or
systematicthought. They revealed throughout the dawn of an
Realityas the self of man, as the only
experience of an immutable
holds that ttuV\
abiding truth behind all changes. ''But Buddhism
and
self of man
is a delusion
immutable
false
a
knowledge. V
first postulateof the system is that impermanence is sorrow.
The

Ignorance about
ignorance about
the fourfold

it

the

Pali

means

contrasted

the

it

way

of sorrow,

originates,
and

of

means

ignorance about
with vidya or

f^Withthe Upanisads
the

about

of the extinction

ance
ignorbringing about this extinction represent
ignorance {avijja)\ The avidya,which is equivalent
word
in the Upanisads also, but there
occurs
avijja,

the

about

to

ignorance

sorrow,

the nature

with

but
bliss,

the

doctrine,and

the atman

it is sometimes

knowledge about the self (attnari)*.

the permanent
self,
highest truth was

true

there

the Buddha

nothing permanent; and

all was
sorrow4.
change; and all change and impermanence was
truth of Buddhism, and ignorance conThis is,then, the cardinal
cerning
it in the

stood

ignorance which
fourfold

the

truths

is

may

of

of sorrow,

and

"

means

ego

or

inasmuch

self

no

as

we

however

of

"

in other

words

inasmuch

similarlywith reference
be

understood

twelvefold

of the

Samyutta Nikdya,
Cha.
been

1.

to

ignorance

as

Karma

wheel

and

the

of existence

is not
rest

that

an

Ego,

therefore

"

and

it is empty

is it
with

emptiness5."

have

any

thereto.

realityand

permanent

supreme

of the

cause

the

of

from being subjectto a coming \

stability
and a disappearing from existence... and is empty
existence
self-determiningEgo from being subject to dependence,

...or

sorrow,

"

or

fourfold

rightcomprehension

this

ignorance is empty

into

to

the

{ariya saccd)

extinction

Brahman

no

of

way

the

represented

ways

ignorance does not belong to

ordinarilybe led to suppose.
Thus
it is said in the
Visuddhimagga

self,and

as

in the

cardinal

Originationof sorrow,
There

fourfold

above

was

1.

used

in

III.

Brh.

10.
a

Ang. Nikdya,

Warren's

IV.

3.

different and
III.

Buddhism

46.
20.

There

are

rather obscure

Majjhima Nikdya,
some

sense,

passages
I^a 9-1

where

1.

p. 54.

vidya and avidya

1.

85.
in

Translations

{Visuddhimagga,chap. XVII.),p.

175.

Buddhist

1 1 2

is

There
Buddha

quarrelsarose

Serious
the

successive

his

doctrines

and

other

monastic

Thus

held

their turn

they in

their

to

centuries

of the

after his death.

rather

amongst

rules

disciplesabout
he had
enjoined

which

the council

when

called

also

of Vesali

Vajjiputtakas,

the

great meeting (Mahasarigha) and

another

about

decisions

own

instructions

disciplesor

find that

we

oral

disciplesof his

against the Vrjin monks,

decided

came

few

his

amongst

Buddhism.
the

generations of the

his followers.

upon

until

collected

not

that

believe

to

reason

were

of Theravada

Schools

The

[ch.

Philosophy

certain

rules and

monastic

thus

Mahasarighikas1. According to Vasuin

translated
mitra
as
by Vassilief,the Mahasarighikas seceded
hundred
they gave rise
during the next one
years
400 B.C. and
first to the three schools Ekavyavaharikas, Lokottaravadins, and
of the
and after that the Bahusrutiyas. In the course
Kukkulikas
of it namely the
out
hundred
rose
next
one
years, other schools
The
Caittikas, Aparasailas and Uttarasailas.
Prajfiaptivadins,
called

be

to

came

Theravada

number

the

Sthaviravada

school

developed during the

of Vesali

council
into

the

or

as

of

which

second

nagarikas. The
second

main

century

L^Sarvastivadins2. The
school

with

vatthu

who
in

branch

of the

fifth century

A.D.

us

few

schools

some

very

we

frorrf
or

the Theravada
of the KathaDavids

time
some-

other

schools

know

very

meagre

accounts

of

little.
of

did
Dipavainsa in holding that the Vajjiputtakas

to

into the

Professor Geiger

was

composed 975

holdingthe Mahasarighikas

to

A.D.

"

1000

be the firstseceders

a.d.,
and

follows the

vamsa
Maha-

Vajjiputtakasto have

independently.
confuses the council

Vasumitra

introduction
For

differs from

mentions

was

but it was
the Mahasarighikas
who
firstseceded
Mahasarighikas,
seceded
which
The Mahdbodhivamsa,
independently of them.
Vajjiputtakas

according

of all these

Mahdvamsa

develop

seceded

identifies

Buddhist

(100 A.D.) gives

in

as

Hetuvadins

the

as

Vibhajjavadins. The commentator

probably lived according to Mrs Rhys

the

The

school

the

Vasumitra

while the

known

was

Theravada

Mahdbodhivamsa

But

not

latter

known

downwards

Buddhists.

well

againsplitup
Dharmottarfyas, Bhadrayanlyas, Sammitiyas and Chan-

into the

the

Dharmaguptikas,

(more

which
Sautrantikas)andtheVatsiputtrIyas

the

first century B.C.

and

schools,viz. the Haimavatas,

Kasyapiyas, Sarikrantikas

Mahisasakas,

convened

had

to

other

of Vesali

translation of Kathavatthu
accounts

of the schism

of Kathavatthu^ pp. xxxvi-xlv.

see

with

by
Mr

the third council

of Pataliputra.See
Rhys Davids.
Aung and Mrs Rhys Davids's translation
Mrs

Buddhist

H4

expressed

as

have

Pali works.

in the
been

commented

the

attracted the notice

of the

that

external

the latter believed

be

only

Hindu

who

was

(fourteenthcentury A.D.)in

the

The

Sautrantikas

that

of

moment

that

Tarkarahasyadipikd

his commentary

decay and

production,the

the

Abhidharmakosa

to

with

the

be

four kinds

permanent

the

moments,

the

the

been

pointed out
believed

Vaibhasikas

by coming

of

moment

in combination

entityproduced

its

nent
imperma-

translation
(see Prof. Stcherbatsky's
Abhidharmakosa
karikd, V. 25). The self called

on

also

possessed

formless

and

was

conditions

an

Gunaratna

life

in

pudgala
same

which

of

essence

manifestations
of Yasomitra

It has

that

of forces

to

existence,the

of annihilation.

moment

in Vasubandhu's
these

of

moment

but another

was

four

for

existed

things

the former

Gunaratna

knowledge1.

Saddarsanasamuccaya says that the Vaibhasika

of the Aryasammitlya school.
name
According
held

Vaibhasika

Sautrantika.

on

Vaibhasikas

Thus

other.

this,that

was

diversified

our

trantikas
Sau-

whereas
directlyperceived,
of the external
objectscould

objects were

from

was

writers

that the existence

inferred

each

and

Vaibhasikas

difference between

believed

who

Yasomitra

by

upon

the

and

with

of Vasubandhu

the Abhidliarmakosasdstra
was

Vaibhasikas

The

less associated

or

more

[ch.

Philosophy

Knowledge

characteristics.

those

produced along with its object by

{arthasahabhdsl ekasamdgryadhinah).

according to

held

that

there

was

The

no

very

trantikas
Sau-

soul but

transmigrated.The past,
the future,annihilation,
dependence on cause, akasa and pudgala
assertions (pratijndmdtram\
but names
mere
are
{samjndmdtrarri),
limitations
mere
phenomena (vya{samvrtamdtram) and mere
other people
that which
vaharamdtram). By pudgala they meant
only

the five skandhas.

Gunaratna

the

was

called

eternal

and

These

skandhas

soul.
all-pervasive

objectsare

External

never

directlyperceived but are only inferred as existingfor explaining

the diversityof knowledge. Definite cognitions are
valid; all
(ksanikah sarvasamskdrdh).
compounded things are momentary
the discussions
Madhavacarya'sSarvadarianasamgraha, chapter II. Sdslradipikd,
Amalananda's
(on Bhdmaii) Veddntakalpataru, p. 286,
Pratyaksa,
commentary
vaibhdsikasya bdhyoWthah pratyaksahy sautrantikasya jflanagatakaravaicitryen
1

on
M

anumeyah."
nanda

The

of the inference of the Sautrantikas

nature

(1247-1160 A.D.)

depend

ye

yasmin

satyapi kadacitkah

in spite of certain

cognitions)which
(i.e.
diversitymust

"

on

other

Vcddntakalpataru,p. 289.

unvaried

thingsin addition

to

te

is shown

thus

by

Amala-

(those
tadatiriktdpek^dh''''

conditions

are

these,i.e. the

of unaccounted
external

objects)

Schools

v]
The

of

atoms

of Buddhism

115

touch, and

colour, taste, smell and

cognitionare
words
always

\
The
being destroyed every moment.
meanings of
1
imply the negationsof all other things,excepting that which is
intended
to be signified
by that word (anydpohah sabdarthah).
the result of the destruction of the
Salvation (mok"d) comes
as
meditation
that there
process of knowledge through continual
is

soul1.

no

One

the

describes

the Sarvastivadins

existence

of

those
are

who

"

those

who

maintain

and

future.

that

maintain

the past that

have

not

the

There

the

among
four

were

past that

of this

branches

and

matrata, Ghosa, Vasumitra

that when

element

an

have

element

being

aspects, the

likewise

present

of the future

and

and

ones

Dharmatrata

Buddhadeva.
different

enters

past aspects without

vadins
Vibhajja-

present elements

milk
of the

from

severed
retains

tained
main-

times, its existence

is

changed

into curd

existence

Ghosa

different times, the

at

appears

The

alreadyproduced fruition."
school
representedby Dhar-

changes but not its essence, justas when

or
a
golden vessel is broken, the form
the same.
remains
though the essence
an

the universal

yet produced their fruition,

existent,but they deny the existence

of those

to

appears

subjectof great interest

Abhidharmakosa
(v. 24...)

is

Thus

as

SauVibhajjavadins,

Sarvastivadins

everythingpast, present

those

among

which

philosophy.

the

the

or

of time

notion

Buddhist

are

between

the Vaibhasikas

and

refer to
with

differences

of the main

trantikas

fkm* "

"

held

past

one

its future

changes

that

"

when

retains
and

its

present

its present aspect without

in
completely losingits past and future aspects,"just as a man
does
lose his capacityto love
not
passionatelove with a woman
other women
mitra
though he is not actuallyin love with them. Vasuing
held that an entityis called present, past and future accordit produces its efficiency,
to produce after having
as
ceases
deva
once
produced it or has not yet begun to produce it. Buddhamaintained
the view
that just as the same
woman
may
be
be called mother, daughter, wife, so the same
entity may
called present, past

preceding or
All

these

the

or

future

with

its relation to the

succeeding moment.

schools

in

are

maintain

universal

defective

excepting the
1

in accordance

existence.
view

Gunaratna's

some

But

sense

Sarvastivadins,for they

the Vaibhasika

of Vasumitra.

For

finds

them

all

Dharmatrata's

Tarkarahasyadipika,pp. 46-47.
8"2

l^

1 1

Buddhist

view

is

only
of

confusion

in

is also

of Buddhadeva

that all the three

suppose

of

one

with

them.

Vasumitra's

depends
when

time

view

and

past times

doctrine
for

there

the

entity and

of

should

know

continue

to

non-existent

and

hence

the

it and
entities

and

same

again

case

in

present

existence,
the

time-

the

appeared
ceased

to

past is

of

as

there

to

should

present, since

between

have

much

as

the

in

that

the

grade
thus

done

in bringing
efficiency

is made

second

thinks

the Vaibhasika's

in that

past and

distinction

having

He

deeds

and
view

that

after

Entities

it exerts

ground

it is

according to him was,

of an
efficiency
entity,

moment

Vaibhasika

the

at

real existence

and

its appearance.

the

efficiency
by

have

between

because

between
a

view

for

the

the

on

If
efficiency.

future

and

can

present

difference

no

exerted

time

true

time

function

of eternal

the

in

it could
efficiency

that

doctrine

agreement

present.

some

thought

stuff remained

included

entity;

its effects

the

He

the

in

an

is

knowledge,

heretical

objected to
regarded as existent

about

assert

my

in it. The

the

of the

the

difference

no

as

produced

non-existence, existed

exist.

be

was

; there

however

them

appeared

that

be

have

not

imply

according to

from

of

existence
co-

it would

difference

the

past

and

object of

Sautrantika

would

difference

that

much

as

exist

not

the

could

The

time.

himself

time, and

togetherand

finds

holds

it becomes

future

past did
been

have

not

found

were

Vaibhasika

the

past and

if the

that

times

is

the

impossiblesituation,since

an

The

produced it,it stops,

Ghosa

same

entitydoes not actuallyproduce its

it produces it,it becomes
present; when

an

future; when
of the

the

entity at

an

of

it presupposes

difference of the function

the

upon

time, since

aspects of

of all the
that

of

notion

the

doctrine; that

Samkhya

veiled

[ch.

Philosophy

both

past, present

then
efficiencies,

a
we

vicious
can

we

infinite. We
know

existent

knowledge of the past does not imply

that the
is
past is exerting any efficiency.If a distinction
made
between
and
an
efficiency
an
entity,then the reason
why
started at any particulartime
and
ceased at another
efficiency
would
be inexplicable. Once
ference
difthat there is no
admit
you
ones,

between
there

is

moment

of the
same

way

and
efficiency

no

time

are

all

past

we

our

at
one

all and
and

do not

in which

the

know
we

knew

the
the

same.

it

as

find
entity,you at once
the entity and
efficiency,
When

we

existingin

it when

it

was

remember
the

that
the

thing

past, but in the

present. We

are

and

Vasubandhu

v]

attracted

never

the

existence

Vasubandhu

that

of

cause

render

may

the

discussion

the

to

organs

sense

such

regarded

cause

be

can

existence

of

have
an
essence
actuallyexists,it must
the elements
be something different from

must

personal

life.

Moreover,

being

would

kriydkdritvd)which
soul

thus

can

school
same

held
the

as

that

separate

these.

as

be

cannot

be

this

To

Vasubandhu

But

individual

entities

elements

the

from

not

of

is

be

To

The
as

there

be

to

a
are

either

it, and

the

yet it is
has

it

that

say

the

But

life

or

was

the

elements

its existence

also

must

(the

must

is likewise

conscious

Devadatta

replies that

changing
un-

activity,there

an

is conscious

agent who

Vatsiputtrlya \y^

by

be defined.

walks).

and

personal

conditioned

there

of

(pudgala) which

could

we

and

own

existence

said

be

an

further

it cannot

the

life.
not

being

as

(e.g.Devadatta

action, hence

an

the

necessary.

soul, but

no

different

denied, for wherever

agent

an

from

It exists

but
personallife,

of

is

is

as

existence, though

altogetherdifferent
same

soul

which

existence.

nominal

There

or

soul

or

proves

mere

fire could

wood

the

or

personal

just as

it,so

usage.

of

burning

separate from

have

found

{arthapracticalefficiency

any

determines

to

current

elements

the

only

said

mining
deter-

eternal, uncaused

an

without

be
alone

be

object of

mere

such

though

as

of its

If soul

of

argument

this,that

is

be

may

of the

inference

The

of soul

existence

subject of

the

on

Abhidharmakosa.

in

perception,no

the

new-

respectivepositionsof
Sarvastivadins
as
represented by

the

against the

it is true

of

causes

of the

glimpse

soul

of

suggests, but

the

become

1 1

moment1.

attend

we

Vaibhasika

the

which

residues

passionsof the present

Again we can have
the Vatslputtnyas and
if

Vatsiputtrtyas

past passions as

to

past passions leave

Vasubandhu

the

exist.
of

name

person) does not represent an unity. It is only an unbroken

which
forces (flashinginto existence),
continuityof momentary
simple people believe to be a unity and to which
they give the
"

Devadatta.

name

and
but

their

from
1

of
of

one

am

small

belief

Their

is based

on

place to
indebted

another.

for the above

Petrograd. I

am

gratefulto him

life consists

This

account

portion of Abhidharmakosa

with

analogy

an

continuity of

own

Devadatta

that

movement,
to

by

my

the

that he allowed

me

friend Prof. Th.

to

ditioned,
con-

own

unpublishedtranslation

esteemed

is

experience,
constantly moving
though regarded as

their
in

moves

utilize it.

from Tibetan

Stcherbatsky

Buddhist

n8

belonging

to

entity,is

permanent

[ch.

Philosophy
but

of

series

tions
produc-

new

places,just as the expressions fire moves,'

the meaning of continuities
sound spreads have
(of new
ductions
prowords
the
'Devadatta
likewise
use
in new
places).They
the fact that a cognition(takesplace
in order to express
cognises'
has a cause
in the present moment) which
(inthe former moments,
these former
moments
coming in close succession
being called
"

in different
'

Devadatta)."
The
problem
for the

stream

when

remembered

etc., and

emotions.

memory.

The

certain

No

the

such

and

such

he

was

past and

his

that

in

this

fire which

same

object,"we

that

know

moments,

but yet

the

fire.

known

such

been

of such

the

reached

having

understood,

an

but

we

as

family,of

displeasurein

exert

is thus

only

a
a

This

fields. Thus

evident
whenever

pressure

a
fiction,

of

becomes

the

perceived are

description and
grasped either by the senses

thing

the

when

we

say

reached

this

at

any

two

say

that

has

and

having

man,

such

it is

an

age,

this

eating

things,of

such

be

only

can

such

when
we

of

not
or
we
use

mere

these

and
on

elements

momentary

the

happening

later

nominal

at

existence, a

of
the
dividual
in-

The

ones.

acquaintance ;

mere

it cannot

be

by the action of pure intellect.

judge it by analogiesfrom other
any

common

falselythink that there is such

what
reallyexists is only certain momentary
unified as
milk; and "just as
fictitiously
sometimes

and

life of such

sensations, images, feelings,etc.,

moments

as

only

one

to

individual

an

this venerable
a

saying

life,he

identical

not

mind

of

state

that

of

length,will pass away

be
description can
age." Only so much
direct acquaintance with the
have
never
a
after

individual ; all that is

former

Just

or

phenomena

such

and

difference

call
"

caste, of such

who

man

is

the

we

food, findingpleasureor

age,

such

fire

the

attention,

told his birth stories

consuming

overlook

we

the

suitable

existences.

Again, what
by descriptionssuch

same

name,

had

of

bodily pains

as

present belonged

lineage of momentary

same

conditions

is

Buddha

his

required in

of recollection

cause

bring any difficulty,

throughout,it produces
previous knowledge of

not

factors,such
is

agent

When

meant

an

under

nothing else.

that

"

with

of distractive

violent

and

connected

object

absence

does

being one

of consciousness

its recollections
the

also

of memory

noun,
an

e.g.

milk,

we

entityas milk, but

colours,tastes, etc.,
milk

and

water

are

v]

Sabbatthivadins

conventional

names

colour, smell

(tasteand

'

'

individual

of which

it is

The

but

independent elements) for

touch) taken

common

the

why

the

set of

is the

together,so

tion
designa-

different elements

for the

name

some

composed."

reason

whether

(fora

119

Buddha

is identical

livingbeing

"

declined

decide

to

with

the

the

body

question
"

not

or

is

individual,"
just because there did not exist any livingbeing as
is generally supposed. He
declare
did not
that the living
as
the questioner would
in that case
being did not exist,because
"

have

that

continuityof the elements

In truth the
livingbeing is only
set of constantlychanging elements1.

thought

also

denied.
for

name

The

the

book

only

of the

known

Sammitlyas

only is the Sammitiyasdstra translated

name

to

A.D.

350

the

A.D.;

431

of

"

"

to

life

conventional

and

us

that

into Chinese

originalSanskrit

was

works

by

between
however

are

probably lost2.
Vaibhasikas

The

according

to

branched

off

from

separated from

the

From

the

believed

that

This

in

article

on

as

follows:

intermediate

it

de V Acadhnie

la Vallee

the

said to
the

burden

since
as

be

pudgala
above.

be

the

were

admitted
arhat

the dawn

samadhi

between

evil deeds

said to

of

ment
rightattain-

by

nothing

was

but

pudgalaby Prof. Th.

by

doctrine

of the

De

there

of

nirvana

that in the Abhidhar-

says

and
the Vatsiputtriyas

fall away;

can

antarabhava

that

of their views

Some

later age.

the fact of the actual

pudgala (soul)as

different

or

(2) there is

(3)merit

an

not

accrues

burden

new

la Vallee

Sammitlyas

as

This

Poussin

sketched

and

use

distinct from
"

non-different.

skandhas

transitoryconstituents."

Professor

He

advantage reaped
a)
only
; (4) not
given (paribhoganvaya puny
that
end
merit
declaration of intention to
produces

in

be either

but

of the points of this doctrine

identified with

rebirth called

and

gradual

Russie, 1919.

some

the Vaibhasikas

(skandhas) shoulderinga
of

R. E.

been

possession of

death

de

has collected

in the E.

by
in

had

turn

Sabbatthivadins

insight but

even

or

{anityd)like the
transitory

it is made

sketched

of

des Sciences

Poussin

Sammitlyas

(1) An

state

from

can

their

in

the translation of Astamakos'asthananibaddhah

on

by itselfalone; (5) they believe

which

by Takakusu,

out

who

(1) that

flash

but also by
only by gift(tyaganvaya)
whom
the
the
to
man
by
thing was
abstention

know

we

the Sammitlyas have

of its texts

many

pointed

as

who

school.

consciousness

is based

De

makoiavyakhya
are

Theravada

Sarvastivadins

specialappendix to the eighth chapter of Abhidharmakos'a,

Professor

an

the

Mahlsasakas,

momentary

Stcherbatsky, Bulletin
2

the

47,

with

everything existed,(2)that

account

vinihayah,

v.

Kathavatthu

(3) that

process,

Dipavamsa

not

was

identified

are

since

The

be

be

down

said to be permanent,

pudgala doctrine

of the

Sammitlyas

in full agreement

by Gunaratna

from

cannot

transmigrateslaying

it

; it cannot

is not

the skandhas

pudgala

which

we

have

with

the

noticed

Buddhist

1 20

flux

(4) that

and

batthivadins

arhat

an

Theravada

of the

Abhidharma

These

mentioned2.

1.

are

passed by

puttra which

the Sabbatthivadins
is said

have

the

of

2.

4.

vaksema.

to

Katyayanl-

Vibhdsd

which

from

This

Vasubandhu

the Vaibhasika4

makosa,

by

passes
out

the

he

of

point
Vasumitra
himself

view5.

and
and

Sautrantika

work

This

later

in which

called

his

own

which

he

pointed

available)on

Vaibhasika
and

hdvibhdsd.

the

who

Yasomitra

famous

his

See

9 and

also of other
Vasumitra

Samyuktdbhidharmasdstra

refuted

commentator
Davids's

Rhys

Mrs
xi.

of which

and

Ma-

a Vaibhasika
logician,

reputed to be a pupil of Vasubandhu, wrote

in which
he established
Pramdnasamuccaya

logic and

the celebrated

hear

Ghosaka,

Dharmatrata,

as

of

We

wrote

and

work

Buddhist

writer

lines.

was

Abhidharmakosa

work

celebrated
Dirinaga(48oA.D.),the

Sautrantika

such

writers

Bhadanta,

or

strict Vaibhasika

by

upon

of Vasubandhu
vydkhyd ; Sanghabhadra a contemporary
Samayapradlpa and Nydydnusdra (Chinese translations
are

trantika
Sau-

the

from

commented

by

on

on

the Abhidhar-

as

school

was

work

of his

Kosabhdsya

of the Vaibhasika

Gunamati

and

500 A.D.) wrote

"

commentary

Abhidharma

name

A.D.

Prakaranapdda

(kdrika)known

verses

appended

of the defects

some

(420

in

system

which

to

been

Sangltiparyydya by Sariputtraand

6.

Vasumitra.

by

II.

already

called Vaibhasikas3.

it are

the

from

have

we

Sdstra

of Mahd

name

literature

given a literaryform by Asvaghosa.

Dharmaskandha
by Sariputtra. 3. Dhdtukdya by Purna.
Prajnaptisdstraby Maudgalyayana.
5. Vijhdnakdya by De-

work

have

Jhdnaprasthdna

followed

who

which

Sab-

The

is different

which

school

away1.

Abhidharma

vast

translations

still existingin Chinese

fall

(saint)may

Sarvastivadins

or

[ch.

Philosophy

the

of

many

of

of the

Nydya sutras; but

translation Kathdvatthu,

views

p.

xix, and

Vatsyayana
regret

we

Sections

1.6, 7

6.

and Aryfor Sarvastivada, viz. Mulasarvastivada

Mahavyutpatti gives two names
and
vastivada.
MulasarItsing(671-695A.D.)speaks of Aryyamulasarvastivada
yasarvastivada.
in Magadha,
In his time he found it prevailing
Guzrat, Sind, S. India,
that
bandhu,
E. India.
Takakusu
in his life of VasuT.S.
Paramartha,
(P.
1904-1905)
says
from
that
it
Kashmere
Middle
India
to
was
by Vasubhadra,
propagated
says

who

studied
*

it there.

work was
probably
says (P. T.S. 1904-1905)that Katyayanlputtra's
translations
existed before the Chinese
and
other Vibhasas which

Takakusu

compilation from

Vibhasa

and

texts

dated

See Takakusu's

The

383 A.D.

Sautrantikas

laid stress

on

R.A.S.
article/.
did

not

the suttanta

1905.

regard the Abhidharmas

doctrines

as

given in

of the Vaibhasikas

the

Suttapitaka.

as

authentic

Buddhist

122

be

point which must

conception of matter

it. The

around

others

the

with

[cu*

Philosophy

is

remembered

this,that

in

the

nection
con-

qualities

The

in the paramanus.

special
characteristics of roughness (which naturallybelongs to earth),
viscousness
(which naturallybelongs to water), heat (belonging
of all the mahabhutas

to

of the

each

combine

(belonging to wind),

movableness
fire),

form

inherent

are

; the

elements

together to
different

the

between

difference

special
only in this,that in each of them its own
teristics
characteristics
were
predominant and active,and other characonly in a potentialform. The
though present remained
of material
mutual
resistance
things is due to the quality of
elements

earth

consists

solidness

the

or

is due

things

moisture

to

four elements

The

in them

inherent

observed

be

to

are

qualityof

the

or

and

water,

three

from

attraction

mutual

; the

or

other

by

conditions

between

the
is

only

in the

owing

and

that

sense

here

as

pratltyasamutpada ;

change
link
nor

is rather

but

represents the

and

ultimate

in

of

the

is it

other

forms

chain

garded
re-

are

said to be momentary
their

of

phases constantly,
series

causal

"moha"

of

dividual,
particular in-

any
or

and

delusion

Avidya,

dharmas.

immaterial

is not

Avidya

the

ignorance of
of

of Buddhism

matter

combination.

identical with
state

of distinction

and

they are

changing

are

vyuhana

point

five skandhas

eternal ;

they

to their constant

regarded

the

here

permanent

as

main

Sarvastivadins

Vaibhasika

tion,
attrac-

or

together naturally

combine

The

causes.

or

this, that

(such as

the

collecting).These

clusteringand

forth.

so

aspects, namely,

point of view of their natures

and (3) function (such as dhrti
moisture, etc.),
activity,
heat, and
samgraha or cohesion, pakti or chemical

(i) as things,(2) from

of

of
in the case
through samskara, etc., produces namarupa
a particular
individual,is not his avidya in the present existence
but the avidya of his past existence
bearing fruit in the present
which

life.
"

The

it becomes

clay is

allowed
of

case

on

never

an

clay becomes
name

perishes but only changes

effect,having changed its state."

cause

jar,having changed its state ;

lost and
the name
jar arises1.

simultaneousness

between

cause

and
The

and

Sogen'squotationfrom Kumarajlva's Chinese version

Karika 9).
SSslra (chapter
xx.

the Madhyamika

of

For

example,

in this

the

case

Sarvastivadins

effect

composite things (samprayukta hetu)and

when

its name,

only

in the

in the
case

of

Aryyadeva'scommentary

v]

Sabbatthivddins

the
of

interaction

the

of mental

"

vijftana

"

or

of the

aggregate
be

It must

five

that

substratum,

substratum

formed
of

sense

and

the

indriyasbeing
had

the four main

their

combinations,
of

as

also

it,as

which

excites

energies;
the

excites
becomes

active

in

also the

visual

sentient

and

when

the energy

five

external

of

the flesh,made

on

with

atomic

combinations.

our

rupa

of grosser

and

person

because

sooner

idea

an

which
it is

avijnaptibecause
is bound

respect

is
a

the

is

senses

and

manner

is

impressed,a

of the

principal

which
of

or

later to

the

effect of
and

express

the
only bridge which connects
done
by body or speech. Karma

and

in this

an

is

school

act

is

impressed

; it is called

; this latent

the

is

It is called

rupa-contact

itself in karma
cause

latter

of their respective

latent energy

unconscious

tremely
ex-

differ from

senses

form

are

the

designated as avijnaptirupa.

result

entirely

principal

paramanus,

five

ceiving
per-

the

In all sense-acts, whenever

it is latent
or

of the

The

of fire

capable of

become

substratum

the

which

without

agent

an

substratum

materials.
to

is

senses

of

combination

another

performed

five

The

minute, while

and

pure

one

other

energies. The
objects arouse

subdivisions,namely,

two

auxiliarysense.

consists

senses

has

sense

the

of the

vijfianaswould
object. The essence

of the

and

counted

element

of the

which

sense

beings by

body and predominates over

feelingof thirst is caused by a touch

each

Each

of

These

also

are

thought {yijndnd);

material.

thirst.

and

indriyas(senses)can

an

forms

long,short, round, square, high, low,

of touch
sense
(kayendriya)has for
and
the qualitiesof smoothness,

the other
predominates over
after grasping the external

none

our

physical frame

active

also

the

are

the

so

therefore

organic effects produced by a touch

physical frame at a time when the energy of

they

becomes

wind

of blue, yellow,

the

objects of touch, hunger, thirst,etc., and

under

had

colours

The
straight,and crooked.
its object the four elements
heaviness, cold, hunger
roughness,lightness,
qualitiesrepresent the feelingsgenerated in
the

material

of them.

(samsthand)

appearance

"

their aggregate

sightgrasps

and

red, white,

material

senses

remembered

permanent
The

things. The substratum

and
is regarded as permanent
is called the perceiver.
(indriyas)

and

consciousness

"

123

energy

effects and

is

effect of karma
is considered

thought {cetana karmd)^and that as

activity{caitasika karma). This last,again,is of two kinds, viz.
as

twofold, namely,

that

as

Buddhist

24

[ch.

Philosophy

body-motion (kdyika karma) and speech {ydcika

and patent
karma). Both these may again be latent (avijiiapti)
giving us the kayika-vijnaptikarma, kayikavijfiapti
(vijnapti),
and vacikavijnapti
karma.
Avijnapti
karma, vacika- vijnaptikarma
due

that

to

avijnaptikarma
phraseology sub-conscious
and

rupa

each

to

in future

The
wills

to those

mind,

as

these

are

are

is called

it thinks

because

or

activity
itself

expresses

but
directlyknown
called avijnapti.

not

known, they

are

modern

sponding
activity.Corre-

which

state

Vasubandhu,

manas
(cetati),

cittam,

because

vijfiana

and

(manvate)

it

be
(nirdisati).The discrimination
may
nation),
nirdesa (naturalperceptualdiscrimi(1) svabhava

because

it discriminates

of three

kinds:

(2)

sub-conscious

which

says

call in

sensation,feeling,
thought

actions

thoughts and

similar

are

similar

should

we

ideas, feelingsand

conscious

is another

there

what

are

nirdesa

prayoga

and
future),

(actual discrimination

present,

as

nation
(reminiscentdiscrimireferringonly to the past). The senses
only possess the
to manovijfiana.
mrdesa,the other two belong exclusively

past and

svabhava

nirdesa

(3) anusmrti

criminates
diswith
its specific
sense
vijfianasas associated
its particular
teristics;
object and perceivesits general characthe
the six vijfianas
what
combine
is known
to form
as
Vijftanaskandha,which is presided over
by mind {mano). There
dharmas.
Of the three asamskrta
are
forty-sixcaitta samskrta
of the

Each

dharmas

akasa

(ether)is

establishingit as

in

omnipresent

permanent

(niriipdkhya,
non-rupa).

the freedom

essence

The

thing,other thingsare

on

they

non-existent

are

one

made

have

dharma,

Its essential

called

they

are

visible

them

because

non-collocative

is

characteristic

the
is

being of

because

asamskrta

the

absent.

were

pratisamkhya nirodha,

bondage.
are

but

not

and

hence

have

dharmas

caused
I fix my

when

then, not

seen

conditions

final

because

which

third

The

aprati-

dharma,

the non-perception of
samkhya nirodha, means
Thus
by the absence of pratyayas or conditions.
attention

substance

immaterial

asamskrta

second

obstruction,

from

would

asamskrta

deliverance

from

everlastingness.These
the
no

of

negation
solution.
production or dis-

nature

leads to this state

eightfold noble path which
duct,
of rightviews, rightaspirations,
rightspeech,rightconThe

consists

rightmindfulness, rightrapture1.
rightlivelihood,righteffort,
1

150

Mr
A.

Sogen

mentions

D.), Harivarman,

the
who

name

founded

of another
a

school

Buddhist
known

as

Hinayana

thinker

(about

Satyasiddhischool, which

v]

anism

Mahay

125

Mahayanism.
It is difficult to
its rise.

But

there

is

and

B.C.

400

elements

splitthemselves

thoughts and
labelled as Mahayana
were
first inception. We
hear
are

late

as

the

300

as

in later
the

Mahayana

days

time

in

of works

number

sutras,

be

to

came

taking their

to

way

of

A.D.

100

of which

some

and others
(ifnot earlier)
Mahayanasutras, also called

B.C.

100

These

generallyall in
Nothing is known

Buddha.

the

in about

Mahasanghikas

probably some

gradually on

A.D.1.

Vaipulyasutras,are

given by

which

least

at

400

or

ideas

the

as

eight different schools, those

into

up

various

regarded as
probably as old as
are

that

took

Mahayanism

time

the Theravadins

of

which

think

to

reason

from

separatedthemselves

what

preciselyat

say

compilers,but they are all written

were
probably written by those who

in

the

form

about
form

some

seceded

of instructions
their authors
of Sanskrit

or

and

the Theravada

from

school.
word

The

it is contrasted

such

as

translated
vehicle
no

small

as

{mafia

means

refers to

Hlnayana

with

vehicle

is

Asariga (480 A.D.) in

propounded
works

by Sanskrit
1

the

of doctrines

sort

same

available in Sanskrit

are

and

generally

are

vehicle)and great
this translation
by

"

vehicle). But
and
meant
by Mahayana
his Mahay dnasutralamkdra

as

I have

and

Theravada,

words

(ktna= small,ydna

what

expresses

of

The

Mahayana.

great, ydna

schools

the

yana2.
Hlna-

gives

preached by Nagarjuna. None

those
never

come

of his

any allusion to his

across

name

writers.

Quotations
the

on

and

of these sutras

references to many
karikas

Mddhyamtka

of

are

found

of these

Nagarjuna; some

(translatedinto
Astasdhasrikdprajndpdramitd

in Candrakirtti's
are

mentary
com-

the following:

164 A.D.-167 A.D.), Satasdhas-

Chinese

Tatkdgataguhyasutra, Drdhddhydiayasancodandsutra,Dhydyitamustisutra, Pitdputrasamdgamasictra, Mahay dnasutra,

rikdprajndpdramitd, Gaganaganja, Samddhisutra,
Ratnakutasutra,

Mdradamanasiitra,
RainardJisulra,

Ratnacuddpariprcchdsutra, Ratnameghasiitra,

Ratndkarasiitra,

Rdstrapdlapariprcchdsutra, Lankdvatdrasutra,
Lalitavistarasutra, Vajracchedikasiltra,
Vimalakirttinirdetasutra, Sdlistambhasutra,
Samddhirajasutra, Sukhdvativyuha, Suvarnaprabhdsasiitra, Saddharmapundarika
into Chinese A.D.
(translated
255), Amitdyurdhydnasutra, Hastikdkhyasutra, etc.
2

The

way,

word

Yana

in which

contexts

is

rather than

vehicle

Samddhirdjasutra, p.
The
There

word

is

Yana
no

Lankdvatdra

generallytranslated

the word

is

reason

as

old

occurs

the

suggest that it

consideration
career

means

of

numerous

or

course

or

25, 38; Prajndpdramitd,pp. 24, 319;

67; Lankdvatdrasutra,
pp. 68, 108, 132).
Upanisads where we read of Devayana and Pitryana.

(Lalitavistara, pp.

as

the

why this

word

should

p.

be

of Sravakayana (career of the

(careerof

vehicle,but

as

to

Karundptmdarika,

Pratyekabuddhayana (the career

yana

seems

in

"ravakas

or

taken

of saints before

the

different

sense.

the Theravadin

coming

of the

Buddhas), Ekayana (one career), Devayana

We

hear

in

Buddhists),

Buddha),

(careerof

the

Buddha

gods),

us

the

why

reason

called

He

Mahayana.

instructions,attempts, realization,and

the

the

whereas

Hlnayana

that,

says

goal of

of the ultimate

the point of view

from

considered

called

was

was
professed,

he

other, which

school

one

[ch.

Philosophy

Buddhist

126

time, the

religion,

Hlnayana

occupies a lower and smaller place than the other called Maha
Hlna
as
(small,or low).
(great)Yana, and hence it is branded
of the fundamental
This brings us to one
points of distinction
ultimate
The
between
good of an
Hlnayana and Mahayana.
of the

adherent

the ultimate

whereas
creed

consequence

of that

the

they undertook,

attempts

had

be done

could

prepared

business

short

only a
to

work

for infinite time

So the

salvation.

and

of work

from

may

point of

that

seek

the

received,

achieved

were

Hlnayana

man

salvation,and

own

Mahayana

in

this

adherent

was

helping all beings to attain

requiredonly a short period

in

adherents

Hlnayana

yana
Maha-

lower, and

they

adherents.

lives,whereas

in three

results

attaininghis

to

its followers

that

the

Mahayana
in

but

Hlnayana goal was

and

tion,
salva-

or

professed the

salvation

own

instructions

that of the

than

narrower

the

the

nirvana

own

who

those

their

beings. So

of all

salvation

goal of

to seek

not

was

his

is to attain

Hlnayana

also be

view

called hlna, or

lower.
This
\ difference

in the

schools,is

of the two

creed

the

from

point,though important

point
not

so

of view
from

of the

the

point

philosophy. But there is another trait of the Mahayanistswhich distinguishesthem from the Hlnayanists from the
of

of

view

I philosophicalpoint
things
|

void

of

were

at

non-essential

of all

and

indefinable

all

that

character

and

Hlnayanists only believed in the

things, but did not proceed further than
the

bottom, whereas

impermanence

Mahayanists believed

The

of view.

Lthat.
erroneously thought that Nagarjuna first
voidness
of Sunyavada (essencelessness
or

It is sometimes
doctrine

preached the
of all
either
take

appearance),but in realityalmost
preach this doctrine or
definitely
of those

some

Nagarjuna, we
Brahmayana
In

one

careers

sutras

(careerof becoming
one

were

find that the doctrine

place Lankavat"ra
and

which

career

(Lankavat"ra,p. 68).

and

says
no

allude

in all
which

Mahayana
it. Thus

to

distinction
ordinarily
but

sutras

if

we

probabilityearlier than
Nagarjuna expounded

of
Brahma), Tathagatayana(career

that

career,

all the

these distinctions

is made
are

Tathagata).

between

only

for the

the

three

ignorant

v]

Mahay

with
as

Philosophy

ana

all the

rigourof his powerful dialectic

Thus
find
we
indisputable truth.

an

the

Buddha

Subhuti

saying

(feeling),
samjfta (concepts) and
all maya
(conformations) are
(illusion)1.All
dhatus

cessation.
is not

quietlyaccepted!

was

vedana

that

samskaras

skandhas,

127

(elements)and ayatanas are void

highest knowledge of everything

The

different

the

from

dhatus

skandhas,

and

to

the
the

absolute

and
as

void

pure

ayatanas, and

J
;

this \

regarded as the highest know- !

ledge (prajndpdramitdy. Everything being void there is in reality1

absolute

no

and

process

of

(asasvata)but

saint's endeavour

all

consider

the

eternal

It should

(sdsvata)

be the

object
and
(tatkatd)
has to establish
(bodhisattvd)

in the

saint

"

th.aX.nzss"

(pdramitd), benevolence

virtues

character

of

is neither

void.

pure

The

void.

virtue

truth

put himself

all the

in

pdramitd),

to

things as

himself

is

The

cessation.

no

non-eternal

nor

of dharmas

cessation

the
(ksdntipdramita),

the
(stlapdramitd),

(ddnaof

virtue

of

tenacityand strength
of meditation
the
virtue
(dhyanapdra(viryyapdramitd) and
that he will
mitd). The saint (bodhisattva)is firmlydetermined
forbearance

help

however,

there

are

the

saint

; and

of

this

The
work

who

one

is to

but

is to

him

help

absolute

The

is

on

his

difference
is

Madhyamika

between

Sunyavada

only the

in

holding

only passing

1
3

afraid

attaining for
illusorybondage.
proceeds

prajnaparamita

true

(yah anupalambhah

that

is rather
there

appearance

"unyavadins
were
of

all

phenomena,

doctrine
and

of

appearance

agree

ableness

The

it3.

the

or

fundamental, but

the

is not

in

his

paramitas,though in realitythere
salvation
in realityand
who
no
one

of all appearance

is not

while

tion
salva-

no

of

career

prajnaparamita ityucyatey.
Mahayana doctrine has developed on

that there

reality,

his

attain
attain

In

bondage,

no

well, yet he

too

proceeds

nirvana.

is the
sarva-

sa

Sunyavada

The

to

cessation

dharmandm

is

it but

knows

strength of

the

on

no

of

beings, there

no

high truth,

attain

to

illusorybeings illusoryemancipation from

with
that
saint is actuated
feeling and

all

is

of souls

infinite number

an

virtue

is

one

no

akin
more

the

and

Vijfianavada.
Vijfianavada(the theory

phenomena
of

truth
to

lines,viz. that

two

of

method.
in

consciousness)
Both

of tnem

anything,everything

dream

or

magic.

showing this indefintacitlyaccepting

[Viin^ajiidins^
busy

in

Astasdhasrikdprajndpdramitd,p. 16.

Ibid. p. 177.

Ibid. p.

Ibid. p. 177.

21.

But

Buddhist

128

Philosophy

[ch.

interested
themselves
in
preached by the Sunyavadins,
by their theory of
explaining the phenomena of consciousness
beginninglessillusoryroot-ideas or instincts of the mind (vasand).
been the greatest teacher
to have
A"vaghosa (ioo A.D.)seems
the Tathata
of a new
as
type of idealism (vijhdnavddd) known
the truth

philosophy. Trusting in Suzuki's identification

AsVaghosa's Sraddhotpddasdstra as being made
should

tdrasutra, we

earlyworks

of the
of the

think

of the

quotation in

from

of the Lahkdvatdrasutra

The
Vijftanavadins1.

Vijftanavada school

attributed

of

was

Lahkdva-

being one

as

greatest later writer

whom

to
Asariga (400 A.D.),

are

the

Saptadasabhumi sutra, Mahdydna sutra, Upadesay

and
sdstra
sdstra, Yogdcdrabhumi
Mahdydnasamparigraha
dnasutrdlamkdra.

Mahay
last

Chinese

and

Hindu
not

writers
seem

an

first

at

late

of

liberal
in

Asanga,

no

the

to

access

Sarvastivadin, but

his

originalsare
is known

to

Thus

is said

have

to

standard
himself

(499-569) tells

converted

was

life,by Asanga.

early life the great

vadins,Abhidharmakosa, devoted
He

Paramartha

as

was,

in his

wrote

have

the

excepting

name
also,viz. Yogacara, and it does
by another
improbable supposition that Asanga's Yogdcdrabhumi
was
name.
responsiblefor the new
Vasubandhu,

brother

younger

us,

who

works

Tibetan

sdstra
a

readers

to

these

manuscripts,as the Sanskrit

probabilitylost. The Vijftanavada school

all

in

is available

one

of

None

to

who

Vasubandhu,

work

of the

Sarvasti-

in his later life to

commented

navada,
Vijfta-

of

number

upon

navada2.
Vijfta-

Mahayana sutras, such as Avatamsaka, Nirvana, Saddharmapundarika, Prajndpdramitd, Vimalakirtti and Srimdldsimhandda, and
compiled

Ratnatraya,
least

Mahayana

some

century

possessionof
have

We

any

two

or

work

of whose

system

(550A.D.).
1

Dr

'

Takakusu's

of

but

we

of this school

after him.

Sunyavadaformed

the

Mahayana.

The

in

not

are

the

damental
fun-

powerful

most

a brief account
Nagarjuna (100 A.D.),
be given in its proper
place. Nagarjuna's
was

commented

by Aryyadeva, a disciple
(383 A.D.),Buddhapalita and Candrakirtti

Aryyadevain

S. C. Vidyabhushana
"A

Vijhdnamdtrasiddhi,
for at
Vijftanavada continued
as

Vasubandhu,

that

all schools

will

(verses)were
his, Kumarajlva

of

of great fame

of this doctrine

karikas
of

after

already noticed

principleof
exponent

school

The

etc.

sutras, such

addition

upon

to

this commentary

thinks that Lankdvatdra

study of the Paramartha's

belongsto

lifeof Vasubandhu,

about

wrote

300

"y. R.

at

a.d.

A. S.

1905.

Buddhist

130
held

He

the aspect

"

birth

of
the

death
of the

nature

is uncreate

of

appear

under

"the

would

no

be

be

nature

absolute

transformation
thatness

soon

of

of

or

that

which

is

that

which

is

bhutatathata

thought of,there
spoken of, there
thought of, "this
is neither
nor

that

that

which

non-existence,
nor

that

it is neither

overcome

disappear and

form

of

nothing but

are

has

in

out

when

their
not
can-

and

"thatness."

as

of
totality

is

existence

is neither

that

which

speaks

nor

is neither

that

which

thinks

nor

is the

which

is

is at

is not

at

which

and

and

existence

which

that

existence

once

once

is

This

stage of thatness."

existence,nor

is

existence,
non-

ence;
non-exist-

that

plurality,nor

"

soul

one

attribute

no

speech

the

there

language. They
subjectneither to

are

"thatness"

which

that

could

we

things in
explicable.They

or

They

that

tial
essen-

objects." "All

pointed

understand

you

If

{samatd). They

somehow

Its

previous lives {smrti)

would

in any

{bhutatathata).This

as

spoken

the

to destruction.

nor

means

thingssimply on account
incipient and unconscious

nameable

not

are

sameness

only be

can

As

of

world

bhutatathata

as

cycle

All

external.

adequately expressed

possess

it

of

the

as

things{dharmadhdtu).

individuation

signs of

trace

fundamental

soul

of individuation1.

forms

the

distinguished

the aspect

past experiences of many

our

this smrti

"

and

beginningless traces

memory

The

all

of
totality

be

aspects may

{samsdra).

oneness

of the

two

and
{bhutatathata)

thatness

as

and

soul

in the

that

[ch.

Philosophy

which

is

that which
is not at once
nor
unity
unity and plurality,
and
that it is
plurality.It is a negative concept in the sense
and
beyond all that is conditional
yet it is a positiveconcept

at

once

in the

it holds

that

sense

all within

it.

be

It cannot

hended
compre-

distinction.
It is
or
by any kind of particularization
intellectual categoriesof
of our
only by transcending the range
the comprehension of the limited range
that
of finite phenomena
be comprehended by the
we
can
get a glimpse of it. It cannot
call
consciousness
of all beings,and we
thus may
particularizing
it

negation, "sunyata," in

invented

people of
audience
1

to

to

"

ponder on

Its

"confused

be too

called Rastavara

melody

that he might by that

"smrti"

because
subjectivity"

of such

Buddhist

European

term

truth

classical,mournful, and

was

translate

to

The

sense.

the misery,emptiness,and

ventured

the readers
to

instrument

city.

the

have

Suzuki's

seems

musical

this

works
to be

in the

smrti
as

used

sense
sense

Lankavatara.
as

word

to

of

which

convert

means

the

melodious, inducing the

non-atmanness

in the

is that

of life."

Suzuki, p. 35.

in

preferenceto

vasana

of
The

vasana

word

is not

untamiliar

"subjectivity"

represent the Buddhist

sense.

Asvaghosds Absolutism

v]

131

does not exist by itself,

that the negation(sunyata)is
subjectively
is negated
also void (sunya)in its nature, that neither that which
that which
nor
negates is an independent entity.It is the pure
soul that

itself

manifests

completely holds

all

called

affirmation.

because

it is not

eternal,permanent,

as

thingswithin

it. On

yet there is

But

that account

trace

no

and

immutable,
it may

of affirmation

in

be

it,

the

product of the creative instinctive memory

{smrti)of conceptual thought and the only way of grasping the
truth
the thatness,is by transcendingall conceptualcreations.
death
forth from
"The
soul as birth and
{samsdra) comes
the Tathagata womb
{tathdgatagarbha),the ultimate
reality.
"

But

the

immortal

Though they
when

the

affirmation

absolute

soul

it is called

with

each

other.

dualityeither. Thus
relative aspect by its selfassumes
a
the all-conserving
mind
{dlayavijhdna).

identical

not

are

coincide

mortal

the

and

they

are

not

ment.
principles,
(1)enlightenment,(2)non-enlightenit is
Enlightenment is the perfectionof the mind when
free from
the corruptions of the creative instinctive
incipient
and
the
of
all
all
is
It
{dharmaunity
{smrti). penetrates
memory
is to say, it is the universal
dharmakaya of all
dhdtu). That
It embraces

two

the
Tathagatas constituting
"When

ultimate

foundation

it is said that all consciousness

starts

of existence.
from

mental
this funda-

had any
thought that consciousness
ginary
imareal origin,
for it was
a mere
merely phenomenal existence
of the
the influence
creation
of the perceiversunder
said to be
multitude
of people (jbahujana)
delusive smrti. The
are
lacking in enlightenment, because
ignorance {avidyd) prevails
of
there from
because
succession
all eternity,
there is a constant
smrti (past confused
working as instinct)from which
memory
been emancipated. But when
they have never
they are divested
of this smrti they can
then recognizethat no states of mentation,
viz. their appearance,
change and disappearance,have
presence,
They are neither in a temporal nor in a spatialrelation
any reality.
with the one
soul, for they are not self-existent.
"This
rupted
high enlightenment shows itself imperfectlyin our corphenomenal experience as prajfia(wisdom) and karma
stand
underwe
(incomprehensibleactivityof life).By pure wisdom

truth,it should

not

be

"

that when

by virtue of the perfuming power of dharma,

himself
disciplines
truthfully
according to the dharma) and
(i.e.
the dlayavijhdnd)
accomplishes meritorious
deeds, the mind (i.e.
one,

9"2

[ch.

Philosophy

Buddhist

132

implicatesitself with birth and death will be broken down

will be annulled, and
of the evolving consciousness
the modes
will manifest
of the Dharmakaya
wisdom
pure and the genuine

which
and
the

itself.

of

all modes

Though
products

and

consciousness

mentation

are

is
ignorance,ignorance in its ultimate nature
non-identical
with
and
identical
enlightenment; and therefore
sense
sense
destructible,though in another
ignorance is in one
be illustrated by the simile of the
it is indestructible. This may
mere

and

water

the

the
can

the

waves.

the

the

the mind

stirred

are

be

to
waves

both

When
the

identical

the

wind

of all creatures, which

non-identical

the

wind,
the

ceases

the

in its

but

the
of

motion
Likewise

same.

and

is pure

nature

own

Here

ocean.

and

by

up

remains

water

the

in

up

stirred

are

same.

subsides, but

waves

when

said
The

remains

water

which

waves

be

water

with

of

by the wind of ignorance (avidyd),the waves

of mentality (yijndna)make
their appearance.
These
three (i.e.
the mind, ignorance,and
have
no
existence,
mentality) however
and they are
neither unity nor
the ignorance is
plurality.When
clean, is

stirred

up

annihilated, the awakened

of the

essence

enlightenment
by

or

the

"is

nor

out

pass

affectional

world
of

mind

death,

calm,

and

immutable.

unfolds

of
may

in

The

"Non-elightenment
relation

with

cut

ever

off from

intellectual

modes

any

truth

again

other
to

has

forms,

bring their
no

enlightenment a priori?

that

in order

existence

to

of its
But

in

events

that

they
disappear
both
well
with

clean, pure, eternal,

it transforms

favourable

virtue

the

of relativity

{jheydvarand),as
implicatesitself

is such

are

the

or

the hindrances

nature

conditions

some

thereby

truth

they neither

it,and

it is in its true

itself wherever

induced

into

enter

It is for

since

tathagata or
be

by

(i.e.
dlayavijndnd) which

and

and

are

it,nor

birth

The

signs of enlightenment. All

reflected in enlightenment,so

(klesdvarand)and

the

from

whilst
tranquillized,

absolutelyunobtainable

destroyed."

are

is

unmolested."

remains

outward

any

phenomenal

neither

as

wisdom

mentality

in the

that

all

form

beings

maturity.

own

aside

from

its

enlightenment aprioi'i

to non-enlightenment, and
as
spoken of only in contrast
enlightenment is a non-entity,true enlightenment in turn

loses

its

tion
rela-

is

too.
significance

are

distinguishedonly

in mutual

enlightenment or non-enlightenment. The manifestations

ance
in three ways:
non-enlightenment are made
(1) as a disturbof the mind
{dlayavijndnd),by the avidyakarma (ignorant
as

of

They

non-

v]

Theory of world-construction

action),
producing misery (duhkhd)\ (2) by
ego or of a perceiver
; and (3) by the creation
which

does

exist

not

the

by

in

unreal

arise in succession.

being
conscious

The

affected

second

first
the

by

third

between

continuous
is

phenomenon
of

the

of

an

world

ditioned
perceiver.Conof

kinds

phenomena
intelligence
(sensation);

is

mind

the

becomes

the

agreeableand the disagreeable.

is succession.
Following upon
sensations, agreeable as well
of subjectivestates.
succession

clinging.Through
well

the

retention

and

there
disagreeable,

as

ment
phenomenon is an attachideas (samjiia),
to
etc.
names
or
By clinging the mind
hypostatizesall names
whereby to give definitions to all things.
The
fifth phenomenon
is the performance of deeds
(karma). On
of attachment

account

of

clinging. The

external

an

of the

world

sensations,agreeable as

arises the desire

of

appearance

of

six

external

retains
a

world

the

phenomenon

phenomenon

intelligence,
memory
in
as
disagreeable,
succession

external

of the difference

The

The

itself,
independent

133

to

fourth

etc.,there arise all the variations

names,

sixth

phenomenon
is the suffering
due to the fetter of deeds.
Through deeds suffering
curtailed of
arises in which
the mind
finds itself entangled and
forth through
its freedom."
All these phenomena have thus sprung
deeds, productive of individuality."The

avidya.
The
a

relation

identityand

mere

of pottery which
Likewise
their

the

various

entity.

this

between

be

may

though

undefiled
transient

Therefore

truth

illustrated

different

forms

Buddha

all

by

and

that

is in

simile

one

sense

of all kinds

of the

clay1.

same

ignorance (avidya) and

from

come

teaches

the

all made

are

(andsrava)

avidya

and

all

one

and

beings

eternityabiding in Nirvana.
It is by the touch of ignorance(avidya)that

are

this truth

the

same

from

all

assumes

all the

phenomenal forms of existence.

In the all-conserving
mind
(alayavijnand)ignorance manifests
itself;and from non-enlightenment starts that which
sees, that
which
apprehends an objectiveworld, and
represents, that which
This is called ego (manas).
that which
constantlyparticularizes.
ferent
given to the ego (according to its difis activity-consciousof operation).The
modes
first name
ness
of
that through the agency
(karmavijnand) in the sense
(or
begins to be disturbed
ignorance an unenlightened mind
Five

different

names

are

Compare

Chandogya,

vi.

i.

4.

Buddhist

34

awakened).

The

second

vijhdna) in

the

sense

evolves

which

that

is evolving-consciousness
(pravrtti-

name

in the
representation-consciousness

reflects the

images

When
the

objects of

and

without

in the
as

as

as

loses

or

had

evil,which
in the

recollects
to

been

by

the

also

things

by

gone

the

with

so

mirror

the representation-cons

instantaneously

and
three

the
in

consciousness

experiences and
karma, good as well

past, and

whose
be

mature,
sense

the

all

of any

fails to
in

awakening

retains

in the

never

clean

succession-consciousness,in

{manas)

sown

future, and
Therefore

come.

it

even

(manas)

ego

particularization-consciousness,
different things defiled

suffers the destruction

painfulor agreeable,it
or

is

name

(manaskdra)

As

is

name

between

continuouslydirected

of attention
never

is

fourth

fifth

The

pure.

the

it represents them

that it discriminates

that

sense

The

is

third

confronted, for instance, with

it is

five senses,

effort.

sense

well

the

world.

it
description,

of all

disturbed, there

The

that

sense

external

represents (or reflects)an

is

world.

external

an

mind

the

when

that
sees

[ch.

Philosophy

that

retribution,

it in the
it

present

unconsciously

imagination anticipatesthings

domains

(kamaloka,

domain
of bodilyexistence
feeling riipaloka,
of incorporeality)
are
nothing but the self
"

"

of

domain

arupaloka,domain
of

manifestation

the

mind

alayavijnana which is practicallyidentical with bhuta(i.e.

tathata). Since all things,owing the principleof their existence
to the mind
are
(alayavijnana),
produced by smrti, all the modes
of

are
particularization

mind

in itself

is not

differentiated.

all

things and

the

of the
self-particularizations

(or the soul)being

Therefore

conditions

in the

however

we

come

free from
to

the

mind.

The

all attributes

conclusion

that

phenomenal world, hypostatized

established

and

only through ignorance (avidyd) and memory

(smrti),have no more
realitythan the images in a mirror. They
arise simply from
the idealityof a particularizing
mind.
When
the

mind

when

is

the

of things is produced
disturbed,the multiplicity

mind

; but

is

of things disappears.
quieted,the multiplicity
the ignorant mind
By ego-consciousness(manovijhana) we mean
which
by its succession-consciousness
clingsto the conception of
I and Not-I and misapprehends the nature
of the six objectsof

The

ego-consciousnessis also called separation-consciousness,

because
it is nourished
by the perfuming influence of the
ing
prejudices(dsrava),intellectual as well as affectional. Thus believsense.

in the external

world

produced by

memory,

the mind

becomes

Theory of Good

v]
oblivious

are

sign of becoming.
Non-enlightenment
this is annihilated

annihilated

and
But

of

but

mind

the

them

of

been

d'etre

the

"

of

the state

its modes

not

mind

calm

relation

of the

that

there

Asvaghosa

says,

(suchness),Asvaghosa

acquire one

avidya (ignorance),
subjectivemind),
the tathata

they are

purity because
Determined
by suchness
work

and
On

of defilement.

of this

account

of its

of memory,

And

the

result

And

ignorance perfumes

this

smrti

the
birth

and

longing

death
and

perfumes
are

enabled

of suchness
we

also

in

Further,

them

various

mentally

loathing on

suchness.
to

On

believe

whose

as

deeds
well

are

of

account

essential

recognize that

part of

all

we

are

nature

to

of the

produced.

are

done,
of

and

this

loathe

suffer

we

ness
"such-

perfuming

the

perfuming

misery

in turn

are

we

ourselves

immaculate;

in the world

of

This

influence

possessionwithin
and

world

perfuming

blessingof Nirvana.
the subjectivemind

is pure

phenomena

stood.
is misunder-

bodily." Again

as

this

in

suchness

external

of individuation

after the

the

that

an

in consequence

seek

to

raison

truth

account

on

subjectivityis caused
and

yet

perfumes ignorance.

misunderstood

being

perfumes ignorance,and
individual

the

in its turn

modes

miseries

can

d'etre of

becomes

various

by clingingto

no

hand

other

perfuming, the
(reciprocal)

account

have

agreeable,they

nor

ignorance

This

subjectivityappears.

power

as

smrti.

produces
On

of

it

of

all forms

wear)

we

ignorance has nothing to

we
speak of its being able to do the
in its turn
is perfumed by suchness.

ignorance. On the
purity. Nevertheless

with

which

stance
according to the nature of the subis likewise
perfumed. Suchness {tathata)
caused
all defilements
by the perfuming

of

power

an

odour

free from

dharma

pure

do

which

interperfuming of
"By perfuming we mean
is

(viz.those

offensive

neither

the other

or

with

clothes

worldly

of their own,

odour

says

Thus

our

ruffled
un-

of

interaction

"

that while

an

disturbingit and producing

were

"

elements.

is also

like

karmavijnana (activity-consciousnessthe
represented by the senses)and
visaya(externalworld
these

also

are

"

the annihilation

mean

It becomes

only.

world

interrelated

an

no

When

samsara.

external

does

which

of

all

annihilated.

describingthe

In

conditions

all winds

have

waves

raison

this annihilation

when

sea

is the

the
with

annihilated.
the

135

(samatd) that underlies

principleof sameness
calm and tranquiland show
and perfectly
one

of the

things which

Evil

and

and

nothing

Buddhist

36

but

the

those

which

actions

should
virtue

of

means

rightlyunderstand
liberation,can
perform

thus

we

accordance

in

are

Since

{alayavijndnd)and

mind

of the

illusorymanifestations
no
realityof their own.
can
truth, we
practisethe
the

have

[ch.

Philosophy

with

the

dharma.

We

nor
cling to objects of desire. By
particularize,
merable
disciplineand habituation
during the lapseof innu-

neither
of this

As
asarikhyeyakalpas1 we
get ignorance annihilated.
is no longer
ignorance is thus annihilated,the mind (alayavijiidnd)

disturbed,so

to

as

individuation.

subjectto

be

the mind

As

is

no

of the surrounding world

longer disturbed, the particularization
is annihilated.
When
in this wise the principleand the condition
of

defilement,their products,and

annihilated, it
spontaneous
of the tathata
or

is said

that

mental

the
attain

we

disturbances
and

Nirvana

all

are

various

that

displaysof activityare accomplished."The Nirvana

philosophy is not nothingness,but tathata (suchness

thatness)in

its purityunassociated

with

any

kind

of disturbance

which

produces all the diversityof experience.

To the question that if all beings are
uniformly in possession
suchness
therefore
and
are
equally perfumed by it,how is it

of

that

there

are

who

some

do

believe

not

in

it,while

others

do,

Asvaghosa's reply is that though all beings are uniformly in

possessionof suchness, the intensityof ignorance and the principle
of individuation,
that work
from
all eternity,
vary in such
manifold
the sands
of the Ganges, and
grades as to outnumber
hence

the

in one's

difference.

in

is caused

this,

loathe the

to

nirvana, to

one

cultivate
to

it and

is enabled

instructions
to

inherent

an

and

compassion {karuna) of

oneself
of

is

embraced

being which,

own

(maitri)and
vas,

There

misery

the
to

bring

to see

of birth

it to

all Buddhas

Bodhisatt-

and

and

death,

to

(kusalamida),

maturity.
and

In

can

attain

consequence

Bodhisattvas

to

believe

uate
to habit-

from them, is benefited,gladdened and

practisegood deeds, etc.,tillone

into Nirvana.

all Buddhas

of merit

root

perfuming principle
protected by the love

Buddhahood

ceiving
and, re-

induced
and

This

impliesthat all beings have such perfuming

them
in
that
they may be affected by the good wishes
power
of the Buddhas
and
for leading them
Bodhisattvas
to the path
enter

of

virtue,and

thus

it is that

sometimes

hearing the Bodhisattvas

and sometimes
seeingthem, "all beings thereby acquire(spiritual)
benefits {hitatd)"
and "entering into the samadhi
of purity,they
1

Technical

name

for

very vast

period of time.

Buddhist

138

Philosophy

[ch.

feel a deep compassion (makdkarund) for all

discipline
beings,practiseall virtues {paramitas)and many other meritorious

the stage of

deeds,

others

treat

of

numbers

individual

the

the

by

meant

philosophy
at once

it

or

be

to

seems

The

tathata.

as

This

doctrine

absolute

an

that

of the

fact

that

it
life,

idea

the

as

be

to

seems

of the

many

is

"thatness"

Asvaghosa
to

was

that

guess

Vedanta

learned
there

much

which

creed

of

an

traditional

explained

as

Madhyamika

Candraklrtti,the

or

an

the

creed
in the

of

in

and

of
interpretations

pratltyasamutpada

school.

As

I have
to

no

access

to

on

the Chinese

depend entirely

on

Suzuki's

more

Vijfianavada

Nihilism.
known

of

Nagarjuna

According

to

{pratitya)reasons
translation

of

as

dependent
starts

the word

one

origination{utpdda) of

the

means

"

doctrine
Dv

the word.

which

be

to

seem

Nagarjuna's verses

explaining the

{abhdva) depending
ti"stra,
I had

doctrines

to the

ori"inntionXll?2Ill"0''7r'7^^
two

the Tairthikas

Lankdvatdra1.

Sunyavada

commentator

kdrikd"

"Madhyamika

Buddhist

in

unchangeable self
unspeakable reality

truth.

of Buddhism

The

attract

early

Lankdvatdra

The

to

the

favourably

so

compares

Nagarjuna's Madhyamika
profound philosophy of Asvaghosa

faithful to the

than

influence

Upanisad

interpretedby Sarikara.

as

truth

in his

scholar

Brahmin

was

view

Considering

of Lankdvatdra.

eclipsedthe

ultimate

the

the

with

in agreement

more

interpretationof Buddhism,
the

world.

unchangeable realityas

the ultimate

this tathata

the

perfumes

realityonly as a make-believe
who
had a prejudicein favour
(heretics)
(atman). But Asvaghosa plainlyadmitted

with

is

is what

of

this transcendent

this,that

nihilistic idealism

is easy

admitted

as

This

cling

not

avidya there is a strivingfor the

As
well.
the stage of avidya is passed its luminous
truth which
shines
forth, for it is the ultimate
only
also

illusorily
appeared

with

do

and

being.

main

through limitless
adequately the

come,

sentient

out

as avidya veils
quintessenceof all thought and activity;
perfumes it,the world-appearance springs forth,but as the

character

this

to

work

to

the

good

of

of

existence

activityof

thatness

pure

in ages

kalpas^ recognize truthfullyand

equality(samata) among
people;

principleof
to

wish

selves,and

own

of mankind

salvation

universal

their

as

the

and

existent
non-

causes

ASvaghosa's Sraddhotp"da

expressions as

they appear

in his translation.

v]

Pratityasamutpada

(hetupratyaya). According
each

means

and

means

But

other

originationof each

he

of

disapproves

interpretationpratltya

individual

destructible

every

the

the

to

139

and

and

pada
pratityasamutdestructible

every
these

both

dividual.
inThe

meanings.

second

Pali
the
in which
meaning does not suit the context
Scriptures generally speak of pratityasamutpada (e.g.caksuh
pratitya rupdni ca utpadyante caksurvijnanam) for it does not
the originationof each
and every
destructible
mean
individual,
but the originatingof specificindividual
phenomena (e.g.perception
of form
with
the
by the operation in connection
eye)
depending upon certain specificconditions.
The
if

first meaning also is equallyunsuitable.

take

we

we

the

case

that

see

knowledge

and

interpretthe

there

should

depend

example

visual

it would

so

the

upon

cept,
per-

visual

between

contact

eye, and

the

of the

be

not

If

latter.

we

pratityasamutpada as this happening that

not
explain any specificorigination.All

is false,for
origination
bv

any

for

of

would

Toothers,

be

cannot

the former

maxim

that

origination,
e.g. that

physicalsense,

that
intelligible

happens,

of any

Thus

thing

neither

can

itself

originateby

nor

co-operationof both nor without any reason.

if a thing exists
already it cannot
originateagain by itself.
that it is originated
also mean
suppose
by others would
the origination was
of a thing already existing. If again
nor

For
o

that

without

further

any

the other

one

other

Since

tfcould

together. A
all

to be

so-called
to

come

"

also be

not

for then

being,then depending
into being
from lightwe

thing

that

into

comes

thing could

is said

it
qualification

thing

could

not

originatefrom

originatedby
also

things could

acknowledged

could
come

that

not

into

on

on

anything

any

could

itself

combination

depending

or

the

Buddha

ness!
dark-

by others,

of both

originatewithout
being at all times.

wherever

have

of them

any

cause,

It is therefore

spoke

of this

dependent origination(pratityasamutpada) it was

as
illusorymanifestations
appearing to intellects

an

dependent originationis
thus a real law, but only an
not
due
to ignorance
appearance
lost (amosadharma) is
is not
{avidyd).The
only thing which
and
of knowledge
nirvana; but all other forms
phenomena
(samskdras) are false and are lost with their appearances
(sarva-

senses

stricken

ferred
re-

samskdrdsca

with

ignorance.

This

mrsdmosadharmdnak).
objected to this

It is sometimes

doctrine

that

if all appear-

Philosophy

Buddhist

140
ances

false,then

are

bad

good

or

case,

then

There

then

are

no

no

be

it may

exist at all.

not

cycle of existence, and if such is the

argued that no philosophicaldiscussion

and

works

do

they

[ch.

attempted. But the replyto such an objectionis that the

is engaged in destroying the misplaced connihilistic doctrine
fidence
Those
who
of the people that things are
true.
are
really
wise do not find anything either false or true, for to them
clearly

should

be

they do not exist at

the question of their
there
does

trouble

not

truth

works

neither

are

all and

of the appearances.

any

one
carefully
cannot
what
{citta)\

as

what
such

does

no

He

who

real,works

It

and

who

thus

knows

{samsdra)

existence

also he

and

of

non-existence

or

that

perceived cannot
any

said

be

nature

exist,

that which

all; and

at

to

present, and

future,nor

past, nor

ness
conscious-

discover

cannot

one

to

of all appearances,

suffers

illusions,
though

births

with

originationnor to extinction.
prehend
knowledge {viparyydsa)does not com-

his false

falsehood
and

of rebirth

be

subjectneither

through
the

search

be said to have
is

nature

may

him

For

themselves

it is said in the Ratnakutasutra

exist is neither

not

it cannot

has

the

Thus

howsoever

and

cyclesof

about

himself

trouble

not

falsehood.

or

nor

do

they

the

cycles of

false these

appearances

thinks

but

rebirth

them

{samsdra).
produce

can

be

to

all

Like

all the harm

"J\

sorrow.

objected that if there is nothing true

that
according to the nihilists {sunyavddins),then their statement
there is no origination
extinction
is also not true.
Candraklrtti
or
in replyingto this says that with sunyavadins the truth is absolute
silence. When
the

in

the
what

moment

them

their

comprehension
of all arguments
that
we

they are
call "our

phenomena
When

being

be

again

may

that

Sunyavadin
other

own

sages

people regard as
to

manner

help

of all appearances.

tending to

show

they only accept

argue,

them

It is of

to
no

the falsehood

come
use

deal

and

reasons,

to

to say,

in

for

with

right
spite

of all appearances,

testified

by our experience,for the whole thing that

these
as
experience" is but false illusion inasmuch

have

no

the doctrine

is,"what

true

essence.

of
is

pratltyasamutpada is described

reallymeant

is that

as

"this

only be
indicated as mere
after another, for they have
one
appearances
Nihilism
no
true
essence
nature.
or
(sunyavdda) also means
just
this. The
true
meaning of pratltyasamutpada or sunyavada is
that
in all phenomena
this,that there is no truth, no essence
things can

v]

Essencelessness
As

appear1.

the

phenomena

have

they

essence

no

produced nor destroyed ; they reallyneither come

of may a or illusion.
are
merely the appearance
does

not

mean

negation,for

pure

position.It simply
intrinsic nature
The

heat
and

the fire

and

what

nature

depends

or

anything else,and
out

which
If

exists.

affirm

the

not

so, he

but

in

going on.
change could

this the

or

itself

which

of

speak

also

second,

as

which

not

is

can

the

depend
be

cannot

pointed
that

say

of its own,

on

we

not
can-

If

(parabhdva).
cannot

it

we

quently
conse-

If anyone
that

first

they

are

negation (abhava\
not
anything positive,we canon

in

there

is

the

no

relation

suffers

to

and

moment

arose,

for it

process,

was

cause-effect

between

the two, the

The

is also

(B.T.S.)"P"

things;

the

not

continue
comes

appears

as

the

It cannot
had

same

connection.

temporal

as

In

the
fact

tion
determina-

suppositionthat

there

howsoever

Ibid. pp.

stroyed
de-

anywhere,

go

valid, for

to

neither

first moment

not

we

moment

of them.

5"-

next

can

nor

the

so-called

changes

momentary

that which

anywhere

of

process
But

being

as

process

permanent.

which

be affirmed

later is wrong.

See Madhyamikavrtti

are

nothing

from

second

is that

destroyed

anywhere,
come

perceive a

reply

appears

(samsdra) cannot

priorand

self which

be the

to

said to be

nature

reference
are

there

so

goes

the

no

process

That

change

being

and

does

when

suffered

the heat

said

not

we

even

conditions,

does

it

thingsthat

momentary

nor

process

that

Madhyamaka
with

are

anywhere
a

both

be

existence

his stand

takes

of

they appear,
justifya process.

which

thing
any-

its own;

be

may

things to

of

after

as

alone

or

be affirmed

not

hardly speak

so

any

that

of many

anything negative either2.

again objected that we nevertheless

for those

of

have

hold

of

cannot

we

kind

of

To

there

essence

thus

{sunya)

some

fire;for

cannot

essence

of other

doubt

realitysince

It is

be

no

anything

no

speak

and

such

no

essence

to

we
anything as positive,
assert
anything of anything as negative.
in things positiveand afterwards
discovers

believes

from

conditions

independently by

thing has

affirm

cannot

can

since

stands

of

essence

thing. That
of anything

nature

or

the

many

of the

essence

essence

on

void

of the appearances

none

result of the combination

the

are

be

to

is relative

Sunya system does not

nature
or
{svabhdva) of

or

be said

The

They

go.

{nihsvabhdvatvam).

own

essence

any

cannot

true

of their

Madhyamaka
has

that

means

that

neither

are

nor

93-100.

is
we

Buddhist

142
search

may

soul

the

is

takes

and

that

presuppose
another

up

but

undergo

unity it cannot

would

for that

five skandhas

find the

we

the

at

[ch.

Philosophy

abandons

identical

same

if

Moreover

progression,

or

process

any

soul

the

self.

no

character

one

which

moment

is

inconceivable1.

again the question arises that if there is no process,

of afflictions,
what
cycleof worldly existence of thousands
then

But
and

no

the

is then

all afflictions
not

theory is
which
or

anything

as

nirvana

which

phenomena

in

nirvana, but

existed2.

never

of state

of

replyis that it does

the MadhyaNirvana
on
maka
which

anything

as

that

phenomena,

has ceased
In

produced (aniruddkam anutpannam).

lost;we

are

like the

Nirvana

all

that the

say

in the

positivestates

cease

they

rope

positivething or

any

sort

any

joint

things are

or

and
(satnskrtd)

causes

phenomena

illusorysnake
be

cannot

combined

of all

essence

either

being (bhdva),for

products of
and

is

of

final extinction

Madhyamaka

of the

conceived

all

exist

to

absence

the

the

as

definition of nirvana.

be

cannot

is described
this the

(klesay.To

to such

agree

which

nirvana

liable

are

decay

to

negative existence,for since

cannot
we
speak of a
speak of any positiveexistence,we cannot
the phenomena are
or
negativeexistence either. The appearances
Neither

destruction.

communicated
after

one

be

can

being in a state
another, but beyond that
as

of them.

affirmed

produced

it be

can

and

determined

existent

of

change

no

be

to

truth

existence,or

they

Nirvana

is

be

to

appear

destroyed, but

be

cannot

the

merely

seeming phenomenal flow {prapahcapravrtti).It

therefore be designated either as positiveor as negative for
cannot
these
conceptions belong to phenomena {na capravrttimdtram
bhdvdbhdveti
bhdvdbhdvanirna
parikalpitum pdryyate evam
of the

cessation

M.V.

vdnatn,
and

found.

is not

appear
a

the

even

mirage

or

It is easy

bondage

or

197). In this
knowledge

to

and
that

see

the

that

Even

dream,

there

state

so

are

See
Ibid.

emancipation;

all

62 and

201.

all his

and
false
101-102.

have
is

is

known,

ceased

to

phenomenon,

teachings3.

phenomena

Madhyamikavrtti (B.T.S.),pp.
pp.

himself

in this system

mirage, the dream, the maya,

nature
{nihsvabhdva). It is mere
*

nothing which

phenomena

the Buddha

the

is

there
are

cannot

like

exist

shadows,

any
like

magic without any real

knowledge to suppose that

the

comingy

process

sometimes

non-existent.

or

and

essence,

Phenomena

sometimes

as

Ibid. p. 194.

'

Causal

v]
is

one

win

trying to

is to be considered
that

there

Thus

it is

would

have

no

conformations

no
on

even

been

; but

the
so

depending
It

by

of the

that

that

akasa

there

find

we

four

body
body, it

that

is

It is

solid, it is due

is due

there

is made.

man

becomes

the

elements,space

fire that

to

to

there is

respiration;it is due

porosity,and it is due to vijflanathat

It is by their mutual
combination

is

man

allotted
souls.

to

them.

It is by

attachment

is

he

as

done

they have

that

(pratyayopanibandhd).

(samavdya) of the
(yijndnd)that a

wind

to

aspect, namely that of dependence

is mind-consciousness.

there
that

or

am

samskaras

combination

is fat in the

digestion,it is due
to

so

coming of the consequent

(hetupanibandha).

reason

(prthivl)that

there

"

the

as

another

consciousness

earth

to

water

from

combination

the

idkdsd) and
due

an

conglomeration

on

It is

on

antecedent

be viewed

can

consciousness,and

no

ignorance

said

be

can

is known
pratltyasamujpada

the

been

generating the
"we
are
being
the
avidya." But there being avidya,there come
with other categories
This character of
too.
on

it

and

It is this false

have

be said of the

and

produced by
samskaras

would

there

it cannot

samskaras,"

143

egoism that
considered
avidya. When
deeply it is found
the slightest
of any positive
trace
existence.
if there were
no
ignorance (avidya),there
conformations
(samskaras),and if there were

that

seen

real nirvana1.

a
as

is not

conditions

But

is.

of these

none

of the functions

any

of these

None

ignorance that

that

elements

are

real substances

are

think

considered

to

be

beings or

or

thought of as existents and

Through ignorance thus come

these

are

generated for them.

samskaras, consistingof attachment, antipathy and

the

(rdga,dvesa, moha)

from

the

from

that

These

like the stream

on

behind

phenomena

non-existent, and

See

Ibid.

them

all

therefore

(sdsvatavddd)or
1

that

no

or

truth

nihilism

three

can

comes

as

the
said

be

is

(ucchedavdda),and

no

so

all2.

either

existent

The
or

eternalism

it is for this

reason

Madhyamikavrtti (B.T.S.), pp. 101-108.

this passage

209-211,

quoted

in his Bhamati

on

pp.

from

Salistambhasutra.

Sankara's

Brahma-

*utra.

on.

^T'

rx

essence

of them

of either

affirmed

AvC"
(sparsd); VhvJ"*^vm*(

contact

there

ground
to

(saddyatana),

(trsnd) and

river,but

of

be

senses

desire

comes

be

cannot

the

proceed the

together of those

feelings,from

flow

truth

or

coming

the four

these

{ndtnarupa),from

form

and

with

These

the four skandhas.

thoughtlessness
proceed
vijnana and
elements
bring about name

these

; from

Vacaspatimi^raalso quotes

^4!U*\^WMUl

^JVfcTt \
vKv^aJ^
*^"
,

%-~*\v"-

^"v"

"U

Buddhist

144

is called

this doctrine

that

and

Existence

Philosophy

the

middle

doctrine

have

non-existence

[ch.

only
phenomena,

{inadhyamakdf.

relative

truth

{sam-

but there
is no
true
vrtisatyd)in them, as in all
or
anything else. Morality
reality(paramdrthasatyd)in them
plays as high a part in this nihilistic system as it does in any
Indian

other

juna's Suhrllekka
Tibetan

the

6.

below

I quote

system.

translated

as

translation.
that riches

Knowing

unstable

are

and

the moral
no

precepts, to Bhikshus, Brahmins,

better friend than giving.
Exhibit

7.
for

morality

moving

(asdrd) give according to

void
the

and

poor

friends

morality (Hid) faultless and sublime, unmixed

supportingground of all eminence, as the

is the

is

for there

and

earth

spotless,
is of the

immovable.

and

8. Exercise

the imponderable, transcendental

patience, energy,
reached

Nagar(P.T.S. 1886) from

Wenzel

by

from

stanzas

some

meditation,

the farther

shore

likewise

and

of the

virtues of charity,morality,

sea

of

wisdom, in order that, having

become
a
existence,you may
Jina

prince.
View

enemies, avarice (mdtsaryya),deceit (hatkya),

duplicity
(maya\
hatred
(dvesd) and
(kausidyd),pride (mdna), greed {rdga\
pride(mada) concerning family,figure,glory,youth, or power.
9.

as

lust, indolence
15.

Since

for anger

nothing

; the

is

Buddha

so

difficult of attainment

patience,open

as

door

no

has

shall
pronounced that he who renounces
anger
saint
who
suffers
rebirth).
never
anagamin (a
degree
look
Do
after another's
not
21.
wife; but if you see her, regard her,
according to age, like your mother, daughter or sister.
who
has conquered the unstable,ever
moving objectsof the
24. Of him
six senses
and him who
has overcome
of his enemies
in battle,the
the mass
attain the

wise

praisethe

29.

Thou

of

an

first

as

who

the

knowest

greater hero.
the world, be

equanimous against the eightworldly

conditions,gain
loss,happiness and
and praise,
for they are not objectsfor

fame and dishonour, blame

suffering,
thoughts.
your
(a woman) that is gentle as a sister,winning as a friend,
37. But one
her (you must)
careful of your well being as a mother, obedient as a servant
honour
of
the
the
as
guardian god(dess)
family.
meditate
on
(turn your thoughts to)kindness, pity,
40. Always perfectly
joy and indifference ; then if you do not obtain a higherdegree you (certainly)
will obtain the happiness of Brahman's
world {brahmavihdrd).
four
the
dhyanas completelyabandoning desire {ka?na\ reflection
41. By
and happiness and pain (sukha,duhkhd) you will obtain
(vicdrd),joy {j"riti),
and

as

fruit the lot of

49.

not

and

If you

endowed
in like

5a

The

say

Brahman.
"I

not

am

with form, I do not

manner

you

aggregates
1

See

the

form,

not

thereby will

dwell in form, the form

will understand

do

you

the voidness

arise from

does

not

of the other

desire,nor

Mddhyamikavrtti (B.T.S.),p.

understand

from
160.

dwell

in

am
me

four aggregates."

time,

nor

from

Buddhist

146

[ch.

Philosophy

stopped (abhutaledge
All our
phenomenal knowparikalpa-vasana-vaicitra-nirodhdj1.
truth {nihsvabhdva)and is but a
is without
or
any essence
There
is nothing which
creation of maya,
a mirage or
a dream.
of the )
be called external, but all is the imaginary creation
may
mind
which
has been
accustomed
to create
(svaatta),
imaginary 7
from beginningless
time. This mind
by whose moveappearances
these creations
take place as subject and
ment
object has no
in itself and is thus without
existence
any origination,
appearance
and extinction(utpddastfo'tib/iahgavarjjani)
and is called the alayavijftana.
The
itself is said to be
reason
why this alayavijftana
without
is probably this,
existence, and extinction
origination,
that it is always a hypotheticalstate which
merely explainsall
ence
the phenomenal states that appear, and therefore it has no existunmanifested

instincts

of

imagination

are

'

in the
affirm

any

We

do

external

in which

sense

specialessence

but of

own

our

of appearance.

the

the instinct in the

the

four

for

There

things as

of these

reasons

ripplesof

is used

term

and

we

could

not

of it.

phenomena are of nothing

and there is also the beginmind
ningless
(svacittd),
believingand creatinga phenomenal world
of knowledge (which
is also the nature

realize that all visible

not

tendency
takes

the

perceiverand the perceived)and there is also

mind
On account
to experiencediverse forms.
there are produced in the alayavijftana
(mind)

in a lake,
as
experiences(pravrttivijnand)
and these are manifested
as
sense
experiences.All the five skandhas called pancavijndnakdya thus appear
in a proper
synthetic
form.
None
of the phenomenal knowledge that appears
is either
identical or different from the alayavijftana
not
canjustas the waves

be said
the

ocean

is also

to

our

sense

be either identical

dances

dancing

citta it collects

on
as

it

in

waves

or
so

different
the

citta

in its diverse

were

from
or

the

the

ocean.

As

alayavijftana

As
operations{yrtti).

all movements

it
{kartnd) within it,as manas
the fivefold
and
as
synthesizes(vidhiyate)
vijftanait constructs
perceptions{vijfldnen
vijdndtidrsyam kalpatepancabhiky.
It is only due to maya
that the phenomena
(illusion)
appear
in their twofold aspect as subjectand object. This
must
always
be regarded as an
whereas
in the real
{samvrtisatyatd)
appearance
they existed {bhdvd)or did not
aspect we could never
say whether
exist8.
1
*

Lahkavatdrasutra, p.

44.

Asanga'sMahay dnasutrdlamkdra,

pp. 58-59.

Ibid. pp. 50-55.

^9)
v]

Vedanta

Vijnanavadaand

147

All

phenomena both being and non-being are illusory

(sadasantah mdyopamdh). When
look deeply into them we find that
we
there is an absolute
negation of all appearances, includingeven
all negations,for they are also appearances.
This would make
the
ultimate truth positive.
But this is not so, for it is that in which
the positiveand negativeare one
and the same
{bhdvdbhdvasaSuch
is complete in itself and has no
mdnatdy.
state which
a
and

name

sutra

substance

no

thatness

as

This
{tathatd)'.

placein the Lahkdvatdra

has

been

had

described
state

voidness

as

and no
essence3.
origination
designatedas tathagatagarbha4.
It may
be supposed that this
no

ultimate

truth

comes

like the tathata

that

Ravana

doctrine

of

vatara

of the

doctrine
also

"

"Our

(sunyata)which is one and

In another
place it is also

Vedantic

Buddha

"

unqualified

an

atman

and

Asvaghosa;

the

of

doctrine

How

Brahman

or

find in Larika-

we
can

you

say that
the atman

other

doctrine

heretics;it
of

asks

Lankavatara-

as
tathagatagarbhawas not the same
schools of philosophers,
for those heretics
consider
the atman
as
eternal,agent, unqualified,
vading
all-perand unchanged?" To this the Buddha
is found to reply

your

thus

of

doctrine

the

to

near

in the

is also described in another

is not

the

is in consideration

same

the

as

of the

doctrine

fact that

the

of

those

instruction

stance
philosophywhich considered that there was no soul or subthat
in anything {nairdtmya)would
frightenthe disciples,
I say that all things are
the tathagatagarbha.This
in reality
should not be regarded as atman.
Just as a lump of clayis made
of all
into various
nature
shapes, so it is the non-essential
phenomena and their freedom from all characteristics {sarvavikalthe garbha
that is variouslydescribed
as
palaksanavinivrttam)
This explanationof tathagathe nairatmya(essencelessness).
or
tagarbha
ultimate
order
the
truth
and
in
i
s
to
as
reality given
inclined
creed those heretics who are superstitiously
attract to our
to

believe in the
So

far

as

atman

the

doctrine5."

the idealistic Buddhists

of the

phenomena
{vijndnavddins)
agreed to

appearance

was

concerned

the doctrine

There
was
pratltyasamutpadawith certain modifications.
them an external
pratltyasamutpadajust as it appeared
1

Asanga'sMahdydnasutrdlamkdra,

Lankdvatdrasiitra, p. 70.

Ibid. p. 78.

Ibid. p. 80.

Ibid. pp. 80-81.

p.

65.

IO"2

of

with
in the

Buddhist

148

[ch.

Philosophy

internal

pratltyasamutpada. The external

is represented in the
pratltyasamutpada(dependent origination)
material
into being by the
in which
things(e.g.a jug) came
way
the lump of clay,the potter,
co-operationof diverse elements
The
internal
the wheel, etc.
(adhydtmikd) pratltyasamutpada
was
representedby avidya,trsna, karma, the skandhas, and the
ayatanas produced out of them1.
Our understanding is composed of two categoriescalled the
pravicayabuddhi and the vikalpalaksanagrahdbhinivesapratisthdpikdbuddhi. The pravicayabuddhi is that which always seeks to
take things in either of the following four ways, that they are
both
either this or the other {ekatvdnyatvd);either both or not
either eternal
(ubhaydnnbhaya\ either are or are not (astindsti),
be
of these can
non-eternal
But in reality
none
or
{nitydnitya).
affirmed of the phenomena. The second
category consists of that
diversities and
habit of the mind
by virtue of which it constructs
them (createdin their turn by its own
constructive
activity
arranges
parikalpa)in a logicalorder of diverse relations of subjectand
knows
other relations.
the nature
causal and
He who
predicate,
knows
that there is no external
of these two categories
of the mind
and
all experienced only in the
world
of matter
that they are
objectiveaspect

and

an

"

"

There

mind.

is

{snehd)that

smoothness

it is the

movement

but

it is the

of

substance

that

constructs

of

of

construction

sense

the water

constructs

construction

sense

the external

constructs

of

water,

no

as

external

an

activityor

fire;it is the

the external

sense

stance;
subthat

energy

tion
construc-

substance

of air.

through the false habit of taking the unreal as the

five skandhas
If these were
real {mithydsatydbhinivesd)
appear.
all together,we
could not speak of any kind of causal
to appear
there
be
could
relations, and if they appeared in succession
between
connection
them, as there is nothing to bind them
no
is produced or
together. In realitythere is nothing which
destroyed,it is only our constructive imagination that builds up
In this way

things as perceivedwith all their relations,and ourselves as perceivers. It is simply a convention

(yyavakdra)to speak of things
Whatever
known2.
we
as
designateby speech is mere
speechand
unreal.
In
construction
could
not
(vdgvikalpa)
speech one
kind of causal
speak of anything without relatingthings in some
1
7

menal

Lankavatarasiitra, p. 85.
Lankdvat"rasiitra, p. 87, compare
and

the conventional

world

the term

in almost

the

"

vyavaharika"as used of
sense
by "ahkara.

same

the

phenc

v]

Voidness

relation,but
the

real

none

of these

truth

of all phenomena
characters

(paramdrtha)
speech-construction.

can

may
be

never

be

149
said

referred

to

be

true;

to

by

such

The

from
be viewed
nothingness (sunyata) of things may
and hence
aspects (1)that they are always interdependent,
no
specialcharacteristics by themselves, and as they cannot

seven

"

have

be determined

in terms
be determined
they cannot
of others,for,their own
nature
being undetermined, a reference
to an
other
definable
hence
is also undetermined, and
they are all inessence
{laksanasiinyata)
; (2)that they have no positive
since they spring up from a natural nonexistence
(bhdvasvabhdvasunyatd),
(svabhdvdbhdvotpatti);
(3)that they are of an unknown
since all the skandhas
type of non-existence
(apracaritasunyata\
vanish in the nirvana; (4) that they appear
nected
phenomenallyas confor their skandhas
though non-existent (pracaritasunyata),
have no reality
in themselves
nor
are
they related to others,but
yet they appear to be somehow
causallyconnected ; (5)that none
of the things can
be described
as
having any definite nature,
they are all undemonstrable
;
by language (nirabhilapyasunyata)
be any knowledge about them
(6) that there cannot
except that
in themselves

"

"

which
which
in the
time

nor

two

brought about by the long-standingdefects of desires

polluteall our vision ; (7) that things are also non-existent
that we
affirm them
to be in a particular
sense
place and
is

in which

they are not (itaretarasunyatd).

There
is thus only non-existence, which
again is neither eternal
and a maya
and the world
is but a dream
destructible,
; the
kinds

of

things which
imagined to

negation (nirodha)are
are

neither

existent

(space)and

akasa
nor

non-existent

nirvana
are

only

be existent

by fools.
This view apparentlycomes
into conflict with the doctrine of
this school, that the realityis called the tathagatagarbha (the
womb
of all that is merged in thatness)and all the phenomenal
of the clusters {skandhas),elements
{dhdtus\ and
appearances
veil it with
fields of sense
to
operation (dyatanas)only serve
and this would
to the assumption of a
impurities,
bring it nearer
universal

soul

attempts to
reality.But the Lahkdvatdra
explain away this conflict by suggesting that the reference to
the tathagatagarbhaas the realityis only a sort of false bait to
afraid of listening
to the nairatmya (nonattract those who
are
soul)doctrine1.
as

the

Lankdvatdrasiltra,
p.

80.

Philosophy

Buddhist

50

attain

[ch.

their

highest by the fourfold

(2) utpddasthitibhahgaknowledge of (1) svacittadrsyabhdvand,
(4) svapravivarjjanata,(3) bdhyabhavdbhdvopalaksanatd and
Bodhisattvas

The

may

The
first
tydryyajndnddhigamdbhinnalaksanatd.

second

that

means

existence
know

the

either

to

like

destruction.

or

distinctive

or

of all

nature

The

the

is

means

all external

the

The

tion,
origina-

no

that

should

one

said

things are

their existence

is

merely
beginninglessdesire

the

perceivingthe manifold.
means

mind.

This

brings us
of

right comprehension

the

things.

from

which

those

been

have

Buddhism.

Theravada

Lahkdvatdra

of in the

dhyanas spoken

four

different

third

produced by

is

which

fourth one,

the

The

one's

there

essence

non-existent,for

which

mirage

no

in which

sense

(vdsand) of creatingand
to

imagination of

things have

as

be existent

the

of the

creations

but

things are

all

that

means

described

These

dhyanas

in connection
called

are

be

to

seem

with

(1)

bd/o-

and
(4) tathdpacdrika, (2) arthapravicaya,(3) tathatdlambana
first one
is said to be that practisedby the sravakas
gata. The
and

the

It consists

pratyekabuddhas.

doctrine

that

there

is

concentratingupon the
(pudgalanairatmya),and that everything

soul

no

in

miserable
and impure.
transitory,
things in this way from beginning to end
is

When
the

consideringall
advances

sage

on

till all
what

conceptual knowing ceases

{dsamjndnirodhdt);we
is called the valopacarika dhyana (the meditation
second

The

full consciousness

that

that
may

be

said to

vicayd)the
The

thought

is called
on

third
that

dhyana,
there

is

there

there

doctrines
is

of other

of the

none

in which

self

no

nor

the

that

mind

there

realizes
the

are

The
the
and

mind

last

or

the

into the

heretics
that

the

sage

(pra-

that

the

appearances,

imagination and thus lapsesinto the

dhyana is called tathatdlambana,because
or

is

prehension
com-

dharmas

is itself the result of

This
(tat/tatd).
its object tathata

there

thoroughly seeking out

things (artha).

that

for beginners).

is also the

subjectof

of all

nature

the

only

not

arthapravicayadhyana,for

the

the

self,but

no

nor

that

where

state

is

these

exist, and

here

concentrates

there

neither

This

appears.

advanced

is the

have

thatness
it has

for

thatness.
fourth

state

of

dhyana
thatness

incomprehensibilityof all

is that
is such

phenomena

in which
that
is

the

the

lapse of

nothingness
perfectlyrealized;

Ultimate

v]
and

nirvana

is that

themselves

in

and

be

knowledge

called

called

suffer

all root

death, for

desires

destruction, so

have

This

nirvana

pratyekabuddhas for they are

nirvana, in which by the knowledge of
and
things (transitoriness
to make
erroneous
things and cease

of all these
said

that

that

see

there

phenomena
world

the

emphasized
that

is

no

is maya

is

this,that

seem

to

is

to work.

This

and

it cannot

that

either

death

of the

sravakas

call that

to

or

state

the

(in the

heretics

no

it is

is meant

ground.

be

originate,stay, and

ground)

When

maintain.

no

cause,

of

sense

illusion,what

or

there

ledge
know-

things(samskrtd)

satisfied

cause

other

as

general characteristics
misery) they are not attached to
judgments1.

of all

we

from

is different

with

rebirth

any

it is different from

that

the

Thus

the mind

false creations, ceases

it will not

(vdsand)manifesting

destruction,for only compounded

destruction.
and

destroyed and

are

perceptions,
making

be

cannot

in which

goal

The

destroyed

be

to

mena
pheno-

are

mere

imagination,and the tathata or thatness

is nothing but the turning away
of this constructive
activityor
of the imagination (vikalpa)tainted with the associations
nature
of beginningless root
desires
tathata
has
no
(vdsand)2. The
of tainted

constructions

realityfrom

separate

of the

course

also

spoken

illusion,but

construction
of

as

that

for
(cittavimukta),

of illusion has

which

here

it is illusion

is cut

there

is

no

off

or

ceased.
detached

itself when

It is therefore
from
of

construction

the

the

mind

imagination

(sarvakalpanavirahitatri)*.
Sautrantika
Dharmottara

(847 A.D.),a

Perception.

of

Theory

of

commentator

Dharmakirtti's4

(about 635 A.D.) Nydyabindu, a Sautrantika

logicaland epistemological work, describes right knowledge (samyagjndna) as an
invariable
1

Lankdvatdrasutra,

This

sutra,

account

as

other

no

and

accounts

varttika
with

antecedent

or

p.

to

accomplishment
2

ioo.

of the Vijfianavada school

authentic

work

of

criticisms of this school

may

of

career

Ibid.

is collected

of all that

be had

in such

man

p. 109.

mainly from

Vijfianavadaschool

the

Sahkara's bhasya, II. ii,etc.

the duties concerning the

of the

the

books

Lankdvatdra-

is available.
as

Kumarila's

Hindu
Sloka

deals

more
Asanga'sMahdydnasutrdlamkdra
{Bodhisattva)than with the metaphysics

saint

system.

Vijfianavadain his Santdndntaraconsidered

siddhi, a treatise on solipsism,
to have been
but his Nydyabindu seems
rightly
by the author of Nydyabindutikdtippant
(p.19) as being written from the Sautrantika
Dharmakirtti

point of view.

calls

himself

an

adherent

of

Buddhist

152
desires

[ch.

(samyagjiidnapurvikd sarvapurusdrthasiddhiy.

have

to

Philosophy

accordance

with

the

presentationof any
knowledge, we get a thing as presented by it we call it right
knowledge. Right knowledge is thus the knowledge by which one
to acquire (arthadhiacquire the thing he wants
can
practically
gati). The process of knowledge, therefore,starts with the perceptual
When

in
proceeding,

on

presentationand
represented by it and the

with

ends

the

fulfilment

of the

attainment

of

the

thing

practicalneed

by

it

Thus
there
are
(arthddhigamdt samdptah pramdnavydpdrah).
in the perceptual acquirement of knowledge
three
moments

(1) the presentation,(2)

the

final realization

endeavour

following the

(3)

and
our

our

is also

be called

to

with
it,
prompting in accordance
of the object in accordance
with
Inference
direction
of knowledge.
it also

rightknowledge, as

serves

practical

our

tions
by representing the presence of objects in certain connecIn perception this presenand helping us to realize them.
tation
this is brought about indirectly
is direct,while in inference

need

through

the

realization

philosophicalworks

in

for the

(reason). Knowledge is sought by men

liriga
the subject of knowledge
of their ends, and

men.

the

realization

knowledge

because

knowledge, therefore,which

Any

by

only

of the

rightknowledge.

objectrepresentedby

All

will

sought

lead

not

it could

is

cussed
is dis-

to

us

be called

not

illusoryperceptions,therefore,such as the
conch-shell
as
yellow or dream perceptions,

perceptionof a white
not rightknowledge, since they do not lead to the realization
are
doubt
of such
It is true no
objects as are presented by them.
that since all objectsare
the object which
was
momentary,
ceived
perthe

at

which

was

which

started

realized

realized

the

(nilddau ya

eva

of other

santdnah

that

realization

undesirable

and

commentary

same

as

that

the series of existents

object finds itself

blue

of the

existents

series

same

paricchinno nilajhdnena sa
right knowledge
of any

thing,it must

eva

tena

desirable
be

is

an

thing

noted

that

invariable
or

the

cedent
ante-

retarding

it is not

meant

of Nyayabindu%
from
the opinionsof two
other commentators
"antabhadra (seventh century),are found in Nyayabindutikdtippani,

of

Nyayabindutikd of Dharmmottara,

us.

But

first perceptionof

the

not

Brief extracts

Vinitadeva

to

later moment.

realization

it is said
of the

the

perception was

nllajhdnam pramdnamy.

prdpitah tena

of any

at

with

by

When

of

moment

Ny"yabindutlkatippani,
p.

n.

but

their texts

are

not

available

Buddhist

54
the

to

Philosophy

[ch.

(purvadrstdparadrstancdrthamekikurvadvijndnam-

sense

In
asannihitavisayam purvadrstasydsannihitatvdt).

all

illusory

which
is affected either by extraneous
perceptionsit is the sense
If the senses
not
are
or
by inherent physiologicalcauses.
verted
perbound
the
to
are
objectcorrectly.Perception
they
present
the
of an
thus means
correct
presentationthrough the senses
object in its own
uniqueness as containing only those features
which
its and its alone (svalaksanam).The validity
ledge
of knoware
consists in the sameness
that it has with the objectspresented
by it (arthena saha yatsdrupyam sddrsyamasya jndnasya tatpramdnamihd). But the objectionhere is that if our percept is only
is a thing which
similar to the external objectthen this similarity
and thus perceptionbecomes
presentation,
is not different from the percept which
invalid. But the similarity
as
being similar to the object. It is by virtue of their
appears
that we refer to the objectby the percept {taditi
sameness
sdrupyam
perception of the objectbecomes
possible.
tasya vasdt) and our
of blueness
It is because
have an awareness
that we
we
speak of
having perceived a blue object. The relation,however, between
is different from

the notion
the

of

of
similarity

indefinite

causation

the

but

the
of

awareness

of

determinant

perceptionwith the blue objectand

blue
in perception is not
of
one
and a determinate
{vyavasthdpya-

vyavasthdpakabhdvend).Thus it is the same

cognitionwhich in
form
stands
with the object of
one
as
signifyingthe similarity
the
as
perceptionand is in another indefinite form the awareness
kihcidrupam pramdnam
kincitprapercept {lataekasya vastunah
of
It
this
is
account
on
mdnaphalam na virudhyate).
similarity
with the object that a cognition can
of the
be a determinant
definite awareness
(vyavasthdpanaheturhisdrupyam), so that by
the

determinate

of
similarity

we

know

the

the sense-datum

determinant

with

and

thus

by

the

the

object(pramdnd) we come
that our
has this particularform
to think
"blue"
awareness
as
between the knowledge and its
(pramdnaphald). If this sameness
objectwas not felt we could not have spoken of the objectfrom
the awareness
(sdriipyamanubhutam vyavasthdpanahetuh).The
similar
and
it is this
to itself,
object generates an awareness
correspondence
so

that

lead

can

us

to

the

realization

of the

object

presented by rightknowledge1.
1

See

also

pp. 340

and

409.

It is unfortunate

that, exceptingthe Nydyabindu,

Nydyabindutikd, Nydyabindutikdtippani
(St Petersburg,
1909),no other
with this

doctrine
interesting

of

are
perception

available to

us.

works

dealing

Nydyabindu is probably

v]

Inference

Sautrantika

According
by

the

to

theory

and

of Inference1.
of Buddhism

doctrine

Sautrantika

Dharmaklrtti

155

Dharmmottara

as

scribed
de-

is probably the

which

of systematicBuddhist
available to
only account
logicthat is now
in Sanskrit,inference
us
(anumdnd) is divided into two classes,
called svarthanumana
knowledge attained by a person
(inferential
mind
or
ference
arguing in his own
judgments),and pararthanumana (inthrough the help of articulated propositionsfor convincing
others in a debate). The
validityof inference depended, like the
validityof perception,on copying the actuallyexistingfacts of
the external

copied external realities as much

as
perception
perceptiondid; justas the validityof the immediate
of blue depends upon
blue thing
its similarityto the external
perceived, so the validityof the inference of a blue thing also,
far

so

world.

it is

as

external

Inference

knowledge, depends

fact thus

its resemblance

upon

to

the

(sdrupyavasaddhitannllapratltirupam

inferred

sidhyati).
The
that
be

it may

be

It is

only

conditions

that

the

and

reason

the

exist,but
above
the

the
the

connection

criterion

writers

to the

desire

of existence,
as
Buddhistic

me

no

know

not

and

It is

established.

where

present in all

cases

absent

it does

it should

(niyama)

be

can

where

not

present only in the

be

is essential

establishing
This unfailing

for

for inference2.
found

in two

types

arthakriydkdritva(practical
rightknowledge) Later on it was regarded
and the profuse references by Hindu
Ratnakirtti's works
we

hear of the doctrine of

criterion of

doctrines

arthakriyd is found in CandraLalitavistara

also in such earlyworks
as
(pointed
but the word
the Cambridge UniversityLibrary)

prove.

The

word

As

the Pramdnasamuccaya
of Dirmaga is not available in Sanskrit,we
can
hardly
be
what
from
the
anything of developedBuddhist
can
Nydyalogic except
got

bindutikd
2

it does

to

on
Nagarjuna and
of
by Dr E. J. Thomas
there.
philosophicalsignificance

to

be

necessary

in which
as

thing

by both these joint

{pratibandha) between

(svabhdvapratibandha)is

kirtti'scommentary
out

that

law

of the earliest works

exists

where

case

such

is tested

reason

should

reason

inferred

This

our

in every

the

where

cases

be

should

is made

unfailingconnection
thing to be inferred

unfailingcondition

fulfilment of

has

the

it is necessary

case.

natural

one

absent

when

an

enough that
thing to be

not

inference

an

present only in those

inferred exists,and

exist.

as

which

by

reason

of Dharmmottara.

niyamavatorevanvayavyatirekayohprayogah karttavyahyena pratibandho

sddhanyasa sddhyena. Nydyabindutikd, p. 24.

tasmdt

gamyeta

Buddhist

156
of

in the
the
is

thus

genus;

tall and

speciesis

infer the

in the

identical

latter from

The

is that

second

which

stands

the

as

fire which

the

has

reason

of the

with

the

to

inference

be

natural

it of

the

the

the

of the

could

one

this is called

(tdddttnya).

nature

from
from

Thus

effect

the

smoke

the

ground

The

of

connected
naturallyindissolubly
this is the

unless

no

case,

of

identityof

is made

second

of

with

the

of

inference

svarthanumana

difference

the

between

pararthanumana,

the

has

inferential

has

process

and

pararthanumana

as

characteristics;the

this,that

is

two

mines
deter-

premisses but
nection5.
inseparable con-

the

known

is

cause,

of

series

all essential

in

the

effect with

{avinabhavaniyamd)

connection

the

species in

the

svabhavapratibandha

The

not

type

of

essence

through
lihga (reason) which

the

(svabhdvapratibandha),

connection

of
inseparability

directlyby

main

genus,

inferred.

be

inferred, and

all inference1.

of

inference

agrees

small

nature

vice versa\

former.

inseparable connection

or

The

is

indissoluble

nature

ground

the

are

is warrantable.

This

genus

be

of the

is inferred

cause

reason

even

; the

identityof

it may

produced

they

the

genus

not

of

the

is that

nature

where

inferences

as

but

connection

these

thing

the

former

that

him

pine;

latter

with

the

unfailingnatural

the

tained
con-

qualityof pineness
being
treeness, for the former

of

essence

because

trees

to

out

it is

because

contained

speciesbeing

is

reason

part of its nature, i.e.where

called

pines are
useful to point

part of the

the

tree

as

that

be

is

pine plant
forms

it may

of

nature

speciesof which the thing to be inferred

stupid person livingin a place full of tall pines

for

think

to

come

may

the

inferred

be

thing to

stands

reason

where

first is that

The

cases.

[ch.

Philosophy

in

be

to

the

case

of

put verballyin

premisses.
Pandit

Ratnakara"anti, probably of

A.D., wrote
1

na

hi yo

yatra svabhavena

pratibaddhahsa

na

or

the tenth

Antarvyaptisamarthana

named

paper

the ninth

tarn

tury
cen-

in which

apratibaddhavisayamavaJya-

tayoravyabhicaraniyamah. Nydyabindutikd, p. 29.

the
inseparable connection
determining inference is only possiblewhen
lingasatisfies the three following conditions,viz. (1) paksasattva (existenceof the

meva

na

vyabhicaratltinasti

The

linga in the paksa

"

the

cases

(3)vipaksasattva(itsnon-existence
The

Buddhists

it has smoke,

admitted
like

which

thing about

(existence of the lingain those

three

kitchen

where

something is inferred); (2)sapaksasattva

and
the sadhya or probandum existed),

in all those placeswhere

in
propositions

but

unlike

lake.

the

syllogism,
e.g.

The

sadhya did

not

exist).

hill has fire,because

v]

Inference
tried

he

show

to

which

cases

the

concomitance

of the

of the

lingawith
sadhya (probandum); or

is not

between
the

the

of the

characteristic

of the

whereas

has

which

kitchen,

as

that which

and

that

This

has the

which

view

the

has

of the

nature

concomitance

(antarvydpti),
the concomitance
between
the thing
outer
as
possessing sadhya, is known
as

viz.

former,

inner

such

between

the

concomitance

the

smoke

has

characteristics

the

words

lihga,viz. the smoke,

sadhya, viz. the fire.

is known

the

in other

fire but

placescontaining

concomitance

that which

placescontaining the

characteristic

of

those

the cases
with
linga or reason
that which
sadhya (probandum) but between

characteristics

etc.,and

between

is not

the

possess

the

possess

that

157

possessing linga and that

concomitance
{bahirvyapti)and generallyaccepted by the Nyaya
school of thought. This antarvyapti doctrine
of concomitance
is
indeed

later Buddhist

It may

Yamaka

the
"was

Buddhist

as

of the

the

so

pabbato

{ayam

"

found

are

of Asoka
process

whatever

dhumavd
"

which

of

logicalpremisses

dhumavd

so

early

as

the

niggama (tasmddayam aggimd

also known.
(Aung further sums
in the

"

is
this

therefore
up

Kathdvatthu

the
as

Is A

B1

Yes.

Adherent.

Is CD}

Opponent.

No.

Adherent.

But

Hence
antecedent

thapana, because
established

be B
can

your

then
be

(you

affirmed

first

of A
is

answer

have

should

but

said)C

is D.

of C is false.

refuted.")

hypothetical major premiss is termed

A is B, is conditionally
opponent's position,

of the
the

for the

consequent
because

(thdpand).
{pdpana).

if A

That

papana

aggimd

and

of

evidence

time

the

Opponent.

The

the

the

least

the

of terms"
that

evidences

at

on

logicat

points out
yo

that

back

go

Aung

Buddhist

upanayana

arguments

"Adherent.

The

remark

to

distribution

( Yo

fiery)were

method
follows

the

the udaharana

is

that

further

He

fiery is smoky),
hill is smoky) and
that

here

(200 B.C.).Thus
with

conversion.

place

logic probably

points out

conversant

such

of

out

Kathdvatthu

the

as

of

of

form

some

be

not

doctrine.

purpose
of the

it is got

of refutation.

hypotheticalmajor premiss
from

the

antecedent.

And

is termed
the

con-

Buddhist

158
is termed

elusion

Philosophy

because

ropana

the

[ch.

regulationis placed on

the

Next:

opponent.

"If D

be

Then

But

should

be

can

been

have

affirmed

you

(therefore) That

of C.

derived

derived

of A.

of A.

affirmed

of A

but

not

of D

C is

or

wrong."
with

former

the

latter method

But

But

method

of

and

hypotheticalmajor

opponent's

second

is

answer

established1."
re-

of Momentariness.
to

the

prove

momentariness

the concomitance

discovered

of

by
by

in presence

hence

accepting

the

doctrine

of

Existence
is defined
only alternative.
producing anything (arthakriydkdritva).The
the

as

the

the

and then
the
(anvayavydpti),
difference by proving that the production of effects
the assumption of things being perbe justified
on
manent

of agreement

not

the

reverse

(950 A.D.)sought

method

could

the

first,
{sattvd),
by

all existence

we

methods

C is D.

Doctrine

The
Ratnaklrtti

In both

is B.

method

indirect

this

if

contrasted

as

C is D.

Therefore

By

method,

get

we

is B

If A

indirect

or

method, anuloma.

direct

or

is derived.

consequent
in the

patiloma,inverse

is the

This

momentariness
the

as

form

capacity of
of

the

first

ever
by anvayavyapti may be given thus: "Whatexists is momentary,
by virtue of its existence, as for example
of which
cussing
diswe
are
jug; all things about the momentariness

type of argument
the

existents

are

said

be

that

existent

effects

is not
at

the

which

jug

are

therefore

has

been
for

momentary;

present moment;

all identical in the past and

are

effect at all in the

no

for those

future;
1

Mrs

the

and

See

which

the

are

second

introduction

Rhys Davids.

to

past and
done

is

now

chosen
the

the

example of an
producing certain

as

an

is

jug

it cannot

and

future

future,for
could

impossible,for

It cannot

momentary."

not

be
that

or

the
be

that

these

it is

first is

done

if it has

the translation of JCathavatthu

held

any

producing
impossible,

again in the
capacity to

(Pointsof Controversy)by

Momentariness

v]
effects

produce
might as
the

well

at

at

of

and

will

different

the

at

production varies

those

moments

two

Since

past and

of the

so, and

hence

future,for

the

the

fact that

of

name

things

it cannot

jug

the

it is not

the

were

nature

thing at
have

not

the

evidentlydo

in the

in the

past and

capacity and
the

this

moment

present

has

jug

same

the

not

the

at

two

produced

is

existence

not

capacity

until

itself

to know

being

only
or

of

definition

the

there

the

and

there

even

of

means

for it is demonstrated

certain

does

not

conditions

an

produced
there

infinite

affirm

the

existence.
be

is the

and

until

no

another

be

can

says
effect

the

in

this

of

agreement

knowledge

of concomitance

of

at the

has
can

impossible

producing effects
if all things were

perceiverto observe

permanent

there
of

could

there

is the
and

concomitance

To
be

cannot

The

in presence,

permanent

hardly

inference.

the denial.

in presence,
the

that

capacity of

making

require any

and

capacity

will be

chain, it

Moreover

in agreement

effect

being

no

as

being nothing fixed

taking to any kind

of agreement

concomitance

knowledge

in

even

concomitance

absence,

has

that

repliesthat capacity(sdmarthyd)

Ratnaklrtti

of any

to

would

momentary

change,

this view

known

producing effects,and

of

demonstrate
any

tariness
momen-

if

infinitum. Since

ad

another

be

cannot

with

the

capacityto produce effects be regarded

of the effect
being,then the being or existence

known,

that

anything

and

known,
or

be

cannot

The

bhedah).
which
is but
(arthakriydsakti),

existence, is universallyconcomitant

capacity of

that the

there

the

also the

(ksanikatvavydpta).
Nyaya school of philosophy objectsto

The

any

the

has

jug

effects

capacity of producing

as

the

moments,

with

that

well, proves

another,

thing could

duce
pro-

(saktdsaktasvabhdvataydpratiksanam

moments

as

future

identical

is not

the

capacity as

other

for
different,

at

at

even

at

that

then

moments,

contradictorycapacities.
the jug does
not
produce

in it two

work

be

must

one

if it does

it. So

If it is held

different

at

59

capacity of producing

the

not

moments.

case

effect

any

produce
supposition that

the

prove

be

necessitydo

does

in that

as

so,

not

has

of

must

moment

contradiction

should

Whatever

time

any

doing

cease

expect that there

one

different

not

moment.

present

anything

it must

or

denied,

agreement
for

knowledge
in other

succeeding moment

this

observation

observer,

in

be

in

under
of the

conditions

absence.

This

holds within

is what

this alone

and

capacity,and
proved cases

indeed
all

being; seed

thus

and

the shoots

momentary,

long

yet

we

their

as

is

not

existence

or

at this when

all that

was

capacity

observer.

permanent

any

being

preceding moment,

of

(sattva)is

it was

observed

could

be

that

defined

of

producing shoots,

and

requirefurther capacity to produce

been
perceived still remains, viz. that

has

of seeds

existence

so

the

fact which

the
effects,
the

capacity

capacity should

if this

even

arrived

we

but

was

"

of

definition

Buddhist

The

find and

we

[ch.

of the

conditions

the

experience of

itself the

in

Philosophy

Buddhist

160

but

nothing

there

is no

could

have

capacity of producing
vicious infinite1. Though thingsare
concomitance
between
thingsonly

forms

apparent

the

different

not

are

(atadrupa-

paravrttayoreva sadhyasddhanayoh pratyaksena vydptigrakandt).

smoke)

is based

Another

objectionraised

the

is

of any

concomitance

vyapti or

The

this,that

not

identity.

on

againstthe doctrine of momentariness

etc., before

collocations of earth, water,

for

wait

(e.g.seed) must

cause

similarityand

extreme

on

fire and

things (e.g.the

two

it

of other

number

produce

can

effect

the

the doctrine
must
fail. To this Ratnathe shoots)and hence
(e.g.
klrtti repliesthat the seed does not exist before and produce the
effect when
joined by other collocations,but such is the special
that it produces both
effectiveness of a particularseed-moment,

collocations

the

conditions

or

well

as

the

as

effect,the

became
endowed
specialseed-moment
causal
is to be sought in other
effectiveness
How

precededit,and

on

attention

draw
a

of

number

to

is

being

it

he

is valid

important

not

Ratnaklrtti's

least

as

sixth

the

early as

or

miilasiildhau

root

infinite regress

awaiting
is saved

to

there

and

free from

enlarge
be

the

he

the

upon

tries to

harmless

if

to

reveals
number

whatever

has

fallacy.

any

explained

seventh

that

inference

we

part of

second
that

show

infinites was

did

not

known

century. Jayanta quotes

mulaksatikarimdhuranavastham

11

matter

not

wishes

to
a

the

duction
pro-

suppose
the Indians

passage

which

clearly(Nydyamailjart, p. 22) :

differentiates the two

The

the

vicious and

distinction between

The

to

which

one

in which

arguments

of effects could

that

says

special

moments

perceptualmoment
moment
produce
may

as

causal

one

such

Ratnaklrtti

dependent.

was

fact that

the

momentary

is

It

which

objects,so

of effects. Thus

at

with

shoot.

be

is

no

tvarucydpi nanavastha

that has
solved
harm

hi dusanam.

to

be

destroys
in

gone
the

regress

nivaryate."

through in
root

and

though one

order

is hence
may

not

to

arrive at the root

vicious, whereas
be

willingto

have

if the
it.

Buddhist

62

past does

time

long

existingfor such
perceivethe book
memory),
that

the

referringto

the

"that

refers

refers

to

feelingof identitywhich
due

to

confusion

is adduced

between

in the

seen

is before

which

book

the

to

book

is evident

It

senses.

that

arisingin

book

the
(i.e.

perceived by the
"

but

present moment,

book"

of memory

book, I

this is that

I say

been

self has

permanent

When

at

eye

as

book

"this

is thus

at the

same

book"

The

eyes.

my

be

"that

past, whereas
my

with

cannot

that

prove

long period.

is the

book"

"this

not

[ch.

Philosophy

to

prove

manence
per-

object of memory

an

past and different objectwith the objectas perceived

present

by the
identityand

This

senses1.

moment

is true

of

only

not

of external
objectsbut
recognitionof
permanence
also of the perception of the identityof self,for the perception of
results from the confusion
of certain ideas or emotions
self-identity
all

arisingin

with

memory

similar

ideas

But

of the present moment.

points to an objectof past perception,and the perception

to another
objectof the present moment,
identitycannot
be proved by a confusion of the two.
all objects
Every moment

since

memory

of the

world

sufferingdissolution

are

things appear

to

Our

hair

nails grow

have

the

hairs

new

and

and
persist,

hair and

same

similar

ones

the

these
and

often
so

these

impression that

the

nail that
to them

old

have
ones

being
similar
it is

one

all

been

have

we
our

around

bodies,

the

perceiving the
our

others

moment,

destroyed

persistingthrough all the passing

of a candle
is changing every moment
if

forth,and

the

thingssucceeding in
and

that

think

we

same

moments2.

yet it

flame

ideas, emotions, etc.,

of old

they

leave

it is that
similar

series

produce
has

the

seems

all the

all external

are

preceding moments,
the
1

same

See

and

no

it appears

destruction

to

has

us

taken

that

things have
place.

to

been

See Tarkarahasyadipikd of Gunaratna,

edition,p. 450.

p.

30,

and

flame
as

us

while,

so

objects
are

the
the

remained

V.S. Series,pp. 449, etc.

also Nydyamanjarl, V.S.

of the Buddhists,Nydyamanjarl,
pratyabhijflanirasa

to

moment

and new
ones
being destroyed every moment,
but so long as
being generated at every succeeding moment,
of
similar to those
objects of the succeeding moments
are
us

we

next

thing which
Just as

and

same

yet

be noticed.

persisting.So

were

are

often

before,in place

sprung

every

and

yet

had

we

destruction, but

cannot

cut, but

are

destroyed

rise into
and

on,

destruction

and

ii the

impression as
though things are

and

v]

Causal

The

Doctrine

of Momentariness

of Causal
It appears
the Buddhist

that

thing or

Doctrine

point of

view

phenomenon may be defined from

of diverse
being the combination
a thing is but a conglomeration of

as

call

we

characteristics which

influence

the

and

63

Efficiency (Arthakriyakaritva).

characteristics1. What
diverse

Efficiency

found

are

to

affect,determine

or

other

conglomerations appearing as sentient or as

inanimate
bodies. So long as the characteristics
forming the
elements
of any conglomeration remain
perfectlythe same, the
be said to be the same.
As soon
conglomeration may
as
any of
these

characteristics is supplantedby any

the

conglomeration
being of things means
the

influence

that

called

be

is to

new

characteristic,
Existence

one2.

new

that any

the work

it exerts

other

or

conglomeration does

or

other

conglomerations. This in
Sanskrit is called arthakriyakaritva which
translated
literally
the power
of performing actions and purposes
of some
means
kind3. The criterion of existence
or
being is the performance of
certain specific
that a certain
actions,or rather existence means
effect has been
That
(causalefficiency).
produced in some
way
on

"

which

produced such an effect is then called existent or sat.

a corresponding
Any change in the effect thus produced means
change of existence.
Now, that selfsame definite specificeffect
1
2

has

Compare Milindapanha, n. i.
Compare TarkarahasyadTpikd

Nydyamanjari, V.S.
siddhi by Ratnaklrtti

edition, pp.

"

The

445,

Simile.

Chariot

A.

of Gunaratna,

S.'s edition,pp.

also the

etc., and

paper

24,

28

and

Ksanabhanga-

on

Buddhist

Nydya tracts.
3 This
of
word
the
"arthakriyakaritva"is different from the meaning of
meaning
the word
found in the section "sautrantika
as
we
theory of perception."But we find
the development of this meaning both in Ratnaklrtti as well as in Nyaya writers who
referred to this doctrine.
With
Vinitadeva (seventhcentury A. D.)the word
arthakriyasiddhV
the fulfilment of any need such as the cooking of rice by fire {arthameant
sabdena
prayojanamucyate purusasya prayojanam ddrupdkddi tasya siddhih nispattih
in Six

"

"

the word

that, means
a

half

art ha

means

need

; the need

accomplishment).With

later arthasiddhi

means

of

man

Dharmottara

such

cooking by

as

who

action (anusthiti)with

But
desirable objects (heyopadeydrthavisayd).

with

logs,etc. ; siddhi

flourished about
reference

to

century

undesirable

of

and
and

(950 a.d.) the word

of
with
him
efficiency

Ratnaklrtti

It means
arthakriyakaritvahas an entirelydifferent sense.
it
is
and
action
such
as
or
regarded as the characteristic definition
producing any
event,
of existence (sattva). Thus
he says in his Ksanabhangasiddhi, pp. 20, 21, that though
in different philosophiesthere are different definitions of existence or being, he will
karitva
accepted definition of existence as arthakriyaopen his argument with the universally
Hindu
of causing any
writers after
action
or
(efficiency
event).Whenever
Ratnaklrtti refer to the Buddhist
doctrine of arthakriyakaritvathey usuallyrefer to this

doctrine in Ratnaklrtti's

sense.

II

"

Buddhist

64

which

produced

is

different

each

into

being of

So

effect which

effects

the
time

be

existence
no

with

in each

means

its combination

with

other

the

The

forcing itself upon

of

has
then

could

we

produced

said

on

that

by things on us, for there

that beyond such
as
powers

is

hold

are

permanent
when

even

of

the power

the

not

as

to

which

each

each

close

And

Indian

on

as

duction
pro-

other

some

existed

which

power

power

as

there

would

be

there
be

exerts

should

also

regarded
a

in the

new

as

power.

doctrine

of

relation

some

discussion
are

of
of

relation

problem of

of

on

which

the

Diverged.

Systems

These

individuals,(4) the
specific
the

the

such

must

that

examination

our

part (avayava),(3) the

and

of

moments,

Problems

effect,(2) the relation

the substance

be

and

naturallybrings

to its views
briefly
referring
favourite
were
subjects of

and

no

should

one

perceive the

unit

moment

Ontological

circles of India.
cause

power

by Ratnaklrtti.

Different

without

it

have

can

with

should

We

existence.

of existence

Some

cannot

place.

power

such

why

reason

existences, i.e.existents

shown

momentariness

We

the

We

adhered,

at different

power

existingat

definition

This

of

new

momentary,

asserting

in its

no

associated

exerted.

define

of

unit

units

many

was

effects and

producing

different
be

power

no

effects there

impressions or
entityto which

amounting

if it had

Any

thing itself
in

by

it existed.

exerted

of

time.

the

be

should

other
than
the impression
meaning of existence
us; this impression is nothing else but the power

of the

notion

have

not

of

come

is known

minds;

our

has

effect

new

why they

one

but

the

us
accessories,justifies

thing has changed and a new

of a jug for example
existence

that

in

coming
things. If things

performing different effects at different points

due
difference
in the effect produced, whether
to
or

similar
a

case

of

reason

once

produced

be

may

is associated

moment

would

there

permanent

were

is

of

produced
correspondinglynew

new

identical

that

effect thus

and

cannot

moments

Each

be identical.

cannot

[ch.

produced before, and

produced again.

be

produced cannot
us
by objects at

never

future,for

the

repeated in

be

was

now

Philosophy

Buddhist

philosophy

ontologicalproblems
all philoin almost
sophical

(1) the relation of

the whole
(avayavi) and the
generality(samdnya) to the
in brief:

of attributes

the relation of

and
qualities
inherence,(5)the
or

Problems
Ontological

v]
of power

relation
the

on

of

real,and

permanent,

was

illusions

due

difference

between

the

only

earlier

effect

the

One

antecedent
which

and

this
this

happening,

individual
there

is

that

there

are

and

come

is

such

of the

the Sautrantika

of any

In the external

world
are

of sensation

Our

world.

assemblage
no

as

parts

by
"that

whole,

to

According

the

next

whole,
hold

again
which

alone

individuals

the
and

moment

individuals

sensation,force

as

or

are

of

said

separate substances
of inherence.

is

believe

but

there

In the

See Avayavinirdkarana, Six

of sensation.

simple

units

denies

is no
the

objectiveworld

also there

representinga unit of
being and dying the next

reals,each

or

in the

Following

sensations.

the

existence

(samavayd)

there

unit

individual

many

attribute,risinginto

exist

call

we

Corresponding to each
separate simple unit in the objective
a
thing is thus the perception of the

atoms

thus

in the existence

attributes;what

its

as

sensations.

inherence
to

are

points of

but

Buddhism
that

there

perception of
of these

did not

Buddhists

capable of producing

there

substances

moment.

unit

there

(atoms) as

1910.

reality

than

Buddhists

fingersas

apart from

substance

is but

substance

five

my

tary
momen-

is determined

of

the

The

it is the

of its

of wholes.

die

whole1."

"

its momentary

more

relation

nor

thing as fingerness(ahgulitvd)as the abstract universal

we
fingers. On the relation of attributes and substance

that

know

are

are

the

being and

thing as

There

nothing

illusorily
appear

universals,for

no

go.

is

cause

permanent

no

change

in the existence

rise into

no

is

effects.

such

no

unit

believe

neither

so

destruction

one

On

parts which

atoms

thus

change,

but

determination

not

is the

it,it

the

activityis
the

into

cause

There

cause.

causal

was

certain

through

any

no

was

former

the

effect because

the

by

happened."

does

Buddhism
to

the

undergoes

another

the

there

that

transformed

alone

cause

impermanent

that

be momentary,

determined

called

but

held

of the

is called

that

were

historyof

The

everything to

been

has

when

transformation

abide.

existence

such

as

effect,except

stage which

holds

can

and

cause

the effect.

changes became
the history of
Buddhism

all effects

ignorance, Samkhya

to

held

effect,Sankara

and

cause

(saktimari).Thus

the power-possessor

(sakti)to

relation

165

in which

substance,

of any
relation

for since

such

tion
rela-

the

butes
attri-

there

are

no

necessityfor admitting the relation

also does not
same
logicBuddhism

Buddhist

Nydya

tracts,Bibliotheca

Indica, Calcutta,

Buddhist

66

believe

of

existence

in the

Philosophy

[ch.
separate from

power-possessor

the

power.
Brief

of the

survey

was

of

noble

four

the

and

sorrow

muppdda

world

existed

eternal

was

death

after

the

of sorrow,

lead

to it ?

not,

or

Great

were

emphasis

doctrine

that

laid

was

there

They only elaborated

Suttas.

definitions.

and

scripturesfrom
essentialness

and

Aryyadeva, KumarajTva
from
whether

older

doctrine

the

world

was

soul

permanent
of them

as

appearances

Tathata

position of
the

and

could

he

tathata, but

entitycould

examined
at

doctrine
it

seems

explaining

idea that

and
to be

The

to

but

being

no

be

oscillated
all
the

called

such

manent
per-

which

mixture

with
Sunyavada,

as

he

any

nothing but

phenomena.

of

existed

doctrine ; but when

If

from

reality.

or

This

that

to

These

apart

the Tathata

observed

was

be

to

appearances.

something

to

changing, the only

dhammas.

me

not

if there

Vijfianavadadoctrine

appears

rollary
co-

whether

non-essentialness

consistentlysay

exist.

all the

absolute

could

one

preached by Asvaghosa

was

this

not

less

or

and

related

essence,

non-essential

its rise at this time

Sunyavada

other

no

Brahminic

of all these

background

took

have

which

doctrine

the

dhammas

they

preached.

things appeared

non-essential

non-

by Nagarjuna,

If

death,

with

Mahayana

to be

more

were

all

in

of the

non-eternal, or

being mutually

as

appear

about

and

void

mere

their appearance

between

thinking

of

elaborated

after

exist

not

pafifta

contained

doctrine

Buddhism.
or

early

of the suttas

began

all the dhammas

and

of

legitimateway

of

eternal

did

or

and

up

and

not

was

B.C. the

in

Abhidhammas

evolution

the

200

Tathagata

The

Candraklrtti,is

and

the

existed

Tathagata

With

taken

was

as

which

of all dhammas

voidness

doctrine,which

The

paticcasa-

heresies

the materials

about

time

some

whether

soul.

philosophy

new

any

enumerations

think

What

cessation

of

slla,samadhi

on

no

was

the

no

the

was

doctrine

The

considered

us

say

what

non-eternal, or

or

hardly give

This

paid

was

systematic metaphysics.

to

cause

could

attention

more

offered

Buddhism.
and

was

Thought.

in and
came
only to explain how sorrow
view to the solving of a metaphysical problem. The
of ultimate
metaphysical problems, such as whether

discussion
the

than

the

what

was

with

not

truths

what

sorrow,

of Buddhist

period of Buddhism

In the earliest
to

evolution

also
of the

carefully
an

attempt

everything

was

Bttddhtst

v]
non-essential

howdid

generated by

phenomena
beginninglessvasana

the

which
difficulty

is felt with

be

must

appearing
doctrine.

regard
realitywhich

some

The

but yet their doctrines

reality,
and
properly solve the difficulty,
of

sort

some

that

as

admit

them

the

that

in the

it.

ideas

all these

Vijfianavada
of such

the existence
to

The

mind.

doctrine

generating

admitted

with

compromise

Tathata

the

is

led

the

(desire)of

to

givean

to

all but ideas of the mind

are

phenomena, is the same

Vijfianavadinscould not

as

167

it originate?
Vijfianavadaproposes

says that these

answer,and

there

Schools

could

They

not

that their doctrine

Brahminical

was

of

doctrines

a
heresy,but they said that this was
compromise
doctrine
however
to the heretics; in truth
intelligible

to

assumed

Vijfianavada

in the doctrine

literature

that

not

in

on

the

point. These
time

same

to

and

three

the

him.

scanty and

from

reality
that

we

Vijfianavadacould give
developed almost about the

answers

doctrines

of conceiving "unya (void),tathata,

difficulty
less
or
alayavijfianaof Vijfianavada is more

the

Tathata
But

doctrine

the

of

Sunyavada

fourth

Kumarila

century

A.D.

systematiclogicand
logicians.Dinnaga
the

In

samuccaya.

activityof two
(known also
external
Hindu

Hindu

great

Vaibhasikas

other

and

the
and

of

also admitted

took

criticize the

to

doctrine

the

third

or

the

study

of

of the Hindu

logician(500 A.D.) probably

from
as

by trying to refute the

logician Vatsyayana, in his

schools

with
of

this

Buddhism,
and

the

Sautrantikas

they

were

existence
one

this

time

Yasomitra

forth

the

conflict

and

illustrious

names

number

of

(commentator

the

of the

existence

with

Samkhya

world.

external

find the

Both

Sautrantikas.

generally in

of the most

Pramana-

viz. the Sarvastivadins

accepted

of the

doctrines

logicalactivitywe

thought Nyaya-Vaisesika

the

(420-500 A.D.)was
such

to

Vaibhasikas)

as

schools

thinkers

From

Buddhist

association

world,

have

Sankara.
Buddhists

some

the

to

hostile criticisms

these

started

and

began

continued

which

develop probably
Vigorous disputeswith Sunyavada
of Hindu
in any
independent work

eighth century A.D,

doctrines
are
rarely made
the

Vijfianavada doctrines

the
B.C.

200

till the

philosophy, after

with

ceased
Asvaghosa practically

and

originatedprobably about

We

The

the

the

same.

The

of

is very

us

positionto judge what

(thatness)and
the

was

is available

are

also non-essential.

make

the

which

Vasubandhu
of this school.

great

of Vasubandhu's

Buddhist

work),

Buddhist

68

(writer of Nyayabindu

Dharmmaklrtti

"antabhadra

have
in

of

and

interested

mainly

were

doctrine

of

the

in

Samkhya

with
of

problems

non-Vaibhasika

and

with

up

till the

time

Sarikara

For

Hindu

Vedanta
external

world

in

external

world

were

behind

all mental

admitted
with
of

the

of

hear

much

time

the

Sarikara

denial

of

ontological problems

doctrine

momentariness.
of

any

disputes

new

were

After

disputes

the

Theistic

which

the
with

the
The

Vedanta

the
of

so

their

their

Ramanuja,

doctrine
the

on

with
we

their
do

From

different
of

manent
per-

quarrel

views

century

Vedanta

the

Sautrantikas

Buddhists.
the

of

only reality

their

to

the

permanent
forms

accordance

twelfth

world.

all had

and

and

the

the

the

by

even

the

they

regard

in

were

thought

denial

of

their

between

external

was

world

soul

mainly between

philosophers, viz. Nyaya,

and

the

Sarikara

with

of

help

Buddhist

in

illusory,but

was

existence

disagreement

existence

external

the

the

of

They

realistic,and

less

Brahman,

of the

their

with
of

These
and

times.

permanent

With

were

and

etc.

denying

physical phenomena.

Samkhya

momentariness;

Hindu

the

the

the

doubt

in the

did

or

sense.

no

and

and

more

some

existence

Nyaya

different

was

earlier

mainly

and

they

Nyaya

terms,

(800 A.D.) and

soul

of

strating
demon-

non-Sautrantika

in

points

admitted

background

of

consisted

permanent

Sarikara

of

in the

they

and

class-concepts, negation,

Buddhists

this

nature

as

side

theories

of

Buddhism

the

momentariness,

negative

of

notice

Sarikara

to

thought

Buddhist

regarding

of

the

nature

efficiency.The

thought

On

earlier

Hindu

of

doctrine

any
of

the

of causal

Buddhists

These

part, connotation

soul, but

of

series.

ontological

attracted

permanent

doctrine

Indica

in discussions

the

to

schools

agreed

course

contributious

Tracts^ published

the

the

regard

hardly

of whose

efficiency {arthakriyakdritvd)

denying

whole

(950 A.D.),

Nydya

of existence.

nature

interested

relation

causal

Dharmmottara

A.D.), Ratnaklrtti
some

and

Buddhist

Bibliotheca

the

in

635 A.D.),Vinltadeva

Santi,
Six

perception, inference,

the

of

in the

[ch. v

Nyayabindu),

847

Ratnakara

published

Calcutta

writers

Nyayabindu

of

Asoka,

been

of

(commentators

(commentator
Pandita

Philosophy

the

not

this

systems
school

Madhva,

etc.

of
of

J aina Philosophy

The

170

neither

they

reached

have

Tlrtharikaras

for

care

have

nor

regarded

are

any

Two
There
white

cloths)and

agreed on
peculiarto
the

of

Tri"ala

who

owns

fourthly that

no

principlesof Jainism. The

that perfectsaints
firstly

from

woman

the

reach

the

canonical

works

these

had

been

immediately

the

Digambaras

Svetambaras

is
due

as

of which

there

schisms.

The

to

had

Digambaras

they

themselves

that

under

alone

in

that

to

monk

Moksa,
that

assert

origin of

The

Sivabhuti (A.D. 83) by the

in the old Svetambara church,
other

been

already

of

to

schism

and

Mahavira.

as

Digambaras

The

Moksa3.

after

such

embryo

reach

cannot

Svetambaras

of the

attributed

the

tenets

of Devananda

womb

clothes

wears

can

that

contend, thirdly that

deny

lost

they

on

food, secondly

property and

any

and

of Jainism2.

Svetambaras

the

as

death,

Jains,Svetambaras (wearers of
(the naked). They are generally

are

removed

their

of

sects

live without

not

the

by

Digambaras

was

but yet
worldly affairs,
Jains and are worshipped1

fundamental

Tirtharikaras

Mahavira

influence

Digambaras

all the
the

at

Sects

main

two

are

moksa

"Gods"

as

[ch.

previous to that seven

their turn
deny this,and

say

that

and
preserved the originalpractices,

have

eighth sage after Mahavira, the last

laxer
the sect of Ardhaphalakas with
developed the present sect of Svetambaras

Bhadrabahu,
Tlrtharikara,there rose

the

from which
principles,
(a.d. 80). The
Digambaras having separated in early times
from
the Svetambaras developed peculiarreligious
of
ceremonies
their own,

though
It may
works
those

and

there

have

the

in later times
another

if
Svetambaras,

had

See

Btthler's

be noted

about

only

gacchas,and
1

history,
literary

in minute

the most

splitinto

schools

of

minor

these

developed

These

were

is the Kharatara

gacchas.

of

Jainism differingfrom

details of conduct.

important of
many

that there

in this connection

84 different

books

canonical

the

except

we

Both

sects

of

called

Gaccha,

Jains have

'(i.
Jain Iconography
A, xxxii [1903]p. 459" of J.Burgess, and
from
Mathura," in EpigraphicaIndica, II.
sculptures
"Specimens
Jina
"

Digumbara

of

pp. 311 etc. See also Jacobi'sarticle on Jainism, E.

*
See Jacobi'sarticle on Jainism,E. R. E.
*

and

practicallyno difference about the main creed.

that the Sanskrit
be out of place here to mention
not
of the Digambaras go back
to a greater antiquity than

of

which

different ecclesiastical

is

the latter. It may

one

See Gunaratna's

commentary

on

R. E.

Jainismin Saddarianasamuccaya.

vi]

Literature

J atna

171
from

preserved a list of the succession of their teachers

(sthavirdvali,
pattdvali,
gurvdvali) and also many
them

such

Hemacandra,
The

those

as

The

and

the

transmitted
known

works

of the

for
the

as

the

oldest

are

Acdra, Sutrakrta, Sthdna, Samavdya

parts of the existingJain

Jains.

eleven

of these

names

the twelve

Prasnavydkarana, Vipdka. In addition to these there are

Updrigas1,the ten Prakzrnas*, six Chedasutras*,Ndndl
four
and

Dasavaikdlika,
that

assert

{Uttarddhyayana, Avasyaka,
Digambaras however
Pindaniryukti). The

originalworks have
which
pass by the old

lost,and

all been
names

call the

of the
and

language

later works

commentaries

besides

Jaina
has

these, the

grown

Jains

One

texts

Maharastri.

of the

their

faith

written

of these

later

this chapter
which
on
Jaina works
syakabhdsya, Jaina Tarkavdrttika, with

Siddhasena

Divakara

sacred

of

of

treatises

the

And
contain

Sanskrit.

dent
indepen-

is Umasvati's

of the most
is based

that

glosses

texts.

these

upon

it is best
and

and

Prakrit

in

Tattvdrthddhigamasutra (1-85 A.D.). Some

Santyacaryya, Dravyasamgraha
Syddvddamanjari of Mallisena

and

separate works, which

also been
oldest

the

The

Ardhama-

was

Jaina Prakrit
largeliterature

round

up

possess

systematic expositions of
have
Many commentaries
treatises.

sacred

of the

the

that

spurious.

are

originallanguage of these according to the Jains

gadhi, but these suffered attempts at modernization
to

Anu-

and

Mulasutras

these

present works

now

Bhagavatz, JndtadharAnuttaraupapdtikadasds,

makatkds, Updsakadasds, Antakrtadasds

and

were

Arigas are

The

canon.

but

time

eleven

The

Aiigas.

some

of

kinds

originallytwo

were

Purvas

be

to

gradually lost.

there

Jains

fourteen

the

Literature

other

and

the

to

continued

yogadvdra

about

Kalpasutra, the Parisista-parvan of

in the

Canonical

books,

Purvas

legends

etc.

According
sacred

Mahavlra

important

are

Visesdva-

commentary

Nemicandra

of

(1150 A.D.),

(1 292 A.D.),Nydydvatdra of
of
(533 A.D.),Pariksdrnukhasutralaghuvrtti

Anantavlryya (1039 A.D.),Prameyakamalamdrtanda

of Prabha-

Aupapatika, Rajapratniya, Jivabhigama, Prajnapana, Jambudvipaprajnapti,

Puspikd, Puspaculika,
Candraprajnapti,Siiryaprajnapti,
Nirayavali, Kalpdvatamsikd,
VrsnidaJds.
2

Aturapratydkhydna, Bhaktdparijnd,Tandulavaiydli,
Ganivija,Mahdpratydkhydna, Virastava.
Nttitha, Mahdntiitha, Vyavahdra, Dafafrutaskandha, Brhatkalpa, Pancakalpa.
CatuUarana,

Samstdra,

Canddvlja, Devendrasiava,
3

[ch.

J aina Philosophy

The

172

(825 A.D.),Yogasdstraof Hemacandra(io88-i 172 A.D.),and

Pramananayatattvalokalamkara of Deva Suri (1086-1169 A.D.).
candra

of their

literature

There

Prakrit.

that the

in

own

in the

both

are

dramas.

The

authors

Jaina

originaltreatises

well

as

Jains exist only in

and

million

but

India

Southern

the

"vetambaras

are

to

and
necessaries,

Digambaras
shave

have

regarded
are

very

the

the head

sometimes

as

They

an

beg

of the

India.

it,is restricted

additional

keep
tail of

hair

cover

outfit of

clothes.

clothes,use

no
a

cloth to

it2. The

enter

The

brooms

(cdmaray.

cow

to

alms-

clothes,a blanket,an

"

the hair

essential

vinces,
pro-

head-quartersof

ground, a pieceof

of the

should

chieflyin

found

Central

and

insects should

remove

getting rid

of

hard.

or

little less

Rajputana, but they

Western

outfit,but

hairs

or

is

are

Jacobi describes

he must

similar

Jains.

The

Punjab.

except that they have

same

latter method

as

to sweep

peacock's feathers

monks

the

Northern

speaking lest

when

is the

nuns

these

broom

of the

Jains to logic

North, in the North-western

and

over

scientific literature

the

their number

and

works,

many

of the

Digambaras

in the

monk,

India

Gujarat and

in

are

outfit of

bowl, a stick,a

of

also

also all

be found

his mouth

of

biography,metrics,

contributions

The

Rajputana

Eastern

The

half.

to

grammar,

Characteristics

General

Some

bare

branches:
The

poetics,philosophy,etc.
deserve
specialnotice1.

Yasastilaka

the

contributed

also

have

commentaries,

as

in its various

of India

than

and

Sanskrit poems
Dhanapala's Tilakamanjari)\]"ti\z.
and Kavya style and
Purana
hymns in Prakrit and
also many
There
also very
are
numerous.
Jaina

Sanskrit

The

secular

(e.g.Samardicca-kahd,

Upamitabhavaprapanca-kathdin Prakrit,and
Somadevaand

Sanskrit

both

prose,
tales

moral

Logic.

Jains also possess

and

poetry

also many

are

Indian

Vidyabhusana's

to

be mentioned

here

It may

dates

for these

indebted

am

The

by plucking it out. The

and is
is to be preferred,

rite. The

sleep only

three

duties
hours

of
and

monks

spend

repenting of and expiatingsins,meditating,

and careful inspectionof
studying,begging alms (inthe afternoon),
of insects. The
their clothes and other things for the removal
men
lay-

the rest

of the time

should
1
9

try

to

See Jacobi'sarticle
See

in

approach

the

ideal

Jainism,E. R. E.
Saddarianasamuccaya,chapter IV.
on

of conduct
3

See

of the

monks

Jacobi,he.

cit.

Mahavira

vi]
by taking
required
the

themselves

upon

deliver

to

viharas).The
livingbeing

thus

etc., and

has

them

thrust

the
north

of

He

was

first entered

which

do

Digambaras

believe

as

twelve

of

years

and

He

married

preach

for

two
forty-

bodhi

years
before

some

years

The

Fundamental

died

Buddha

and

of

and

the

monk.

Buddhists).

mission
perAfter

he

attained

He

lived

moksa

480

Jaina

daughter

with
a

attained

parents

Varddha-

meditation

in about

Ideas

His

had

became

he

Tri"ala.

story the

name

and

Yasoda

and

more,

miles

Devananda

This

the

him

of

Tlrtharikara

already seen.

gave

of the

and

lady

Trisala.

his parents

self-mortification

{kevala, cf.

omniscience

have

Parsva

Ksattriya

the

Brahmin
of

we

of

embryo

Nandivardhana

of his brother

it carefully

remove

of Siddhartha

the

womb

In his thirtieth year

her.

by

its very

to

(modern Besarh, 27

of the

the

to

(Vlra or Mahavira).

mana

will

Jains,was

son

that

womb

worshippers of

the

were

of the

the second

the

not

He

of Vaisali

native

transferred

then

was

out

of Mahavira.

maintain

Svetambaras

The

destroy any

to

into commerce1.

prophet

last

and

Patna).

Buddhist

principleof not hurting any living

professionssuch as agriculture,
many

from
them

the

clan

Jnata

not

in

texts

like the

life carried

troublesome.

Life

Mahavira,

sacred

the

are

The

hurting it.
bars

monks

has

insect,however

an

the

of the laityin a
shaped the conduct
kill any livingbeing,
layman will intentionally

No

without

being

monastic

in

and

measure.

even

sermons

been

has

last consequences,

not

and

particularvows,
and
explain

(separatebuildings for monks

carefulness
principleof extreme

upasrayas

great

173

to

pation)
(emanci-

B.C.2.

Ontology.

various
to assume
shapes and
thing (such as clay) is seen
of a jug, or
to undergo diverse
changes (such as the form
have
that the Chandogya
and we
seen
Upanisad held
pan, etc.),
that since in all changes the clay-matter remained
permanent,
A

that

alone

were

but

on

and

true, whereas

was

the

appearances,

See

Jacobi'sarticle

See

Hoernle's

translation

Ajlvakas, E.

The

the

the

R.

E.

on

changes
of which

nature

Jainism, E.
of

the

of

cannot

form
be

and

state

rationally

R. E.

Uvdsagadasdo, Jacobi, loc. cit.,and Hoernle's

Svetambaras, however,

Digambaras place it eighteen years

later.

say that this date

was

article

527 B.C.,

demonstrated

is true, and

clay-matter)alone

the

substance

unchangeable

The

explained.

or

[ch.

Jaina Philosophy

The

174

the

forms

changing

(e.g.
mere

are

(ndnia-rupay. What
other sense-qualities,
have no real
or
call tangibility,
visibility,
we
toms
phanexistence, for they are always changing, and are like mere
illusions of the senses,

of which

and

name

by the lightof
conception can be made
alone
hold that changing qualities
can

no

Buddhists

The

objectsof

mere

that

is

there

be

behind

substance

unchanging

no

reason.

ceived
per-

them.

specific
quality,what we
perceive as clay is but some
quality. Apart from these qualities
perceive as jug is also some
the Upansubstance, which
we
dp not perceive any qualitiless
and unchangeable. The
isads regard as permanent
permanent
What

we

and
as

there

do

so-called

there

the

existence.

possiblyof

of the

alone

some

offer.

and

there

no

was

Upanisads too,
that

it

not

was

elements

truth

of

but

(3) that

old

some

qualitiesare

There

are

they
false

said

the

that

all

in

that

change

views

changes

contain

given

as

of

there

in
are

of

collocations

qualitiesappear
are
generated ;
qualities

new

some

truth

whole

tion
solu-

illusoryappearances.

extreme
represent two
of them, however,
Both

the

and

substance

that

merely

but

also

Buddhists

the

as

of

change

Buddha

and

the

only

had

true

neither

can

regard each

mere

not

experience. Experience shows

three elements:
(i) that some
to remain
unchanged; (2) that

it

not

substance

permanent

exist,as

and

was

true

for both these

passing qualities,
and are
contrary to experience.
some

not

they adhere,

contemporaries of

qualitieswere
it

Further

which

to

should

the

were

held

They

true

was

know

ignorance,
qualities.Qualities

of

inferred.

nor

senses

qualityas a new
The
Jains we
to

does

passing qualities.We

momentary

fiction of

mere

substances

are

substance

pure

perceived by

passing collocations

the

that

imply

not

for the
be

only

are

is thus

substance

unchangeable

destroyed.

It is true

that

qualities

things are changing every minute, but all qualitiesare not

that the clay-lump
changing. Thus when a jug is made, it means
has been
destroyed,a jug has been generated and the clay is
have
that some
old qualities
permanent, i.e. all production means
of

been

lost,some

it which

has

is

new

brought in,and

ones

The

permanent

clay has

generated itself in another, and

1

See

become
remained

Chandogya,

vi.

1.

there

is

some

lost in

some

permanent

part in

form,
in still

Pluralism

Relative

vi]
another

form.

thing

is said to

when

unchanged qualitiesthat a
be permanent
though undergoing change. Thus
gold is turned into a rod or a ring,all the specific
of the word
under
the connotation
"gold"
come

It is

of

lump

qualitieswhich
are

and

with

each

ones

are

new

this,that

by

of these

virtue

such

change

is always

of such

permanence

the

case,

truth

some

to

comes

the

entityas representedby

permanent
lead

qualitiesas

lost and

are
qualities

the

being

successivelychanged,

are

of its

some

acquired. Such

there

forms

the

continue, though

to

seen

175

to

us

call it

substance

in

changes. The nature of being {sat)then is

the momentary
neither the absolutelyunchangeable, nor
changing
qualitiesor existences, but involves them both. Being then, as is
involves
testified by experience,is that which
a permanent
unit,
which
is incessantlyevery
moment
losing some
qualitiesand
all its diverse

spite of

of

being involves a permanent

qualities{utpddd) and loss of

The
notion
ones.
gaining new
of some
new
{dhruvd) accession
old qualities
some
(vyaya)1.The
of the

grounds

of

of

Jainism

of Vedantism

extremes

two

is thus

Buddhism

and

on

Relative

of

Pluralism

(anekantavada).

conception of being as the union of the permanent

change brings us naturallyto the doctrine of Anekantavada
call relative pluralism as against the extreme
what
we
may

and

This

of

Upanisads

the

conciliation
re-

experience.

common-sense

Doctrine

The

solution

and

the

pluralism

of

the

or

lutism
abso-

Buddhists.

(na-ekdnta\ or in
Jains regarded all things as anekdnta
other words
they held that nothing could be affirmed absolutely,
and
true
all affirmations
were
only under certain conditions
as

The

as

of

i.e. a

substance

and

atoms

same

composite
1

See

of atoms

{kald). It
the

and

as

is

of

{dravya)

sense;

collocation
time

not

gold jug
in every

not

speaking

Thus

limitations.

any

gold jug, we

is of the

so

and

it is

both

Again

of earth-atoms

dravya
dravya
not

in the

and

in the

treatment

it is

of space

dravya

sense

in the

and

term

that

sense
a

{dkdsa),

space

sense

not

its existence

collocation

of the

in the

atomic

Tattvarlhadhigamasutra, and Gunaratna's

Janasamuccaya.

as

sense

it is atomic

and

of

such

one

dravya

not

in

that

see

nature

substance

dravya only

is thus
time.

other

sense

that

at

a
or

one

it is

that

it is

of Jainism in Saddar-

not

composite of
only in the

atoms

earth, and

not

it is made

that

is made

made

and

that

other

modification

of such

up

of metal-atoms

Its

being

in the

true

and

not

the

Jains
of

number

jug

be

the

and

is

in

to

we
firstly

say

be

"this

is

but
a

being

characteristics
See

in

thing only

we

of

in certain

restricted

negative
"the

say

riches

affirmed

Doctrine

has

man

positivebut
anything may

relations

in other

such
no

in

other

or

riches

relation

poor

in

not

the

be

very

different

it. The

standpoints
infinite determinations)

Gunaratna

are

view

book"

of

about

notice

may

anything

qualitiesas

manner

things (though possessed of

spoken of as possessing this or that quality or as appearing
in relation to this or that, are
technicallycalled naya*.

of
we

similar

in the

relation

some

framing judgments

us,

of

positiverelation

thing,and again

other

cannot

when

possesses

The
In

been

in the

which
be

can

man

Thus

of any

thing

from

as

all true

are

but

poverty

possibleas

poor

negative way.

same

of

affirmed

riches." The

affirmed

by Yajftadatta.
is again only
shaped as a jug

pointsof view, which

not
absolutely1.Thus

affirmation

an

hammered

Such an ordinarything
particularsense.
infinite number
of
to be the object of an
of qualities
of an infinite number
possessor

in

found

will be

and

cannot

again

above

true

are

infinite

senses

not

sullied
un-

All

sense.

affirmed

affirmations
from

and

and
It is

been

It

thus possess
infinite
an
things (yastii)
vastu),each of which
qualities{anantadharmatmakam

only be
a

melted

proceeding in

Thus

on.

of

has

has

sense

iron-atoms.

gold as

collocation

in the

true

condition.

conditioned

the

so

natural

Devadatta

all affirmations

that

say

limited

certain

can

that

sense

stone.

of

not

the

clay or

as

again

and

melted

and

of atoms

pot and

in the

goldsmith

up

sense

as

gold

as

unsullied

made

is

gold-atoms
gold-atoms in

of

the

of earth

of

not

shaped by

and

sense

up

again

up

gold

as

any

[ch.

Again it is a composite of earthgold is a metallic modification of

water-atoms.

being constituted

Its

J aina Philosophy

The

176

the
them
we

different

Nayas.

things there

do
from

unified
not

in the

look

it,but

perceivedas having

two

qualitiesand

manifold
as

are

no

at

rather

ways

istics
character-

thing; thus

when

its characteristic
the

qualitiesor

separate existence

Jainamata in SaddarSanasamuccaya, pp. 311, etc.,

Tattvirth"dhigamasutra.
*
See Tatlv"rth"dhigamasutra,
and Viies"va"yakabhasya, pp. 895-923.
on

open

from
and

also

[ch.

Jaina Philosophy

The

178

of

vyavahara-naya standpoint holds that the real essence

tical
things is to be regarded from the point of view of actual pracwhich
unifies
within
it
the
of
some
general
thing,
experience

as

well

The

and

times

in the

remain

Thus

ways.

"book"

yet it has
for

exist
go

been

make

to

and
the

of

concept

Samkhya
which

past

does

the

of

characteristics

true

The

of
as

nayas

above

Jains hold
the

and

each

have

we

at

of

will

characteristics,

everyday

our

the

Buddhist,

said

it is these
of

perience,
ex-

which

are

each

at

tions
colloca-

new

be

may

regarded

as

things1.
but

are

such

as

broad

points of view, or
infinite in number.

are

classification

Nyaya-Vaisesika, the Vedanta,

have

effects

produce

to

the

thing in

tion
conglomera-

mere

there

already said
only a

of the

thing is a

moment

things,and

four represent
that

but

past and

time

existence

be

new

notion

our

that
may

qualitiesand

aspects of looking
The

which
At

moment.

essence

are

rearrangement,

some

"book"

in the

holds

future,but

new

and

Its atoms

be

can

believe

not

in the

of

well.

as

All these

well.

as

thousand

separated and held up as being

"book."
This
according to the Jains is the
looking at things.
of paryaya-naya
called rjusutrais the Buddhist

or

given

any

of

way

first view

The
view

for

of the

essence

of these

none

book

in

us

general traits,shared

some

displacement

in the future

the

up

to

specialtraits

some

existing as

time

some

doubt

no

been

serviceable

are

has

by all books, but it has

continuallysufferingsome

has

future, but

which

while, changes

all the

existing from past

changes
yet suffer trifling

specialtraits,which

some

as

tried

to

of these.
the

interpretand

The

Samkhya,

systematize

gards
experience from one of the above four pointsof view, and each refrom his point of view as being absolutely
the interpretation
of all other pointsof view.
This is their error
to the exclusion
true
{naydbhdsd),for each standpoint represents only one of the many

points of

from

view

from

point of

any

limited

under

which

conditions.

view

thing can
are

thus

be looked
in

true

Infinite numbers

of

at.

The

limited

tions
affirmaand

sense

affirmations

may

or
things from infinite points of view. Affirmations
therefore
judgments according to any naya or standpoint cannot

be

made

be

absolute,for
1

The

of

other

points of

even

contrary affirmations

standpointsof
view,

are

paryaya-naya,

which

of the

selfsame

represent grammatical and

fabda-naya, samabhirudha-naya,and

Viiif"vdiyakabh"fya, pp. 895-913.

very

evambhuta-naya.

guistic
lin-

See

vi]

Syadvada
be

things may
truth

of

each

the absolute

therefore each

from

and
which

be

To

and

view

is

absolutelytrue, and no judgment

false. All judgments are true in some
sense
This brings us to the famous
Jaina doctrine
The
The

doctrine of

characteristics
affirmation
as

be

"may

Syadvada

of
holds

under
is

of

is

false in another.

Syadvada1.

Syadvada.
that

since

the

most

contrary

varietymay be associated with a thing,

be refrom whatever
made
garded
standpoint (nayd) cannot
absolute. All affirmations
true
are
(in some
syddastior
it is"

sense); all

affirmations

indefinite

are

(syddavaktavya);all

false in

inconceivable

or

affirmations

are

are

true

as

well

as

indefinite;all

affirmations

true

are

and

sense;

some

in

{syddastisydnndsti); all affirmations are true

{syddasticavaktavyascd); all affirmations are

sense

judgment
absolutely

no

which
and

vations
reser-

some

of infinite

all affirmations

as

Doctrine

correctness

phrase sydt
only relative,

is

There

absolute.

sense

ceivable
incon-

the

preceded by

point of

The

view.

guarantee

that the affirmation

some

in any

not

view.

should

points of

other

only conditional,and

is thus

will indicate

somehow,

from

true

pointof

affirmation

This

(may be).

be

to

affirmation

from

made

held

179

some

sense

false in
well

as

false

false and

some

definite
in-

as
as

well

indefinite

in

(syddastisydnndsti syddavaktavyascd).Thus we may

correct
to
say "the jug is" or the jug has being, but it is more
if
that "may
be (sydt) that the jug is,"otherwise
say explicitly
"being" here is taken absolutelyof any and every kind of being,

some

it

sense

might

cloth

by

form

of

but

of the

there

is

lump

of

clay or

jug,

limited
"The

existence, namely the

kind

of existence

as

that
jug is" thus means
jug-existenceis affirmed

or
pillar,

thing. The existence here is limited

the jug. "The
jug is" does not mean

other

existence
form

that

mean

any

or

the

also

and

defined
absolute

determined
a

limited

and

not

by

the

kind

of

existence

generalin the absolute or unlimited sense, for then the sentence

"the jug is" might as well mean
"the clay is,""the tree is,""the
cloth is,"etc. Again the existence
of the jug is determined
by the
teristic
negation of all other things in the world ; each qualityor charac(such as red colour)of the jug is apprehended and defined
by the negation of all the infinite varieties (such as black, blue,
golden),etc., of its class,and it is by the combined negationof all

in

See

Vihsdvafyaka bhasya, pp. 895, etc., and Syadvddamanjarl,pp. 170,

12"2

etc.

The

180

other than those

qualities
be apprehended or defined.
thus the non-being of all the

of characteristics

the infinite number

[en.

Jaina Philosophy
or

constitutingthe jug that a jug may

call the being of the jug is
What
we
rest except itself. Thus
though looked at from
affirmation
mean
the judgment "the jug is" may
at

another

from

(of all

point of view
objects).Thus

other
be

say, may

it is

it means

of

or
negation of being (sydnndsti);

and

way

that

say

"the

naturallyindicates
the jug is

that
"

"

there,"and

saying

be

in

some

aspects
and

in

here

this

that

some

if

the

affirmations

put

hold

either

on

of the

do

that

in

finallythat
hold

that

no

in its own

of the

above

its

such

and

the

and

understood

nature

characteristics

if we

put emphasis

is not."

jug

the

as

Both

the

are

either

side

we

try

of

true,

thingsthat
are

not

of

cannot

we

true,

"

both

are

unspeakable, inconceivable, and

four

these

is

emphasis

contradictoryjudgments
of the jug or of the existence

is the nature

thus

are

it may

limited

again

be

sense

that

only,and

alternatives

seven

good1.
point of
1

that

see

sense

The

own

opposite

two

We

jug is,"

we

derive

another

three,

jug is,and (2) is yet

(3) that the jug is not and is unspeakable, or
the jug is,is not, and is unspeakable. Thus
the Jains
affirmation,or judgment, is absolute in its nature, each

is true

holds

"the

two

the

side of the

jug is,"but

"may

these

that

is not."

jug according
if without
emphasis on

Combining

some
(i)
unspeakable, or

jug

say

all affirmations

untrue,

indefinite.

well

is not

indefinite,
unspeakable and inconceivable
affirm both
can
we
being and non-being

how

it. Thus

"the

be

"may

the

on

jug

Combining

of the

thing,and yet

and

true

as

the

the

ment
judg-

is

jug

avaktavya, for
but

may

side. But

comprehend the
regarding the jug, we

same

say

good

to

the

may

side,we

is not."

that

the

jug is,"and

the

sense

sense

put emphasis

we

other

be

"may

thus

being of the jug

us
another, and this justifies

some

some

of the

affirmation

jug

in

that

"

it is

here," which

is

and

there"

may

quite another

in

jug

means

false of

the

that

say

constitutingbeing,we
on

the

be that in

that

sense

that

that

"may

may

"this

is not

jug

place and

sense

we

"this

proceed

means

is here) also
(i.e.

see

we

only of

is true
in

so

I may

is"

jug

an

judgment "the jug is" one

be
being {syddasti),
may

of the

affirmation

an

point of view
of being,looked
affirmation of non-being
one

Jains say

view

asserts

See Syadvddamanjari) with

that

the

for each

one

(technicallycalled
other

Indian

commentary,

pp.

any

saptabhahgl)

systems each

itself to be the absolute

Hemacandra's

of them

and

the

166, etc.

from

only

vi]

RelativityofJudgments
of

point

view.

is such
and

do

They

that

the

truth

of

holds

senses

good only
(upadhi). It is

which

is

perceive that

not

assertion

any

in

certain

thus

181

the

of

nature

reality-

merely conditional,

is

conditions, circumstances,

impossible

make

to

or

affirmation

any

universallyand absolutely valid. For a contrary or

contradictoryaffirmation will always be found to hold good of
As
all realityis partly
other.
sense
or
any judgment in some
and

change of the form of losing

and
and is thus relatively
gaining old and new
qualities,
permanent
and changeful,so all our
affirmations
regarding truth are also
valid and invalid.
only relatively
Being,non-being and indefinite,
permanent

the three
or

in

all

all their
There

judgment.

judgments
doctrine

for any

judgment

such

mind

in

as

as

used

wrongly

judgments

of

to

and

any

naya

every

by syadvada.

there

The

are

as

validityof

If this is borne
only conditional.
judgment according to any naya,
any
solutely
If,however, the judgments are made ab-

particularnaya without any reference

requiredby the syadvada doctrine the nayas
in

as

false

are

every

sense

kind

positionor negation,

absolute

and

indicated

are

making
is rightlyused.

nayas

any

some

is therefore

according to
other

for

and

in

only conditionally.The relation of

syadvada doctrine is therefore this,that

the

when

the naya

equallyavailable

valid

are

according

judgment

universal

with

alternatives

all

permutations

is no

the naya

many

to

categoriesof logic,are

other

and

partlyexposed

to

any

the

of

case

and

should

other

systems,
be

therefore

and

then

are

such

called false nayas

{naydbhdsd)\

The

attain

that

be useful

task

of

attain

with
1

the
The

See

sutra-vrtti

It is

purpose.

and

The
our

above

main

test

purpose.

The

view

earliest mention

in Bhadrabahu's
2

in his commentary

sought by men
examining the nature

pramdnd).
to

Dharmottara

people who are anxious

they are interested,value

which
to

its value

that

says

to

Buddhist

Knowledge,

of

of

to

for

us.

fulfil some

on

Nydyabindu

purpose

or

end

in

knowledge which helps them

because
knowledge is thus found
the

philosophy takes upon it the

of true knowledge {samyagjndna or
true
knowledge is that it helps us
that

also

Jains

knowledge

of the doctrine of

(433-357B.C.)commentary
Pramana-naya-tattvalokalamkdra
ch. I.
(AsiaticSociety),

are

of the

general agreement
Buddhists2.
They also
in

syadvada and saptabhangiprobablyoccurs

Sutrakrtanganiryukti.

(Benares),p. 26;

also

Pariksa-mukha-

The

82

is not

knowledge

that

say

for

ourselves

adapt

for

good

is

lead

to

avoid

and

us

light and

has

this

what

of such

proximity

to

we

produced, as

it

It is

for

enough

conditions
have

us

of

do

we

does

not

specialfitness

little to

know

of

concern

but

with

do

for

to

how

in

us

we

enquiry

which

makes

Those
to

our

as

the

conditions
them

can

they
under

other
nature

of

ditions
con-

of the

them

sible
pos-

confer

such

perceivablehave

which

purposes

we

that

which

consist

is

certain

that

under
to

nection.
con-

purposes.

that

aware

knowledge

render

this

an

cognition

guarantee

only

are

that

objects under

no

what

seeing

serving our

external

can

presence

relevancy in

with

have

The

us.

us;

little

case

thing,whereas

things as

on

in the

eye

we

conditions

of

for

it2.

it

the

We

us,

things

The

is bad

acquire

to

special fitness (yogyatd)

know

we

not

special fitness

in

try

directly

what

the

that

them.

knowledge
conditions

avoid

it

knowledge (such as

help

no

know

such

knowledge

certain

of

to

assume

generate

be

can

and

concerned

not

are

this,that

to

is bad1.

object by visual perception)have

For

in

The

sake.

own

capacity,for by

environments

our

production

the

to

full

of

alone

Knowledge

us.

[ch.

for its

anything consists
is good for us
and

get what

to

us

be valued

to

of

validity(prdmdnya)
helps

Jaina Philosophy

only

but

in the

acquirement of good and avoidance of evil,can only be served by

of external
knowledge and not by those conditions
objects.
self as a knowing subject as well
Knowledge reveals our own
the objects that are
known
We
have
as
to
no
reason
by us.
(likethe Buddhists) that all knowledge by perception of
objectsis in the firstinstance indefinite and indeterminate,

suppose
external
and

that all

our

determinate

notions

characteristics of the

thing are

experience,but

derived

are

that therefore true

of the

jHdnd). Experience
a

us

correct

other

directlygiven in our perceptual

and
only by imagination (utpreksd),

shows

that

crude

data

sense

knowledge

true

on

the

{nirvikalpa
one

hand

subjects or knowers, and on the other hand gives

of the external
sketch
objects in all the diversityof
as

and

most

is for this

prominent

that

reason

means

of

Pramdna-naya-tattv"lok"lamk"ra,
p.

16.

See Partkfd-mukha-sutra,

its vrtti,and

ch. 11.

and

not

indeterminate

characteristics.It
their^
immediate

form, colour,size

perceptualknowledge only certifiesthe validity

indefinite and

reveals

of

II.

Q, and

knowledge is~our

serving our

also

purposes.

tljeconcluding vrtti of

Knowledge

vi]
Of

knowledge

course

the

us

the

good

but

since

communicates
faithfully

it

of the

nature

attainment

renders

objectsaround us, it
good and the avoidance

of

immediately bring

directlyand

cannot

want,

we

183

serving our

and

direct,immediate,

most

So

purposes.

it should

long

held

be

as

which

represents things in relations

When

in

snake, the
also

The

it

What
and

first

at

was

thus

found

is

of its
Thus
the

with

under

perceived as

is

is

the

thus

error

by

experience.

m\

here./

error

the

in

faithful

found

mis-

j
\

knowledge

True

be

to

sentation
repredicted.
contra-

association

imparted directlyin

when

sists
con-

contradicted

on

and

correct

and

exists.

rope

consists

afterwards

never

exist

environments

later

was

snake, i.e.

the

illusion of

Snakes

and

therefore

this,that

in

be

is meant

snake

gives such

object as

organs

otherwise
called

which

what

in

been

have

the

The

relations

existingis

knowledge

distinct,and

in that1.

false. Falsehood

is that

exist.

not

perceived where

representation of objectivefacts
therefore

in which

untruth

no

snake

then

not

was

it does

snake

the

perception of

which

is

exist,there

this,that

in

where

if

knowledge is that
they do not exist.

snake

perceiving a
ropes

False

badly lightedplace gives rise to

illusion consists in taking the rope to

rope

for the

for
indispensable means
dicted
knowledge is uncontra-

any

true.

as

us

evil,possible;for

of

knowledge did not possess these functions,this would

impossible. The validityof knowledge thus consists
it is the

to

actions

our

to

sense-perception is very clear, vivid, and

attained
called perceptional (pratyaksa)\ when
in

is not

knowledge

so

and

clear

vivid

is then

and

non-perceptional(parokfa2).
of

Theory
The

difference

main

Perception.

of the

theory of perceptionlies,as

have

we

Buddhists

the

Jains from

in the

in this,that the

already seen,

Jains think that perception(pralyaksa)reveals to us the external

objectsjustas they are with most of their diverse characteristics of
colour,form, etc.,and
1

to

also in

Illusion consists in attributing

such

the

objects of

actuallyexist

our

judgment

in other

do

as

spatial,temporal

not

relations. When

of existents
2

See

is not

the rope.

This

the

"

the

this

"

as

"

the
for

rope

objects themselves
snake, the snake

the

this is

of relations

kinds

other

or

actually exist,but

I mistake

with
actuallyexists though its relationing

exist,for the snake

arises in the soul

this,that knowledge

snake

illusion is thus called satkhyatior

"

does

not

misrelationing

(sat)
.

Jaina-tarka-varttika of

ch.
Pramananayatattvalokalamkara,

Siddhasena,
I.,

ch.

I., and

vrtti

Pariksa-mukha-sutra-vrtti,

by
ch.

Santyacarya,
I.

The

184
from

within

before.

it

if

as

Jaina Philosophy

by removing
also not

Objects are

mere

veil which

[ch.

had

been

covering it
forms of knowledge (asthe Viare
actuallyexisting.Knowledge
a

jftanavadinBuddhist thinks)but
of external objectsby perception is gained through the senses.
be distinguished
exterior physicalsense
such as the eye must
The
from
the invisible faculty or power
of vision of the soul, which
alone

deserves

senses.

But

the

the

of

name

Jains think

only aware

of five kinds

five senses,

it is better

itself those

before.
the

The

the
with

of

is

I look

of

by

five such

cognitive

experience we are
knowledge corresponding to the
that it is the "self" which
gains of
our

removal

by
the

of

covering,on

could

knowledge
distinct

in the soul takes

account

involve

thus

not

the

though

sense,

itself

reveal

not

perceptiondoes

separate and

with

in association

sense-knowledge

of external

any

before

hence

myself

rise
with

association

place in

that

of

in
manas

only

can

in

When
with

in

the

reveal

not

they

eye

the

visual

an

way

the

its

; I say

that

type

existence

manas

arises,this

the
also

its existence

through

see

that

I have

eye).

As

it is unwarrantable
the

apart from

Jains discard

ledge
know-

my

with
(associated

separate
is not

self. Proceeding
existence

given

in

is unnecessary,

purpose1. Perception of

indriyam bhautikam

over

knowledge

the separate senses,

have

veil

the
into

and

rose

realityexperience shows

hypothesis of

serve

the

ledge
know-

looking at

the

into

come

it the

condition, and

of

act

is

example,

an

at

covered

The

visual

the

take

To

looking

visible,and

(mind-organ) also, for

and

self alone

of

similar

but

part of it which

that

eye.

Before

fitness has

whereas

sense,

that

the

rose.

is removed.

knowledge

assert

with

is made

rose

experience does

Tanna

such

in association

the visual

only

the

rose

happens

through

get itself manifested.

not

that

see

in me,

was

means

soul

is in touch
and

me

rose

could

rose

in the

generated
with, or

of

since

have

soul is in touch
such as eye, etc. The
particularsense-organ
all parts of the body, and visual knowledge is that knowledge

associated

of

that

say

which

sense-knowledge

which

to

of

We

sense

if

as

process

exercise

of the

senses

existence

the

to

different kinds

those exterior
of

of

sense.

an

perience,
exas

object means

ca
indriyam...anupahatacaksurddidetesu
caksurddini upakarandni.
karmaksayopaiamastendsthagitagavdksatulydni
such as
Jaina- V"ttika-Vrttii II. p. 98. In many
the five senses,
however,
places,
eva

kirn lu dtmd

dtmanah

eye, ear, etc.,

to the number

are

of

dhigamasutra, ch.

mentioned
senses

11.

as

they

senses,

possess.

etc.) But

and

livingbeings are

often classified according

See also Tattvdrthd-

(See Pramdnamlmdmsd.

this is with

reference to the

sense

organs.

The

denial

inference

do

we

with

of the

of the existence
that

conclusion

than

five

propositions as
inseparablyconnected
variable
(sahabhavd) or as in-

is
that the reason
They who know
either as coexistence
the probandum
antecedence
(kramabhdvd) will from

above.

five

the

proceed through

not

the

[ch.

Jaina Philosophy

The

86

hill has

propositionsis rather
for representingthe

jump to the
syllogism consistingof

got fire. A

for

explaining the

actual

hill

to

matter

mind

of the

state

statement

mere

in the

(e.g.smoke)

reason

the

in

child

making

an

inference1.

regards proof by testimony the Jains do not admit the

authorityof the Vedas, but believe that the Jaina scripturesgive
As

of persons
rightknowledge, for these are the utterances
have
lived a worldly life but afterwards
by right actions

who

us

have

right knowledge

conquered

all

passions and

and

removed

all

ignorance2.
Knowledge
The

Buddhists

had

anything depended
That
1

which
As

could

affirmed

produce

that the

effect that

the

upon

Revelation.

as

effect

any

on

proof of

the existence

it could

produce

us

on

existent,and

was

of
us.

that

regards concomitance

of the Jaina logicianslike the Buddhists

some
(vydpti)
to bahirvyapti
preferantarvydpti (between smoke and fire)
(theplacecontainingsmoke
with the place containing
fire).They also divide inference into two classes,svdrthdfor one's own
numdna
self and pardrthdnumdna
for convincingothers. It may
not
be out of placeto note
that the earliest Jaina view as maintained
in his
by Bhadrabahu

Dasavaikalikaniryuktiwas

in favour

to
(i)PratijHd (e.g.non-injury
to

who

ten

propositions for making

an

inference

life is the greatest virtue

adhere

(4)Hetu

of

life is the greatest virtue),(2)Pratijiidvibhakti

(non-injury

to

accordingto Jaina scriptures),

(3)Hetu (because those
loved by gods and it is meritorious to do them
honour),

non-injuryare

vibhakti

do so are
who
the only persons
(those who
live in the highest
can
and even
places of virtue),
(5) Vipaksa(buteven
one
by doing injury
by
may
prosper
attain
is
the
merit
revilingJaina scriptures
with Brahmins), (6) Vipak?a
one
as
case
may
pratisedha (itis not so, it is impossiblethat those who despiseJaina scriptures
should

be loved by gods
householders

as

or

should

they

do

deserve

(but the sins of the householders

anka

(9)Asankdpratifedha (thiscannot
so

honour),(7) Drstdnta

like to cook

not

it could

not

themselves

should

(the Arhats

for fear of

to

persuasive statements

the

from

insects),
killing
(8)A"-

touch the arhats,for they cook

be, for the arhats go

for them),

certain houses

unexpectedly,
them), (10)Naigamana

be said that the

istherefore
(non-injury

take food

cooking was undertaken for

Indian
(Vidyabhusana's
greatest virtue)

which

are

formal

often actuallyadopted in

point of view many of these are

sutrabhdsya,1. I. 32, says that Gautama

irrelevant.
introduced

When

Logic). These are

discussion,but from a

Vatsyayana

in his

Nydya-

the doctrine of five

propositionsas
against the doctrine of ten propositions
held by other logicians,
as
he probably had
this Jaina view in his mind.
'

See Jainatarkavdrttika,and

with Gunaratna

on

Jainism.

Pariks"mukhasutravrtti^ and

SaddarSanasamuccaya

Theory of Being

vi]
which

could

production

fact

In

non-existent.

not

187
of effect

was

only definition of existence (being).Theoretically

each unit of effect being different from
any other unit of effect,
of different units of
succession
a
they supposed that there was
with

them

effect

the

is the

or, what

substances

new

The

moment.

every

may

Jains urged
be regarded

only

that

the

as

the

the

in

produced
and

that

that

moment

found

of such

all of

not

to

seen

and

moment

succeeding

Buddhists
at

same

each

each

new

being

of effect

unit

for
fallacious;
be

to

perience
ex-

changing
is

gold ornament)

How

whole

as

mere

rings
ear-

in the

face

thing vanishes

renewed

being
aside

so,

point of time,

found

that the

leaving

Hence

moment?

This

its form
parts (e.g.

things are

new

is

undergo change.
assert

we

that

other

of

that

object is

an

sponding
by a correexperience we

ground.

momentary,

while

permanent

experience can

an

its

part of it (e.g.gold in

bangles) are

or

the

unit

object as

things are

some

remain

to

every

all

therefore

is indicated

have

we

exactly the

is not

shows
every

When

analysisof

us

of which

of the

existence

theoretical

reason

existence

experience.
suppose

why the production of effect

only proof of being is that we can assert

the

that

the

thing

of
thing,acknowledged a succession
All things were
thus momentary.

same

at

each

abstract

and

find that the

look to experience we
if we
speculations,
conception of being or existence involves a notion of permanence
associated
with
qualities
change parydya (acquirement of new
unfounded

"

Jains hold that the defects of other

systems lie in this,that they interpretexperience only from one
"particular
they alone carefullyweigh
standpoint (nayd) whereas
and

the loss of old

from

experience

ones).

all

indicated

The

points of view and

absolutelybut under

by it,not
limitations.
The
Jains hold' that
arthakriydkdritvathe Buddhists
on

their

became

enquiry

on

one-sided

the

acquiesce in

truths

reservations

proper

formulating the

in

the

doctrine

and
of

first showed

at

of

evidence

signs of starting
they
experience,but soon

analysisand indulged in unwarrantable

abstract speculations which
went
directlyagainst experience.
if we
Thus
neither rejectthe self nor
can
go by experience we
which
the external
world
Buddhists
did. Knowledge
as
some

reveals
at the
as
own

the

to
same

the

us

time

in their

clear-cut features
that such

subject. Knowledge
self.

We

do

not

of the

knowledge
is thus

perceive

external

is part and

felt to be
in

an

world

certifies

parcelof myself
expressionof

experience

that

my

knowledge

The

88

[ch.

J aina Philosophy

generated by the external world, but there is in us the

known
to us by it.
rise of knowledge and of certain objectsmade
rise of knowledge is thus only parallelto certain objective
The
somehow
the special fitness
have
collocations of things which
moment.
that they and they alone are perceivedat that particular
in

is

us

Looked
in

from

at

experiencesare centred
to us
somehow, our experiencescome
self. Knowledge
being a character

point of

this

ourselves,for determined

as

modifications

self,it shows

of the
of the
and

of

should

be

of

in

the

as

thus

be made

be

revealingall objectsby itself. But

validity{prdmdnya) of all knowledge
the

the

the Mlmamsa

it

ality
materimaterial.

quality of

formless

Nor

objectswhich

itself become

as

self

does.

by copying

would

regarded

conscious

Samkhya

of the

then

independent

between

as

copy

think,for

object,knowledge
should

Knowledge

of the self

knowledge

regarded

the Sautrantikas

reveals,as

should

element

knowledge

our

manifestations

distinction

unconscious

an

own

itself as

No

senses.

our

all

view

view

the

that the

self
proved by knowledge itand psychologically
{svatahprdmdnyd) is wrong. Both logically
validityof knowledge depends upon outward
correspondence

{samvdda)
knowledge

with

there

be

of

may

reference

to

facts.

in

correspondence

brings us

svatah

divided

consideration

principleof
to

erroneous

of the
appears

as

think that

be

It is

on

living

is

us

This

by experience. But
unwarrantable
thesis,
hypoof

our

self. This

own

Jaina metaphysics.
Jivas.
shows

that

the

the

of this

all

things may

be

non-living(ajiva).The
the body, and it is most

from

life is either
account

an

revelation

experience
the living(jiva) and
life is entirelydistinct

body*.
to

in

of

that

Jains say
into

has

by previous
been
produced

abhydsdnabhydsdpeksayd)1.

it is certified

as

The
The

right belief

paratasca

exists

knowledge
knowledge appears

to

where

cases

of validitywithout
psychologicalascertainment
objective facts (prdmdnyamutpattan parata eva

it generates
for

those

jhaptau svakdrye ca
The
objectiveworld
that

But

is

product

or

the

that
life-principle

principleis

the

soul.

The

property
the

body

soul

is

directlyperceived(by introspection)
just as the external things
It is not a mere
are.
symbolical object indicated by a phrase or
1

Prameyakamalamartanda,

See Jaina

Vdrttika, p. 60.

pp. 38-43.

vi]

Souls

This
description.

is

189
the

directlyagainst

Mlmamsa

authority Prabhakara1.

possessed

of

The

view

soul

of

the

in its pure

great
is

state

infinite

ledge
perception{ananta-darsand),infinite know{ananta-jndnd),infinite bliss (ananta-sukhd) and infinite
It is all

(ananta-viryay.

power

perfect.Ordinarilyhowever, with

the

exception of a few released pure souls (mukta-jiva),all the

other jivas(samsdriri)
have all their purityand power
covered
with
a

thin veil of karma

from
are

These

beginninglesstime.
substances

which

matter

and

size

{madhyama-parimdnd)

nor

atomic

Jivdstikdya. The
has

or

space

which

they

smaller

Jains

wherever

as

the whole

they
only

The

The

the

come

of

to

inner

an

two

that

one

of

of

The

hell,and

namely

sense-organ

See Prameyakamalamartanda,

The

p.

The

it
pure

knowledge

prepared,

souls

possess

of all

etc.

In

infinite

things in

touch

and
and

taste.

smell.

vision

possess

in
all

these,namely

in addition

virtue

is that

of which

to

these

they

are

33.

jndna. Dar^ana is the knowledge of

the knowledge of details,
Jfiana means
it belongs, of what
to whom
quality it is,
first darsana
and
have
then jnana.
all cognition we
all
things as well as infinite
general perception of

Jains distinguishbetween

was

possess

by

manas

darfana

things without their details,e.g. I see a

only see the cloth, but know
e.g. I not
where

gods

among

possess

class

vertebrates

The

higher animals
the

sense-organs

bees, etc., possessing

smell.

and

plained
ex-

The

room.

touch, taste,

possess

feel

once

plants,which
of

foot,

is often

higher

next

sense-organs

ants, etc., which

touch, taste,

denizens

The

touch.

it

lamp illumines
of

number
of

at

can

of the

corner

the

of the

body
a

the

in which

nail

the

and

according to

body

the

occupies

body
elephant and

that

the

{yibhu)

expand

the

in which
one

limited

is called

that

of

sensation, it

occupies

to

in

to

class consists

possess

higher

of

jtva

souls

remember

the

to

lowest

five sense-organs.

men,

soul

jivasaccording

sense-organ

next

the

the

which

addition

of

manner
being
room
though remaining in

of worms,
Next

the

similar

possess.
the

to

that

dimensions

(bigger

cause

any

in which

divide

Jains

any

be

may

this

these

occupies the whole

the tip of the hair

from

manner

time

They

all-pervasive

anything

the

to

life).It is well

soul

the

there

it. The

at

ant

that

lives,so

according

occupy

in the

of

pervasiveness; but

some

in them

able
innumer-

(lokdkdsa\have

neither

are

account

on

realityoccupy

astikdya means

word

themselves

contract

the

it is

(anu);

in

world

and

accumulating

infinite in number.

are

They

mundane

our

been

souls

eternal.

are

space-pointsin

has

and

cloth.

all their details.

The

190

{santjnin)while
called asamjhin.

the

rational

called
and

Jaina Philosophy

are

lower

[ch.

animals

have

no

reason

Proceeding towards the lowest animal we find that the Jains

mated
(earth,water, air,fire)as being aniregard all the four elements
by souls. Thus particlesof earth, etc., are the bodies of
These
call elementary lives;
etc.
we
souls,called earth-lives,
may
they live and die and are born again in another elementary body.
These

they
Of

elementary

lives

invisible.

The

are

plants each

some

plants,each

is

of which

and
invisible,
whole

The
are

is

each

in that

like

whole

of

of

livingbeings. Those
and

out

come

contiune

their

the

is

small

and

world.

closelypacked

reached

by

the

Moksa.
has

singlenigoda

one

clusters,

treme
experiencing ex-

nigodas furnish

The

will

nigodas who

long

of progress

an

to

of all the
down

to

be empty

never

for

supply

sufficed

the Nirvana

samsara

with

But

beginningless past

the

course

subtle

over

very

and

in the world

of the

all

forming

have

it is evident

be

also

may

common

liberated from

been

present. Thus

the

fraction

caused

vacancy
have

that

souls

that

common.

always gross ; they

only. But those plants

of the world

those

in

replacethe

in

powder.

in

nutrition

all

have

beings called nigodas\ they

of souls

space

of other

souls, which

distributed

are

nutrition

only;

plants.

are

but

case

are

lives

is full of minute

place of
small
infinitesimally
souls

is embodied

they

case

filledwith

box

one

embodied

plant

of infinite number

pains. The
of

of

lives

soul

respirationand

soul

colony

and
having respiration

them

of

part of the world

universe

groups

subtle ; in the latter

or

of one-organ

body

as

only one

habitable

in the

exist

is the

aggregation of

an

in which

Plants

last class

of life such

functions

the

either gross

are

development

through

successive

stages1.
Karma
It is
born

gods, men,

as

noticed
is the
the

of

account

on

in

Chapter

Those

soul
which

or

are

sullied

obscure

by

or

demerits

denizens

that the

in it of karma

presence

pure

their merits

animals,
III

Theory.

cause

matter.

the

of hell.
of the
The

different

right knowledge

that

the

We

have

embodiment

of

already
of

soul

perfectionsof

natural
kinds

jlvasare

of karma

details

matter.

(jndna)

called

are

obscure
right perception
jnanavaraqiya^ those which
{darsana) as in sleep are called darsandvaraniya, those which
1

See

Jacobi'sarticle on Jainism,E.

R.

E." and Lokaprakafa,

vi.

pp.

31 ff.

Effectsof Karma

vi]
obscure

those

pain are vedanlya,and

soul

four kinds

which

of karma

there

the

of the

rightattitude

addition

In

mohaniya1.
four kinds

other

are

produce pleasureand

thus

obscure

rightconduct

faith and

towards

these

of the soul and

the bliss-nature

191

of karma

to

which

with

(1) the length of life in any birth,(2)the peculiarbody

and faculties,
ality,
its general and specialqualities
(3) the nationcaste, family,social standing,etc.,(4)the inborn energy of the

soul

by

determine

action

of which

obstruction

the

when

there

it prevents

to do

is a desire

it. These

the

doing

of

good

called
respectively

are

karma, (3)gotra karma, (4) antaraya

(1) ayuska karma, (2) nama
karma.
tinually
By our actions of mind, speech and body, we are conwhich
matter
in the first
producing certain subtle karma
is called

instance

and

pours

into contact

with

karma

substances

viscous

into

itself into the

of

bondage

sticks

matter

to

soul

transforms

itself into

and

there

sticks

passions(kasdya) of the soul.

in retainingthe inpouring karma

the

eightclasses,as

cause

which

karma,

eight different

in

acts

matter

bhava

have

we

and
the

it is

According

by coming

These

like

act

This

matter.

accordingly divided

already noticed.

sorrow.

soul

and

ways

dravya

This

good

as

it gets itself coloured

karma
or

bad

is the
karma

respectivelyas

golden, lotus-pink,white and black, blue and grey and they

called the lesyas.The
feelingsgenerated by the accumulation
the

karma-matter

of the

soul

gives us

of
of

the

we

are

dravya-lesya. According

result of the

in accordance

effect of karmas

of veil which
at

obscuring any

was

time

any

By

our

and

thus

knowledge, feeling,etc., are

the

generating

The

external
them

all

Jains acknowledge
(2) sruti

in

objects which
being

but

five kinds

(testimony),
(3)avadhi

we

karmas

own

knowledge, feeling,etc., are so removed

of knowledge and
kind
feelingthat we

as

of

coloration
karma

any

actions,it
the knowledge

constantlygettingby perception,inference,etc.,

knowledge is removed
a corresponding nature.

within,

the actual

generated by good, bad, or indifferent

pleasure,pain,or feelingof indifference. Even

kind
particular

the

bhava-lesyaand

been

that
is but

called

it is called

by

has

matter

are

are

that

the
we

deserved

which

particularkind
a

knowledge

veils
have
to

over

our

just that
have.

All

generated from
ordinarily said to be
sense

one
are

mere

have

with

coexistent

external

ditions.
con-

(i) matijfldna (ordinarycognition),

(supernaturalcognition),(4)manahparydya

of

knowledge

(thought-reading),
(5)kevala-jndna (omniscience).

The

192

the effect of

After
is

produced, it

once

This

of

process
karma

new

is

matter

might

karmas

accumulate

is called
the

then,

nirjard. If

is

matter

matter, but

being purged off,other

continually pouring in, and

thus

no

gradual purging

the soul free of karma

make

karma

some

off the

should

matter

is,while

is

matter
{karma-vargana)
particularkarma
discharged and purged from off the soul.

purging

off of the karmas

it

[ch.

Jaina Philosophy

the

as

karma
and

purging

continuing simultaneously force the soul to

continue
its mundane
birth.
cycle of existence, transmigration,and reAfter the death
individual
his soul, together with
of each
its karmic
to the
body {kdrmanasarird),goes in a few moments
binding

processes

place of

its

birth

new

and

there

contractingin accordance

or

In

the

ordinary

results,and

proper

audayika

karma

such

be

soul

karma

is said

to

Moksa

is attained.

good

be

in the

with

men

There

whom

active

some

ksdyika state, and

is,however,
karma

some

of

account

on

is

soul.

karma

karmas

The

are

certain

(karma-vargand).
is called

soul

fourth

this

state

The

asrava

distinguishbetween
The

sth"nas

in

Asrava

of

ordinary

Nirjara.

and

karma

sorts

influx

that

of
of

Jainism.

are

fourteen

faith in Jainism, the next

in the next

four

channels

the

stages through which

which

that

state

neutralized,

is annihilated,some

souls

the

infra-atomic

These

have

suffer

to

five stages

The
are

karmas

enter

into

and

the

the

karmas

passes

stages the ascetic practises

yoga

and

insects.

or

like

the

are

But

the

which

all the

Jains
actually

technicallycalled

firstthree stages represent the

those in which

passionsare

destroys all

his karmas,
and

fourteenth

stage he attains liberation (seeDravyasamgrahavrtti, 13th verse).

he

still practisesyoga

of

controlled,

stage he is divested

of all karmas

guna-

growth

thirteenth

but

births
re-

channels

soul, just

pond.

and

all

particlesof matter
particlesinto the
are
produced by

represent the

developing soul

in number.

karma

these

body, mind, and speech. The asravas

modes
through which the karmas
channels
enters
through which water

soul

annihilated,the

experiences of this world process, including births

in diverse spheres of life as gods,men
or
animals, or

the

vented
pre-

exist,and

When

it is from
a

be

{ksdyopasamika)1.
Karma,

It is

the

to

its

in the

be

to

however

it still continues

the

latter.

produces

is said

may

aupasamika state of
only prevented from operating but

is not

of the

effect and

stage the

body, expanding

new

dimensions

takes

By proper efforts
taking effect,
though

this is said to

the

state.

from

and

with

course

at

assumes

at

the

at

the

of dust

of

dust

there

soul

the

from

that

material

and

with

them

view

the

of

its

body during

the

view

point

bad

of

bondage
the

according to

karma

soul

of karma

karma

of

refers

mentioned, namely

the

infinite

of

knowledge
karma

varanlya
of

the

what

the

souls

that

is wrong,

ayu

soul

and

of

intense,middling
of

soul

which

of

stay of any

duration
the

of the

nature

karma

and

inrush, by

by

the

these
1

actual

are

See

thought

stoppage

Varddhamanapurana,

XVI.

kinds,

bondage

of karma
which

The

already
the

obscures

detail,dar"ana-

in

which
is

the

soul.

The

sthiti.

fatuates
in-

so

right from
of any

tenure

Again

to

and
or

its

the

oppose

duration
a

the

indicates

of the

karma
third

formance
per-

stay
be

may

principle

different parts of

the

The

themselves.

due

varying intensityare

the
passionsof the soul,whereas
as
jfianavaraniya,
etc., are due to

of the

soul

modes

kinds

two

Ibid.

karma

of
of

matter8.

of karmas

of control

inrush

the

with

of inrush

modification
of

to

particlesattach

p. 181.

of

karma,

tends

respectivelycalled bhavasamvara

Gunaratna,

four

general knowledge
produces the feelingsof

refers

of karmas

dravyasrava) are
actual

is of

infinite

which

this

karma

specificcontact
Corresponding to the two

srava

point of
papa (good

and

determines

is called

of

nature

the

by

kasayas

different classification
the

karma

the

one

distinguishwhat

Pradesa

to

as

gives them personalities,

gotra
particularkind of social surrounding

mild, and

or

division,anubhaga.

the

to

soul

regarded

which

antaraya

in the

looked

{pradesa).

things

which

which

karma,

right actions

karma

of any

all

the

fail to

they

when

sense

bondage

soul, mohaniya

karma
particularlife,nama
which
karma
brings about
for the

some

extension

of

karma

the

in

pain

soul

obscures

which

it becomes

atoms

eight classes
jfianavaraniyakarma

soul, vedanlya

pleasure and

karma

the

to

stickingof

duration
{prakrti),
and

the

oil. In all parts of

of punya

this

with

the

is sometimes

only

the

means

stage1." From
is

with

over

in accordance

that in

(sthiti),
intensity{anubhdga)
nature

karma

with

of

another

nature

all

soul, just like

samsara

From

karmas)2.

the

infinite number

being

of

matter,

besmeared

person

completely covered

at

with

karma,
of

body

the

on

karma

[ch

is besmeared

influx

"The

says:

particlesof

kind
particular

who

person

Gunaratna

of the

contact

of

body

the

on

Thus

oil.

so

Jaina Philosophy

The

94

(bhavaopposing this

contrary
karma
and
8

and

nature

and
particles,
dravyasamvara4.
Nemicandra,

67-68, and Dravyasamgrahavrtti, "1. 35.

33.

vi]

Self-control

The

bhavasamvaras

195

of non-injury,truthfulness,
(1) the vows
and non-acceptance of objects
sex-control,
stealing,

abstinence from

are

tracks in order
of the use of trodden
desire,
(2)samitis consisting
to avoid
ceiving
gentle and holy talk {bhdsa\ reinjuryto insects (iryd),
alms (esand),
etc.,(3)guptis or restraints of body,
proper
ness,
speech and mind, (4) dharmas
consistingof habits of forgivetruth, cleanliness,restraint,
humility,straightforwardness,
abandonment, indifference to any kind of gain or loss,
penance,
and supreme
sex-control1,(5)anupreksd consistingof meditation
about
the transient character
of the world, about our
helplessness
without
the truth,about the cyclesof world-existence,about our
for our
own
responsibilities
good and bad actions, about the
of

difference between
liness of
of
karmas
and

the soul and

body

our

karma
which

have

already entered

with

the

it,about

of those

destruction

soul,matter

soul,about

the

the influx

of attaining
difficulty
ciples
knowledge, faith,and conduct, and about the essential prinof the world2, (6) the parisahajaya consistingof the conquering
of all kinds

of

and

of the universe, about

the substance

true

its stoppage

the unclean-

non-soul,about

all that is associated

and

and

the

feelingsof

of

the

physical troubles
of various

discomforts

of

heat, cold, etc., and

kinds, (7) cdritra

right

or

conduct.
Next
karmas

to
or

this

we

to

come

nirjaraor

their destruction.

rather

This

the

purging
nirjaraalso

off of the
is of two

that
dravyanirjara.Bhavanirjara means
particlesare
change in the soul by virtue of which the karma
of these
the actual destruction
destroyed. Dravyanirjara means
karma
particleseither by the reaping of their effects or by
called savipaka and avipaka
before their time of fruition,
penances
all the karmas
When
are
destroyed moksa
nirjarasrespectively.

kinds, bhavanirjaraand

or

liberation

is effected.

Pudgala.
dharma
is divided into pudgaldstikdya,
ajlva(non-living)
stikdya,adhartndstikdya,dkdsdstikdya,kdla, punya, papa. The
word
pudgala means
matter3, and it is called astikdya in the
The

that

sense

1
3

means

it

occupies

space.

Taltvarthadhigamasiitra.
is entirely
different from

This
an

individual

or

Pudgala

is made

up
2

the Buddhist

sense.

With

of

atoms

Ibid,

the Buddhists

pudgala

person.

13"2

Thejaina Philosophy

196
which

states, gross

(such

karma

matter

the

as

eternal.

and

size

without

are

things we

as

which

Matter

sullies the

soul).

All

ultimately produced by the combination

indivisible
is called
smallest
particleof matter
atoms

are

colour.

and

different

all eternal

and

formation

of

The

different

and

to the

atoms,
the

to

diverse

of

mutual

simple

in others

contact

the

at

atoms

atom

(anu).

is due
of the

of their inner
of

degrees

held

together by

the

to

nation
combiment
arrange-

inter-atomic

take

place by
whereas

points (yugmapradesa)

two

only

are

The

touch, taste, smell,

combinations

(ghanapratarabhedena). Some

space

(such
things

atoms.

an

modes

modes

different

of

existence

subtle

substances

cubical

geometrical,sphericalor

of the

all have

they

in two

material

are

The

exist

may

us),and

around

see

[ch.

points of

the

tractive
at-

force

(pjahpradesd){Prajndpanopdngasutra, pp. 10-12).

form
atoms
a compound
(skandha\ when the one is viscous
of different degrees of viscosityor
the other dry or both are

Two
and

dryness.

It must

there

no

the

was

actual

contact

gross

constant

old

noted

that while
between

contact

and

essential

as

combine

compounds
the

be

with

other

and

alike

is not
atoms

in

an

by

our

which

perceptionof

mind
atoms

similar

in the
appears

so

(as the

as

blue, what

blue,or

happens

it is due

blueness

lose

is

or

hard

this,that

four

are

of

atoms

all these
however

grossness

perception

of

the

to

the

is it due

to

the

thing.
atoms

to

of their

There

breadthwise
accession
in the

hardness

the

liable

some

is generated in
a

These

produce

however,

ones.

the

thus

spatially
lengthwiseand

knowledge

gross,

and

think) nor

supposes),but

that such
a

new

Buddhists

scattered

perception of

they

fire,and

property of grossness,

atoms,

which

are,

perception of
the
imposed upon

is

(as the Samkhya-Yoga

a

They

thought that
Jains regarded

by experience.

The

character.

error

the

compounds

acquire

elements, earth, water, air,and

are

the atoms
testified

as

things of the world.

change {parindmd) by

qualities(gunas)

the Buddhists

us

as

When

is
a

there

of

bined
com-

given
thing
have

of the
acquired the property of blueness and on the removal
darsanavaranlya and jftanavaranlyaveil,there arises in the soul
the perception and knowledge of that blue thing. This sameness

all

qualityin an aggregate of
which
it appears
as
one
object (e.g.a cow)
or
generality
technicallycalled tiryaksdmdnya. This samanya
thus neither
an
imposition of the mind nor an abstract entity

{samdna-rupata) of
atoms
by virtue of
is
is

the

accession

of

vi]

D karma

maintained

(as

cession
Naiyayikas) but represents only the acsimilar qualities
by a similar development of qualities
forming an aggregate. So long as this similarityof

of
of atoms

by

the

qualitiescontinues
to

continue

to

be

for

we

some

permanent,

we

perceive the thing to be the

think
we
length of time. When
do so by referringto this sameness

developing tendencies
relative
the

old

whole

remain

of

sameness

and

not

are

the

in
qualities

atoms

of

accession

destruction,but
substance

time

looked

are

the

the

loss of

thing as
This

time.

some

Akasa.

Adharma,
dharma

absolutely different from what

Indian
philosophy. Dharma
colour

the

eternal.

are

of

conception

and

in the

technicallycalled urdhvasdmdnya1.

from

Dharma,

sound

thing

resultingin the
According to

ones,

for

same

of

spite of

in

of other

less the
is

them.

and

same

point of view of the change

new
qualities,
they may be regarded as liable to
looked
the point of view of
if they are
at from
at

(dravya) they

The

and

accession
or

atoms

qualitiesin

momentary

more

of

aggregate

an

of similar

qualitiesand
may

If the

of

permanence

Jains things

some

197

adharma

and

they

other

in

mean

is devoid

of

with

; it is conterminous

in

Jainism

is

systems

of

taste, touch, smell,

the

mundane

universe

astikdya
(lokdkdsa) and pervades every part of it. The term
is therefore applied to it. It is the principleof motion, the accompanying
makes
which
motion
circumstance
possible,
or
cause
like water

to

of

the

or

circumstance

or

passive (uddsina) and

The

cause.

the

they

are

to

dharma.

Hence

in the

region

liberated
because

to

Adharma

they

at

the

of the

is not

is also

do

cannot

extremity

necessary

regarded

See Prameyakamalamartanda,

Dravyasamgrahavrtti, 17-20.

necessary
or

matter

without

so

of the

perfect rest.
the

soul

to

as

pp.

the

mundane

souls,there being

liberated

attain

the

make

rest

the

is then

They

is indifferent

(preraka)

solicitous

or

fish at

passive condition

fish,i.e. it

active

an

water

move,

move,

of

compel

cannot

souls
there

not

is

water

movement

cannot

Dharma

motion.
if

water

fish wants

The

moving fish.

no

cannot

help

to

its

; but

move

presence of
world (/oka)

dharma,

the

there

move

motion-element,

similar

if

; but

move

dharma2.

pervasive entity which

136-143 ; Jainatarkavarttika,
p.

106.

pudgalas

helps jlvasand
could

if there

move

there

regarded

were

found

be

to

moving

for its fulfilment

region of

in the
The

substances

the

liberated

of

but

and

other

been

formed
trans-

the

jlvas

would

they

be

(moksa), which
motion

entitywhich

required
absent

was

entity which

subtle

pervades

the

transcendent

region

allows

the

subsistence

of all other

jlva,pudgala.

It is not

adharma,
of veil

absence

it. On

the

(/oka) and

positiveentity

on

souls.

dharma,

as

that actual

two

Jains

since

of liberation

time

is that

akasa

these

some

have

not

if

rest

jlva or

of

help

in them

extraneous

an

(aloka)which

such

negation

mere

help of

the

Moreover

conceived

it was

universe

souls

liberated

the

the

category

mundane

the

this could

motion.

at

even

; thus

undesirable

was

the

having activityinherent

as

at

the

by

activityof

realization

exterior

actual

into

substance

remain

felt

been

inner

which

entity,without

extraneous

the

its exterior

required for

atoms

could

or

have

to

that

notion

of their

No

at rest.

necessity of admitting

The

probably

categories seems
account

dharma,

no

were

themselves

keep

to

adharma.

no

were

[ch.

Jaina Philosophy

The

98

which

of

account

its

obstruction, or

or

other

helps

penetrate
inter-

to

it is called

character

pervasive

ness,
empti-

mere

things

of

akdsdstikaya}.
and

Kala

Time

(kala) in realityconsists

which

never

of the

modification

of

of

Sam

mix

with

one

accession

or

qualitiesof the

of

another,

Kala

atoms.

of

and

dharma
of

motion,

hours, days, etc., is

the

and

slow

moments,

the moments,

is the time

called

kala

modifications
as

kala

as

of

in

so

other

etc.

hours, etc.,are

required by

an

not

atom

bring

akasa

the
the

change
changes

of the

mation
transfor-

perceived as moments,
is the
Kala

also

thus

Dravyasamgrahavrttit19.

not

its

own

only

aids

cations
modifi-

dravya (substance),

its paryayas.
traverse

of the

appearance

allows

movement.
1

about

action

It is thus

to

happening

helps interpenetration

Time

forms.

help

particles

the

qualitiesand

new

things,but

hours,

which

This

samaya.
many

but

innumerable

helps the

qualitiesin things.

new

unchangeable

so

also

those

does

qualities,in things, but just

a.

ay

The
a

unit

unit of samaya
of space

by

vi]

Rules

of

Conduct

99

Jaina Cosmography.

According
end.

or

Loka

Jains,the

is that

world

the denizens

(where

which

place in

of hell

reside).The

(lokakasa)is pervaded with dharma

there
possible.Beyond the lokakasa
are

three

the

urdhvaloka

no

but

movement,

no

beginning

is eternal,without

happiness and misery are experienced

results of virtue and vice. It is composed of three parts,
as
(where the gods reside),
madhya (thisworld of ours),and

urdhva
adho

to the

dharma)

air.

dharma

top of this lokakasa

the

motionless

remains

is

all movement
and

therefore

this lokakasa

perfected soul risingstraightover

The

to

goes

makes

(dkdsa). Surrounding

only space

layersof

which
no

universe

mundane

and

(therebeing

there.

Jaina

Yoga.

of moksa
(salvation).
Yoga according to Jainism is the cause
This yoga consists of jnana (knowledge of reality
sraddha
it is),
as
(faithin the teachings of the Jinas),and caritra (cessationfrom
of ahimsd
caritra consists
doing all that is evil). This
(not

taking

life

any

(speaking

in such

mistake

by

even

is true,

as

way

unmindfulness),

or

good

and

sunrta

pleasing),asteya

not
(not taking anything
given),brahmacaryya
(abandoning lust for all kinds of objects,in mind, speech and
for all things)1.
body), and aparigraha (abandoning attachment

which

These

strict rules of conduct

follow

the

been

has

only apply to ascetics who are bent

on
attainingperfection.The standard
proposed for the ordinary
householders
is fairly
Thus
it is said by Hemacandra,
workable.
that ordinary householders
should
earn
honestly,should
money
a

customs

of

good people,should

good family,should

forth. These
1

Certain

are

external

follow

just what
rules

the

should

we

of conduct

customs

are

also

marry
of

country and

the

expect from
called caritra.

good girlfrom
good

any

These

are

so

and

Iryyd (to

path already trodden by others and illuminated by the sun's rays, so that
be taken
while walking to prevent oneself from
treading on
precaution
may
proper
and
well
insects,etc., which maybe
bhdsa
the
pleasantly
(to speak
lying on
way),
danasamiti
to all beings), isana
in
the proper
monastic
(to
manner),
(tobeg alms
inspectcarefullythe seats avoiding all transgressionswhen taking or givinganything),
in such a way
to
as
utsargasamiti(totake care that bodily refuse may not be thrown
satisfied within
all false thoughts, to remain
injure any being),manogupti (toremove

go

by

the

oneself, and

hold

all

people

kayagupti(absolutesteadiness
counted

in

to

be
and

the

same

fixityof

Dravyasamgrahavrtti 35.

in
the

and
mind), vaggupti (absolute silence),
of
kinds
caritra are
body). Five other

Jaina Philosophy

The

200

the

virtues

of ahimsa, sunrta, asteya and

made

is laid upon

stress

brahmacaryya, but

virtues

of sunrta,

the

asteya and

follow

directlyas secondary corrolAhimsa

thus be generalizedas the fundamental
of ahimsa.
may
be
ethical virtue of Jainism ; judgment on
all actions may

brahmacaryya
laries

The

is ahimsa.

of all these

root

present day. Great

of the

householder

honest

[ch.

are

to

with the standard

of ahimsa
passed in accordance
; sunrta, asteya
and brahmacaryya are
regarded as virtues as their transgression
leads to himsa
(injuryto beings). A milder form of the practice
of these

is

virtues

is called

expected

anubrata

ordinary householders

from

(small vows).

But

those

who

and

this

struggling

are

emancipation must
practisethese virtues
according to the highest and strictest standard, and this is called
mahabrata
(greatvows). Thus for example brahmacaryya for a
for the

householder
cessation
be

requireabstinence

are

and

from

livingbeing
Many

of

oneself

which

other
are

being

mere

it would
and

sex-

killingany animals, but according

all the

the

cause

rigour and
of

any

carefulness

kind

of

to

injury to

way.
duties

minor

be

householder, according to anubrata,

entail

in any

based

from

it would

mahavrata

prevent
any

according to

would

sex-thoughts,sex-words

from

abstention

standard

according to mahabrata

adultery,whereas

Ahimsa

would
to

from

anubrata

the

according to

absolute

acts.

of

attainment

the

upon

(i) digvirati(to carry

out

are

imposed

cardinal

householders, all

upon

virtue

activities within

ahimsa.

of
a

These

restricted

area

injuringlivingbeings in different places),

(2) bhogopabhogamdna (to desist from drinking liquors,taking
and
certain other kinds of plants,fruits,
flesh,butter,honey, figs,
of restrictions regarding
to observe certain other kinds
vegetables,
time and place of taking meals),(3) anarthadanda
consistingof
(a) apadhydna (cessation from
inflictingany bodily injuries,
of
one's
killing
enemies, etc.),(b) pdpopadesa (desistingfrom
thereby desist

advisingpeople to

from

take

agriculturewhich leads to the killing

of so
insects),
(c)himsopakdriddna (desistingfrom giving
many
implements of agricultureto people which will lead to the injury
of insects),
(d)pramdddcarana (to desist from attending musical
to

parties,
theatres,or reading sex-literature,gambling,etc),
(4)siksd-

padabrata consistingof (a) sdmayikabrata (to try to treat all

beingsequally),(b)desdvakdsikabrata
(graduallyto practisethe
and
digviratibratamore
more
extensively),(c) posadhabrata

whatever

look

we

way

for

[ch.

which

anything,on

we

depend, we

can

is called asaranabhavana

This

find that it fails us.

of

Jaina Philosophy

The

202

(themeditation

helplessness).
Some

are

karma

of the

done

in another

all other

on

these

life. We

blood, and

that

think

body

the

bones,

(meditation of

the

that

and

is made

I commit

of

(decay

of the

and

and
to

things,the flesh,

karmas

should

passions are

me,

but

if

think

that

contrary

virtues,then

all evil
the

(meditation of

of the
the

falling
be-

(inrush of karma)

asrava

of

influx

and

karma)
leads

matter).
practiceof

the

the

(samyama),

removed,

the

on

already accumulated

of karma

control

the

asravabhavana
control

destruction

Again one
(virtues)of self

of defiled

transgress the

(cessationof

samvara

destruction

and

the

evil).By

the

comes

anyatvabhavana.

impure is called asucibhavana

impurity of the body).
if the mind
is purifiedby the thoughts of universal

is called

befall me,

will

one

is therefore

deeds

sinful

and

up

friendshipand compassion
only will good {subha) accrue

then

the fruits

reap

all different from

are

aspects is called ekatvabhavana

think

To

some
suffer,

world, some

our

by

To

in this

surroundings,karma, by our separate bodies and

giftswhich each of us severallyenjoy. To meditate

by

another

born

truthfulness

to

the

nirjara

dharmas

ten

(siinrta),
purity

of greed (akiiicanata),
(sauca),chastity(brahma), absolute want
asceticism
(tapas), forbearance, patience (ksdnti), mildness
or
(mdrdava), sincerity{rjutd\and freedom
emancipation from
all sins (muktt) can
alone
of the
help us in the achievement
the only supports to which
highest goal. These
can
are
we

look.

It is these which

uphold

the

world-order.

is called

This

dharmasvakhyatatabhavana.
Again
of

the

nature

diverse
and

one

should
of

the

conditions

of

think

of

influence
men.

the
of

karma

These

and

Jaina cosmology
two

producing

in
are

called

also

all the

lokabhdvand

bodhibhdvand.
When

by

the

continual

practiceof the above thoughts man

unattached
to all thingsand adopts equalityto all beings,
becomes
disinclined to all worldly enjoyments, then with a

becomes
and
mind

full of peace

take to the
The

are

he

gets rid of all passions,and

performance

of

dhyana

or

meditation

perfectequalityof
that without
interdependent,
so
dhyana
samatva

or

the

then

he should

by deep
mind

there

is

and
no

tration.
concen-

dhyana
samatva

Anti-theistic

vi]
and

without

there

samatva

is

Arguments

mind

think

should

steady by dhyana one

pramoda (the habit
friendship),

order

In

dhyana.

no

203
to

of maitrl

make

the

(universal

emphasizing the good sides of

men), karund (universal
compassion) and mddhyastha (indifference
wickedness
of people, i.e. the habit
of not
to the
taking any
of

of

sinners). The Jaina dhyana consists in concentrating

the mind
the
on
syllablesof the Jaina prayer
phrases. The
have
is only practisedas an
aid to
seen
we
as
dhyana however
making the mind
steady and perfectlyequal and undisturbed
note

towards

all

things. Emancipation

final extinction
of

course

of the

mind
of

yoga

materials.

of the karma

and

different

is hence

or
Pataftjali

Jaina
The

Naiyayikas

effect,it

an

this agent
the
of

is Isvara

Naiyayika
an

effect"?

of parts

up

been

this the

to

world

what

is meant

in

is of the

be

should

which
the

"made

up

and
does

nature

is made

causes

regarded by

is liable to

which

parts, then

the

is

by being

of

a
as

anyone

change (vikdritof parts "?

If it

the

also be

class-concepts(sdmdnyd)
and hence
regarded as effects,

Naiyayikas regard as being partlessand

"that

means

which

the

of

nature

Jain replies, What

by "effect,"
(1) that
of
(2) the coinherence

(4)that

that

the

"

he

or,

Hindu

intelligent
agent

an

Does

made,

If it

(akdsd)has
as

To

by

is of

he says

existingin the parts

but these
destructible,

it

created

world

when
mean

purification

traditional

the

mean

existence

eternal.

the

as

thing,or, (3) that

vatri).
Again,
means

(God).

{sdvayavd),or,

non-existent

having

been

from

the

to

plete
com-

Atheism2.

that

assert

have

must

leads

Buddhists1.

of the

even

is thus

Jaina yoga

disciplinewhich

moral

the result of the

only as

comes

which

has

parts,"then

regarded as "effect,"but

"space"
Naiyayika regards

the

even

eternal.

of the causes
of a
"coinherence
Again "effect" cannot
mean
thing which were
one
previously non-existent," for in that case
could not
of the
speak of the world as an effect,for the atoms

elements

Again
1

of

earth, etc., are

if "effect"

means

Yogaidstra,by Hemacandra,

regarded
"that

edited

as

which

eternal.
is

by Windisch,

Morg. Gesellschaft,
Leipsig,1874, and Dravyasamgraha,
2
See Gunaratna's
Tarkarahasyadlpikd.

regarded by
in

anyone

Zeitschriftder

edited

as

Deutschen

by Ghoshal, 191

7.

man

the

God

suppose

that

another

creator

if God

infinitum. Moreover,
with

change

do

and

time

we

not

the world

But

contained

as

thought

apply
be

must

contained
And

changes

of colour

whole

is

world

is

cause

causation

effect of

an

but

has

is similar

If it is said

old houses

this

we

and

not

the

will

effect,well
in

then,

know

of any

made

then

one,

the agency

of God

been

from

from

to

that

the
this

the

that

the

has

the fact of its

or

these

ruins

were

for both

sense

duced
pro-

which

sense

by God,

effects,

are

If it is

cases.

that

it has

of its

been

infer

you

and

duce
pro-

seeing

also effects of

infer the

being made
vicious circle (anyonydsrayd).

it the
to

seen
on

are

have

smoke.

also

is present in both
we

Because

infer

could

these

beings

from

been

ever

that

exactly

from

effect that

an

human

justifiedin

be

do

would

he

human

human

question will be, whether

sense

If it is

is not

will

so

inference.

no

intelligent
agent,

is such

some

one

For

whole

nobody

as

of time

course

said that the world

made

lead

different

so

mean

produced by

vapour,

is

as

smoke,

to

not

as

and

cause,

is

world

of the agent
invisibility

by

this does

effects

by intelligent
agents.
do

world

the

supposed to be.
the analogy of
on
intelligent
be regarded as imperfect as

the

water-

ruined

these

and

being by virtue
they also undergo

effect has

possible,
though nobody

an

and

created

that

God

as

those, this

to

that

is

to

then
"effects,"

times

argument

But

of

type

inferringfire from

such

that

is similar

water-vapour

inference

every

regarded as
he might also

the

of

cause.

If it is held

beings.

diverse

at

for
be "effects,"

sake

he is

then

liable

be

heat.

by

intelligent
one,

argued that

ad

on

hypotheticalGod, for,his will

would

"effect." And

an

so

but

cannot

plants,etc., are

also becomes

He

atoms

whole

in

space

and

another,

he

diverselyoperating

even

an

as

trees,

this

grant for the

us

new

to

creates

as

to

even

in him.

of that.

Let

made

has

his creative

to

it such

within

would

that

he

for when

space,

activity.
know
that those
things which happen at some
happen at other times are regarded as "effects."
exists always. If it is argued that things
a whole

reference

Moreover,

to

even

he

and

him

create

[ch.

change," then one could

change and he would require

also liable to

was

to

that

is liable

which

"that

means

apply

thinks

digs the ground he

he dug.
which
hollow
If it

are

it would

then

made,"

been

having
a

Jaina Philosophy

The

204

having

you

have

Anti-theistic

vi]

an

Again, even

if

agent, then

such

seen

never

that

should
that

namely,

consider

the

impossible,for
body. If you take

as

the

had

these

is said

that
in

sought

Does

his

that

case,

he

to

cannot

be

he
he

is

Let
God
to

be

the

he

any

world

existence

be

cannot

you

the

without
may

do

for

the

world

through
laws
with

mercy

them.

If it

have

you

an

which

matter

the

world?
also

potter may

in both

same

and

God

that

argument

but

so,

have

personal
order

will?

that

and

exists.

Well,

in

the

create

Does

cases.

that

Well,

does

is impossible,

will without

not

moral
he

been

whim?
the

in

that

prove

and

by the past
enjoy pleasure,and if
that

it is

pains and
work
which
actions by past deeds
a blind destiny(adrsta)might take
creation

as

mere

purpose.

play,then
If it was

he

due

like
the

must

he

in the

world

actions

of

men

blind

men

God.

child
of

who

it

Is it

suppose

and

nothing
that they
vicious

destiny,then

place of

to his desire

to

Then

led to do

are

take

then, we

take

would

independent.

Well

be

he

of men?

actions

is not

only happiness

bodiless

there

case

Did

world.

creation?

to

that

activity.Did

In that

immoral

order

took

of argument

will and

and

the moral
a

sake
his

by

and

that

If it is said

that

or
by physical movement
any
that is impossible,
for there
case
that
a
body. If you suppose

In any

movement

guided by

without

then

knowledge

any

the world

produce

suffer

to

found

create

the very

was

produce

by knowledge

again grant

there should
else.

of effects such

will be

to

kind

some

all-creator.

create

through

them

of

is the

natural

is

sake

for the

existence

in accordance
he

fields,it

this

with

kinds

by God,

the abstract

creation
no

made

of

us

can

associated

behind

(cakraka),for

of movement?

be

in the

existence

omniscient,

can

have

we

If it is held

body.

of other

abstract

Does
kind

always

instances

also

abstract

for there

other

the

granted

the

produce

body.

without

for

prove.

mere

world, for

is

agency

are

circle

it be

Let

is

corn

these

body,

by

of agency
general condition
only,
the objection will be that
intelligent,

growing
intelligent
agents

no

argument
you

of

shoots

have

created

was

the

agent

this is
of

should

agent

an

205

grant that the world

creator
intelligent

any

we

should

we

Arguments

such

If He

took

did

things

punishing certain

favouritism
harbour
favouring others,then he must
If the creation took
and hatred againstothers.
behalf of some
on
is the good of
nature, then, what
place simply through his own

people

and

The

206

admitting him
being

into

of its

out

instruments

to

for the

Admitting
could

you

qualifyhim.
no
body, he

Thus

you

must

be

this nature

But

If there

nature.

could

there

of

knowledge
of

aware

but

omniscient,

knowledge

perception,and
have

inference

any
of

also

were

too.

who

miser

wife

and

were

that

say

that

if there

for fear

retired

were

in

many

spiteof

his nature

to
one

way

and

creation

be

the

in the

how
he

organs

have

any

will,then
and
of

one

in which

cannot

not

are

God

is

have

any

have

any

can

without

struction.
de-

character

sense

perception

that

duction
pro-

varied

result

he

will.

so

it is the

is used

he

cannot

the

supposition
this
inexplicable,

into

of
the

Gods
all the

God

omniscient
of

moral

God,

there

could

were

many

Gods,

of

opinion. This
incurringexpenses
forest. When
act

could

you
order
be

explain

the

or

be

story of

the

left all his

and

ants

Gods

would

there

is like

of

law

societyof

then

even

sons

and

bees

can

harmoniously,the suppositionthat

they would
virtues

that

have

fallen out, would

ascribe

you

quite unreliable,if not vicious.

tries to justify
the existence of God

absolutelya hopeless task. The best

with the suppositionaltogether1.
Sec $cu"darianasamitccaya"
Gunaratna

on

way

God

to

be

is

of

to

he has

for the

of

Moreover

no

doctrine

one

co-operate together and

there

kinds

If it is said

an

the

differences

quarrels and
a

without

If there
You

wish

since

knowledge

suppose

has

cannot

either.

things merely by

karma.

exists,

you

But

the

also. Even
all

he

as

he

which

beings,and surely we
knowledge. You
say that

of

create

God

human

to

help

varietyof the world would be

only be justifiedif
true, for this implication would
other hypothesis left. But there are other supposino
tions

God

is not

there

since

the

intelligenceand

cannot

knowledge.

it is difficult to

all,for

at

of

in his

creation

kind

other

any

such

is eternal.

diverse

and

applied

kind,

that

nature

change, if the word

to

came

could

changed in diverse forms

worldly things,which are

been

have

he

change

no

will and

is

knowledge

the

of

Destruction

unchangeable

world

experience.

that

of

were

not

the

without

of any

adjectiveswith

say

kinds

God

one

of argument

have

must

of diverse
a

sake

justifythe

never

that

say

accessories

is against all

This

this world.

that

suppose

other

or

rather

may

[ch.

nature.

own

It is preposterous
of any

You

all ?

at

Jaina Philosophy

then

Jainism, pp.

indicate
you

finds that

is to

think

ever
in which-

Thus
he

if

15-124.

it

dispense

Emancipation

vi]

Moksa
The
the

which

motive

avoidance
of

state

also

of

mukti

attainment
the

of

infinite

of the

karma

and

imperfectly

out

that

time

this

veils

In

ordinary knowledge

as

cognition,
of

knowledge

In

parydyd).

the

state

and

the

remaining

as

this

at

in

as

in

meaning
It may
karmas

of
there

yet

be

{anantaviryd),
infinite

by

If

influence
man

under
his

this

not

the

bondage

indomitable

produce

this

of

sway

the
But

the

and

by

he

since

never

can

for

right

action

this

freedom

and

the

is

only

prevent

to

time

of

been

which

repository

throw

him

time

have

karma

man

ways

this

finally liberated.

might

accumulated

various

exercise

an

become

in him

karmas
can

that

the

though

from

suppressed

It is thus

anantavlrya

sufferings, but

highest good.

be

in

power

change

qualities.

that

him

thus

in substance

same

subdue

never

all karma

{bandha).
power

may

karma.

overcome

can

had

man

of

can

or

stage

etc., the

the

determining

though

and

same,

same

here

mention

to

capacity

karma

that

capacity, though

the

power

infinite

him

so

place

the

the

of

repetition

always

change

knowledge,

infinite

constantly

are

in

of

out

be

to

soul

the

the

to

emancipated

the

exactly

appears

the

only

state

man

is

of

all

direct

and

known

continual
in

natural
super-

omniscience

is

stage

But
are

soul

qualities

this
not

suffers

the

stage

its

substance.

soul

suffers

thus

and

reading (manah-

there

samsara

worn

this

at

(sruta),

simultaneously

the

account

only

are

(avadhi),

however

nite
infi-

and

on

object

thought

or

are

In

are.

in

same

others

things

they

as

that

changes

well

all

that

hypnotism

release

of

and

veils

{mati), testimony
or

of

qualities,and

new

it is that

trance

thoughts

perfect {kevalin)

the

in

as

the

{kevala-jiidnd)

acquires

this

state

the

It is

happiness.

samsara

the

for

{anantajhdna)

the

is

{moksa)

happiness,

pure

sullied, and

reveal

thus

in

knowledge

is

purity

of

soul

perception (anantadarsana).

release

for

strive

to

man

the

state

and

pure

and

is the

of

state

(emancipation).

leads

pain

207

from

nally
eter-

secured
of

obstacles

attaining

this
and
his

CHAPTER

THE

AND

KAPILA

THE

VII

and

Buddhism

circles

known

practices
wise

seems

the

of

Buddhism
of

and

Ksattriyas

of

power
birth

of

doctrine

of

for the

the

son,

them

from

the

schools

the

against

some

schools

Nastika

two

sacrificial
with

originated

systems

aversion
of

in

the

in

to

nastika
at

doctrine

against

the

offering animals

certain
in

such

by

the

truth

eternal

of

course

that

accordance

culture

might

we

we

of Vedic
This

realize

may

injunctions
chapter

University, and

my

works.

from
obtain

that,

that

alone

Study

same

in

elevation,
The

it

of

world

we

such

is true, in

in the
the

If

proceed

authority. The

other

system

Indian

has

courses

to

are

been

:s

define

ritualistic

with

the

us;

truth
of

practical attainment

to

on

desired

we

of Palanjali, published by

relation

LS

dictate

accordance

about

as

Vedas

to

so

objects

sacrifice.

the

sacrifices

injurious

the

philosophy

my

other

rain,

The

by following

bination
com-

magical

of

competent

the

on

the

moral

any

with

by

had

etc.

army,

were

objects

suitable

practical welfare.

could

is shown

the

of

shower

"

for

of any

Yoga philosophy
with

much

might

we

our

is based

awaiting publication
two

say

so

huge

refrain

performance

accurate

we

and

action

manner

of

which

that

of sacrifice

effect

objects

revelations

procedure,

in

which

of

not

that

supposed

articles

routing

achievement

detailed

those

the

strong

the

desired

the

producing
a

the

by

sacrifices

the

enjoined generally

were

certain

two

look

these

against

rites,rituals,and

of

were

the

reaction

marked

life,and

That

alluded

only

we

Both

were

in,

sacrifices.

the
The

and

of animal

taking

of

Brahmanas.

the

by

Whether

out

convince

to

indulged

sages.

not

are

metaphysics,

or

arisen

have

to

disciplinesof

at

ethics

were

of

generally prevalent amongst

accepted

were

schools

ought

types

Upanisad

for these

Jainism.

of

view

appear

the

but

the

were

probable,

Upanisads

point

of

Yoga

as

very

of

different

two

those

(YOGA)1.

Nastika

ancient

two

philosophical speculations
than

other

of

Jainism

serious

that

us

the

of

examination

SAMKHYA

JALA

Review.

THE

AN

PAT

the

Systems
treated

our

Calcutta

of thought,
in detail

in

would

answer,

untrue

from

which

seeks

departure of

theory of
beings and more

rituals and
far

only so

maxims

of

about

from

refrained

because

degradation,but
should

be

not

world.

their backs

(Buddhism)

the

moral

creed, for with

only

if it

was

of

course

elevation
it

all

dictated

so

of

the
as

"

sacrifice and

of

the

dictates

of

place

no

could

in their widest

absolute

extinction
sacrificial

narrow
or

of

and
sorrow

Vedas.

In the

of

; karma

sorrow

sacrificial karma,

for

performed by

knowledge here
the knowledge

or

and
reality

Such

an

us

not

advance

it meant

had

was

all moral

however

meant

merely

for

followed2d

the

fruit

ever,
how-

systems
all these

were

Happiness

sense.

happiness but infinite and

destruction

unshaken,

produced as the frui

only the knowledge

was

still the

was

ever

of sacrifice and

karma

universal

most

for

be

and

Karma

and

in the sacrificial

karma, karmaphala, happiness, knowledge,

taken

The

in the

or

were

followed

be

to

meant

the

untruth

ultimate

an

happiness,ever

in the Vedas.

personal

obeyed.

sorrows

right conduct

(karmaphald) only meant

fruits temporary happiness,such
of sacrifices; knowledge with them

that

be

wanted

and

had

karma

of

sense

Jain philosophy turned

and

infinite

person

course

mean

sacrificial

of the

happiness here

rightconduct

of the

must

more

pains

where

or

did not

dictated

had

Vedas

and

more

where

state

Vedas

from

ordinary happiness and

upon

realized.

was

much

so

the

and

followers

systems of Buddhist

The

unchangeable
dissolved

wanted

not

the

spoken,

sacrificial creed
other

untruth

ances
perform-

we

The

not.

or

principles

actual

systems

new

was

always perform. Actions

good according as they brought

or

elevation

moral

our

creed

bad

considered

here

were

that

general action

any

the

for

cared

for the

use

sentient

sacrificial creed

and
sacrifices,

they were

as

late
to formu-

positionof

the

The

man.

of sacrifices. Again action with

sacrifice but

nouncement,
pro-

Buddhism

this,that they tried

in

of
particularly

individual

with

busy

answer

definite

systems of Jainism and

the

and
universe,the reality

the

reach

to

an

such

judgment.

the sacrificialcreed consisted

from

such

But

view, but
from

is also true

that

[ch.

of

point

another."

from

mind

this

from

is true

untrue

absolute

an

main

Patanjala Samkhya

the

point of view, while

that

point of view and

cannot
satisfythe

or

this

"yes,

The

and

Kapila

The

210

or

goal, but this was no

ness
unchangeable happistill the
and

the

way,

but

not

actions

immoral

knowledge

of truth

of sacrifice.

already begun

in

the

Upa-

vi

in the

Samkhya

i]

nisads

211

anticipated the new

systems in all these
directions.
The
pioneers of these new
systems probably drew
the
from
from
their suggestions both
the sacrificial creed
and
Upanisads, and built their systems independently by their own
rational thinking. But if the suggestionsof the Upanisads were
denied
thus utilized by heretics who
the authorityof the Vedas,
it

which

Upanisads

had

natural

was

such

to

expect that

of rational

germs

should

we

thinking as

find

might

in the

indicate

Hindu
an

camp

attempt

to

the

suggestionsof the Upanisads and of the sacrificial

creed in such a manner
as
sistent
might lead to the construction of a conand well-worked
system of thought. Our expectationsare
indeed fulfilled in the Samkhya
philosophy,germs of which may
be discovered in the Upanisads.

harmonize

The

of

Germs

in the

Samkhya

Upanisads.

Upanisads there is a largenumber

the ultimate
of texts that describe
realityas the Brahman, the
infinite,
changing
knowledge, bliss,and speak of all else as mere
word
Brahman
forms
The
in the
meant
and names.
originally
and
earliest Vedic
literature,mantra^ duly performed sacrifice,
could bring about the desired realso the power
of sacrifice which
sult1.
of the Upanisads this.Brahman
In many
appears
passages
from
which
all
rived
deothers
universal
and
the
as
principle
supreme
Such a Brahman
their powers.
is sought for in many
passages
of
for personalgain or welfare.
But through a gradual process
reached
a superiorlevel
development the conception of Brahman
in which
the realityand truth of the world
are
tacitlyignored,
and the One, the infinite,
the
real
is
knowledge,
regarded as the
It is indeed

only

Truth.

true

This

that in the

type of thought graduallydeveloped into the

Vedanta

But
there
was
explained by Sarikara.
another
line of thought which
was
developing alongside of it,
which regarded the world
as
having a realityand as being made
monistic

of water,

up

Svatara

as

fire,and

earth.

There

are

also

passages

in Sveta-

and

it appears
particularlyin MaitrayanI from which
that the Samkhya line of thought had considerablydeveloped,and
of its technical
terms
were
already in use2. But the date
many
of MaitrayanI has not yet been definitely
settled,and the details
1

See

Katha

"

Hillebrandt's article," Brahman

detail in my

ill.

10,

v.

7.

Sveta.v.

Yoga Philosophyin

7,

8,

12,

(". R. ".).
iv.

5, I. 3.

relation to other Indian

This has been

dealt

with in

Systems of Thought, in the first

chapter.
14

"

Kapila

The

212

also not

found

there

of the

Samkhya

are

improbable that

not

philosophyas

relativism of the

and

The

main

this section

and

It is

in such

of the

gave

found

are

that

manner

Upanisads
the

and

all

with

it
the

doctrine

of

Jains.
and

based

on

been
the

Yoga

system
the

The

and

Samkhya

karika,

Samkhya

The

Yoga

their

account

in

khya
Sam-

the

taries
commen-

karika

Samkhya

I"varakrsna.

by

of

with
Pataftjali

of

sutras

sub-commentaries.
written

Literature.

Yoga

the

has

A.D.) was

notion

Samkhya-Yoga

which

in

system

Jainism

exposition of

sutras, and

of the Buddhists

Samkhya

200

or

of momentariness

doctrine

distinct

Jainism,butthe

of permanence

doctrine

the

unites

form

can

developed in the Upanisads.

stage of development it also

get it is

Buddhism

of

results

the

we

[ch.

it

as

this

at

now

we

that

Buddhism

suggestionsto

some

such

thought

Patanjala Samkhya

the

and

of

(about
Samkhya

(78 A.D.)represents probably an earlier school and

been treated separately.Vacaspati Mi"ra (ninth century

given by Caraka
this has

A.D.)wrote
before

him

Samkhya

commentary

and

Gaudapada
karika}.

it known

on

Raja

Tattvakaumudi.

as

But

commentaries

wrote

his Candrikd

Narayanatlrtha wrote

the

on
on

Gauda-

The
pada's commentary.
Samkhya sutras which have been
on
(calledPravacanabhasya)
by Vijfiana Bhiksu

of the

sixteenth

century

author

after

ninth

the

fifteenth

century

Samkhya

sutras.

work

on

century.

Samkhya

was

be

to

seems

the

first

man

as

of
of

Aniruddha

VijfianaBhiksu
known

work

some

the

to write
wrote

unknown
latter

commentary

also another

Sdmkhyasdra.

half

Another

mented
com-

of

the

on

the

elementary
short

work

of late

and

originis Tattvasamdsa
(probably fourteenth century).Two
works
on
Samkhya, viz.Slmananda's
Sdmkhyatattvavivecana
BhavaganesVs Samkhyatattvayathdrthyadipana (both later

than

Vijfianabhiksu)of

other

freelyconsulted.
commented

was

commented

real

philosophicalvalue have also been

Patafijali's
Yoga sutra (not earlier than 147 B.C.)
on
by Vyasa (400 A.D.) and Vyasa's bhasya

is called
Tattvavaisdradi,
by Vacaspati MiSra
by VijfianaBhiksu
Yogavdrttika,by Bhoja in the tenth century
and by Nage"a (seventeenth century) Chaydvyakhyd.
Bhojavrtti,
1

on

the same
was
as
Rdjavarttika
Raja'scommentary on the K"rikd
the Karika
has been referred to by
on
quoted by Vacaspati. Raja'scommentary
lost.
Jayantain his Ny"yamafljarl" p. 109. This book is probably now
I suppose

that

i]

vi

the

Amongst

modern

the two

mention

the

by

Natural
with

viz.

Calcutta

the sage

was

called

of the

same

lished
Yoga Study ofPatanjalipub-

on

Atri

other

is the

authoritative

Atreyatantra.Of
of

treatment

speaker

Caraka's

Early

of

treatment

with

of

in any

five elements

such

Samkhya,

and

work

far

so

modern

of the

notice
there

are

proved by

is known

be

cannot

them.

There

any

are

of

students

has

of this

two

and

the

spite of the
knowledge unless
in

of

movements

elements)2. The

five

It is atomic

and

existence

manas

Each

of

the

of five elements

five

senses

but the

preponderance of aka"a, the

sense

as

auditory sense

of touch

unacquainted with Samkhya- Yoga

may

with

its existence
of the

senses

is in touch

manas

is the

Purusa

viz. the

(fivecognitive and five

and
the eightfold
senses

JJmddhi)arises.

Readers

philosophy.

(dhatus\

definite

the time

should

Samkhya,

^sensing(uha) and conceiving(vicara)before

combination

been

never

etc. and
akasa, vayu
cetana, called also
points of view, the categoriesmay be said to

fact that

the

as

six elements

prakrti(prakrti,mahat, ahamkara
works
manas
through the senses.

we

for that it

philosophy that

I know

studies

twenty-four only, viz. the ten senses

the five objects of
conative),manas,

is

know

Samkhya.

historyof Samkhya

it,which
the

of

be

at

second

for

as

other

From

purusa.

School

for the

important

brought before the

According to Caraka

the

Atreyasamhitaor Atreyatantra.Nothing

be

there

these

in Caraka's

works,

Samkhya

Mdtharabhasya1.

It is

is

Hindus

of'the Ancient

Sciences

may

theories

chemical

University.

Caraka's

as

An

dealt

works

two

and

Mdtharabhasya

that

obligationI

an

University,and

mentions

probably the

owe

Yoga Philosophyin relation

Systems of Thought which is shortlyto be published,
Philosophyof the Ancient Hindus, awaiting publication

the

Gunaratna

the Positive

two

my

which

to

213

Mechanical,physicaland

and

Calcutta

to other Indian

my

works

treatises

of the A ncient Hindus

by Dr B. N. Seal and

and

in Caraka

Samkhya

with_^~~X7,

indeterminate

understanding
product

of the

is made

with

preponderance

omit the followingthree sections

is here

excluded

pre
CjU* )%

of firstreading.
from

the list. Cakrapani, the

commentator,

says

that

the prakrtiand

been
counted
purusa both being unmanifested, the two together have
Prakrtivyatiriktancodasinam purusamavyaktatvasadharmyat avyaktayarn
Vi^arada's edition of
prakrtaveva praksipya avyaktasabdenaiva grhndti. Harinatha
Caraka, Sarira, p. 4.
as

one.

\^*fyxLs\

Kapila

214

The

of

visual

air,the

preponderanceof

ten

with

bhutas

with

taste

ance
preponder-

the tanmatras

five subtle

the

[ch.

the
light,

of smell

sense

mention

not

of

at all1.

sense-objects{indriyarthd)or

manas,

senses,

the

and

does

the

conglomerationof

preponderance

water

Caraka

of earth.

the

with

sense

Patanjala Samkhya

the

and

and

The

matter,

gross

prakrti,mahat

call
we
taking place through rajas make
up what
is at its height this conglomeration ceases.
the sattva
When
man.
All karma, the fruit of karma, cognition,pleasure,
pain,ignorance,
there is also
life and death belongs to this conglomeration. But

ahamkara

and

the

for had

purusa,

bondage,

of

all illuminations
self

permanent
would

others
is

If the

salvation.

or

responsible.This
it has

no

cannot

to

conglomerations of

is eternal is

the

never

of

one

also paramatmany
self is in

only

can

and

organs

it

to

come

By

manas.

of purusa

and

causes

naturallyand

comes

If

work

itself. The

beyond

cause,

conglomeration
or
action,
place. Knowledge, feeling,

produced

all destruction

for the

this combination.

without

as

reason.

work, this

be

due

are

takes

any

called

sense

birth,death,

no

regarded

without

purusa,

the

with

elements

the other

be

Consciousness

and
ignorance,will,antipathy,
and

be

not

were

cause

consciousness.

its connection

through

atman

recognized,then

not

beginninglessand

would

there

so

cognitionwould

were

be

itself without

been

it not

product

of

All

by

not

without

positiveeffects
but

singlecause,
That

cause.

anything. Caraka

which

identifies the

of

as
forming one
prakrti with purusa
category.
The
vikara or evolutionaryproducts of prakrtiare called ksetra,
whereas
the avyakta part of prakrtiis regarded as the ksetrajfla
{avyaktamasya ksetrasyaksetrajnamrsayo vidtih).This avyakta

avyakta part

and

cetana

are

prakrti or
derived
elements
is

the

complete, we

senses

say

are

entity. From

same

the

{ahamkara)

ego

and

the

is derived

cetana

the

and

one

buddhi,

and

from

and

from

the

ahamkara

produced, and

that creation

has

this unmanifested

when

taken

buddhi

the

this

the

place. At

creation

new

all the manifested

1

But

some

formingpart

sort

forms
of subtle

of prakrti which

from

the

the evolutes

"

matter, different from

is

regardedas
viz. avyakta,mahat, ahamkara, and
ffadhdtukt),
elements forming part of the prakrtiwe
hear
which

have

evolved

out

of

of the prakrti.

buddhi, ahamkara,
gross

matter,

having eightelements
five other elements.
of

the
indriyartha,

return
at the

{avyakta),

the unmanifest

purusa

time

the

all the evolutes

pralaya (periodicalcosmic dissolution)
and thus become
back to prakrti,
with it,
whereas
unmanifest
of

five

production

of

time

is

etc.

is referred

in it

to

"

as

(prakrtifra-

In addition to these

five

sense

objects

vn]
appear1. This
new

those

in

by
and

cycle. The
which
self,

pain

comes

from

desire

cessation

of

"all

are

but

the

self at this

the

state

of

characteristic.

rooted

the

purusa

sarlra,
2

i.

at

the

time

Yogins.
of the
there

of death

of rebirth

this state

which

indescribable

they become

state

is called brahmabhuta,

is of the nature
is

more

of pure

like

samulahsarvavedanah

sannyase

na

brahmabhiito

bhutatma

vidyate. gatirbrahmavidam

98-100.

no

these

in

perceived2.

be

call this

Brahman

rajas and

manifest

as

back

their

tamas

and

new

are

to

be

birth,

previousto Cakrathe prakrti the

commentary

resolve

of any

fruits have

karma

new

absolute

it is not

being,pure

into

"

again. See

Thus

in any

Cakrapani

on

like the Brahman

sense

and
intelligence

annihilation

(alaksanam),
resemblingNagarjuna's Nirvana.
param

positiveexistence

past whose

is

last

finally

become

absolutelydevoid
by the Samkhyas

When

do

and
is the

all. This

know

of

spoken

dawns

sorrow,

longer

no

who

differently
explained

the time

at

can

is

the

the

46.

Though

of Vedanta

that

are

of any

and

karma

has been

passage

and

of

association

knowledge

knowledge

is eternal

exhausted, and

pani as meaning
"

state

and

out

This

This

self

Those

which

that

enjoyed are
1

Brahman.

also

and

indication
the

the

selves,
transitory,rise of them-

self and

the

complete

means

stateofj^^aj^Jtien

true

are

causes,

no

time, and

Brahman,

goal, and

pain.

When

the self transcends

self,"

remains

state

self,it is the

the

all affections

when

There

It is the

will

free

own

sense-objects.If

and

sense,

produced by
the

me

renunciation
extinct.

steadilyin

not

to

the

manas,

pleasure nor
produced by

are

belong

of the

according to its
Though all the souls

pleasureand pain. Moksa

pleasure and pain, arising through

is settled

not

mined
wish, undeter-

own

again comes

is neither

that

It works

its

to

ciation
asso-

and not by the atman

conglomeration (rdsi),
siding
preit. From
the enjoyment and suffering
of pleasureand
desire (trsna)consistingof wish
and antipathy,and

self with

manas

according

in

active

self of itselftakes

the

by

over

there

only become

can

this

again suffer

can

associated

of the

lives

else.

anyone

manas

and

tarn as, and

rajas and

never

are
pervasive,
only perceive in particularbodies where
they are
with their own
All pleasuresand pains
senses.
specific

yet they

felt

of

will

two

dissolution

of

or

of

is the real agent. This

the fruits of its karma.

reaps

are

the

in all kinds

rebirth

influence

the

2 1

rebirths

or

get rid of these

can

with

births

through

acts

who

revolution

of

cycle

creation

so

in Caraka

Samkhya

without

Caraka

sign

any

writes

bliss. This

pure

"

of

existence

tasmimkarama-

asamjnajnanavijnana nivrttim yantyasesatah. atahsarvabhdvebhyah cihnam

nopalabhyate nihsrtah
yasya
brahma

taccdksaramalaksanam.

Caraka,

Sdrtra

I.

the

of moksa

state

Patanjala Samkhya

the

and

Kapila

The

2 1

about.

comes

kinds

Various

[ch.

of

moral

deavours
en-

with

good people,abandoning
of desires,determined
attempts at discoveringthe truth with fixed
Truth
(tattva)
attention, are spoken of as indispensablemeans.
thus discovered should be recalled again and again1 and this will
the self. As the
of the body with
ultimatelyeffect the disunion
association

shape of

in the

avyakta (unmanifested)and has

only be described
character, this state can
self is

specificnature

no

absolute

as

or

cessation

(jnoksenivrttirnilisesa).
The
thus:

are

features

main

of this

I.

Purusa
with

avyakta

not

mentioned.

the

mind

is either absolute
and

it is

of the
senses

formed

are

of

account

the

Mahabharata

XII.

little he

it may

sketches

of

the

is the

ultimate

be

truth

vasthamavyaktam).

If

man

death.

Caraka

in
discussion,
the

which

postulateof

The
1

Four

and

(4) by
*

he

all

discussion

same

causes

acute

Some

European

caiikha's doctrine
fact that the

as

Samkhya

to

one

to

tries to

that

the

occurs

of

lute
abso-

the

is

glomeration
con-

etc.

But

the

product
such

sense

pupil of

of

Samkhya

Paftcasikha

speaks

applied

term

of

what

from

system

of

in the

describe

not

even

in all

(purusd-

purusa

combination

mere

that

assume

may

Samkhya

system)

does

course

does.

of

all

ceases

objectionintroduces

an

establish the existence

duties and

our

spoken of
remembering

attempt

of

of

of Caraka2.

is the

answer

are

leads to the

cause

in

to

the direct

be

to

being avyakta (a
prakrti)in the state

the different elements, then

with

is due

as

literature to

Samkhya
of

as

state

; there

state

the system

founder

supposed

same

with

Caraka

that

of

characterless

or

Brahman

is said

Paftcasikha

elaboratelyas

as

says

he

agrees

(who
Kapila, the

219.

states

{bhautikd).

of matter

Samkhya

of

pupil

system

the

are

evolutes, buddhi, ahamkara

its

Paftcasikha

propounded by
Asuri

self with

tanmatras

ultimate

consciousness
in this state, fijr

consciousness

This

5. The

annihilation

spoken Af as

3. The

represent the bad

tamas

good/ones.

the

sattva

existence

6. The

and

Rajas

4.

and

emancipation

the

livingbeing.

generates the so-called

which

no

Samkhya doctrine as given by Caraka

is the state of avyakta. 2. By a conglomeraits later products a conglomeration is formed
of the

of

self

a
as

of moral

in Paftcasikha

responsibility.
also,and the proofs

here as being causes

of memory:
(1)Thinking of the
of the effect,(2)by similarity,
(3) by oppositethings,

remember.

in accepting Pafiexperiencedgreat difficulty

genuine Samkhya doctrine. This may probablybe due to the
scholars

have

doctrines sketched

in Caraka

did not

attract

their notice.

2 1

other

day; it is said
eclipse)cannot

that
be

apart from

seen

do

of

have

we

form

casikha
in

it

sketched

is

school

of

old

be
of

as

the

direct

the

system

of

in

of

Samkhya
the

fundamentally

been

attributed

disciple

there

same

Paft-

to

available

Samkhya

reference

to
to

us

the

parts of Mahdbhdrata
is

in Caraka's

time

definite

modification,which

later

is

not

was

or

regarded

as

view.

Samkhya

says

plausibleview

that

another

which

from

work,

what

he

Isvarakrsna

The
as

of this

is that

verse

(purusa)has experience.It
8

Vassilief's Buddhismus,

Takakusu's

"A

two

wTote

Samkhya,
**

verse

to

for his
in

written

be

very

karikas

to

style different

of his Kdrika
is found

which

seems

quoted

to

in the

{Tarkarahasyadipikd,
p. 104).
in a particular
manner,

is transformed

is like the reflection of the

moon

in

transparent

water.

p. 240.

life of Vasubandhu,"

however, appears

to

be

/. R.A.S.,

1905.

extremely doubtful, for

Isvarakrsnaand Vindhyavasinas two different authorities (Tarkaand

104). The verse
quoted from Vindhyavasin (p. 104) in

books

krsna
belongingto Isvarakrsna. It appears that Isvarais the Samkhya kdrika and another
one
an
independentwork
which, quoted by Gunaratna, stands as follows :

be traced
;

line from

as

irotrddisamuttha
Pratiniyatddhyavasdyah

If

seems

ioa

cannot

metre

buddhi

study of Parametria's

mentions

rahasyadipikiipp.
anustubh

passage

when

identification by Takakusu,

Gunaratna

seventh

It

A.D.

indebted

was

probably

was

same

100

attributed to Asuri is quoted by Gunaratna

verse

purport

This

about

was

employs.

be in purport the

on

has

Samkhya

of Isvarakrsna

the date

it

cannot

tered
althat Vindhyavasin
quoting Tibetan sources
thinks
Takakusu
the Samkhya
views2.
according to his own
holds that
and Garbe
Vindhyavasin was a title of Isvarakrsna3

that

an

justifyit,but the fact that Caraka

IsvarakSamkhya as described by rsna

the

to

non-existent

Wassilief

The

self

moon

during

Asuri

only does Gunaratna's

Not

to in other

authoritative

about

earliest form

the

Isvarakrsna's

either

sun

the

so

sun,

new

are
(saririnaJi)
spoken

appears

and

refer

not

referred

proof that
was

which

here

Maulikya Samkhya

and

the

on

probable that

seems

probably

(78 A.D.)does

an

anything

systematicform.

selfs

The

Mahdbhdrata

in the

shadow
the

of the

moon

self

The

prakrti.

But

Kapila1.

(the

body.

the

as

[ch.

204).

(xil. 203,

apart from

seen

know

not

Rahu

as

the

manifestingfrom
We

is described

body

the

apart from

Mahdbhdrata

the

of

chapters

Patanjala Samkhya

the

and

Kapila

The

adhyaksam"

(p. 108).

of the classification of anumana

Vacaspati's
in his Tattvakaumudi
interpretation
be
of
to be a correct
Isvarakrsna must
kdrika
then
explanation S"mkhya
different person
a
in
from Vindhyavasin whose
views
referred
to
as
on
anumana
Slokavdrtlika,p. 393, are altogether
the
in
different. But Vacaspati's
statement
own
Tdtparyyatlkd(pp. 109 and 131)shows that his treatment
not faithful.
there was

be considered

vn]

IsvarakrmcCs

Mahdbhdsya
of the two

Samkhya

219

The
Patanjalithe grammarian (147 B.C.)1.

of

passages

the enumeration

are

of

which

reasons

subject
frustrate

with
is not a doctrine concerned
perception. This however
strictlytechnical part of Samkhya, and it is just possible
the book
from which
Patanjaliquoted the passage, and which
probably paraphrased in the Arya metre
by Isvarakrsna
not
a
Samkhya book at all. But though the subjectof the

visual
the
that
was
was
verse

is not

since

such

Indian

of the

one

enumeration

an

is not

of

verse

it has

as

found

which

in

Patanjali'sYoga
known

was

made

to

From

the

orthodox

On

the

are

the purusa

is

We

of

works.

quotation

is

reference

material, and

are

senses

with

is described

books

be

nearer

the

as
Ahirbudhnya Samhitd
and
twenty-eight chapters2.

of

that it was
of

existence

its

Samhita,

which

there

commentary

called the Sastitantra

prakrti,its

oneness,

purusas,

separationfrom

the

purusas,

is

on

no

the

because

its difference

multiplicityof
the evolution

of

Atisannikarsadativiprakarsdtmurttyantaraetc.
(Benares edition. )
indriyadaurvalyadatipramadat,

Patanjali'sMahabhasya,
tamasavrtatvat

about

Mi"ra's

purposefulnessfor
and

khya
Sam-

of the oldest

in the

two
thirtyRajavdrttika (a work

connection

Ahirbudhnya

to

seem

being one

as

information) in Vacaspati

vyavadhanat

I. 19

Buddhism

with

Sastitantrasastra

from

purusas,

purusas,

sketched

have

we

Samkhya.

Samkhya kdrika{j2)says
from

the

that

its connections

This

containing two

it dealt

of Caraka

produced only as a result of collocations,and that

unconscious, brings it in close relation with Nyaya,

orthodox

hear

definite

of

is very

its doctrine

the other
the

in the

and

with

agrees

historyof philosophy the Samkhya

of

view

the

was

IsVara)are to be
Mahabharata\ but we

addition

an

Samkhya

PaficaSikha

hand

one

that effects

on

which

Samkhya

for in Yoga sutra

Patanjali,
Samkhya similar to this.

point of

and

the

than

of

it

a
important ; for it shows
the Upanisad ideas and
stage of thought between
Samkhya doctrine as represented by Isvarakrsna.

Caraka

transitional

that the
to

view

-a-

siltras

that

paraphrased by Isvarakrsna.

was

earliest

pretty certain

and

of

system

some

descriptionsof
Isvarakrsna'sSamkhya (but with

of

other

in any

plausiblesupposition is

book

Samkhya

The

here

seen

yet

guard
specialbearing as a safeobjectionsagainstthe Samkhya doctrine of

philosophy,and

against certain
prakrti,the natural and

are

parts of Samkhya,

strictlytechnical

IV.

pp.

i.

3.

108,

no.

The

220

the

and

Kapila

of
the inactivity
categories,

the

and

the purusas

the

[ch.

fiveviparyyayas,

twenty-eight kinds, and

of

of organs

defects

the
tustis,

nine

Patanjala Samkhya

the

eightsiddhis1.
the

But

referred

of the Sastitantra
a

and
it,

different from

Samhitdis

character

theistic

Vaisnavas

and

Sastitantra

of the

content

the

from

itappears
in the

to

given

as

Ahirbudhnya
the Samkhya

in

it that

Samhitd

Ahirbudhnya
of

resembling the doctrine

Ahirbudhnya Samhitd

the

Pancaratra

Kapila's

that

says

of

was

Vaisnava
one.
was
a
Vijflana Bhiksu, the
theory of Samkhya
places of his work
greatest expounder of Samkhya, says in many
and that
theistic,
VijndnamrtaBJ"sya that Samkhya was originally
the atheistic Samkhya
is only a praudhivada (an exaggerated
is necessary
to
that no
supposition of Is vara
attempt to show
points out
explain the world process)though the Mahdbharata

difference between

the

that

former

while
atheistic,

is

the two

between

Sastitantra

the

and
the

by

is theistic.

discrepancy
the original

suggests that

fact that Gunaratna

works

The

Samhitd

Ahirbudhnya
does

Sastitantra

sequently
sub-

was

suppositionis

This
not

the

this,that

is

Yoga

considerablychanged.

important Samkhya
1

latter

of Sastitantra

accounts

revised
corroborated

the

referred to in the

as

and

Samkhya

mention

among

Sastitantroddhdra

but

tioned
doctrine of the viparyyaya, tusti,defects of organs, and the siddhi are menin my
of
account
Kdrikd
of Kvarakrsna,
them
but I have
omitted

The

in the

Samkhya

these have

as

abhinives^.
and

which
(self-love),
These

andhatdmura.
since

is necessary,
to

necessary

that there
worked

dvesa
(egoism),raga (attachment),

asmita
five,viz. avidya (ignorance),

are

of nine kinds

are

prakrtiwill

herself

hurry, salvation

no

by fate

out

also called

are

and
(bhdgya),

will

moha,
as

that

pathy),
(anti-

tamisrd,
exertion

no

(ambhas),that

it is not

life (salila),

the householder's

(megha),that salvation

time

the contentment

mahdmoha,

the idea

salvation

renounce

in

come

tamo,

of tusti,such

bring our

meditate, for it is enough if we

is

ledge)
viparyyaya (falseknow-

littlephilosophical
importance. The

will

be

proceeding

leading to renunciation

five kinds of causes,

from

the earned

e.g. the troubles of earning (para),the troubles of protecting

the natural waste
of thingsearned by enjoyment (para(supara),

money

para),increase of desires leadingto greater disappointments

(anuttamdmbhas), all gain
leads to the injuryof others (uttamdtnbhas).
This renunciation proceedsfrom external
considerations
siddhis

or

with

ways

of

those
success

who
are

consider

prakrti and

eight in number,

viz.

(i)enquiryinto their meaning (sutdra),

(3) proper
one's
field

own

its evolutes

the

self.

The

(i)reading of scriptures(tdra),

rating
(4)corroboreasoning(tdratdra),

ideas with the ideas of the teachers and

(ramyaka),(5) clearance

as

other

workers

of the

same

of the mind

by long-continued practice (saddmudita).

The three other siddhis called pramoda, mudita, and modamana
lead directlyto the
the
The
defects are
separation of the prakrti from the purusa.
sense
twenty-eight
eleven defects of the eleven senses
and seventeen
kinds of defects of the understanding
to
corresponding

tustisand
the

the absence

of siddhis and

the defects of the organs

Samkhya goal.

are

the presence

hindrances

of tustis.

in the way

The

viparyyayas,

of the achievement

of

vi

Changes in

i]

(revisededition
lost

was

If

of

believe

we

Samhita

to

Sastitantra

his

probable that
that

and

Asuri

in

with

karika

Samkhya

into

him

originalSastitantra

the

It is

accepted the
parts

as

it. For

rewritten

cosmology which
Samkhya cosmology.

the

work

in

an

atheistic

supposition is
Samkhya, first
which

is

kept

second
a

third

held

in
an

atheistic

way

one,

atheistic

his

doctrine
It

divided

was

schools

is the
This

by

of Vaisnavas
in most

same

the
justifies

theistic.

between

But

tial
essen-

tion
assumpthere

the

Kapila and
only supposition that

then

the

form
one

modification

An

discipleof

are

the
may

modified

reasonable,

modified

it

probably
Kapila's
it
as
passed
Kapila'swork. If this

and

theistic

that

Paficasikha

that

is

the

literature

probably

was

other

ventured

be

was

important respects.

of the

most

points of difference
(Yoga). The
Patanjala Samkhya
few

which

tantram). The exact

It might mean
that
guess.
by him in various treatises.

of

form

Kapila's doctrine

that

the

is difficult to
was

know

we

in many

one

fact that

well-known

work

same

Paficasikha

(70) that

of this reference

meaning

when

parts {tena bahudhakrtam

many

Ahirbudhnya

based

the traditional

differed from
is said

deal

to

came

in the

to

parts the

great change occurred

the earlier Sastitantra

his teachings,then
on
faithfully
that Kapila'sSamkhya
theistic2. It seems
was
discipleAsuri tried to populariseit. But it seems

assumed

to be

referred

in all essential

composed by Kapila
has

221

Vacaspati'stime.

the

be

doctrine

Samkhya

Sastitantra^. Probably

before

even

the

as
as

have

we

details

three

of which

are

strata

of

lost,but

school of Samkhya,
Patafljala
representedby Paficasikha,and

by

the

the orthodox

Samkhya

system.

doctrine

in the

to have
seems
Samkhya
important change
been introduced
by VijfianaBhiksu (sixteenthcentury A.D.)by his
of gunas
treatment
as
types of reals. I have myself accepted this

of Samkhya
interpretation
one,

and

of the
it must

therefore

have

accepted Kapila
be pointed out

as

the

followed
and

the

that

most

rational

it in

giving a
Patanjalaschool

originallythe

and

philosophical

connected

system

of

Samkhya.

notion

of gunas

But
was

applied to different types of good and bad mental states, and then
they were
mysterious way by mutual increase
supposed in some
hand
and the
and decrease
the objectiveworld on the one
to form
1

Tarkarahasyadzpikd, p. 109.
manavah
sadvimSakam
prahnh sariramih
kapiladibhirucyate Matsyapurana, IV. 28.
2

evam

samkhyam

samkhyatmakatvacca

totalityof

human

of

nation

the

Patanjala Samkhya
A

psychosis on the other.

was
attempted in
gunas
the Vaisnava

and

Bhiksu

Vijnana

the

and

Kapila

The

222

and
philosophycompiled by Patafijali

systematicexplanadifferent

two

Venkata1.

writer

[ch.

lines

As

commented

the

by
Yoga

by Vyasa,

on

Vijnana Bhiksu, agree with the Samkhya doctrine

as
explainedby Vacaspati and VijfianaBhiksu in most points I
the Kapila and the Patanjalaschools
to call them
have preferred
and

Vacaspati

of

and

Samkhya
other

The

pada

about

Known

karika, Samkhya

of

Samkhya- Yoga

Samkhya

oldest

the

until

writer

text

The

later writers.
it

allusions
to the

reference
to

have

to

that

the

the

these

that

said

at

karikas
the

the

sutras

was

so

end

these

were

lost to

now

of

the

work.

to

The

and

also

the

as

the

the

number

It may

sutras

of

from

some

dealt with

any

is known

century.

doctrine
and

works

It is not

any

after

from

second

to

It is

that the

excluding

excluding the
the Sastitan-

"

of other

improbable

Samkhya

in the

who

therefore

Isvarakrsna

work

trines
docthat

which

is

later edition

some

{Sastitantroddhdra as
be

A.D.

time

refutations

done

any

made

some

people

earlier

be that it was

philosophywill

of

contain

by

positive evidence

Samkhya

parables.

who

conclusion

fifteenth

karika

by

make

have

to

no

originalSamkhya

Sastitantrasastra

Vehkata's

work

Samkhya

Samkhya

collected
us.

did not

writer

is

(fifteenth

century

written

is

karika

Aniruddha

natural

of the doctrines of other

parables attached
trasastra.

The

pretation
inter-

my

referred to

seems

there

exposition of

an

refutations

late

of the

other

no

probably
But

and

commentaries

works,

Samkhya

sutra.

were

Samkhya

by

upon

Gunaratna

century.

it

give

before

The

not

was

sutra, and

Samkhya

fourteenth

prove

of

Samkhya

flourished

reference
is

number

regards

of the fourteenth

Gunaratna

Misra

as

have

we

siitra

commented

was

to

system.

which

on

Samkhya

century A.D.).Even
made

is

Nothing

Bhiksu.

is necessary

explanation

of the

Vodhu.

sutra, Vacaspati

Vijnana
word

and

doctrines.
or
historicity

their

Samkhya

principlewhich

"

Sanatana

Sanaka, Sananda,

are

together

in his Saddarsanasamuccaya.
by Haribhadra
important Samkhya teachers mentioned
by Gauda-

followed

was

treated them

have

mentioned

volume

by

of the present

vn]

of Samkhya
Interpretations

Gunaratna), but

this is

that

suppose

the

no

to

reason

differs in

in the sutras

found

doctrine

Samkhya

is

conjecture.There

mere

223

important way from the Samkhya doctrine as found in the

The
Samkhya karika.
only point of importance is this,that the
solute
abSamkhya sutras hold that when the Upanisads spoke of one
to speak of unity as involved
they meant
pure intelligence

any

class

in the

the

category

of

regarded

be

as

of

difference.

atheistic

inclined

more

is

may

in

be

found

cannot

of omission

case

of

Samkhya
his

proved by

some

and
the

could

agreed
to

be

both

could

view

the

to

not

avoid

sutras, but

showing

explanationthat

in

in the
the
he

remarks

own

the

and

purusas

Isvara, by

prakrti at

remarked

that

Samkhya

without

doctrine

Samkhya
the

of
own

for he

these

system

the intervention

of

prakrtiare

the
said

will the

creative

of each

pralaya.

arguments

of the

whose

the

in

Vijhanamrta-

thorough Yoga view,

end

atheistic
distinctively

that the

even

of

diverse

end

in the

called

views

the

again began

Samkhya
a

where

merged

process
He

with

more

Puranas,

properly be

not

not

than

the
Brahmasutras
on
bhdsya (an independent commentary
lines).VijfianaBhiksu's
Badarayana on theistic Samkhya
view

in

khya
Sam-

Yoga

or

Sdmkhyapravacanabhdsyay Yogavarttika,and

his

intelligence,
they all form

commentator

to theistic

This

Samkhya.

the

of

class

the

hence

compromise

is,however,

Vijfiana Bhiksu,

was

for

one,

and
intelligence,
This

This

as

from
of pure

nature

Upanisads

one.

karika.

Samkhya
sutra,

in the

distinct

as

of the

were

class of pure

or

the

to

all purusas

spoken

were

sense

intelligent
purusas

As

the gunas.

they

of

used

were

gave
of

an

such

only with
a

rational

Isvara

it could

of Samkhya
explain all facts. VijfianaBhiksu in his interpretation
differed on many
pointsfrom those of Vacaspati,and it is difficult
to

say

who

is

right. Vijfiana Bhiksu

has

this

advantage

that

he has
on

difficult points
on
some
boldly tried to give interpretations
which
silent.
I refer principallyto the
Vacaspati remained

conception of the gunas, which I believe is the most

described
the
important thing in Samkhya.
Vijfiana Bhiksu
reals or
as
super-subtle substances, but Vacaspati and
gunas
of the
Gaudapada (the other commentator
Samkhya karika)

nature

remained

of the

silent

on

the

point. There

nothing,however, in their
of
againstthe interpretation
is

which
would
militate
interpretations
VijfianaBhiksu, but yet while they were
of the
explanations regarding the nature

silent
gunas,

as

to

any

Bhiksu

definite

definitely

The

224

with

forward

came

the

and

Kapila

Patanjala Samkhya

and
satisfactory

very

rational

[ch.

interpretation

of their nature.

Since

before

work

other

Bhiksu,

it is

is found

gunas

that

quite probable

worked
definitely

been

have

not

may

of the

explanation

definite

no

out

before.

in any

this matter

Neither

Caraka

of the gunas.
But
explains the nature
suits exceedingly well all that is known
Bhiksu's interpretation
Mahdbhdrata

the

nor

and

manifestations

of the

therefore

I have

documents.

giving my
speaks of the
in

workings of the gunas in all early

of Bhiksu
accepted the interpretation

the

account
as

gunas

of the

nature

being

of the

(sattva, rajas and

dullness

of the

of

nature

of the

rajasas
being lightand illuminating,
as
heavy
causing motion, and tamas

and

Kdrika

pleasure,pain,and
describes

It also

tamas).

The

gunas.

sattva

as

of energy

nature

and

obstructing.Vacaspati

but does not enter

of the Kdrika
merely paraphrasesthis statement
fits in well
into any further explanations. Bhiksu's
interpretation
of the gunas,
with all that is known
though it is quite possible
this view

that

might

been

have

not

known

before, and

when

the

there was
a real vagueoriginalSamkhya doctrine was formulated
ness
to the conception of the gunas.
as
Bhiksu's
other points in which
There
are
some
interpretation
differs from
that of Vacaspati. The
most
important of these may
mentioned

be

buddhi

the

of the

which

of

virtue

the

(samyoga) of

reflection

first is the

The

with

states

contact

no

here.

buddhi
is

purusa

the

buddhi

it does

that

But

experiencerof
in the

the conscious

buddhi

is

merely

(bhoga) on
connection

actual

Misra

Vacaspati

time, but

and
kind

of the
is that

that their

of the

image,

basis

the

this view

states

and

of that

purusa
there

with
is

no

is open

as

be

can

buddhi,
there

to

person.

if such

states

VijftanaBhiksu

image

specialkind

of

contact

of the buddhi

fitness be

by

said

alone

of

objection
be

to

be

the

an

without
The

the

perience
ex-

any

of

answer

in space

two

only a specific
purusa, though it
in the

appear

as

Vacaspati and

admitted,

formed
trans-

for its reflection

the buddhi.

differs from

buddhi

cannot

proximity {sannidhi)means

result of that the

that

the

to

(yogyatd)by virtue of which the

aloof,is yet felt to be united and identified

and

of

state

is

but

and
intelligized

becomes

purusa

that there

the purusa

in the

the

an

with

of fitness

remains

how

explain

not

caught

state

into consciousness.

state

of

connection

Vacaspati holds

purusa.

any

of the

nature

then

buddhi,
ascribed

says

there

that
is

no

Kapila and

The

226
from

ahamkara

both

the

Patanjala Samhhya

the

VijftanaBhiksu

the tanmatras1.

separationof ahamkara
place in the mahat, and

however

the evolution

and

[ch.
holds

that

of the tanmatras

appeared to me to be more
this interpretation.
There
are
some
reasonable, I have followed
other minor
pointsof difference about the Yoga doctrines between
of much
which
not
are
philosophical
Vacaspati and Bhiksu
take

this

as

importance.

The

word

yoking

as

and
other

but

senses;

used

in this

such

senses

harnessing,achieving the unachieved, connection,

The
of yoking is not
so
sense
frequent as the

or

like.

the

in various

Rg-Veda

in the

occurs

yoga

Pataftjali.

and

Yoga

it is nevertheless
in

sense

and

Rg-Veda

word

the

that

true

works

later Vedic

in such

was
as

Brhadaranyaka Upanisad2. The

word
has another
literature3.
derivative "yugya" in later Sanskrit
and
With
the growth of religious
philosophicalideas in the
austerities were
generallyvery
Rg-Veda, we find that the religious
much
valued.
and brahmacarya (theholy vow
Tapas (asceticism)
of celibacyand life-long
study) were regarded as greatest virtues
and considered
as
being productiveof the highest power4.
the

Satapatha Brahmana

As

ideas

these

the

and

and

of asceticism

of the

felt to be

the

flyingpassionswas
spiritedsteed, and thus
the control

appliedto

of steeds

self-control grew
uncontrollable

as

word

which

yoga

began

to be

force

the

that of

as

originally

was

appliedto

the control

of the senses5.
In

Panini's
and

meaning,
in the
the
a

of

sense

word

had

yoga

more

or

less

of the word

its technical
"

"

root

for the

root

yoga6.

See my

Study ofPatanjali,
p. 60 ft.
R.V.
1.
Compare
34. 9/vn. 67. 8/111.27. 11/x.30. u/x.
3/'"30- 7" Satapatha Brahmana
14. 7. 1. 11.
*

It is

and

probablyan old word

jugum.
Chandogya in. 17. 4;

See
;

Taitt. Brah.
Katha

German

Joch, A.S.

whatever

11.

2.

x.

129;

in.

8. 10;

Brah.
"atap.

xi.

Taitt.
5. 8.

1.

9.

i/m.

2.

i/iii.

1.

4,

senses

are

its horses.

Yugyah is used from the

of

Brh. 1.7.6',Brh.

3. 3 ; R.V.

the horses
are
indriyani hay"n"huh visay"tesugocaran.The senses
their
Maitr.
objects.
2. 6.
they grasp are
Karmendriyanyasya hay"h

ill.

the conative
"

of the Aryan stock ; compare

9/iv.24. 4/1. 5.

114.

Latin

geoc,

as

etymologic?

3.

used

is seldom

first sense

imaginary

an

attained

yuj samddhau
(yuj
"yujiryoge" (rootyujir ii

distinguishedthis

concentration)from
connecting). Yuj in the

It is

derivation
1

he

the

of

sense

verb.

time

root

of yujir yoge

Panini's rule "Tadasya

and

not

brahmacaryam"

from
V.

yuja

i. 94

samddhau.

shows

that

A
not

sideration
con-

only

vn]

Antiquityof Yoga
the

Bhagavadgltd, we find that the word yoga has been

not
but
only in conformity with the root
yuj-samadhau
with "yujiryoge." This has been the source
of some
sion
confuof the Bhagavadgltd. "Yogin^Jn the.sense
to the readers
who
has lost himself
in meditation
is there regarded
person

In
used

with

middle
on
a

veneration.

extreme

One

of the main

path between
the

the

hand

one

Bhagavadgltd
of
austere
discipline

and

the

worshipper in the life of

yujiryoge) on the other, who
parts of the two paths,devote

best

abstract

himself

from

Kautilya in his
of study
sciences

Arthasastra

meditative

of

use

out

tion
abstrac-

of sacrificijal.action

type of Yogin (evidently

new

should

combine

himself

all selfish motives

of the

tried to mark

of duties

course

Vedic

from

features

lies in this that the

this word

of

"

"

also

of

227

to

his

in himself

the

duties,and

yet

associated

with

desires.

when

enumerating the philosophic

names
Samkhya, Yoga, and Lokayata. The
oldest
Buddhist sutras
fully
(e.g. the Satipatthdna sutta) are
familiar with the stages of Yoga concentration.
We
thus
may
infer that self-concentration and
nical
Yoga had developed as a techmethod
of mystic absorptionsome
time before the Buddha.
of Yoga with Samkhya, as we
As regards the connection
find
of Patanjali,
it is indeed difficult to come
it in the Yoga sutras
to
definite

any

The

conclusion.

science

breath

of

had

attracted

earlier

of the

Upanisads, though there had not

probably developed any systematicform of pranayama
(a system
the
of breath
we
control)of
Yoga system. It is only when
find that the YogajTjPjjirMJ^
had attained
to MairrayanT that we
come
a
systematic development. The other two Upanisads in
notice

in many

which

the

the

ideas

Yoga

Katha.

It

be

can

is indeed

traced

curious

to

are

notice

Yajurveda,where we
find
where
we
methods, are the only ones
the Samkhya tenets, though the Samkhya
Upanisads

the

of Krsna

there

appear
same

system.

Maitrayani in
ratha

where

different kinds
were

related

as

the

is

country

and
at

but associated with

buddhistic),
which
discipline
passed by the name

the

or

Samkhya

Svetasvatara
that

and

Yoga

associated

of

grown

up

also to

ideas do not
as

Sakyayana and
metaphysics was

of
has

Yoga

to

parts of
in

passage

rigour which passed by the name

time (Panini as Goldstiicker
had

three

clear references

the

these

and

these

find reference

remarkable

between

conversation

of asceticism
the

other

each

there

But

find that

we

prevalentin

to

the

the

Brhad
offered

brahmacarya

proved

definite system

of

Yoga.
15"2

is premental

in

Kapila and

The

228

and

it

Yoga system

Thus
systematizedby Pataftjali.
it is the

say
into

which

guna

bondage

Sakyayana

through

will,and

the

to

that

the

says:

deliverance

"Here

some

of nature

takes

because

the

subsequently

was

differences

removed,

basis,was

goes

place

he

when

by the
belief,
unmind; and all that we call desire,imagination,doubt, belief,
shame, thought,fear,all that is but
uncertainty,
certainty,
of the qualities
darkened
in
mind.
Carried along by the waves
full of desires,vacillating
his imagination,unstable, fickle,crippled,
the fault of the will has

he

belief,believingI

into

enters

been

its

as

[ch.

Yoga processes,
graftingof the

and

of ideas which

of this school

of the followers

work

the

metaphysics on

Samkhya

the

association

the

therefore that

seems

Patanjala Samkhya

explain the validityof

to

quarters

some

the

sees

he, this is mine, and

am

by his self as a bird with a net. Therefore, a

man
being possessed of will,imagination and belief is a slave,
let a man
but he who
is the opposite is free. For this reason
stand free from will,imagination and belief this is the sign o
this is the path that leads to Brahman, this is the opening
liberty,
of the door, and through it he will go to the other shore of dark
for this,they quote
All desires are there fulfilled. And
ness.
the five instruments
'When
of knowledge stand stilltogether
verse:
he binds

his self

"

with

mind,

the

and

higheststate1/

the

An

the intellect does

when

move,

that is called

"

of such

examination

Dhyanabindu,

tattva,

not

Yoga Upanisads

Hamsa,

as

Amrtanada,

"andilya,
Yoga-

Varaha,

Mandala

and

Yogakundali, shows that the .Yfiga-"

practiceV"Q^ undergone diverse changes in diverse schools,but
of these show
for the Samkhya.
Thus
the
none
any predilection
with the doctrines of th
Yoga practicesgrew in accordance
Nadabindu,

Brahmana,

in his bhasya on
es
Nyaya sutra, I. i. 29, distinguish
The Samkhya
holds that nothing can
Yoga in the followingway:
into being nor be destroyed,there cannot
be any change in the pure intelligence
come
(niratisayakcetanah). All changes are due to changes in the body, the senses, the
and the objects.
manas
Yoga holds that all creation is due to the karma of the purusa.
Dosas
and
the
of karma.
The intelligences
(passions)
(action)are the cause
pravrtti
souls (cetana)are associated with qualities.
or
into being and
Non-being can come
what is produced may be destroyed. The last view is indeed quitedifferent from
the Yoga of Vy"sabhdfya. It is closer to Nyaya in its doctrines.
If Vatsyayana's

Vatsyayana,however,

Samkhya

from

statement

is correct, it would

in creation
sutra

do

was

not

borrowed

indicate

appear

that the doctrine of there being

by Sarnkhyafrom
difference but

an

Yoga.

from

in.
Vyasabh"fya,
(virtiddha).

moral
on

purpose
the

same

Samkhya and Yoga on the

Curiouslyenough Vatsyayana quotes a

agreement between

doctrine of the indriyas being " abhautika."

passage

Udyotakara'sremarks

13, in his

bhasya,I.

ii.6, and

criticizes it

as

tradictory
self-con-

vn]

a
Patanjali,
Compiler

Saivas
yoga;
was

and

Saktas

and

they grew
supposed to

in another

associated

with

the

and

T ,aya Y oga, H
was

are

and

athayoga

Raj ay

consideration

they are

as

have

we

they

with

our

Of the Pataftiala srhooLof

the_Yogawith

which

also

were

The

some

the

cases

Vedantism

of these

practicesin
worship was also

of

these

out

oga \ I n

from

our

present

little philosophicimportance and

have

connected

not

leave

to

through

of yoga,

to associate

even

mystic practices.The influence

development of Tantra and other modes
great, but

which

feats

four kinds

these

very

Mantra-

supernatural powers.

great attempt

magical

exercises,which

nervous

that there

says

the

as

Hathavop-a

the

as

other
hpa1irig_jtnd

find that there

with

direction

produce mystic

Xogatattva Upanisad

MantraYoga,

peculiarform

practices ofelaborate

constant

we

assumed

229

as

present endeavour.

Samkhva,

which

forms

the

subjectof
probably

was
dealing,Patafijali
for he not only collected
the different
most
person
forms
of Yoga
and
gleaned the diverse ideas which
practices,
could be associated
with the Yoga, but graftedthem
all
were
or
the Samkhya
on
metaphysics,and gave them the form in which
down
to
us.
they have been handed
Vacaspati and Vijftana
the Vydsabhdsya,agree
Bhiksu, the two great commentators
on
with us in holding that Patafijali
of the Yoga,
not the founder
was
but an editor.
also brings
the conAnalytic study ot tne sutras
viction that the sutras
do not
show
any originalattempt, but a
also supplewas
mented
masterly and systematic compilation which

the

are

we

and

also
systematic manner
of definition
written by way
materials
that
shows
the
were
already in
Patafijali
only systematizedthem. There was

by fittingcontributions.
the first three chapters are

in which

classification

existence

and

that

missionizingzeal, no

no

now

notable

attempt

The

to

the

overthrow

doctrines

of

in, by way of
they might come
anxious
is not even
to establish
explainingthe system. Patafijali
the system, but he is only engaged in systematizingthe facts
he had
Most
of the criticisms against the Buddhists
as
them.
of the Yoga
doctrines
in the
last chapter. The
are
occur
described in the first three chapters,and this part is separated
of the Buddhists
from the last chapter where
are
the views
other

systems, except

as

far

as

which dealt with Yoga more

Jaiglsavyawrote " Dharanataslra"
He
mentions different places
than that given by Patafijali.
the body (e.g.
heart, throat, tip of the nose, palate,forehead, centre of the brain)
1

The

Yoga

writer

in the fashion of Tantra

in

which

are

centres

of memory

where

or
Tatparyatika
Vatsyayana'sbhasya

concentration
on

is to

Nyaya sutra,

III.

be

made.

ii.43.

See

Vacaspati's

the putting of
criticized;

the conclusion

"itin

another

to

seems

hand

other

some

new

view,

as

than

of

The

of

topics

introduced

with

dealt

in

is also
whereas

51

to

We

the

the

from

Yoga

styleof

is also

chapter seem
second
chapter
that they could

in the
such

preceding chapters.

disproportionatelysmall,
number

The

and

have
with

of this

extent

in other

of the

some

well

only

it contains

as

of sutras

last

repeat what

to

in connection

manner

a
or

three.

the other

last

relevant

the average

point of

internal

an

for

necessary

its

to

of the

are

in the

discussions

felt to be

were

There

the

with

more

said

been

course

metaphysics.
supplementary character
foreignhand) in the style of the

either

sutras, 30-34,

already

has

which

Buddhist

change (due

the

manipulation
chapter as compared

to

is of

subsequent addition by a
chapter
who
anxious
to
was
supply
Patafijali

the

of

evidently to

Yoga positionfrom
for securing the strength of

as

is

chapter to denote the

legitimatehypothesis

most

is

links of argument

well

[ch.

the conclusion

denote

chapter

fourth

The

work.

that

supposed attacks
marked

of the

last

strengtheningof

the

end

whole

to

compilation.There

Yoga

the

that

be

(theword

of the third

of his

the

at

of the

conclusion

*iti n

an

at the end

work)

of any
denote

Patanjala Samkhya

the

and

Kapila

The

230

34

been
similar

chapter
sutras,

chapters is between

55.
have

question of the probable date

had
Weber
tried to connect
Yoga
Patafijali.
him with Kapya
Patamchala
of Satapatha Brahmana1
; in
which
is explained
Katyayana's Vdrttika we get the name
Patafijali
by later commentators
as patantah anjalayahyasmai (for
to

now

whom

author

the hands

difficult to

are

to

come

There

names.

writer

of

the vexed

meet

of this famous

folded
any

as

mark

conclusion

is however

the

but it is indeec
reverence),
merely from the similarityof
of

great commentary

identifies

theory which

another
on

Panini

called

the

the

Mat

of the Yoga sutra.

This theory has beei
bhasya with the Patafijali
scholars probably on
the strength
western
accepted by many
Indian commentators
who
some
identified the two
Patafijali^

Of

these

is the

one

Dlksita)who

could

The

century.
Vasavadatta
The

other

writer
not

other
which

two
1

are

Weber's

have

is that

of the

Patahjalicarita(Ramabhadra

flourished
cited

in

earlier than

the

eighteenth

"ivarama's commentary

Aufrecht

on

assigns to the eighteenthcentury.

and
Cakrapanidatta,
king Bhoja of Dhar
History of Indian

Literature, p. 223

n.

vn]

Identityof Patanjali

the

of

commentator

century

Thus

A.D.

Caraka,

Cakrapani

who

belonged
that

says

231

he

eleventh

the

to

adores

the

Ahipati

the defects of mind, speech

(mythical serpent chief)who removed
and
body by his Pdtanjala mahdbhdsya and the revision of

Caraka.

Bhoja

that

illustrious

lord

of the

"

says

be

Victory

the

to

of

words

luminous

sovereign Ranararigamalla who by composing his

the Patafijalaand
on
by writing his commentary
by
grammar,
called Rdjamrgdhka has like the
producing a treatise on medicine
mind

and

holder

of serpents removed
The

body."

adoration

defilement

from

speech,

of

hymn
by

sidered
Vyasa (which is conto be an
orthodox
interpolationeven
scholars)is also
based upon
the same
tradition.
It is not impossibletherefore that
the later Indian
confusion
commentators
might have made some
between
the three Patanjalis,
the grammarian, the Yoga editor,

and

the

medical

writer

Pdtanjalatantrayand
commentary

to

whom

who

has

Cakradatta

on

is ascribed
been

in

book

the

quoted by

connection

known

in his

Sivadasa

with

the

as

heating

of

metals.
Professor
in

of Harvard
J. H. Woods
University is therefore
justifiedin his unwillingness to identify the grammarian

way

and

the

It

commentators.

of

commentators

yata, Vamana,
This

Patanjalisby
And

an

is indeed

the

Yoga

some

if other

writer

Let

us

now

which
as

person

to

proofs
could

be

the

see

if

may

dravya

same

the writer

us

is described

think

which
the

of

great

this

on

of

point.

the
of

commentators

available

not

two

later

against such

go

grammarian

and

the

person.

to

Yoga.

on

therefore

the

the

Bhartrhari, Kaiy-

silent

are

of these

that

identification

medical

are

as

grammatical
Patanjali's

lead

philosophicconcept
differs and

and

such

etc.

evidence

notice

to

school

point against

slender

curious

grammar

identification,we

Yoga

the

on

Jayaditya, Nagesa,

is indeed

age.

editor

Yoga

think

that

Professor

substance

he

work
was

Woods

contains
not

supposes

{dravya) of

the

two

He

be identified.
they cannot
in Vydsabhdsya in one
place

as

the

thing
anysame

that

the

Patanjalis
holds

being

that
the

whereas
species and qualities(sdmdnyavisesdtmaka),
also
and
the Mahdbhdsya holds that a dravya denotes
a
genus
specificqualitiesaccording as the emphasis or stress is laid on
either side. I fail to see
ideas are
how
these
totallyantagonistic.

unity

of

Moreover,

we

know

that

these

two

views

were

held

by

The

232

Kapila

and

PataftjalaSamkhya

the

Vyadi and Vajapyayana (Vyadi holding that

qualitiesor dravya and Vajapyayana holding that

[ch.
denoted

words

denoted

words

Panini had these two different ideas in "jdtydkhydEven

species1).
and
bahuvacanamanyatarasydm"
sarilpdnamekaydmekasmin
and Patanjalithe writer of the Mahdbhdsya
sesamekavibhaktan"
"

these

only combined
the

opposes
that
to

is

if he

even

the

of

kind
specific
of

its

not

the

etc.

in
are

that

"yat sasndldhgulakakudakhuraof

nihilo
idea

change
(5.1.
We
view

by

as

any

external
their

us

discover

to

the

two

views

theory (1. 2. 64, 4.

(1. 1. 56), the

of

can

identified.
of

view,

old

the

about
also

the

ideas

even

warrantable
un-

very

views

personal

convinced

that

the

of the

important points of
examples I may refer

few

3),the Samkhya

1.

but

grammarians
be

it would

There

dictum

of

ex

of time

(2.2. 5, 3. 2. 123),the
of similars into similars (1. I. 50),the idea of
production of new
qualitiesgundntarddhdna

return
as

3) and

the distinction

other

school

of

that
similarity,
in

similar

sdbddnusdsanatn)

of

Yoga"

Indian
unlike

philosophy. There
any

other

work

they

{athayogdnusdsanam

manner

is also
both
and

this

begin
atlia

tions
begins the compilation of the instruc{Yoga sutrd) and "now
beginsthe compilation
"

now

"

of the instructions
It may

be

reconciled, and

judge anything

to

us

which

divergences

traditional

the

there

Patanjaliscannot

apparent

many

only

anything

Mahdbhdsya

indriyaand Buddhi (3.3. 1 33).

add
with the Yoga
to it that the Mahdbhdsya
agrees
is not held in common
regards the Sphotavada, which

works

on

glomeration
con-

warrant

vikdra

2, 5. 1.

may

(a

have

nihil fit

of the

"

dravyam

the

I am
grammarian from them.
writer of the Mahdbhdsya knew
most
the Samkhya- Yoga metaphysics; as a
guna

similaritywith

its

samiihak

of the

the

is

cow

examined

as

for

to

bhdsya.
Vydsa-

I have

exposed and

are

is the

that

in these it is

dravya

which

far

doubt

no

that

parts is called dravya) in the

able

holding

object

regard

of interrelated
So
been

read

we

with

its parts, just as

reminded

are

we

"

ayutasiddhdvayavabheddnugatah

not

of

conglomeration

tail,hoofs, horns,

when

he

that
remember

must

anything

that

as

show

not
we

prove

Moreover,

Mahdbhdsya

in the
of

would

that

sutras.

visanyartharupam"
"

Vydsabhdsya, though

did,

of the

writer

spoken

of

view

does

This

views.

two

"

of words"

further be noticed
1

{Mahdbhdsya).
in this connection

Patafljali's
Mahdbhdsya,

1.

1.

64.

that the

arguments

The

234
far

and

judged

from

the

these

ideas

be

can

as

Alberuni)

shows

from

we

what

that

find in the

in Alberuni

find

we

the way

he

God

of

which

the
and

him

existed, but

name

character

in such

he bestowed

the

not

his

thought comprehends

as

they

The

name

of

anything

soul

The

thing.

that

way

exist

cannot

and

Vedas

them.

on

of God
timeless

the

over

inspiresmen

existence, for there

his

proves

his

speaks, hands

and

idea

Following the

retains

[ch.

supplied by
some
change

copious extracts
had
undergone

sutra.

by cogitationwhat

obtain

could

he

that

Yoga

to

the

Yoga

emancipated being, but

shows

Patanjala Samkhya

Kapila

perceives
tical
is iden-

qualities.Meditation

worshipping him exclusively,and by practisingit

into supreme
comes
uninterruptedlythe individual
absorption
with

with

and

him

The

idea

idea

The

beatitude

of

of soul

givesfour

He

the

object of

this

vairagya; the

his favour
I

in the

alchemy.

As

or

same

as

in the

is

spoken

with

him.

state
one

avdksakha

below),
doctrines

the

the
and

as

an

i.

Upanisad

eternallyemancipated

of God

with

purusa,

that

the

34, but

absorption in

as

the

the

The

Yoga

omniscient, and

sutras

the

of

and
rasa-

the

being

or

urddhvamula
branches

and
root

the

are

different

from

comes

God

upper

branches

the

II. 1, 45.

the

I. 23

liberated

the

an

upwards

roots

are

as

seek

to

is almost

view

the

stands

view

(cf.Yoga sutra,

IV.

fashion,

Veda,

and

23-29

second

and

with

tree

nourishment

Cf. Yoga sutra

Yoga

salvation,

The

is conceived

schools, its leaves

Its

of

God2.

liberation

II. 25

Brahman

is

in the

as

introduction, namely

place

one

trunk

have

we

of salvation

new

(a

of the

for the achievement

worship

regards

in

asvattha

Brahman,

of

speaks

tation
stages of medi-

four

other

unity with

is the

sfitra.

and
abhyasa (habit)of Patafijali,

Yoga sutra,
The

after

stages

attainment
is

yana

four

of ways

is

third

fourth

The

29).

kinds

abhyasa

the

Yoga

first stage of meditation

the

at

the

He

same.

follow

the

to

find in

we

is also the

Then

first is the

of which

for

as

same

(miraculous powers)

unity of God.
corresponding

the

sutra.

is the

metempsychosis

eight siddhis
on

is obtained1.

modes

three

is

pun

differenl
of interpretation.

forces ; th(

speak of I"vara (God)

teacher of all past teachers.

of the obstacles such as illness,etc., which stand in tht

By meditatingon him many
of Yoga practiceare
of the alternative objects
removed.
He is regarded as one
way
of concentration.
The commentator
that he is the best object,for being
Vyasa notes
drawn
towards
the Yogin by his concentration
He
wills that he can
so
easilyattain
concentration

and

through it

the existence of God.

a

Cf.

Yoga

11.

1.

salvation.

No

argument

is given in the

Yoga

sutras

of

vn]

Patanjaliof Kitab

object of

the

worshipper

Patanjal
the

is to leave

235

and

tree

back

go

the

to

roots.

The

difference

of this system

(1) the conception

that

he has

of

become

God

has

from

that

risen here

of the

Yoga

such

to

is

sutra

importance
absorption

an

the

only object of meditation, and

in him
is the goal ; (2) the importance of the yama1
and
of
niyama has been reduced to the minimum
; (3) the value
of salvation
as
a separate
Yoga discipline
means
apart from

any

connection

lost

with

God

as

sight of; (4) liberation

God
; (5) the introduction
of Yoga as
control
of
sight of, and

find

we

and

in the

Yoga

Yoga
defined

absorption in
; (6) the very significance
is lost
{cittavrttinirodha)

are

of Brahman
mental

(7) rasayana

the

been

has

sutra

the

states

as

is introduced

(alchemy)

as

one

new

of the

of salvation.

means

From

this

we

of the

Sutr"~m

probably

stands

doctrine
that

direction

it could

mentions
that

he

be

Sivadasa

and

into

easilyassimilated
Tantra

rasayana

as

after

and

Nagarjuna

in connection

with

and

and

was

who

alchemical

the

later
As

by
refers to

his

Mahdbhdsya.

the

author

probable

is very

the

same
probably
been
has
quoted by

matters

and

spoken

the

this work

which

had

or

attained

attain

and

time

account

is the
practically

cannot
2

at

Alberuni, in his

which
one

not

was

called

"

Patanjala." The

same

any

from

this

with

pani
Cakra-

tator
commen-

can

infer that

of

it

was

bably
pro-

written

Vydsabhasya was
great sanctityor authority. Alberuni

when

the

of the book
as

we

yama

Patupatadartana

in

not

Samkhya, gives a list of commandments

niyama, but it is said that through them

of

and

salvation.

Cf. the account

that

descriptionof the lokas,dvipas and

counter
to the descriptionsgiven in the

runs

Vydsabhasya, III. 26,

written

some

gives some

which

sagaras,

probable that

of

ilpdtanjalamahdbhdsyacarakapratisamskrtaihv

line

of this work

It is also very

way

ments
develop-

with
by Nagesa as "Carake Patanjalih."We can also assume
degree of probabilitythat it is with reference to this man
Cakrapani and Bhoja made the confusion of identifyinghim
the writer of the

it

Yoga

in such

by

salvation, it

such

as

which

doctrines2.

Patanjala tantra,

v/rote

there

fication
modi-

Patanjali'sYoga

channel

from

of

means

of

through

new

Saiva

was

Tantra,

link

transition

Vedanta,

who

Vedanta

this

basis

the

on

entered

sutras

flourished

person

of

the

as

of the

of

doctrine

Yoga

the

that

fairlyassume

can

Sarvadarianasamgraha.

the

and

Kapila

The

236

being very famous

Bhoja and Cakrapani also probably confused
this we
can
the grammarian ; from
fairlyassume
first 300

the

400

or

of

years

by

the

Christian

six

and

era;

in

this
that

two

list with

replaced by
heresies

logicand
world

Now

asana.

given

in the

either

people who

have

elements

new

from

school

Dhyana
we

the

from

believe

both

class
of

inclusion
that

tarka

were

through

or

external
the

From

the Samadhi

thinkers
as

called

aiiga in
given in

an

last of the angas

the

been

there

the

with
of

find

we

sixty-two

eternal.

were

one

the

degrees

that

iti

prana-

has

that

logicalschool

fairlyassume

can

three

of

to

as

paring
Com-

sutras

of

not
"

Maitrayana

tarka

and

know

we

souls

belonging

44

samadhi1.

account

sutta

individual

as

and

Sasvatavada,
samadhi,

to

come

III.

the

Yoga

added,

the

of this last mentioned

association

list in the

meditation

and

whole

from

and

tarka

been

Brahmajdla

reasoning had

as

of the

that

it may

accessories,namely

or

angas

pratyahara,dhyana, dharana,

yama,

or

of

this book

within
Pataftjali

when

consisted

Upanisad

and

Pataftjali

that

Vydsabhdsya quotes
he refers to this Pataftjali.
Pataftjalih,"
it in
The
meet
conception of Yoga as we
that

improbable

be

time,

with

him

other

some

the

at

as

probablywritten

was
Pataftjali

of

book

the

also described

[ch.

Pdtanjala Samkhya

trine,
Maitrayani Upanisad represents the oldest list of the Yoga docwhen
the Samkhya
in a process of being
and the Yoga were
cussion
of dismethod
the Samkhya
grafted on each other, and when
did
substitution

stand

not

of

as

method

for tarka

independent

of the

The

Yoga.

shows
that
Pataftjali
Yoga had developed a method
separate from the Samkhya.
introduction
of ahimsa
(non-injury),satya (truthfulness),

the
The

asana

in the

list of

aparigraha
brahmacaryya (sex-control),
asteya (want of stealing),
(want

as

deemed
marks

greed)

of

the

period when
had

become

not

karuna, mudita, upeksa

find

them

mentioned

literature of the

Beginning
1

and

yama

sauca

ment)
(content-

(purity),santosa

niyama, as a system of morality without which Yoga is

impossible (for the first time in the sutras),probably

the

Buddhists

as

Hindus
from

disputes between
so

is also

in such

keen.

Hindus

introduction

as
equally significant,
a

prominent

dealing with
the

The

the

the

form

in

and

the

of maitrl,
we

any

do

not

other

tion.
subject of emancipa-

Acarahgasutra,
Uttarddhyayanasutra

prdndydmah pratydh"rah dhydnam

yogah (Maitr.6. 8).

dhdrand

tarkah

samadhih

"adahga ity

vi

i]

Yoga

and

Buddhism

237

the

Sutrakrtdhgasutra,etc.,and passingthrough Umasvati's

tvdrthddhigamasutra to Hemacandra's
Yogasdstra we find

the

Jains had

that

mainly on the
Yoga discipline
basis of a system of morality indicated
by the yamas, and the
opinion expressed in Alberuni's Pdtanjal that these cannot
give
salvation
marks
the divergence of the Hindus
in later days from
the
of Yoga
is its
Jains. Another
important characteristic
Its treatment
of sorrow
in connecthoroughly pessimistictone.
tion
with
same

been

Tat-

the

statement

that

as

founding

of the

four

their

of the

scope

sacred

truths

the
suffering,
originof suffering,
the

Yoga is the
Buddhists,namely

of the

removal

of

of

and
suffering,

of the

suffering1.Again, the metaphysics of the

with
samsara
(rebirth)cycle in connection
origination,
sorrow,
with
remarkable
decease, rebirth,etc. is described
a
degree of
with the cycle of causes
in earlyBuddhism.
as described
similarity
Avidya is placed at the head of the group; yet this avidya should
be confused
with the Vedanta
not
avidya of Sankara, as it is an
of illusion
avidya of the Buddhist
type ; it is not a cosmic
power
nor
anything like a mysterious originalsin,but it is within the
path

to

of

removal

ideal

and

of

earthlytangiblereality.Yoga

avidya

is the

ignorance
of the four sacred
truths,as we have in the sutra
anitydsuciduhkhdndtmasu
nityasuciduhkhdtniakhydtiravidyd"
(11.5).
The
ground of our existing is our will to live (abhinivesa).
range

"

"This

is

ourselves,that

and

off

us

for the
been

never

literature

at

The

is to

chapters) were
Buddhism

had

Hindus

far

and

My

sense.

show

is true
is

the

composed at a
not
developed,
the

Buddhists

in

Yoga
time

and
and

to

and

used

proper
the

the

Jains had

in the
has

Hindu

these

pointing out
when

cuts
as

which

other

any

sutras

be,

of Buddhism

idea, and
in

be

kinds

other

will

the

coined

when

will to

we

with

much

know,

sole aim

that

of

Buddhist
I

as

blend

as

term

suit the

to

accepted, so

in this

being to
negation

our

be, that

will to

we

least2." This

first time

in this section

the

extend.

Yoga abhinivesa, which

of the

Yoga

for

fondly will

we

of existence

being

that

besettingsin

our

things
three
(first

later

forms

of

quarrelsbetween
not

reached

such

caturvyuham rogo rogahetuh

Yoga sutra, II. 15, 16, 17. Yathdcikitsds'dstram
caturvyuhameva ; tadyathd samsdra/i,
bhaisajyamitievamidamapi sdstram
moksah
samsdrahetuh
samsdro
heyah,pradhdnapurusayoh
moksopayah ; duhkhabahulah

drogyam

samyogo

heyahetuk,samyogasydtyantikt nivrttirhanam

Vydsabkdsya, II. 15
2

Oldenberg'sBuddhism1.

hanopdyak samyagdarSanam,

stage that they would

As

this

to

think

is

which

evidence

no

the

them

The

and

many,

like the

They

do
or

contained

the

relation

and

soul

mind

birth

had

all would

exact

sukha,
devoid

the

See

every

thought,ch.
that

both

mental

is but

Das

11.

was

Souls

matter.

are

are

manifested.

are

But
with

associated

phenomena

born

and

is however

the

with

in the

happen

the

it

death

are

the

of

one

The

K"riki,

See Citsukha's

soul

philosophy. Unlike
is described

this that

it does

another
does

for

name

not

Vedanta

in

againstthe other
even
by Samkhya.

I.

18.

Tattvapradlpika,iv.

On

the

individual

of

to

souls

it

of soul ;

nature

(jiva) are

Indian

systems admitted

such

as

of this identification

the doctrine

soul

the

(dnanda)3. Bliss

relation to other

Indian

lute
is abso-

pleasure and

constitute
the

consider
bliss

being

as

differs from

view

not

and
intelligence

ananta-

its nature

Samkhya

important point in favour

most

of Patan/'aJi,
Appendix
a

thoroughly

must

one

Samkhya

Gupta, Yoga Philosophy

denied

difficult of comprehension,

very

characteristic;but

the Patafljalis
as

sphotawhich

ciples,
prin-

two

experience of its soul. The souls

so
(the Samkhya
argues) with

(cii).The

of pure

to

S. N.

may

Purusa.

or

possessing anantajhdna, anantadarsana,

prakrti and
secondly, according to
1

the mind

understand

to

nature

Samkhya

belongs

rather

been

have

consciousness

of the

with

the
been

in
Vedanta, firstly

be

they

or

of soul

and

any

pure

we

admits

now

in which

anantavlryyay the Samkhya

of

believe

and
always all-pervasive,

yet it is exactly this which

soul

and

it

principleof

are

whatever

nature

in order

Jaina

there

died2.

and

the

that

it not

have

The

but

body

all would

one

Yoga

identifyingthe

of Soul

have

we

root

bodies

in the

interpretedas

of

grasp

prakfti,the

between

and

many,

philosophy as

is such

are

writer, I

the

Since

B.C.

of

way

Doctrine

Yoga

largerbody,

not

disposed

am

Jaina souls,but they are without parts and qualities.

contract
or
a
expand according as they occupy

not

smaller

century

Yoga

another.

one

chapters of

in the

the

the

and

Samkhya
souls

from

[ch.

being identical1.

as

Samkhya

The

second

stand

can

with
grammarian Patafljali
take

first three

the

placed about

be

must

sfitras

of

borrow

to

of earlier Buddhism

true

date

the

that

Patahjala Samkhya

like

not

held

be

only

can

the

and

Kapila

The

238

systems of
seems

to be

the doctrine

Sphota

see

my

of

Study

vn]

Analystsof Knowledge
illusorymanifestations

but

of

soul

one

or

239
consciousness

pure

the

according to Samkhya they are all real and many.

The
is
most
interestingfeature of Samkhya as of Vedanta
the analysisof knowledge. Samkhya
holds that our
knowledge
of things are
ideational
mere
picturesor images. External
things
Brahman,

but

indeed

are

material, but

the

coming

some

sense

and

are

and

as

such

but

the

things.The
the

they

be

to

of

limited

their

in

and

or

these

in

as

some

nature

and

images come
photographs of external

considered

which

images of the mind,

knowledge, are also in

are

sense-data

prototypes,

ought

and

is called

matter-stuff,since

often

data

sense

of which

going

like the external

they

the

go,

things,
material,

sense

composed is the subtlest.

These
images of the mind could not have appeared as conscious,
there were
in connecno
tion
separate principlesof consciousness
with which
the whole
conscious
plane could be interpreted
matter

are

'd

the

as

experience

consider

the

distinct

from

In

beneath
which

the

has

we

have

in all
said

every

act

veil.

Samkhya

of

but

So

real nature

thus
as

by

the

principle

the

it is like

Form

Tattakau?midz,$\
Tattvavaisdradi,

and

by

one

motion

are

Yogavdrttika,IV.
I. 4,

II.

far

of

6, 18,

20;

found

or

as

beyond

of the
an

image

the subtle

as

outside

forms
mind-

immersed
and

moves,

minated.
light and are illuspecialcharacteristic
all knowledge would

the

the characteristics
22;

matter, and

painted canvas

knowledge. The
which
without
light,

our

self. The

our

they are mere

complexes of subtle

before

one

of other

distinct,transcendent

gets printsfrom

canvas

"self"

our

partialremoval

is behind

sheet

assumes.

have

karma

be

it is

such

we

that

lightwhich

know

veiled

so
cognitions,

like

are

as

to

self cannot

as

Our

it is with

of self is that

and

the

self

seem

only

is because

that

picturesappear

is like

images.

detect

not

other

some

which

merely compositions or

images, are

be blind.

is

the

was

meant

that

knowledge.

darkness;

soul

the

says

knowledge,

the

our

knowledge

substance, and
in

but

picture of
knowledge we

that

whose
principle,

or

form,

mental

no

had

of

there

the

mute,

Jains

matter

do

Upanisads

consciousness,

ideas,and

analysiswe

knowledge
no

infinite

the

knowledge,

the

that

and

pure

of mental

of

know

the mind
pictorialforms which
all speak of
nothing but this light. We

the

things,yet

as

of

change,

no

self is

of

forms

forms

the

illumines

but

atman

or

We

person1.

ordinary ways

our

The

soul

of

of matter, and

Vijndndmrtabhdsya^. 74; Yogavdrttika

Vydsabhdsya, I. 6, 7.

far

so

Patanjala Samkhya

limited

mere

there

but

matter;

as

same

is

knowledge

as

the

and

Kapila

The

240

is

form
other

some

and

[ch.
it is the

movement

principlewhich enlivens
which
they become
scious.
con-

knowledge-forms, by virtue of
This
indeed be
(cit)cannot
principleof consciousness
of this principlein
separatelyperceivedper se, but the presence
indicated
of knowledge is distinctly
forms
all our
by inference.
these

principleof

This

impurity1. The

no

in relation

produces

and
of

knowledge
knowledge

of
but

that

the

it

appearance

and
so

motion,

no

form, no

no

quality,

of the

knowledge-stufftakes place
is illuminated
consciousness
as
by it,
of itself as undergoing all changes

experiences of pleasure and pain. Each

far as it is an
image or a pictureof some
has

knowledge-stuffwhich

subtle

movement

it,so

to

has

consciousness

illumined

been

item
is

sort

by

the

principleof consciousness, but so far as each item of knowledge

carries with it the awakening or the enliveningof consciousness,
of the principleof consciousness.
it is the manifestation
ledge-revelati
Knowis not

self

the

only

far

so

unveilingor revelation of a particular

Jains supposed, but it is a revelation of
livening,
knowledge is pure awakening, pure en-

the

self,as

part of the

the

as

So far

consciousness.

pure

image is concerned, it is
blind knowledge-stuff.

the

or

the

The

Buddhists

had

parts, and
the

about

brought

the

as

the

not

revelation

analysed knowledge

had

held

that

conscious

the

knowledge

of self but

its diverse

into

coming together of
This

states.

of

content

is

stituent
con-

these

coming together was

point of the illusorynotion of self,since this unity

not
or
a permanent
thing but a momentary
coming together was
With
collocation.
however
the self,the pure
Samkhya
cit,is
them

to

the

neither

illusorynor

into touch

Coming
of the

with
the

as

thus

be

and

It is

involved
content

this

; it is concrete

the image.

dent.
transcen-

it givesunity to all the movements

of subtle

stuff,which

would

otherwise

unintelligent.It is by coming into

that they are
preted
interprincipleof intelligence

systematicand coherent experience of a person,

the
said to be intelligized.
means
Intelligizing
interpretationof

importantto

note

the

that Samkhya

viz. the

events

has two

relatingelement

of

knowledge,
(buddhi)which is the form of the mind-stuff
in

but

and

aimless

remained

connection

with

knowledge-composites

have

may

abstraction

an

Cognitiontakes place by

the

or

terms

to

as

the two

such

the
representing

the reflection of the former

pression
ex-

happenings

denote

awareness

and

aspects

and
(cit),

sense-data

in the latter.

of

the

and

242

The

Kapila

thought;

thus

the

do

extend

not

images

have

and

movement,

more

but

in space,

[ch.

Patanjala Samkhya

of

thought

or

less clear

limited,separate,

are

forms.

cut

The

have

images

The

they
represent space.
of thought (sattva)in association
can

plasticelement

and

the

and

lucent
trans-

with

revelation
{rajas)would have resulted in a simultaneous
of mass
of all objects;it is on
account
or
tendency of obstruction
closes
(tamas) that knowledge proceeds from image to image and disThe
buddhi (thought-stuff)
things in a successive manner.
movement

holds

within
and

the

by

stores

of the

at

knowledge

itself in its full

and

thought

characteristic

the

of

of

only

is a factor of obstruction

matter

gross

matter

made

are

that

all its

picture

one

revelation,demonstrates

there

gross

of the

reflection

and

to

actualityin

though

as

knowledge,

time

arena

view

the

moment,

ness,
dark-

in utter

were

our

veil,by

or

if lost at any

as

it

as

before

comes

darkness

This

purusa.

comes

in

knowledge

hidden

are

idea

that

the

immersed

knowledge

actual

removal

lightof
or

it all

as

Thus

mass.

three

of

up

manifests

which

both

elements,

plasticityof intelligence-stuff
(sattva),energy-stuff(rajas),and
mass-stuff
two

(tamas),or
predominant

are

in gross

Feelings,

the

and

matter

Ultimate

first two

the

the last

Of these

of obstruction.

factor

the

in

thought.

Substances1.

is the position
question that arises in this connection
feelingin such an analysisof thought and matter.
Samkhya
Another

of

holds

that

the

three

analyzed just now

interestingside
we

think

should

of

find

Even

knowledge
the

are

which

never

of evolution
a

life the

the

stage where
1

Kdrikd,

shock

with

as

Gaudpada

we

go
and

of

and

The

do

not

its

of

at

give rise

Narayanatirtha.

image.
act

of

down

relations

lower

till
feeling,

an

lower

manifestations

knowledge.

keenness

an

as

precede

actions

crude

of

image, and

an

than

which

we

undeveloped

first moment

feelingmass

matter-complexes
12,

the
than

automatic

have

If

ourselves.
and

feelings.As

the level of

less is the

at

elements

with

concomitant
rise to

mere

the

evolution

as

probably

are

of

scale

matter

comes

ordinary

our

as

more

of

crude

the

into

composed

more

comes

it is felt

that

in

it is

It

we

Feeling is the most

is in our
feelingsthat

being parts

percept

any

which

it

appearance,
we

thoughts as

our

of

consciousness.

our

that

constituents

feelingsubstances.

are

of

analyze

sensations

characteristic

of

feeling

the scale
last there
to

feeling

The

vn]
reactions

but

to

of

243

Feelings thus

physical reactions.

mere

the earliest track

Guqas

consciousness,whether

we

look

mark
the

at it from

in
point of view of evolution or of the genesis of consciousness
at a certain
ordinarylife. What we call matter
complexes become
call feeling-complexesat
stage feeling-complexesand what we
a

certain

stage of descent

reaction.

matter

The

selves,the ultimate
matter

made

are

sink

feelingsare

matter-complexes with
therefore
the things-in-themmere

of which

substances
up.

into

consciousness

Ordinarily a difficulty
might

and

gross

be

felt in

be

substances
of which
the ultimate
taking feelingsto
gross
made
and thought are
accustomed
matter
are
more
up; for we
but if we
remember
to take feelings
as
being merely subjective,
the Samkhya
analysis,we find that it holds that thought and
matter

but

are

which
The

different

two
are

in

modifications

essence

but

three

of certain

subtle

stances
sub-

types of feelingentities.

that we
principalcharacteristics of thought and matter
have noticed
but the manifestations
in the preceding section are
of three types of feelingsubstances.
There
is the class of feelings
class of feelings
that we
call the sorrowful, there is another
that
call pleasurable,
and there is stillanother
class which
is neither
we
of ignorance,depression
sorrowful
nor
pleasurable,but is one
iyisdda) or dullness. Thus corresponding to these three types of
three

manifestations

pleasure,pain,and dullness,and materiallyas

obstruction
shining (prakdsa),energy (pravrtti),
{niyama\ there
which
three types of feeling-substances
be regarded as
must
are
the ultimate
things which make up all the diverse kinds of gross
and thought by their varying modifications.
matter
as

The
These

three

called guna

Gunas1.

types of ultimate

subtle

entities

are

technically

Samkhya philosophy. Guna in Sanskrit has three

meanings, namely (1) quality,(2) rope, (3) not primary. These
and
not
mere
entities,
however, are substances
qualities.But it
that in Samkhya
in this connection
philosophy
may be mentioned
there
and
we

of

is

no

in

separate existence

of

qualities;it

holds

that

each

What
quality is but a unit of substance.
call qualityis but a particularmanifestation
or
appearance
but
do
subtle
not
a
quality,
quality
entity.Things
possess
every

unit

of

Yogavdrttika,II. 18; BhavaganesVs Tattvaydthdrthyadipana,pp. 1-3; Vijndndmrtabhdsya, p. 100; Tattvakaumudi, 13; also Gaudapada and Narayanatlrtha,13.
l6

"

The Kapila and

244

the

signifiesmerely
object we
holds

to

fine and

subtle

entity,the
quality. This is
also

but

of

entities

which
as

called

by

interpretedby
qualitiesof external

the

soul

These

of

sense

is chained

down

also be

may

ropes

that

because

they

if it

called

as

gunas

the

are

selves
them-

be

also

may

are

entities

manifest

entities

as

objects

they

subtle

as

us

ultimate

modifications

various

qualities.These

or

in the

gunas

matter.

their

the

is

qualitiesas well. These

probably to suggest
gunas

by

gunas

which

of

only

not

is

mental

called

thus

were

true

there

; any

Samkhya
unit of quality,
corresponding

new

every

be,

of which

reaction

subtle

reacts

but
qualities,

and

it may

substance

many

each

corresponding to

that

however

possess

[ch.

Patanjala Samkhya

in which

manner

seems

see

the

like

ropes

thought and
things of secondary
indestructible,they
to

were

and
importance, because though permanent
and
continually suffer modifications
changes by their
groupings and re-groupings,and thus not primarily and

mutual
ably
unalter-

the object of the

(purusa). Moreover
world
being the enjoyment and salvation of the purusas,
process
the matter-principlecould
not
naturallybe regarded as being of
like the

constant

souls

primary importance. But

to justifythe name
guna
should

be

subtle

borne

in

substances

or

stuff)and

types called

sattva

are
plasticity

as

in certain

agree
called

with

their three

a largernumber
(e.g.

rajas or tamas,
smaller

number

or

and

of

when

united

united

substances

larger number
rajas and sattva

and
varying proportions),
with different qualities
come
another

are

of sattva

as

of

characteristics

the sattva-gunas

substances

guna

or
are

gunas

acteristics
char-

main

into

in different

those

of tamas

behave

as

behave

which

called tamo-gunas.

in different
with

proportions

and

this,different

being. Though

of

lesser number

substances

substances

result of

or
self-shining

which

those

stances
sub-

of subtle

infinite number

activityare called the rajo-gunasand

factors of obstruction,
mass
or
materialityare
subtle

entities,it
entities

substantive

are

of

These

subtle

these

to

inclined

be

may

they have been arranged in three

(intelligence-stuff),
rajas (energy-

(mass-stuff).An

tamas

we

qualities.These

in accordance
above

which

units

but

they

abstract

described

as

classes

that

not

senses

applied

as

mind

and

infinite in number,

in whatever

so

with

on

in

substances

attached

to

one

proportions,they mutually act

and react upon
resultant
one
another, and thus by their combined
There
is howproduce new characters,qualitiesand substances.

vn]

Prakfti

ever

and

one

in

substances
thus

by

which

is

their

that

it is

is

is

as

of the

mutual

is

other

of the

said

is called

either

to

exist

themselves.

of all characteristics

indefinite.

of all

mother

of

breaking

is

mutual
which

state

no

serves

be

cannot

but

purpose,

the

is however

things. This

It

being which
equilibrium

of

state

for it

non-exist

to

hypotheticallythe

take

equilibrium,in

an

of the

prakrti1.This

or

earliest stage, by the

It is

guna

substances, and

manifest

gunas

pounded
com-

of the

each

absolutelyincoherent, indeterminate, and

gunas

not

are

guna

absolutelydevoid

so

245

gunas

opposition create

characters

which

the

this state

qualitiless
simple homogeneity.
it were
non-being. This state

of the

it is

equal

state

stage in which

one

varying proportions. In
is opposed by each of the

none

This

only

Equilibrium of Gunas

as

later on, all modifications

which,

place.
Prakrti
believes

Samkhya
such

was

had
mutual
later

state

its Evolution.

and

that before this world

of dissolution

disintegratedinto

disturbance

the
and

of disunion

prakrti,and

as

pounds
com-

guna
had

by

their

prakrti. Then

equilibrium the

an

in the

arose

in which

state

state

opposition produced
on

"

being there

into

came

result of that

of

unequal aggregation of the gunas in varying proportions

place, which
brought forth the creation of the manifold.

process
took

Prakrti,the
gunas,

thus

of

perfecthomogeneity
gradually evolved and became
state

incoherence

and

and

more

of the
minate,
deter-

more

differentiated,
heterogeneous,and coherent. The gunas are
always uniting,separating,and unitingagain2. Varying qualities
of essence,
and

energy,

the

indefinite

in varied

mass

their mutual

through

from

and

interaction

indeterminate
qualitatively

or

determinate.
qualitatively
the world
never

there

of

these
effects,

diverse

in the

is is due

element

the

is due
resistance,
stability,
to sattva.

in any
others

to

Yogavdrltika,II.
Kawnudi,

19, and

rajasand rajasalone;

tamas,and

latent,though

diverse

with

moments

of

particularguna
phenomenon becomes

definite

or

tendencies

phenomenal product whatever

The

become

the

though co-operatingto produce

And

coalesce. Thus
to

groupings act on one another

and interdependence evolve

which

presence

Pravacanabhdsya,

13-16; Tattvavaifdradi,II,

20,

IV.

be

predominant

in that

manifest
their

to

all matter,

manifestation

all conscious

happens

energy

I.

and

phenomenon
is inferred
by

their

Yogavdrttika,IV.

13, 14^

61.

13, 14; also

The

246

Kapila and

the

[ch.

PatanjalaSamkhya

is patent, energy
example, in a body at rest mass
of conscious
manifestation
sublatent. In a
latent and potentiality
and the mass
is
moving body, the rajasis predominant (kinetic)
of the groupings of
All these transformations
overcome.
partially
the state of prakrti
in different proportionspresuppose
the gunas
the startingpoint. It is at this stage that the tendencies
to
as
conscious
manifestation,as well as the powers of doing work, are
by the resistance of inertia or mass,
exactly counterbalanced
When
this equiand the process of cosmic
evolution
is at rest.
librium
is once
destroyed,it is supposed that out of a natural
of all the sattva
reals for themselves,of rajasreals for other
affinity

effect. Thus, for

reals of their type, of tamas

of their type, there

reals for others

ent
at differunequal aggregation of sattva, rajas,or tamas
When
is preponderant in any particular
moments.
one
guna
collocation,the others are co-operant. This evolutionaryseries
of the prakrtito the final
beginning from the first disturbance
transformation
the world-order, is subject to "a definite law
as
arises

an

which

it cannot

overstep."In

the words

B. N.

of Dr

Seal1,
"

the process

development of the differentiated

minate
of the deterwithin the undifferentiated (sdrnydvastha)
(vaisatnyd)
within the indeterminate
(yisesd)
(avisesa)of the coherent
{yutasiddha)within the incoherent
(ayutasiddha).The order of
of evolution

consists

succession

is neither

parts, but

ever

in the

from

parts

to whole

nor

from

whole

to

the

less determinate,
relativelyless differentiated,
less coherent
whole
more
to a relatively
differentiated,
The
coherent
whole."
more
determinate,more
meaning of such
evolution
is this,that all the changes and
in
modifications
an
the shape of the evolving collocations
reals take place
of guna
within
the body of the prakrti. Prakrti
finite
consistingof the inreals is infinite,
disturbed
does
and
that it has been
not
that

mean

that

the

from

whole

of

it has

been

and

disturbed

upset,

or

the

totalityof the gunas in the prakrtihas been unhinged

from
of equilibrium.It means
rather that a very
a
state
vast
number
of gunas
the worlds of thought and
matter
constituting
has been upset. These
thrown
out of balance
once
begin to
gunas
group
in

themselves

another, and

togetherfirst in
so

on.

But

such

one
a

form, then

change

in

in the

another, then
formation

of

thought to take place in such a way

that the later
of the former ones,
aggregates appear in supersession
the former comes
so that when
into being the latter ceases
to exist.
aggregates

Dr

should

not

be

B. N. Seal's Positive Sciences

ofthe

Ancient

Hindus,

191 5, p. 7.

Prakrti

vn]
the

For

truth

second

is that

stage is the

first stage. This

stage which

had

as

stage is made

is made

form

the

the

aggregate

new

as

first
the

from the prakrti.So also,

refilling
aggregationtakes place from out of the reals

stage, the

good by

new

to

good by

the third stage of

of the second

forth

; this

of the

aggregation of some
deficiencyof the reals of

result of

reals of the

second

247

stage is produced after another

one

gone

its Evolution

and

of
deficiency

the reals of the second

stage

from
the first stage and
that of the
refilling
first stage from the prakrti.Thus
the
by a succession of refillings
where
to its last limit,
proceeds,tillwe come
process of evolution
real evolution
there is no
of new
chemical
substance,but mere
and physicalchanges of qualities
in things which
had
already
evolved.
Evolution
the
in Samkhya means
{tattvantaraparinama)
development of categoriesof existence and not mere
changes of
of substances
or
chemical, biological
mental).
qualities
(physical,
Thus

each

of the

stages of evolution

category of being,and
and

to

the

as

and

more

permanent

entiated
differ-

more

groupings of the succeeding stages. Thus

tiation
the evolutionaryprocess is regarded as a differenstages as integratedin previousstages {samsrsta-

coherent

it is said that
of

offers scope

remains

new

vivekd).
and

Pralaya
how

But

or

knotty point in

the

disturbance

is such

inherent

of

to absolute

is so

connected

teleologyor

blind

the purusas,

with
purpose

and

there

in the lifeless prakrti,

place for the sake

the enjoyment of pleasuresand
purusas, to serve
leadingthem
pain through experiences,and finally

that all its evolution

sufferance

Equilibrium.

why prakrtishould be disturbed is the most

Samkhya. It is postulatedthat the prakrtior the

of the gunas

of the diverse

Prakrti

rather

sum-total
an

of the

freedom

and

or

transformations

mukti.

return

take

of

this manifold

world

quiescentstate {pralaya)of prakrtitakes place when the

karmas
of all purusas
collectively
requirethat there should be
such a temporary cessation of all experience. At such a moment
the guna compounds are graduallybroken, and there is a backward
movement
(pratisancara)tilleverythingis reduced to the gunas in
their mutual opposition
their elementary disintegrated
when
state
into the

brings about

their

equilibrium.This equilibriumhowever

is not

of utmost
tension; there is intense
passivestate, but one
but the activity
here does not lead to the generation of
activity,
of new
this course
new
{visadrsa-parinama)\
thingsand qualities

mere

the

Kapila and

The

248

[ch.

PatanjalaSamkhya

production being suspended, the activityhere repeats the same

that there is no change
of equilibrium,
so
state (sadrsa-parindma)
new
or
production.The state of pralaya thus is not a suspension
break of
of the gunas, or an absolute
of the teleologyor purpose
of guna
evolution ; for the state of pralaya,since it
the course
of the accumulated
has been
generated to fulfil the demands
and
of purusas,
since there is still the activityof the
karmas
in a state of suspended production,
in keeping themselves
gunas
is also a stage of the samsara
cycle. The state of mukti (liberation)
f
or
that
is of course
in
the
movement
quite different,
stage
of the gunas

for

ceases

reference

with

ever

to

the

liberated

soul.

questionremains,what breaks the state of equilibrium?

The
is that it is due to the transcendental
Samkhya answer
(noninfluence
of
the
influence
of
This
the
mechanical)
purusa1.
purusa
that there is inherent
in the
anything,means
again,if it means
should
or modifications
gunas a teleologythat all their movements
of the
take placein such a way that these may
the purposes
serve
But

stillthe

Thus

purusas.
that

there

there

should

of the

for the

be

karmas

of the

suspension of

end

This

of

had

purusas

all

it,it is the

the purusas

is but

demanded

experience,for

another

period

inherent

same

it up for the formation

experiencesof

is disturbed.

state

the

pralaya. At the
prakrtithat wakes

was

world

when

by

which

way

of

of

pose
pur-

suitable

its

quiescent
looking at the

demands
which
that a state of
prakrti,
should
and a state of world-framingactivity
pralaya should cease
which
in the gunas
begin. Since there is a purpose
brought
them
the state of equilibriumalso preto a state of equilibrium,
supposes

inherent

teleologyof

that
so

demands.

about

the

it also may
Thus

the state

of

the

be broken
inherent

pralaya and

work

again,and it is this
be regarded from
another

again when the purpose

of the prakrtibrought

up

purpose

broke

then

natural

change

point

of

view

for the

it up

prakrtithat

in the

may

transcendental

the

as

creative

influence of the purusas.

Mahat
The

firstevolute

of the sattva
from
state
1

which

The

all the

Yoga

Ahamkara.

prakrtiis generatedby

This is
(intelligence-stuff).

in which

of
equilibrium

of the

and

the

answer

the

rest of the world

stuff of sattva
is of

for
prakrti

course

new

has

indeed

sprung

preponderance

the earliest state

predominates. It

different. It believes

it is

forth ; and
thus

that the disturbance

creation takes place by the will of IsVara

holds
of the

(God).

the

and

Kapila

The

250

Patanjala Samkhya

[ch.

of the sattva
preponderance
helps(sahakdri)the transformations
and the tamas
preponderance. The development of the former
preponderance,as is easy to see, is only the assumption of a more
and

of

character

determinate

more

the

buddhi,

for

we

remember

of a sattva
resultingtransformation
preponderance. Further development with the help of rajas on
the
the line of sattva
development could only take place when
that buddhi

itself has

buddhi

mind

as

kdrika

the

itself in

determined

of the

development

been

buddhi

ahamkara.

this line is called

on

ahamkara

This

The

specificways.

represents

sdttvika

the

first
or

vai-

development

produce a consciousness-stuff as I or rather "mine,"

thus be distinguishedfrom the first stage as buddhi, the
and must
is a mere
function of which
as
understanding and general datum
in buddhi

to

thisness.
The

of the
The

{abhimdna-dravyd) is the specific

sion
expres-

ahamkara

or

ego

which

general consciousness
of the

function

is therefore

ego

experience as mine.
abhimdna
tion).
(self-asser-

takes

called

of vision,
the five cognitive senses
again come
of speech,
touch, smell,taste, and hearing,the five conative senses
and
the generative
handling, foot-movement, the ejectivesense
the prdnas (bio-motor force)which
help both conation and
sense;
From

this

but

cognitionare

aspects
and

ahamkaras

by

of buddhi-movement

senses

are

related

developing sattva determinations

with its own
buddhi
being. Each

the

into
and

sense-evolutes

other

buddhis

knowledge
for each

apart

thus

with

is

forms

their

so

far

knowledge

sense

all buddhis

associated

is

in the buddhitattva.

separate from

as

So

groups.
and

the

general mind

concerned,
Even

there

there

come

(ego)

of ahamkara

group

microcosm

buddhis

they had

which

from

subjectto sense-influence

individual,but

from

the individual

to

vidual
indi-

life. The

as

similar

far therefore

as

ego, it is different

{kdrana buddhi)
is a community of

however

each

buddhi

separated from other buddhis

by its own
peculiarlyassociated
kara
ignorance (avidya). The buddhi and its sattva evolutes of ahamis

and
from

the

buddhi

buddhi, and

again

must

for

as

buddhi

senses

are

in their
mark

that

functions,they

are

in this connection

exhausts

partiallyexhausts

related

though they are different

in the
all comprehended

only its gradual differentiations

remember

of buddhi

so

the

and

doctrine

modes.
of

We

refilling,

ficiency
giving rise to ahamkara, the degood by prakrti; again as ahamkara

its part in

is made

itself in

the defigenerating sense-faculties,

Evolution

vn]
is made

ciency

good by

prakrti.

The

Tanmatras

stadia

251

the

buddhi.

are

always

and

the

the

this state
side

in which

which

made

the

good

higher state

Paramanus1.

tendency, namely that of tamas,

liberated
rajas of ahamkara, in order to
and

Thus

each

from
refilling

other

the

by

of the

constant

finallyfrom

The

from
refilling

each

change and wastage of

and kept constant
by a
and

of Infra-atoms

the

has

to

be

make

succeeds

tamas

helped

itself preponderant,
in

coming
over-

preponderant in the buddhi,

From
this bhutadi
with the help of rajasare
is called bhutadi.
of the
generated the tanmatras, the immediately preceding causes
The bhutadi
thus represents only the intermediate
gross elements.
sattva

in the

There

has

as

mahat
been

to whether

ahamkara.
evolution

controversy

some

here

does

not

the

which

Bhutadi

bhutadi.
of all
The

second

chemical

stadium

reals

tamas

mahat

the

the mahat

or

the

marks
but

characters

Yoga
from

or

remember

that
but

emanation,

creasing
in-

evolving whole.

the

differentiation
its stage

through

absolutelyhomogeneous

is

physical and

out

integrationwithin

in

regroupings of
takes place within

Thus

coming

and

Samkhya

if we
intelligible

becomes
mean

differentiation

between

generated from

are

situation

regroupings of tamas
generation of the tanmatras.

for the

proceed

the tanmatras
The

so

the differentiations and

stage through which

reals

was

and

as

inert,devoid

except quantum

or

mass.

represents subtle matter, vibratory,

tanmatra

These
tials"
"potenimpingent, radiant, instinct with potentialenergy.
arise from the unequal aggregation of the originalmass-units
tion
with an unequal distribuin different proportionsand collocations
of the
more

than

or

viscous

and

In
possess

cohesive

the

radiant

tanmatras

and

energy;

possess

thing
some-

they

possess

others powers
of
penetrability,
heat, others again capabilityof

attraction2.

relation

with

potentialsof

colour,taste, and

mass

of them

others

pressure,

intimate

of

quantum

physicalcharacters, some
impact

{rajas).The

originalenergy

smell

those

physical characters

they

also

energiesrepresentedby sound, touch,

but, being subtle matter, they are devoid

the

accepted in this section and in the next many of the translations of Sanskrit
expressionsof Dr Seal and am
largelyindebted to him for his illuminating
in
Hindu
as
Ray's
Chemistry. The credit of explaining
expositionof this subject given
of
Samkhya physicsin the light the text belongs entirelyto him.
1

terms

I have
and

Dr

Seal's Positive

Sciences

of the

Ancient

Hindus.

and

lodged in
words, the potentials

subtle

like the

matter

by

transformations
act

stimuli

sensory

as

the

thereof
particles

driya but

the

This

bhutadi

rupa

the

produces

as

before

atoms

It is

senses

home

brought

of

exist

to

grasped by
these

five

tanmatras

to

is also

have

can

to

the

to

ksiti,ap,

similarly

infra-atomic

or

which

have

of

only
grouped

be

must

constitute

power

; the

unit of tamas

the tanmatras

senses,

particularform

existence

new

affectingour

the classification

that

point out
tejas,marut

senses.

and

is

vyoman

analysis,but from the points of view

could
be
through which
knowledge of them
Each
of our
us.
senses
can
only apprehend a

chemical

thus

five different

corresponding

the

five

elements,
was

this,that

bhutadi

from

difference of tanmatras
is

the

with

senses.

the

the

to

five

also conceived

of the
exist

to

as

with

five
the

the

are

may

be

existence

of

qualitieswhich

In accordance

existence

substances

ultimate

potentialstates
ground of the

or

five

forms.

gross

five classes of atoms

The

follows:
from

sound-

or
(smell-potential)

tanmdtra

our
affecting

particularqualityand
said

gandha

objectsas

upon

five

of the

bhutadi

from

of tamas

unit

in this connection

all gross

based

not

of

the

The

they

important
of

(the

tanmdtra

is generated
(colour-potential)

tanmdtra

{paramdnu)

atoms

potentialpower
regrouped in

and

akasa

or

unit of tamas

accretion

the ksiti tanmatra"1.

and

minutest

infra-sensible {atin-

be

may

the ap tanmatra
or
(taste-potential)
again by its union with
ap tanmatra

tanmdtra

units

of

union

the

similarlyby

from

sabda

the

The

tanmatra.

formed.

stimuli

in the

though

first

generated by

rasa

or

Next
generated directly from the bhutadi.
which
is
(touch-potential)
sparsa or the vdyu tanmdtra

the

akasa

collocations

matter,

gross

sensory

tanmatras

potential)is
comes

as

undergo peculiar
before they can

must

matter

other

In

aggregates.

anudbhuta)1.

not

the

Of

groupings

new

their

particles

in

"potentials"assume

these
atoms

of gross

[ci-i.

Patanjala Samkhya

the

which

peculiarforms

of the

and

Kapila

The

252

the

bhutadi
with

Dr

There

the

generated from

are

with
sound-potential,

generates the akasa-atom.

of

rudiment

as

matter

The

combine
touch-potentials
to generate the
vibratoryparticles
(sound-potential)

Seal's Positive Sciences of the Ancient

were

accretion

the tanmatras

various ways

in literatures other than

Sciences of the Ancient

Hindus.

in which

Samkhya

Hindus.

the genesis of tanmatras

;

for some

account

and

of it see

Dr

atoms

were

plained
ex-

Seal's Positive

Evolution

i]

vi

potentialsand

253

light-and-heatpotentialscombine

The

vayu-atom.

of Atoms

sound-potentialsto produce

with

touch-

tejas-atom. The

the

combine
with
taste-potentials
light-and-heatpotentials,touchpotentialsand sound-potentialsto generate the ap-atom and the
combine
smell-potentials

to generate
preceding potentials
The akasa-atom
the vayupenetrability,
possesses
mechanical
heat
pressure, the tejas-atom radiant

the earth-atom.

impact or
light,the ap-atom

atom

and

viscous
aka"a

attraction. The

cohesive

the bhutadi

link from

the

with

the

to

attraction
have

we

and
forms

seen

and

tanmatra

the

from

earth-atom

the

the

transition

tanmatra

to

production; it therefore deserves a specialnotice at

this stage. Samkhya
karana-akasa
and
a
distinguishesbetween
karana-akasa
(non-atomic and all-pervasive)
karyakasa. The
the

atomic

formless

is the

tamas

the

"

in

mass

is not
and
all-pervasive,
occupiedness (dvarandbhdva) or
indeed

with

associated

negation, a

mere

When

vacuum1.

element

this tamas

bhutadi;

prakrti or

it

gives

it is

mere

is first

energy
the

rise to

un-

sound-

potential; the atomic akasa is the result of the integrationof the

bhutadi
from
with this sound-potential(sabda
originalmass-units
aka"a-atom
is called the karyakasa; it is
an
tanmatra). Such
formed

it

occupies limited

avisesa

for the

of them

to

form

of evolution
in the
the

on

atomic

such

them
1

to

which

started

in the

B. N.

the ether

atoms

new

that

which
Dr

as

atomic

determinations

the

existence

five atoms

further be

cannot

in the

tions
differentia-

or

categoriesof

newer

and

they

technicallycalled

prakrtireaches

determined

so

that the

It is thus

called

are

course

its furthest

limit

the one
the atoms
side and
on
production of the senses
other.
Changes no doubt take place in bodies having
constitution, but these changes are changes of qualitydue

of
not

aka"a

Being

atoms.

are

category of existence.

new

spatialchanges

to

of

senses

for

visesa,i.e. determinate,
as

of vayu

further

formation

eleven

possible.The

are

originalkarana

five tanmatras

the

indeterminate, for

or

in the

up

space.
and

ahamkara

The

held

development

for the

medium

the

and

everywhere

newer

was

positionof

and

atoms

category of existence

different
substantially

and
of the physicists

in others

Chemistry,

or

their re-arrangement.

Seal in describingthis akaia

Ray's History of Hindu

the

says

to what

p. 88.

from

"Akasa
may

could
the

duction
intro-

But

these

be

formed

combined

corresponds in
be called

the

to

some

are

by

atoms.

respects

proto-atom (protyle)."

The

254
The

take

that

changes

certainlydeserve

noticed.

But

constitution

before

we

go

on

of

things

to

this,it
ing
accord-

hended
compre-

interpreted.

or

Principle of Causation

them?

when

from

When
the

tanmatras

of

have

atoms

the

Energy1.

prakrti supply
of other
have

tanmatras

some

some

and

the

can

mahat

from

mahat

deficiencyin

Conservation

by the formation

in its evolutes

made

from

and

raised,how

is

question

ficiences

atomic

to

which

The

the

[ch.

enquire about the principleof causation

the Samkhya -Yoga evolution
should
be

will be better
to

Patanjala Samkhya

place in

be

to

the

and

Kapila

made

de-

evolutes

evolved,or

evolved, how

be

tanmatras

the

the

can

good by

the

prakrti?

into

curd, and

remains

the

changes
energy

and

cause

effect

stage when

the atomic

place in

that take

principlethat guides the

is the

again,what

Or

while

same

only

are

Samkhya

on?

so

more

of effects
Energy. The sum
potentialform. The grouping or

and

is

(material)cause
rather

or

exists

of

appearance
of the

an

effect

sculptor'sart) is only
and

the

concomitant

(nimitta-kdrana,such

block

by

its passage

of

sum

alone

What

same
causes

changes,
of

the

is called

the

is efficient in the
This

Energy

set

conditions
into

causal

power
free
are

duction
prois the

(iidbhutanecessary

activity2."The

manifestation
the

of the

latent powers

cause

the

as

in the

power.

of the

material

(such

marble

in the

statue

of the

the concomitant

so-called

the

forth

But

forms

new.

which

power

vehicle

the

vrtti) in the effect.

call

the

only

the total

constantlyevolving,

collocation

anything

form
(or potential)

unmanifested

to

of

is

of the

manifestation

creation

without

but

gunas,

the

brings on

this

that "as

less evolved

or

body, say milk,

gross
says

world

the

ultimate
in

one

transformations

of

the

figure

of
efficiency

the

from

to actuality
potentiality
conditions
efficient cause
or
(sahakdri-sakti)
the sculptor's
as
art)is a sort of mechanical
help to this passage or the transition8. The

help or instrumental
than
from
prakrti thus means
this,that
nothing more
refilling
by the inherent teleology of the prakrti,the reals there are so
to be

transformed

collocated

as

have

collocated

been

1
2

to

form

into mahat
the

bhutadi

as
or

those

the

of the mahat

tanmatras.

IV.
Vydsabh"sya and Yogavdrttika,
3 ; Tattvavaifdradf,IV. 3.
8 Ibid.
Chemistry, p. 71.
Ray, History of Hindu

p. 73.

Conservation

vn]

however

Yoga

causes

of effects. When

sum

of material

sum

is that

is

As

the

of

owner

obstructingmud

the

the

(such

other

and

manner

barrier

the

is removed,

in
and

the

equilibrium in

themselves

evolve

Change
It is easy

as

to

of atoms

unless

barrier

the

present collocation
instrumental
of the
difference

five atoms

is different

from

these

that

in

barriers

of

state

exist

removed,

the

by

energy

reals

of arrest

other

some

formed

arrangement

or

form,

of

the

tion
colloca-

the

The

simply this,that
a

it is easy
in which

whichever
direction

its

of atoms

grouping
which

that

any

its

vyoman.

change,

From
in

and

of

equilibrium,and

that

extraneous

by

formation

The

against any

said

formation

the

is

flows

in

removed

are

change

not

another

exist.

this

Isvara, the

already

things are

in infinite directions

infiniteobjectsof the world

is

have

by

in another.

barrier

inherent

in

was

their state

ksiti,
marut,
ap, tejas,
the

or

milk

collocations.

new

caused

thing and

one

of atoms

collocation

of

the

example

accordingly for

will of

thing

removed

gross

for

atoms

could

could
All

between

of

or

be

collocation,

the barriers

as

we

in any

corresponding

form

to

causes

etc.

inherent

cause.

collocation

an

forming

other

Thus

prakrtileave

what

from

of itself

flows

inherent

in

out

constant

formation

the

remove

instrumental

any

the

soon

into mahat,

see

collocation

as

of

state

to

by heat or other causes

naturallychanges direction

the

prakrti,guided by

the

has

also

So

of

one

If

collocates

and

of curd.

the formation
from

milk-atoms

state.

from

only

barrier

flows

the

energy

corresponding manner

the

to

liberation

water

or

into

collocation.

milk

in the

on

has

the

the

the

collocated

which

level

efficient

collocation

that

determines

of arrest

state

the

sculptor'sart) remove
against its transformation
from

in the

arrest, disturbs

water
transferring

lower

or

when

of

(gunasannivesavis'esa).

barriers,whereupon

field,so

energy

energy

brings

collocation

same

of

sum

is added

the

removes

the

as

collocation
the

which

adjacent field in

an

basis

given collocation,all that happens

fresh

of the

another

field to

in

equilibrium,and

with

together

energy

255

more

condition
effectuating

imparted

relativelystable

the

to

the

conditions

stimulus

this

explains

Change

vividly on the
of the liberated potentialenergy.
The
potentiallycontains the energy manifested

transformation
material

and

of Energy

collocation

keeps

that

to

that

see

all the

other

side the barrier

and

helps

the

correspondingobject.Provided
removed, anything could be changed
of

formation
could

be

the

that

Yogins

any
line

of evolution

follows

"a

natural

definite

which

barriers
has

evolutionarycourse

the barriers could

lines where

not

in

of

deer
curd

can

tdpabandhd).
path which

of

out

come

The

is the

milk, this

evolutionary
barricaded

is not

by

form

the

of those
grows
of

in the

rainy
(kdldpabandha)\
(dkdrdpabandhd) ;
(nimit-

causes

follow

only

limitations

of these

are

is limitation

grow

thus

can

stepped"
over-

thus

saffron

of

limitation

course

any

time

of
the

there

and

Thus

paddy

or
only, this is limitation of season
cannot
beget men, this is limitation by

season

words

Bengal, this

kinds

be

exclusion

the

to

by

powers

cannot

removed,

be removed.

not

(desdpabandhd); certain

countries

path

and

like Kashmere

in countries

be

thing.

of events

course

in other

or

other

anything out

which

law

cannot

take

to

make

thus

the normal

{parindmakramaniyama)
some

into any

acquire the

can

and
barriers,

they can remove

any
other thing. But generallyin

which

the suitable barriers

it is believed

And

[ch.

PatafijalaSamkhya

the

and

Kapila

The

256

that

natural

or

obstructions1.

Change is taking placeeverywhere, from the smallest and least

and
reals are
continuallyvibrating and
to the highest. Atoms
the
changing places in any and every object. At each moment
universe

whole
at

the collocation

what

it

the

at

was

of atoms

previous
perceived

they are
changes are perceivable,
or
quality; but
dharmaparindma or changes of dharma
or
unperceived the changes are continuallygoing on.
When

change
virtue
and

these

of appearance

of which

these

we

At

evolution
new,

old

call it

we

latent

or

present and

Vydsabhdfya^
It is well

construction

old

laksanaparindma and
object of the world

or

new,

avasthdgoing
is under-

manifested
to

be

present, when

past. Thus

changes

of

sub-

it becomes

potential,

it is that

the

thing

called

are

future,

past2.

as

every

aspect by

past, and

or

This

change, change as past, present and future,

When
unborn.
any change is in a potentialstate

sub-latent

order of moments

the

another

ceived
per-

or

it is said

manifest, and

of time

moment

future,when

again

from

call it present

may

every

viewed

be

may

called
respectively

are

parindma.
as

undergoing change, and

is different from

moment

any

moment.
as

is

Tattvavaifaradi

to note
an

and

Yogav"rttika,III.

in this connection

that

14.

Samkhya-yoga

admit

does not

independententitylike the Nyaya-Vaisesika. Time

in which

of the mind

the

mind

grasps

(buddhi-nirm"na).

the

The

phenomenal changes.
time

requiredby

an

the existence

represents the
It is hence
atom

to

move

The

point of

one

asatkaryavada.The
vdda

against the

as

remains

cause

these

the

illusoryimpositionsof
mere
Maya1.

true
relatively

are

that

its effects is

Vedanta

ever

views

view

Samkhya

and

and

from
is

cause

technicallycalled
the

what

unreal

mere

the

called

view

same,

[ch.

Patanjala Samkhya

satkaryavada is true

view

itself into

transforming

the

that both

holds

Jain view

that from

and

Kapila

The

258

another

continually
parindmathat

vivarttavdda:
call effects

we

and

of

appearance

but

are

and

name

form

"

Atheism

SSmkhya
that

Granted
number

of reals

whence

comes

interchange of the positionsof the infinite

produce all the world and its transformations
;

this fixed

of

first disturbance
denies

there

the

inherent

an

This

which

barriers

effect

any

or

the

prakrti? Samkhya

the

other

any

exterior

influence,

tendency in these reals which

tendency or teleologydemands

reals should

of the

movements

into

cause

Isvara(God) or

is

so-called

equilibrium of

their movements.

guides all
that

of

of the

of any

of

universe,the fixed order

of the

order

fixed

the

the existence

holds that

and

order

transformation

the

prevent

Theism.

Yoga

the

effect,the

and

cause

and

be

in such

that

manner

service to the souls either in the direction

they may render some
of such a
It is by the natural
of enjoyment or salvation.
course
tendency that prakrtiis disturbed,and the gunas develop on two
lines

the

on

"

mental

and
faculties,

on

in fulfilment

of

take

hand

buddhi

objectiveplane

the

demands

and

the

on

other

finallyrouses
liberation

them

from

causes

Both

as

this

tendency

here

the

tendency to be
guides all the movements
the

world

to turn

back

the association
us

all this trouble

asks, how

the Vedanta

and

called satkaryyavada. But

pointed out, the Vedanta

as

infinite modes

is this

disorder, renders

Yoga

comprising the sense

material
objects;and it is

place subjectiveexperiences

(purusdrthatd)that

which

of

mind

or

the

things. It
all

plane,citta

from
of

the

the

on

of

changes

of the

of service

changes
to

the

one

the

jective
of ob-

purus;

of the reals,restrain*

object of experience, an"

the world

prakrtiand

of

the blind

the Samkhya

fit

that

and

seek

to

attaii

its gratuitousservice

samsara.

tendency

of the

theories of causation

correctly
speakingas

some

are

non-intelligent
sometimes

commentators
discerning

loosely
have

for acshould be called satkaranavada

cording
theory of causation
to it the k"rana
alone
exists
and
all
(cause)
are
illusory
(sat)
karyyas (effects)
of the karana ; but according to Samkhya the karyya exists in a potential
appearances
state in the karana
and is hence always existing
and real.

i]

vi

prakrtican
how

service

bring
the

to

what

it

can

too

from

evolutionaryorder

can

that

all

universe,

will be of the best

its

remove

this blind

of the

harmony

of evolution

evolutionaryprocess

equilibrium? How

259

and

course

how

purusas,

itself to the

this order

forth

it determine

can

lend

Theism

Yoga

barriers

own

the

of

prakrti
regulatethe

state

tendency

and

so

suffer

pains according to
their bad
karmas, and happiness according to their good ones?
There
be some
must
intelligent
Being who should help the course
of evolution in such a way
that this system of order and harmony
be attained.
This Being is Isvara.
Isvara is a purusa
who
may
had never
been subjectto ignorance,afflictions,
or
passions. His
be touched
body is of pure sattva
quality which can never
by
all
and
all
He
has
is
He
a perknowledge
ignorance.
powerful.
manent
wish

that

by

which

the reals
double

those

(apavarga) should
will of Isvara
follow

gunas

barriers

in the

the evolution

of the

interest

must

men

be

of the evolution

course

of the gunas

may

best

serve

of
the

purusa's experience{bhoga)and liberation

removed.
It is according to this permanent

that

barriers

the proper

naturallyan

of evolution

course
intelligent

service of the best interests of the purusas.

and

removed

are

Isvara

the

for the

has not

created

the

prakrti; he only disturbs the equilibriumof the prakrtiin its

order
quiescentstate, and later on helps it to follow an intelligent
by which the fruits of karma are properlydistributed and the order
of the world
in

is

and

brought

about.

This

acknowledgement

of Isvara

by Samkhya marks the main theoretic

difference between
the two
according to which the Yoga and
Samkhya are distinguishedas Sesvara Samkhya (Samkhya with
Isvara)and Nirisvara Samkhya (AtheisticSamkhya)1.
Yoga

its denial

Buddhi
The

the

can

the

and

Purusa.

ligence,
question again arises that though purusa is pure intelthe gunas
are
non-intelligentsubtle substances, how
latter

purusa

is pure

impurity and

into

come

what

the

former?

without
intelligence

inactive
service

with

touch

or

need

can

such

any

Moreover,
touch

of

have

of

purusa

has
is anticipatedby Samkhya, which
difficulty
for its answer
already made room
by assuming that one class of
the purity and
the gunas called sattva
is such that it resembles
the

gunas?

the

of
intelligence

This

Tattvavais'dradi,IV.

the
3;

purusa

to

Yogavdrttika,I.

very
24;

and

much

high degree,so
Pravacanabkdsya,

v.

1-12.

17"2

so

that

it

Patanjala Samkhya

of
intelligence

reflect the

can

the

and

Kapila

The

260

the

and

purusa,

[ch.

thus

render

if they were
to appear
transformations
telligent.
inas
non-intelligent
volitional
Thus
all our
or
thoughts and other emotional
transformations
of the
operations are reallythe non-intelligent
its

buddhi

citta

or

having

reflection

of the

preponderance; but by
the buddhi, these appear

largesattva

of the

in

purusa

virtue
if

as

existence

The
self (purusa) according to Samkhyaintelligent.
Its
not
by self-consciousness.
directly demonstrated
of inference
is a matter
on
grounds and
teleological

grounds

of

they
Yoga

are

is

noticed

The
responsibility.

moral

the buddhi

from

being separate

as

beginninglessignorance there
of buddhi
states
are
regarded as
further

are

buddhi

that

This

buddhi

of the

who

says
purusa
the

is somewhat
and

the

realize

that

the

Buddhi

resembles

the

the

buddhi

distinction
is what
the

root

experiences.
is intelligized
by
the

upon

1
9

As

result

in
the

is meant

from

and

transparency,
modifications
the

purusa

Yogavdrttika,I.

indicates the nature

non-apprehensionof

the

which

of the

be

the

the purusa
of cit

its

not

bound

is itself a mode

own.

fails to

buddhi,

becomes

on

cannot

purusa

of the

the

and

down
the

that
This

as

non-

of buddhi

Samkhya,

and

is

4.

analysisof

the distinction of two

are

in

notion

purusa

recognize the truth

wholly alien to it.

are

buddhi

and

by avidyd (non-knowledge)
experience and all misery3.
and

of the purusa,

with

buddhi

person

may

the

the

therefore

reflection

buddhi

the

Bhiksu.

real

have

we

of this

of the

transformations

its transformations

TcUtvavaifaradl
This

purusa

with

supposed

of the buddhi

superimpositionof

of purusa

be

the reflection

purusa,

that the union

purusa

of

experiences1. Whatever

who

itself from

of all

purusa.

of the

buddhi

notion

the

give us

buddhi, always failingto

and

of the

association

result of this non-distinction

to

the

by Vijnana

to

It is to

mystical.

buddhi

differentiate

reflection

objected

is

cannot

person

explanation,it seems

that

superimposed

abiding

an

in the

purusa

situation

the buddhi

it is then
of

the

undergoes

that when

of the

changes

preted
specialfitness (yogyata) that it is interThis
explanation of
experience of the purusa.
such

has

Vacaspati of
VijfianaBhiksu
image

the

with

changing

buddhi

experiences of

the

directly
Through

the

These

reflection

the

and

confusion

be

cannot

modifications.

conscious.

buddhi

of the

the

as

is

interpretedas

they are

association

in the

with

associated

so

self

illusion with

things (e.g.the

Samkhya.

snake

and

It is the

the rope) that

vn]

and

Ignorance
holds

Yoga
and

the

buddhi

261

that
slightlydifferent view and supposes
only fails to distinguishthe difference between

not

purusa

Illusion

buddhi

its

but

positivelytakes

but
that

It is

the

own.

impure, sorrowful,

of

difference

the

no

and

self
it-

transformations

non-perception of
positivelyfalse knowledge, that we take the
which
it is not
(anyathakhydti). It takes
as

the

the

be

to

purusa

changing,

buddhi

the
to be
objectiveprakrti or
changeless,pure, happiness-begettingsubject. It wrongly thinks
buddhi
be the self and
to
and
regards it as pure, permanent
capable of giving us happiness. This is the avidya of Yoga.
associated

buddhi

avidya,and
with

the

same

If in the
in the

by

of the

of

proceeds

the

is rooted

out

attach

The

it and

easily get

rid

creation

they
of

by

the

in order

process

with

there

is

of the

avidyas

buddhis

rise of true
and

also

the

knowledge,

is forever

is

avidya.
submerged

it. When

become

the

manifest

with

pralaya.
of

avidya
the

at the

associated

themselves

before

When

samsara.

this

buddhis

associate

attached

were

of

Thus

person
fails to

buddhi

dissociated

the

from

it,and

that

that

external

an

and

characteristics

some

buddhi

and

the

of Citta.

internal

objects have

giving scope to the experience of the purusa.

of this experience? Samkhya
(as explained

to

by Vacaspati) holds
touch

old

the

Process

said

been

is the

individual

the

is associated

buddhi

sleeps with

an

of mukti.

Cognitive

evolved

also

avidya

the

course

state

It has

touch

it cannot

itself to the purusa

this is the

into

buddhi

emerge,

which

to

purusas

same

place,the

such

by

the

the

next

is dominated

purusa

pralaya takes

purusas

virtue

after birth

purusa,

prakrti,and

the

What

birth

meantime

beginning
with

when

with

through the
objects. At

senses

the

the

buddhi

of

first moment

indeterminate

consciousness

in which

be

This

is called

thing

cannot

noticed.

comes

this

the

particulars
nirvikalpa
moment
by

pratyaksa (indeterminate perception).At the next

and vikalpa (abstraction
the function
of the samkalpa (synthesis)
or
(mind-organ) the thing is perceived in
imagination)of manas
all its determinate
and
is the

associates
cause

illusion which

the

must

be

consists

in

differentiates,integrates,

through

the

senses,

and

theory of
(non-apprehension)
theory
anyathakhydti(misapprehension)
the
rope)
positivelymisapprehendingone (e.g.

called the akhydti

distinguishedfrom

which

manas

received

sense-data

of illusion ; it is therefore

of illusion of Yoga
for the other

character; the

the

snake). Yogavdrttika,I.
(e.g.

8.

The

262

Kapila

and

the

thus generates the determinate

by the purusa
experience of
buddhi,

and
times

in

as

and

associated

the

person.
take

may

from

this

perception,which
with
The

it becomes

activityof the
directlycomes

into

At

first moment

the

but

the

at

of

second

It is evident

it is

the
the

touch

the

other

at

the

that

says

synthetic
buddhi

the
the

senses.

perception is indeterminate,
and

clear

of

being only

as

determinate1.
is reduced

manas

sire,
de-

facultyof

the

and

and

the

senses,

called

often

citta

Yoga, is always incessantlysufferingchanges like the flame

a
lamp; it is made
up of a largepreponderance of the pure

in
of

substances, and

sattva

another.

to

and

buddhi

functions

does

not

but

for

is

the

admit

any

performs the
1

senses,

the sense-data

time-order

is

like trees

in

buddhi

bhavati"

as

up;

the

with

for it is

for the

this

modified

sciousness
con-

by

its

Samkhya
the

Vedanta

category

its diverse

body.

objectstakes placethrough

by the

senses

if

they

are

of

ments
move-

of the

sense-functions

the external

are

of

(vitalbreath)to keep

operation of
body and by

and

of the

endeavour.

moral

it were,

kept

vayu

of

life-functions

buddhi

is

and

vdyus (bio-motorforce)in

through

of colours,etc.,

the

defective.

however

darpane sphdre samastd

vastudrstayah
tatadrumak."
pratibimbanti sarasiva
Yogavdrltika, i.
the form

assumes

rather the mind

flows

of the object which

is reflected

on

4.

it by the senses,

to the external
through the senses
objectsand assumes
taih
indriydnyevapranalika cittasaficaranamdrgah samyujya tadgolabahyavastusiiparaktasyacittasyendriyasdhityenaivdrthdkdrahparindmo

their forms:

kadvara

being

are

tasmimha
imastah

The

and

directly,but the
perceivedby the senses
of the citta or the buddhi.
scheme
Generallyspeaking Yoga holds
in which they are reflected,
the
buddhi
a
re
objects faithfully
copiedby

lake

body,

body

modes

spatialqualitiesof thingsare

that the external

the

called

all

of the

the contact

As

the

over

separate prana
are

acts

all

life of

different

which

buddhi,

explaining experience

spread

that

the

of buddhi

The
existence
experiences of a person.
postulatedfor explaining the illumination

body living.What
are

conscious,

tent
con-

one

the

and

The

constantlymoulding itself from

images by the dual reflection

constantly becoming

is to be

purusa

is

These

are

purusa

interpretedas

or

denies

importance

regarded

imagination.
Buddhi, including ahamkara

The

ahamkara,

senses,

objects through

it becomes

this view

on

and

doubt

with

moment

that

minimum

to a

touch

the

simultaneously.VijfianaBhiksu

fear

of

view

intelligized

successivelyand

Vacaspati, and
mind-organ (manas), and

differs

when

[ch.

interpretedas

of the

action

place sometimes

of sudden

cases

Patanjala Samkhya

out

*'

Yogavdrtttka,1. vi. 7. Contrast

Tattvakaumudl,

27

and

30.

Instinct

vn]
Apart
rather

from

citta

the

perceptionsand

(vasana)1. These

their past lives

citta

same

Every

as

and

man

animal

lives. It is knotted

passes

into

He

attached
of the

life

to

such

of

these

to each

might

as

samskaras

which

he

took

The

like
of

delightfor

senses

of

become

of

like those

of

previouslifeand becomes
It is by the revival
a dog.
if the

occurred

be

cannot

and

instincts

when

active

was

one

any

sankhara

Ka^ika

11.

of

meaning

in three
probably preceded Buddha
from
a
new
quality
generating
distinguished
ii.
on
16), (2) conglomeration
Panini, VI.

which

All

in sub-conscious

Upanisads

do

our

states

(smrti).The

word
not

in

refers to the tendencies

which
are

can

2,

not

to

yet

across

come

of samskara

predicated.
the

samskaroii

Brhadaranyaka,

any

in Hindu

may

(Yoga

mention
of

it and

meaning
iii. 1,

VI.

of the

use
literary

in

is used

second

philosophy is altogether

cognitive,emotional or conative
be reproduced as
conditions

so

"vas"

of past lives most

suitable

sutra,
far

as

24)

to

seems

I know

it is not

it,and

life. See

it

be

The

later word.

mentioned

in the

identified in

of which

in this life. But

IV.

lie dormant

samskaras

are

Vydsabhdsya^ TatlvavaUaradt

and

9.

But

are

Only

sub-conscious
innate

sense

generally

vasana

in the mind.
the

Pali

in the Muktika

occurs

stay. It is often looselyused in the

to
are

IV.

mentions

Moggallana

root

Vydsabhdsya they

find scope

under

being constantlygenerated by experience. Vasanas

acquired in this

be

suggest that

word

3, 4, viii. 8, 5, and

experienceswhether
and

vasana

pitakas. Abhidhanappadipikd
from
the
Upanisad. It comes
samskara, and

have

could

impermanence

the impressions (which exist sub-consciouslyin the mind) of the

means

objects experienced.
memory

xvi.

meaning

The

in Sanskrit.

different. It

IV.

were

as

of

anything

improving. I

in

who

diversities of meaning I venture

spiteof so many
aggregation (samavdya of Panini) is prominent. The

sense

passions which

any

in

Kausitaki,

pleasure

any

137, 138). In the Pitakas the word

lishing,
constructing,preparing, perfecting,embelthe skandhas
(collectedby Childers). In fact

karma,

6, Chandogya,

or

any

(Panini,VI. i.
such

senses

for almost

stands

through,

time, or

as

which

impressionsby

root

lived

thing

(3)adornment

in various

is used

aggregation, matter,

which

number

have

Panini

by
a

samskarah,

aggregation,and

sankhara

appear

dog

man

which
life,

that there

some

is used

(i)improving

(Satautkarsddhdnam

earlier

If

net.

birth
particular

has

man

samskara

word

different

exist

different

previous infinite
his

lives the

of all those

tendencies

represent the

life that

in the

of births in

collected

vasanas

of his

some

able
suit-

thus

citta has

vasanas

rebirth,the

in

under

man.

as

of

of

with

pressions
im-

root

In all these

tendencies

or

tendencies

or

revived

are

The

previous dog-lifewere

habit

of

and

it the

instincts

animal.

some

the man's

suitable

vasana

The

But

as

forgetsthe experiencesof
enjoyment in the manner

tendencies

or

had

have

collision

by

revived,and

births,are

dog.

instincts

dog

must

man

within

infinite numbers

had

always followinghim.

was

itself the

born

buddhi,
life-functions,

the

samskaras

had

man

within

any

263

Yoga describes it,contains

(samskaras) and the tastes and

associations.

Desire

as

of all past lives

the

and

those
states

samskaras

Yogavdrttika,n.

13.

not

The

264

Kapila

and

the

engrossing to him, tend to

be experienced,yet
not
now
before

has

moulded

so

effort

any

such

any

undesirable

roots

on

the

and

idea

fact that

be eradicated

the

completely by
tendency, which if made

it is therefore

might
experienced

citta

of the

revival

Apart

from

these

citta possesses

which

the

conative

revival

habit
will

the

without
of

that its

necessary

sufficiently
strong

the

that

of samskaras

formation

naturallystop

samskara

the

to

citta in the form

in the

were

[ch:

these

nature
even
by its own
safeguard against the

tendency

or

they

given shape

part. To

our

already left

as

revived, for though

reproduce them

will try to

citta

be

Patanjala Samkhya

should
of

trary
con-

its

by

own

previous undesirable

of the

samskaras.

by

objects. There
by
to

which

it

in the very

essence

method

of

which
practice,

of mind

to the

Merit

of

citta,and

exclusion

form

substance.

As

tamas

Tamas,

we

be

must

all intellectual
of

is imbedded

sorrow

it,and

have

we

fear that

the

at

greater than

the

pleasures,and

keenness

the

that
capacityof realizing
of

For

sorrow.

all is sorrow,

unless

and

man

Tattvavaif"radi

and

and

that
the

enjoy it,for

we

pleasure,
solicited
have

is thus

sorrows

binations,
com-

degree

had

we

all

pain

in all

some

of temporary

the

much

pleasuresonly strengthenthe
the

and

man

our

is convinced

the

greater is his

experiencesare

all full

of this great truth

that

whether
pleasures,
generated by
by enjoying heavenly experiences

ordinaryworldly experience or
through the performance of Vedic
1

fraughtwith

total of

wiser

that temporary

degree

some

when

we

the

the world

hold

Buddhists,

in states

sum

The

sorrow.

citta

it.

know, represents

we

when

even

lose it. The

of

the

previous moment

sorrow

in the

its movements,

with

present in

even

may

we

of

operationsare

painfulfeeling.Moreover
had

involved

groundwork of the Yoga

state
steadying a particular

in

like

Yoga,

is sorrowful.

are

its Dissolution1.

and

the

experience

continue

of others.

Sorrow
and

or

courses

the

(punya, papa) also

its tendencies, regulating the mode
as
giving pleasuresand pains in accordance

Samkhya

its

their

to

{sakti)of citta,

characteristics

demerit

or

relation

into

change

consists

activity{cesta)

potent power

These

direction.

one

any

reserved

itself and

restrain

volitional

brought

are

senses

is also the

can

persistin

the

are
sacrifices,

Yogavdrttika,II.

15, and

quite unable

Tattvakaumudi,

1.

to

the

Patanjala Sdmkhya

final

prakrti. This

from

purusa

and

Kapila

The

266

being

purpose

[ch.

attained

the

again bind the purusa with reference to whom

prakrti can never
this right knowledge was
generated ; for other purusas however
their experias
before, and they continue
the bondage remains
ences
birth to another
in an endless
from one
cycle.
Yoga, however, thinks
order
to bring about

In

that

liberation

all the

that

should

its samskaras

be

habits

old

should

is transformed
of

all

longer

to

hold

the

to

on

top, gravitatesback

mountain

practiceis necessary.
arranged that by generating
of

course
so

and

better

modes

states, the habits of

he

advances

has

when

At

give

buddhi

the

final liberation

the

its purest
This

is

is

impotent
hurled

any

from

practiceof livinghigher

be

what

had

thus

the

assumes

he

as

good

reaches

perfectionand
form

of

the

yogin

the

As

adopted

Continuing

its subtler

on

removed.

life may
he

mind

the

is in its ultimate

buddhi

takes

in

up

be revived

prakrti1. To

steadying

is still better.

this stage the

Karmas

ordinary

to

try for that which

state

and
life,

of

to

(allsamskaras,

stone

all

destroy the
not
a graduated
being sufficient,
This graduated practiceshould

into the

alone

samskaras, knowledge

old

like

and

purusa,

buddhi,

purusa.

(oneness)state of existence after which

avidya being altogetheruprooted) the citta

true

it

into

the

arise,but
of

experience
destroyed never

kevala

the

that

enough

buddhi

nature

sufficient.

not

of

for all

once

again. At this stage the buddhi

steadilythe true
state, reflecting

be

it is not

and

knowledge differentiating
purusa
is necessary

philosophy is

mere

and
the

purity.
and

purusa,

place.

Yoga

divided

are

into

four

classes:

(i) sukla

or

white

(punya, those that produce happiness),(2) krsna or black

(papa, those that produce sorrow),(3) sukla- krsna (punya-pdpa,
of our
most
ordinary actions are partlyvirtuous and partlyvicious
as
they involve,if not anything else,at least the death of many
insects),
(4) asuklakrsna
meditation
All

which

external

in the

world

Both

the former
and

involve

avoid

and

because

devoid

are

actions

Samkhya

(those inner

and

all

sorrows

at

with

S"mkhya

see

fruits

any

taking the

pleasuresor pains).

as

sins,for

some

and
self-abnegation,

it is difficult to work

lives of insects2.

Yoga speakof this emancipatedstate

the latter because

buddhi,

of

of

acts

have

this state

been
purusa

karmas

Kaivalya (alone-ness),
to grow
up again

absolutely
uprooted, never
remains

karikd, 68 and

Vyisabhdfyaand Tattvavaii"radi,

as

All

IV.

7.

for

ever

alone

Yoga sutras,

I v.

without
34.

any

tion
associa-

Modes

vn]
from

proceed

the

asmita, raga,
We

five-fold

dvesa

and

afflictions

abhinivesa.

have

while

in this form

remaining
of

forms

four

objects
of

sense

and

experiences

our
"

mine

"

further

Asmita

asmita, etc.
"

"

or

transformations

really belonging

as

things that reallyare

to

of the gunas.

Raga

the

"

will to

be.
be

experiences to
be

to

our

to

mischief

that

our

; because

these

might

always try to
proceed, as is easy to

from

identification

false

and

the

performed

particularmode
birth,and

to

We

the buddhi.

karma

The

modification

the

on

teleologyof

the

by

each

vicious

so

with

together
from

as

birth
in the

modification

tendencies
leaves

of

lie

in).
{klesd)of
to

purusa

its stain

according to
in the

by the permanent
brings sufferance and a

action

five,

buddhi,

karma

of obstacles

the removal

consists

our

buddhi

for the

ordained

all

in the buddhi

or

performed

it is

in accordance

mode

our

These

These

The

the vicious

thus

and

love

or

the

course

will of

it

virtuous

pleasure.

one

The

karmas
and

buddhi,

as

of karma

when

prakrtiand

of its evolution
that

actuated

karma

the

get rid of them1.

it lies in the buddhi

are

These

purusa.

suffer.

to

transmigrate with
to

we

we

mischief.

lie inherent

which

karmdsaya (the bed

perform

Isvara

of it

it is hard

aspect in which
it is called

karmas

; because

because

with

and

our

family

our

abhinivesa, permeate

karma

think

avidya,which

root

buddhi

of

love

antipathy against any

against any

their

of

avidya,asmita, raga, dvesa

lead us
and
to
perform
with

it

ment
attach-

or

we

own,

own

our

the

"

antipathy

for life

our

also

and

them,

preserve
see,

be

to

be

us

or
qualities

or

because

work

feel great

we

befall

desire

the

to

the

aversion

means

body

our

own,

life and

in the

proceed

possessionsto

our

own,

attached

We

to

the consequent

means

pleasuresand things. Dvesa

is
unpleasant things. Abhinivesa

life

thinking of worldly

the

means

other

itself in the

manifests

to

avidya,

{klesas\namely

meant
sists
already noticed what was
by avidya. It conin
to buddhi, in thinking it
generally
ascribingintelligence
and
leading to happiness. This false knowledge
permanent

as

to

267

of Ignorance

performed
when

life is ordained

him

according to

for him

to

suffer
1

the
for the

in the

time

person,

the evolution
or

for

enjoy

Vyasabhasya

the
and

of

cumulate,
present life will generallyac-

giving their
such a body

prakrtias

is made

shall make

fruits thereof.
Tattvavaifdradi,

fruits comes,

II.

The
3-9.

such

ready for
it possible

karma

of the

Kapila and

The

268

particularkind

the

determines

present life thus

Patanjala Samkhya

the

[ch.

of future

birth

(as this or that animal or man), the period of life idyus)and

painful or pleasurableexperiences{bhogd)destined for that
Exceedingly good actions and extremely bad actions often
also happen that a man
their effects in this life. It may
actions,for

bad

certain

done

requiresa dog-lifeand
In
he requiresa man-life.
in abeyance and the man
and then be born again as
all his

if we

But

can

actions

life.
duce
prohas

of the fruits of which

realization

good

he

actions.

the

the

for the

fruits of which

good action may remain

first
suffer the pains of a dog-life
may
to enjoy the fruits of his good
a
man

such

the

cases

ignoranceand

remove

previous unfulfilled

karmas

for

are

the other

afflictions,

lost and

ever

cannot

suffer the fruits of those

again be

revived.

karmas

alreadyripened. This is the jivanmukti stage,

true
knowledge and is yet suffering
sage has attained
that have already
life in order to experiencethe karmas

when

which
the

mundane

has

He

of

to

course

have

cakrabhramivaddhrtasarlrah).

samskdravasdt
ripened (tisthati

Citta.
The
in the

word
sense

Yoga

which

of the restraint

in Vedic

formerly used

was

of the

senses

literature

in
by Patafljali

is used

of the partialor full restraint or

Yoga siltra in the sense
steadyingof the states of citta. Some sort of concentration may
be brought about
fightingagainst
by violent passions,as when
mortal
a
or
even
by an ignorant attachment or instinct.
enemy,
his

The

citta which

has

the concentration

of the former

type is called

pramudha (ignorant).There
is another
kind
of citta,as with
all ordinary people, in which
concentration
is only possiblefor a time, the mind
remaining
steady on one thing for a short time leaves that off and clingsto
another
This is called the viksipta(unsteady)
thing and so on.
stage of mind (cittabhumi).As distinguishedfrom these there is
advanced
an
steadilyon
stage of citta in which it can concentrate
an
objectfor a long time. This is the ekdgra (one-pointed)stage.
ksipta(wild) and

There

of the

is a stillfurther advanced

and

is called the

Yoga
The
1

is to achieve
cittas

Samkhya

have

holds

stage in which

the citta processes

happens immediately before mukti,

of
nirodha (cessation)
state of citta. The
purpose

absolutely
stopped.

are

latter type

that

This

the conditions

of the last two

five processes
both

the cognitivestate

itself and

{svalah
pr"manyam

svatah

validityand
not

on

of
invalidity
The

(valid

{vrtti\(i) pramdna1
any

correspondence with

apramanyam).

stages of citta.

contribution

depend
cognition

external

facts

of Samkhya

or

to

upon

objects
the

doc-

Tendencies

vn]

Good

of

Evil

and

269

cognitivestates such as are generated by perception,inference

and scriptural
testimony),(2)viparyaya(falseknowledge, illusion,
and different kinds
construction
of
etc.),
(3)vikalpa(abstraction,
is a vacant
of mind, in which
state
imagination),
(4) nidrd (sleep,
tends to predominate),(5) smrti (memory).
tamas
of mind
These
states
(vrtti)
comprise our inner experience.
When
into the course
of passions
they lead us towards samsara
and
their satisfactions,
or
they are said to be klista (afflicted
when
lead
to
towards
us
leading affliction)
liberation,
they
they
;
called
aklista
To whichever
side we
are
(unafflicted).
go, towards
samsara

or

mind

; the

and

towards

This
that

draws

attention

towards

the

Thus

alternate

towards

bad

that

with

bad

and

in the

towards

flows

both

well

as

samsara

with

It is like

ways,

river,as
sin and

towards

midst

lost in man,

it in the midst
moral

come

of

vicious

the liberation

as

good
good thoughts

there

habits

thoughts and

of

good states,
good (liberation)

final

our

states

our

important characteristic of citta,

and sometimes
good (i.e.
liberation)

(samsara).

in accordance

and

of

use

teleologyof prakrtirequiresthat

The

man

tend

to

tends

bhdsya says, which

in

often

bad

are

make

to

regarded as good.

it sometimes

good.

have

we

should

state

be

must

which

states

whichever

mukti,

The

tendencies.
it is

and

the

Vydsa-

towards

it should

the

produce

tendency.

of many
will and
habits

will to be

bad

thoughts
good thoughts,
come

good

also

bad

is therefore

innate

tendency in him which is

as
strong as his desire to enjoy pleasures.This point is rather
remarkable, for it gives us the key of Yoga ethics and shows that
desire of liberation is not actuated
our
by any hedonistic attraction
for happiness or even
removal
of pain,but by an innate tendency
Removal
of pains
of the mind
to follow the path of liberation1.

never

as

an

the subjecthas
on
samanyatodrstatypes
of inference,and these may better be consulted in our chapter
on
Nyaya or in the Tatparyatika of Vacaspati. Samkhya inference was
probably from particularto particularon
kinds of inference
the ground of seven
kinds of relations according to which they had seven
'
sdmSvasvamibadhyaghdtadyaih
matranimittasamyogivirodkisahacaribhih.
khydndm saptadhdnumd" (Tdtparyatikd,p. 109). Samkhya definition of inference as
known.
definitely
Vatsyayana such as

What

trine of inference is not

been borrowed

from

the

littleVacaspati says

pmvavat,

sesavat

and

'

given by Udyotakara (I.I. v)

is

"

sambandhddekasmdt

pratyaksdcchesasiddhiranumd-

nam."
1

complete destruction of three kinds

fied
body or the unsatisinternallyby
ddhyatmika (generated
the
ddhibhautika
i
injuriesnflicted
externallyby
(generated
passionsof the mind),
Samkhya

however

makes

the

absolute

by
and

other men,

and

the illness of the

of sorrows,

beasts,etc.)and adhidaivika

ghosts)the objectof

all

our

endeavours

inflictedby demons
(generatedby the injuries

{purusdrthd).

Kapila

The

yo

is of

motive

still the

gradually grow
He

other.

must

to

natural

that

but

course,

and

irresistible

(sakti) stored

power

it in such

use

Purificatory

Yoga
The

way

of

purpose

Practices

meditation

Yoga

gradually advancing stages

the

that

and

in his

up

this

be

of

(Parikarma).
is to

towards

thoughts

gradually

may

the

steady
be

disappear altogether.But
loftymeditation, it is necessary

mind

on

liberation,
and

more

at last

fit for this

be

can

tendencies

vicious

weakened

before
that

more

mind

the

it should

the intending yogin

ordinary impurities. Thus
practiseabsolute non-injury to all livingbeings (akz'msd),
of

purged

should

and

absolute

sexual

nothing
These

truthfulness

strict

absolute

{satya)ynon-stealing (asteya\
(brahmacaryd) and the acceptance of

restraint
which

that

but

is

absolutely necessary

called yama.
collectively

are

abstinences

of

body

unmoved

all

bearing

and

practiseexternal

privationsof
remaining

These

heat

silent in

and

philosophy (svddhydyd)

pranidhdnd).

Again

side

{aparigraha).

by

side with

cleanliness

cleanliness of the mind, contentment

inner

habit

also

must

one

and

of

has

is

final realization1.

her

so

path

followingsuch

[ch.

tendency may
stronger and stronger and ultimatelyuproot the
liberation for
succeed in this,since prakrtiwants

has

he

citta,and

this

Man

mind.

Patanjala Samkhya

effect of

follow

to

of the

tendency

the

concomitant

the

course

and

and

of

these

by

tions
ablu-

mind,

the

cold, or keeping

the

speech (tapas\ the study

meditation

on

I"vara

called
collectively

To

(Jsvarathese

are
niyamas.
also to be added
certain other moral
such as pratipaksadisciplines
and upeksd. Pratipaksa-bhavana
bhdvand, maitri,karund, muditd

that

are

whenever

bad

thought (e.g.selfish motive) may

should
come
one
practise the opposite good thought (selfthat the bad thoughts may
find any
so
not
sacrifice);
scope.
means

of

Most
with

vices

our

originated by

are

To
fellow-beings.

our

abstinence

habituate

not

may
the

mind

to

remove

our

these

unfriendly relations
the

practiceof

be

and
therefore
sufficient,
keep itself in positivegood

one

beings

think

should

practice of maitri means

friends. If we
continually habituate

as

this,we

can

practise karuna
1

See

be

never

my

or

mere

should

relations

The
fellow-beings.

our

all

to

think

ourselves

with
of
to

So too one
displeased with them.
kindly feeling for sufferers,mudita

"-Yoga Psychology,"
Quest, October, 192

1.

vi

i]

or

or

last

of the

indicates

one

the

mind

{yairagyd) and

objecthe

Yoga

has

become

to

and

of

he

; when

qualitiesit

their

Higher

than

these

ananda

state

the

of the
concentrates

on

on

the

buddhi

samadhi,
1

which

called

in which

the

Vacaspati,however,
is denied

by

Bhiksu.

mind

thinks

of

the

and

matras
tan-

nirvicara.

with

In the
its functions

stage buddhi
all

which

Next

the

states.

called the

of samadhi.

of their

called

asmita

divested

therefore

is without

that ananda

the

objects on

are

savitarka

with

one

asmita

consciouslyconcentrates, these are

(with knowledge of objects)types
stage of samadhi

it is

the

as

the

remembrance

and

stages there

all these

Of

objects,

on

is called

ananda

substance

pure

unifying

asmitd.

concentrates

qualitiesit is

causing pleasure. In

senses

and

of their

concentrates

for

choice,

own

of this

states

it
qualities,

when

mind

he should

unifying concentration

the mind

savicara, and

the

such

varieties,
savitarka,nirvi-

two

with

are

being

At

easier

his

vicdra, dnanda

each

and

notion

any

makes

four

are

its

fixes his mind

it becomes

he

course

five tanmatras

is called

of

being pleased removes

likes for the

have

names

the

on

without

last

formances
per-

its dross

greatly reduced.

path, and

There

vicara

and

chances

the

Isvara

case

of

But

mind.

his

remembering

the

of

the

advance.

posture (asana)and

When
tarkaysavicdra,nirvicdrax.

In

by

purged

each

at

are

namely vitarka,

vitarka

stage

in heaven

mind

pure

in his

anything

concentration
these

the

worldly pleasures

is,however, preferablethat

in that

success.

choose

{samadhi)

It

obstacles

the

attain

can

note

any

Meditation.

firm

chooses.

Isvara,for

on

of

him

of others.

take

not

all

to

promised

are

disturbances

external

by

many

as

The

stage the yogin takes

fix it

disinclined

{prajna)attained

mind

the

When

any

should

yogin

and
sacrifices,

wisdom

(yirya)and

on

for the vices

upeksa

practiceof Yoga meditation, the yogin may

with
by a constant
practice {abhydsd)attended
and
execution
(sraddhd),strength of purpose

faith,confidence

ruffled

beings,and

fit for the

liberation

attain

all

men.

all such

to

the

becomes

of Vedic
made

that

of vicious

vices

When

271

feelingof happiness for the good of

feelingof equanimity and indifference

The

and

Meditation

Yoga

tions.
modificathe

mind

samprajhdta
to

this

comes

asamprajnata or nirodha
object. By remaining
any

asmita

have

also two

other varieties,

The

272

continued

to the

due

Patanjala Samkkya

[ch.

old

potencies(samskaras) or impressions
experience of worldly events tending towards

stage the

in this

long

the

and

Kapila

of experiencing inner
any process
objectiveworld or towards
thinking are destroyed by the production of a strong habit of the
the true knowledge, when
the
nirodha state. At this stage dawns

the

buddhi

becomes

being

able

no

quiet place

on

is,however,

to

may

purusa

concentration
and

disturbance,
hill

in

or

found

be

in

after that

and

forest.

yogin

One

of

the

citta not

to
to

prakrti.
that

see

should

select

main

obstacles

respiratoryaction.

constant

our

has

one

the

the

back

longer returns

any

practisethis

to

be

there

the

the purusa,

as

pure

bind

to

order

In

as

This

practiceof pranayama.
Pranayama
for
then
it
while
and
in
consists
in taking
a
breath, keeping
retain breath
steadilyfor
practiceone
giving it up. With
may
and
When
there is no
need
even
hours, days, months
years.
be retained
of taking in breath
or
giving it out, and it can
has

for

steady

the

stopped by

be

to

of the

long time, one

main

obstacles

practisingconcentration
in a steady posture, holding the breath
by
all other thoughts,and fixingthe mind
on
The

of

process

fix

first it is difficult to

At

thought

After

dhydna.

begun by sitting
excluding
object{dhdrand).

pranayama,
any

steadily
any object,and the
repeated constantly in the mind, this is

to be

has

is

is removed.

on

practicein dhyana

sufficient

the

mind

same

called

attains

the

one
making itself steady; at this stage it becomes
there is no
with
its object and
is
change or repetition.There
of subject,object or
consciousness
no
thinking,but the mind

of

power

steady and

becomes

samadhi*.
As

the

on

to

already described
yogin acquiresstrengthin one
still higher stage and
so
on.

though

the

wisdom

His

is

as

the

yogin

is called

stages of samadhi.

he

As

powers
is firm

of

is offered to him

onwards

progresses
his

faith and

bring

with

purpose

and

he

not

does

hope
them
even

relax.

ledge
{prajfld)also increases at each step. Prajfiaknowclear as perception,but while perception is limited to

It should

**

concentration

movement

six

This

stage of samadhi, he passes

Miraculous

positionof Indra

in the

the

(vibhuti)and

powers

temptations,but

many

by

miraculous

practice increase.

in the

objectof thought.

have

We

attains

he

the

with

one

be noted

Yoga

"

sense

of the mind

that
"

or

the word

samadhi

meditation."

by
by which

into its

the mind

It

cannot
means

becomes

passingstates.

properly be translated either

that peculiarkind
one

with

of concentration

its object and

there

is

no

VIII

CHAPTER

PHILOSOPHY

NYAYA-VAISESTKA

THE

Criticism

Buddhism

of

standpoint.

Nyaya
had

Buddhists

The

and

substance

things,
each

the

on

another

and

that

be

to

due

the

cause-collocation

the

elements

such

of

result

against

the

whiteness

of

other

of

the

and

blackness,
should

state

the

iron

Moreover
e.g.

clay

and

there

was

would

causes,

Again
brought

at

into

and

this

is

be

such

jug),

as

the

for

the

for

than

of
say

of

the
iron

similar
of

material
causes

wheel,

jointly produce
material

the

is

milk)

that

testimony

the

the

specific

that

effect

of
of

the

is

the

concomitant

distinguishing

moment.

one

cause-collocation

between

and

of influence

coordination

their

atoms

the

potter, and
causes

exercise

whiteness

cause

on

doctrine

separate

of

the

the

for

effect-collocation

not

difference

no

the

as

as

separately

the

elements

of

forming

unintelligible;

is

experience

against

jug), instrumental

room

the

could

we

regarded

there

no

of

(e.g. the

cause

elements

maintain

more

elements

properties

be
for

the

forming

the

take

curd

of

cannot

and

but

corresponding

ball,

sahakdri,

of

the

other

of the

and

uncontradicted

curd);

not

whole

action

joint

constituting

cause

cannot

the

universal

our

elements
the

that

supposition

to

cause-elements

effect

as

the

to

location
col-

effect-collocation,

hard

individual

part of the

manifestation

The

becomes

the

as

the

on

the

if

But

collocation

operandi

modus

composing
it

of

action

rise

giving

on.

cause-collocation

the

elements

of momentariness

and

the

and

supposition

joint

in

so

the

generates

composing

the

generate

to

and

another

to

momentary;

are

itself

of

permanence

collocations

exhausts

milk

representing
it is said

all

that

and

effect,

of

convictions

sense

and

collocations

group

common

cause

ground

of

group

all

upset

attribute,

the

from

Samkhya

and

are

(e.g.the
hardness,

in

lump

qualities

in

experience.
{updddna,
{nimitta
stick

etc.

in

the

effect, and

and

the

mental
instru-

such.
very

being,

moment

it cannot

in
exert

which

cause-collocation

its influence

to

produce

is
its

vi

ch.

Criticism

ii]

effect-collocation. Thus
cause-collocation
to

produce

it is born

elements

causal

How

produce

remain

and

thing which
effect ?

any

when

is

they

take

the

its influence

to exercise

moment

the

can

275

being it would

into

coming

at least another

the effect.

after

moment

after

of Samkhya

destroyed the

The

truth

is that

properly collocated

are

the effect is

produced. Ordinary experience also shows that we

perceivethings as existingfrom a past time. The past time is
perceivedby us as past, the present as present and the future as
future and
wards.
things are perceivedas existingfrom a past time onThe
states

Samkhya assumption
of the potentialcause,

within

it all the future

already existent
of the
oil

series of
before

even

alreadyexistent

was

that it is thus
The

stone.

that

oil

in the
can

of the

action

effects

and

that

but

are

the

and
effects,

the

also

effect,is

that

causal

the

causal

entity holds

that thus

baseless.

Samkhya

sesamum

and
sesamum

instrumental

cause

the effect is
for the

movement

be got from

actualized

duction
pro-

that

says

the

in the stone, and

not

and
with

from

not

them

the

consists

in

actualizingor manifestingwhat was alreadyexistent in

This
is all nonsense.
A lump of
a
potentialform in the cause.
and the jug the effect ; of what
clay is called the cause
good is it
to say that the jug exists in the clay since with clay we
can
never
of clay,but clay is not
? A jug is made
out
a jug.
carry water
unmanifested
What
is meant
or
was
by saying that the jug was
only

in

or

actual ?

of the
of

the

jug is not
jug must
that

which

the

of
can

the

the

jug

that
The

as

it has

now

mean

its actual

admitted
is made

up

was

the

of

The

before.

in the

If

state

it is

this does

of the

atoms

clay by

virtue

lump

of which

agents, such

of other

influence

it,but

admit

we

in the

the actual

parts (the atoms) of

same

course

manifest

potentialstate

state; thus

the

existent

inherent

become

non-existent

as

up, of

jug

potency
itself to

expose

same

made

the

that

potentialstate

be

clay is

mean

clay.

does

What

meant

not

before,and

potentialstate

as

it

the

the
into a jug is not the same
as
being transformed
said
should
rather have
the jug. Had
it been
effect,
we
so, then
that the jug came
of the jug. The
out
assumption of Samkhya
that the substance
the same
and
attribute
have
realityis also

potter, for

against

all

attribute

experience,for we
belong to substance

Samkhya

holds

all

perceive that

and

preposterous doctrine

not

to

that

and

movement

attribute.
buddhi

Again

is different
18"2

Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy

The

276

[ch.

It is absolutelyunmeaning to call buddhi

nonintelligence.
Again what is the good of all this fictitious fuss that
intelligent.
reflected on
and then again on
of buddhi
are
the qualities
purusa
buddhi.
Evidently in all our
experience we find that the soul
why
(dtman) knows, feels and wills,and it is difficult to understand

from

ledge,
Samkhya does not accept this patent fact and declare that knowall belonged to buddhi.
Then
and willing,
again in
feeling,
order to explain experience it brought forth a theory of double
reflection.
is the
and

down?

infinite

ashamed

of

number

as

soon

once

Prakrti

supposes)

Samkhya

she
him

emancipate

bound
the

that

guarantee

will

and where
prakrtiis non-intelligent,
(prakrti)will not bind the wise again

Again Samkhya

Why

being

utilized

is

and

purusas,

who

will leave

she
the

(duhkha) and

their

is all

by

cosmology

series of

They

reason.

of

all

enjoyment by
delicate
girl(as

no

of the

purusa

is discovered.

soul,and

the

testified

never

series of

with

what

substances?

material

as

the

mahat, ahamkara,

assumptions
are

come
be-

purusa

for

presence

a
{sukha\ sorrow
of
(moha) are but the feeling-experiences
impudence could Samkhya think of these

Again

is

the

Again pleasure
blindingfeelingthrough ignorance

her real nature

as

did

for all ?

tanmatras,

by experience

hopeless and

foolish

nor

blunders.

careful reconstruction
experience thus call for a new
and
in the light of reason
experience such as cannot
in other
found
systems. (See Nyayamanjari, pp. 452-466

The

phenomena

be
and

of

490-496.)
Nyaya
It is very
be

to

found

trying to

probable that
in the

find out

in sacrifices and

Vaisesika

and

the

sutras.

earliest

disputationsand

the

rightmeanings

also

the

adherents

Nyaya

in the

in those

beginnings
debates

Nyaya

Vedic

disputationswhich

texts

took

are

scholars

amongst

of the

of different schools

of

for

use

tween
place be-

of

thought trying to
defeat one
another.
I suppose
in
that such disputationsoccurred
the days of the Upanisads, and the art of disputationwas
regarded
then
of
and
it probably passed then by
even
as
a subject
study,
the name
oivdkovdkya. Mr Bodas has pointed out that Apastamba
who according to Buhler
lived before the third century B.C. used the
word
1

sense

Apastamba,trans, by

Historical Survey of Indian

of Mlmamsa1.

The

Buhler, Introduction,p.

Logic in the Bombay

word
and

xxvn.,

Branch

of

Nyaya derived
Bodas's

article on

J.R.A.S.,vol.

xix.

the

vni]
the root

from
and

The

words

Science

nl is sometimes

could

of Nyaya

explained as

277

that

by

which

sentences

be

interpretedas having one particularmeaning

and not another, and on
the strengthof this even
of
Vedic
accents
words
(which indicate the meaning of compound words by pointing
the particular
kind of compound
out
entered
in which
the words
into combination) were
called Nyaya1. Prof. Jacobi on the strength
of the vidyd (sciences)as Anviksikl
Kautilya's enumeration
(the science of testingthe perceptual and scripturalknowledge
by further scrutiny),
trayi (the three Vedas), vdrttd (the sciences
of

and dandaniti
cattle keeping etc.),
and the
agriculture,
(polity),
of the philosophies as
enumeration
Samkhya, Yoga, Lokayata
and Anviksikl, supposes
that the Nyaya sutra
not in existence
was
of

in

Kautilya'stime 300 B.C.)2.Kautilya's reference

Anviksikl
only suggests that the word Nyaya was
for Anviksikl

name

in

Vatsyayana
from

the

of

time

he

pointsout

Nyaya

as

in

that

holding

was

the

that
same

He

that

while

as

the

latter

well
in

statement

only means
metaphysics.

as

Nyaya

which
to

sutra

I.

known

was

referred

was

familiar

distinguishesNyaya

logicas

the science

not

as

to misunderstand

seems

Vatsyayana

logicthe former means

from Vatsyayana's

appears

is this that

Kautilya'stime.

thinking

Anviksikl

the science
What

in

Nyaya

to

as

i.

in his

Anviksikl

by

Kautilya. He distinctlyidentifies Nyayavidya with Anviksikl,

but justifies
the separate enumeration
of certain logical
categories
such as samsaya
already contained
(doubt) etc.,though these were
within

the

first two

pramdiia

terms

of

(means

cognition)and

(objectsof cognition),by holding that unless these its

treated,
{prthakprastkdna) were
special and separate branches
Nyayavidya would simply become
metaphysics {adhydtmavidya)

prameya

like the

termining
of demeaning of Nyaya as the means
rightmeaning or the rightthing is also agreed upon

Upanisads.
the

The

old

by Vatsyayana and is sanctioned

by Vacaspati in his Nyayavdrtthe meaning of the word
I. i. 1). He
tikatdtparyatlkd
compares
Nyaya (pramdtiairarthapariksanam to scrutinize an object by
"

means

of

anviksikl

logicalproof)with

the

etymological meaning

(toscrutinize anything after

and

this

scriptures).
Vatsyayana of course
logicalside of Nyaya is concerned
Kalidasa's

also Mallinatha's
2

it has been

Prof.

Kumarasambhava

gloss on
"

Jacobi's

The

"

known

pointsout
it has

Udghato praiiavo yasam

of the word

by
that

the widest

tion
percepso

far

scope

as

for

nydyaistribhiriidTranam,,r

it.

earlyhistoryof Indian

Philosophy"Indian

Antiquary, 1918.

The

278
itself
He

beings,all

all

it includes

as

Kautilya

quotes

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

and

lightilluminingall sciences
capacityas dealingwith the
the
seems

I do

salvation.

to

way

actions,and

their

that

show

to

Philosophy

in this

is the

[ch.

all the sciences1.

is like

capacity Nyaya
of all works.

means

In its

metaphysics it may show the

dispute Prof. Jacobi'smain point that
truths

not

of

metaphysical portionof the work was

to me
to be a very
probable view.

addition,for

later

this

self
Vatsyayana himprthakprasthana (separate
In fact

designatesthe logicalportion as a
of Vatsyayana or
branch). But I do not find that any statement
Kautilya can justifyus in concluding that this addition was made
after

Kautilya. Vatsyayana has

importance of the logicalside of

doubt

no

put

the work, but

the
of

quite obvious, for the importance

adhydtmavidyd was acknowledged by all. But
the mere
logicalside would not appeal to most
the

be

to

seems

to

support

in the

Kautilya

vidyas but also

with Samkhya
in

even
one

named

it

This

it is not

as

Nyaya

combination

improbable

is

popularityof

the

sufficient attention.

that

that

seems

the
out

as

in

authenticityof

many

that

unmistakable

are

and
interpolated,

and

Japan
Vena

composed

of

science

of

as

of

that

and

of the

the other

Nyaya

branches,

two

rather

logicor
and

external,

he

was

mingled Nyaya

Asiatic

Society

collect

to

certain

not

He

sutras.

Buddhist

Haraprasada
the

Nyayasutroddhara,

as

signs that

relates the

Mirok

four

metaphysical portionwas added

logicalpart, which by itself might

Vacaspati's time

were

of

philosophiesside by side
presumption that probably

Journal of the Bengal

two
Vacaspati made
attempts

even

there

or

tilya
Kau-

of the

one

as

Mahamahopadhyaya

Nyaya sutras,one asNydyasuci

it

fact that

article in the

an

says

importance
people. None

the face of it loose

on

that the

not

1905

the

Anvlksikl

was

another

and

the

Sastrlin

metaphysics

of the

one

to increase
attract

of that

reason

The

resource.

lead to the

to

seems

last

by counting

Kautilya's time

of debate.

the

as

adhyatmavidya

as

and

matter

satisfied

not

was

the

on

would
lend
the Vedas
or
(religious
scriptures)
it,and Vatsyayana had to seek the support of

dharmasastras

any

stress

more

further

many
tradition

and

of

the
from

Yoga.

He

as

to

points
sutras

China
also

tat prayojanam
is led to act is
(that by which one
arabhate
sarve
tenanena
abhipsan jihasan va karma
sarvaica
vidyah vyaptah tada"raya$canyayah pravarttate

prayuktah pravarttate

called prayojanam) ; yamartham

pr"ninah

sarv"ni

(all those which

beings,all their

depend

on

karmani
one

tries to

actions,and

have
all

or

to

flyfrom

included

sciences, are

Nyaya). Vatsyayana bh"sya, I.

are

i.

1.

called prayojana, therefore all

within

prayojana,and

all these

u]

vi

Date

thinks
of

that

in

Hindu

have

of

the

were

which

made.

The

of the

for the

Jacobi'sattempt

basis

of references

before

The
that

whereas

about

sense

of

the
and

50 A.D.

logic in

regarded
of the

subjectthat

fit in somehow

to

Nyaya

under

sutras

the

I.

fixingof

the

the influence

the

existed

Nyaya

least

in the

second

sutras

make

On

that

But
some

there
of

century
allusions

are

the
A.D.

present
Bodas

Candrakanta
1

that

made

was

his

Nyaya

originalpart
Patanjali(140 B.C.)

the

Nyaya

as

early

written
that
and

think
time

some

Badarayana's
not

sutras

were

the

Nyaya

Pdnini, p. 157.

to

me

say

fourth

the

as

lead

also

to

venture

may

were

Anvlksikl

as

we

We

sutras1.

form

some

Tarkalamkara

advanced

not

of the

doctrines

sutras, whereas

Goldstucker's

have

we

points out

Vaisesika

any

his treatment

wrote

which

sutras

give

Aksapada

both

reasons

to the Vaisesika

ground he thinks
Badarayana's Brahmalater.

other

be

must

not

from

date

form

some

in the

suppositionwhich does
far as Dr Vidyabhusana

so

of the

written

Nyaya

does

of

"

least

says

in

this

written

I.
,

about

were

70. 42-51,

Katyayana (fourth century B.C.)knew

know
that Kautilya knew
the Nyaya in
in 300 B.C., and
the strength of this
on

at

sutras

ana

67

and

that

be later

must

Gautama

by

Aksapada

that

ascertainment

Goldstiicker

Nyaya.

B.C.

the

on

value,except

word

after all this discussion

it. Thus

step towards

century

its

Aksapada

date

of Aristotle

proved

the

sutras

of the
I.

the

his idea

with

has

that

cult,
diffi-

help,and

Mahay

assumption. It appears

requireserious refutation,at

of the

of

use

Mahabharata

not

fixingof

of any

the

written

was

sutras

that

says

in support of his

reasons

be

Sunyavada

interpolations.He, however,

as

the

Nyaya

correct, since

part of Nyaya

earlier

B.C.

550

is not

proofs

still more

sutras

of the

to

such

when

Nagarjuna also held the Sunyavada doctrine.

in J.R.A.S. 191 8 thinks
Dr
S. C. Vidyabhusana

late

the

time

makes

hardly

all references

probable,but

very

unmistakable

are

Nyaya

date

These

ones.

the

sutras

can

who

Hindu

some

Sunyavada naturallyloses

to

suppositionthat
Nagarjuna, which

written

of the

fix the

to

the

than

of the

references

Prof.

on

fact that there

originalpart

Buddhist

ascertain

can

we

be

to

seem

the hands

at

Buddhist

the

against
scholar

279

of

the hands

at

interpolationof many

date

the

by

sutras

additions, one

two

another

this learned

clue

no

additions

and

arguments

suggestionsof
we

underwent

sutras

Buddhists

some

put

the

of the Nyaya

to

Nyaya.

written
sutras

contends

fore
bewere

in his

The

280

It

Nyaya.
sutras

to

seems

of the Vaisesika

one

80

A.D.) also

it

that

It is certain
sutras

of other

the sutra

of those

show

than

is earlier
There

doctrine.

are

for

later on,

see

written

was

be

should

there

give us

at

seems

is

the

subjectby

refute

to

the

of the earliest types of

some

acquaintance with

views

premisses3. The

ten

inference,

of the

the technic

old school

an

to

seems

We

have

Vaisesika

Nyaya

those

and

inspectionof

closer

confirm

such

suppositionin

in the

us

convinced

sutra

have
those

been

in the

Vaisesika

that

as

kdrikd

Caraka

Sutrasthana
had

verses

(I.i. 36) says

such

quotes

as

that

the

some

gunas

heaviness, etc.,

sutra

seems

But

that
this

(I.i. 6)

this is

reference

enumeration
which

leaves

to

is not
out

be

to

the

well-

some

six

Caraka, Sdrira, 39.

See the next

Vatsyayana's
Bhasya on the Nyaya sutras, 1. i. 32. This is undoubtedly
Jaina view as found in Da"avaikalikaniryukti as noted before.

found
gunas,

section.
a

reference

to the
4

Nyaya

sutra

(I.

Bhasapariccheda

of the

enumerated

remarkable

sality)
begin with the guna "para" (univer"prayatna" (effort)
together with the sense-

qualities{sdrthd). It
enumeration.

such

of the

Vaisesika

the

which

with

known

writer

represented

very

of Caraka's

that the

or

that

previous section

examination

of Vaisesika

end

Mimamsa,

supposed

be

that

older than

?
tradition

Nyaya by

An

cognition,and

with

But

seen

which

of Mimamsa

sutras.

Caraka

him.

of

sutra.

35-38) leaves
compendium

School

associated

much

so

Old

an

first sightquiteunlikelythat it could

in the Mimamsa

are

Lahkdvatara

in

represent

Vaisesika

represent

before

shall

we

this sutra

any

Vaisesika

The

atomic

only quotes

of his medical

of inference4.

Does

way.

the

to

Thus

that

also

sutras

doctrine

sutras

held

do not

it

foundation

Vaisesika

commenting on I. i.32 in which

syllogismconsists of five premisses(avayava)

that

says

who

Vaisesika

that

even

schools.

that

states

Vatsyayana

which

he not

the

supposing
are
probably pre-Buddhistic2.
the logicalpart of the present Nyaya

sutras

that

(80 A.D.); for

the

preceded by previous speculationson

was

thinkers

to

allusions

Vaisesika

the

that

physics1. The
quoted by Asvaghosa

weightiergrounds, as

other

earlier than

were

Vaisesika

was

makes

sutras

',but the whole

the

on

[ch.

Philosophy

perfectlycertain

Caraka

sutras

physics is based
sutra
(which as

be

to

me

before

written

were

Vaisesika

that the

of Vaisesika

edition

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

I.

i. 5, and

Vaiiesika sutras

ix.

it. 1-2,

4-5, and

in.

i.

8-17.

The

282
that

systems

sutras

trace

we

can

well

as

oldest

Philosophy

that

as

lead

think

to

me

and

have

we

[chl

upholding of this ancient

the general styleof the

any

of discussion

methods

probably the

are

Vaifesika

a-

considerations

the

and

work

ay

have

we

These

view1.

Ny

that

in all

these

probability

pre-Buddhistic.

are

begins with
explain virtue, udhafma." This
Vaisesika

The
is to

and

of Mlmamsa

irrelevant
of the

that which
says

that

this.

He

know

we

Mlmamsa

begins his
seems

sutra

the

main
of

nature

any

other

padartha2.

He

then

object
duty

Jaimini

system
This

of Vaisesika,

purpose

its

the manifest

by defining "dharma."

sutras

to

know

is we

unlike

that

that

the statement

first

at

scription
de-

viz.,the

defines

dharma

as

gives prosperityand ultimate good {nihsreyasa)and

dictate
be regarded as valid,since it can
the Veda
must
ends

(of Vedic

his book

deeds) which

with
are

the

remarks

performed

those

that

for

injunctions

ordinary human

though their efficacyis

prosperityeven
through our ordinaryexperience,and in this matter
bestow

motives

known

not

to

the Veda

us

must

after

authoritywhich dictates those acts3. The fact

and
the Vaisesika
begins with a promise to describe dharma
actions
of substances, qualitiesand
describing the nature

and

also

be

regarded

that

the

as

the

(unknown

adrsta

virtue)

due

dharma

to

(merit

accruing from the performance of Vedic deeds) by which many

of our
unexplained experiences may be explained,ends his book
to produce
by saying that those Vedic works which are not seen
effect,will produce prosperitythrough adrsta, shows

direct

any

has been by showing

explaining dharma
and
physical phenomena
involving substances, qualities,

that Kanada's
that

actions

method

only

can

number

good

of

be

cannot

of adrsta

"vetasvatara
1.

explained
be

up

to

explained

at

certain

while

extent

all except

(unseen virtue)produced by

the

on

a
sumption
as-

The

dharma.

i. 1.

quoted in an old commentary of the Kalapa Vydkarana, in

in his Vaihsika
which it is said that the description
of the six categories
by Kanada
irrelevant as to
of
is
after
the
nature
as
describe
to
sutras,
dharma,
havingproposed
Himavat
(Himalaya).
proceed towards the sea while intendingto go to the mountain
*

"

I remember

Dharmam

vy"khyatukamasya sa{padarthopavarnanam Himavadgantukamasya

The

sutra

"

Tadvacandd

dmndyasya

prdmanyam

(1.i.

The Veda being the word

explained by Upask"ra as meaning
be regarded as valid,"but since there is no mention of " l"vara

and

simplyreadingthe

repetitionof

vi.

ii. 1.

later Nyaya

ideas into the Vaisesika.

X.

ii. 9) ha

of IsVara

"

this U

saga-

"

ragamanopamam
*

verse

"

anywhere
Sutra

x.

(God)

must

in the text
ii. 8 is

only

vin

descriptionof
is the

the
of

means

explain

cannot

the

deeds.

magnets,

in V.

ii. 13 and

mind

soul

after

and

movement

be

Vaisesika
and
on

the

are

of

adrsta.

by

in fact
Kanada's

the

distinction
the

due

of

rebirth

the

all with

we

adrsta.

to

and

does

this, Kanada
deeds,

but

and

of

he

in
is

(moksa)

the

leading to

describes

acts

in

the
some

works,

good
such

experience
depend all

of

as

or

of fire and

air,

philosophy.

in

experienceregarding
the

bad

holy

issues

graver

adrsta?

or

atoms

physicalphenomena
other (V. ii. 2),
or
way

facts of

to

founded

known

which

on

motion

leads
of

are

continuation

even

what

speak

of Vedic

fasting,
holy

of adrsta

actions,leaving all

not

student

as

vitallyinterested

are

But

(the

enumerated

Salvation

natural

affected

are

which

the

plants,the

worlds,

substances, qualitiesand

sinful

adrsta.

philosophygivesonly some

metaphysics

foetus

the

bodies,

of contact

unexplained by

are

(vi. ii. 15)

fortunes

our

kinds

movement

non-production of rebirths.
between
the drsta (experienced)

those

and

of the

the

other

binations
com-

and

These

animals

of

other

categoriesthat

adrsta.

to

all

which

ii. 17

V.

hold

the

to

(by

motion

side

originalmovement

annihilation

the

(experience) and

and

which

due

fire,the

of

In

and

of

contacts

construction

death

drink

be

to

the

towards

plant bodies,

in

water

atoms

taking

all

All

of
life-process
the

its

and

said

marks

drsta

death,

produced by

annihilation

of

performance

the

of needles

of

adrsta.

to

of

out

motion

upward

development

Upaskdrci)are
to

circulation

due

irrelevant, but

is not

movement

place),and

food

of

the

movement

be

283

ordinary experience of these

are
only to be explained on

our

proceeding

the

taken
to

substance

which

i. 15

V.

ii. 7 the

said

assimilation

said

adrsta

combining

are

the

facts

many

ii. 7

have

that

proving

In

IV.

of air, the

of

categories of

supposition of

of Vedic

V.

Vaisesika

Antiquityof

In
or

of

answer

to

virtuous

or

ablutions

{sndna),

{brahmacaryd),remaining at the house

of the teacher
(gurukulavdsa), retired forest life (vdnaprastha),
sacrifice (yajha),gifts(ddna),certain
of sacrificial sprinkkinds
ling
rules

prescribed

time

life

performing
of

the

sacrificial works

stars, the

according

prescribed hymns

to

the

(mantras)

(VI. ii.2).
He

food

leads

described

being

that

what
which

is pure
is

and

what

is

impure

food, pure

trary
purified(VI.ii. 5) the consacrificially
he says that the taking of pure food

being impure; and

to
prosperity through

adrsta.

He

also

described

how

-Vaifesika

Nyaya

The

284

[ch.

Philosophy

also generated by adrsta.

to things are
feelingsof attachment
is busy in showing
Throughout almost the whole of VI. i Kanada
ence
A referof making giftsand receivingthem.
the specialconditions

chapter

to our

that the later Mlmamsa

will show

Mlmamsa

on

agreed with the Nyaya- Vaisesika doctrines in most of their

Some
of the main
etc.
views regardingsubstance,qualities,
points
differs from
Mlmamsa
in which
Nyaya-Vaisesika are (1) selfwriters

validityof
in any
to

Of

creator

or

first and

the

of discussion
as

all adrsta

depends

upon

that

Vaisesika

had

fact that there

to

the

is

Vedas

were

1-2).

But

reference

no

sutras.

written

by anyone
days of the

represented in
Isvara and

in accordance
atomic

was

the

the

with

or

the

dissension

taken

place

that

no

the

at

superiorto
reference

at

As

can

very

non-theistic

well

never

were

the

as

in

period,whereas
probably

was

is

there

no

that

assume

i.

conflict with

any

later Mlmamsa

is

what

reference

proceeding out of the performance of

the cause
Vedic
injunctionsis made
we

the

that

i. 1 8, VI.
(11.

us

the Vedas

later

sutras, the view

sutras.

to

due

of the

time

believed

we

The

probably

is

Kanada

that

Vedas,

Mlmamsa.

dispute with

doctrine

Vaisesika

movements,

atheistic

authority of

formulated

Vaisesika

adrsta

as

the

any

is

mentioned,

is

no

subject

any

Isvara

persons

there

suggests that

written

as

some

fact that

the

Mlmamsa

by

form

not

as

no

to

of the ego.

the notion

But

had
reallynone
It is probable

fact that

Vaisesika

the

Vaisesika.

in the

assume

may

perceptionof self in
the second
points do

direct

Kumarila)

these

and

of the Vedas, (3) disbelief

(2) the eternality
of sound
ing
(sabda),(5) (accordgod, (4) eternality

the Vedas,

to

actions
of all

Vaisesika

was

philosophers.

As

regards the eternalityof sound, which in later days was one

of the main
the Nyaya-Vaisesikaand
points of quarrelbetween
the Mlmamsa,
find that in II. ii. 25-32, Kanada
we
gives reasons
in favour

of the

till the end

of sound, but
non-eternality

of the

chapter he

of sound,
eternality
know

from

of the

which

the later Mlmamsa

proof of

the existence

after that from

closes the argument

is the

distinctive

writers1.
of self. The

Next

Mlmamsa
comes

traditional

II.

in favour
view
the

ii.33

of the
as

we

question

Nyaya

view

is

preted
concludingsutras II. ii. 36 and 37 are in my opinionwrongly intersutra
the
by "ankara Miira in his Upaskara (11.ii. 36 by adding an "a/*" to
and therebychangingthe issue,and II. ii. 37 by misreading the phoneticcombination
samkhya bhava" as samkhya and bhava instead of samkhya and abhava, which in
of sound as
opinion is the rightcombination
here) in favour of the non-eternality
my
1

The

last two

**

we

find in the later Nyaya-Vaisesika view.

Philosophyin

vm]

Vaisesika

the

285

sutras

that the self is

of

seat

this is

supposed to exist because it must be inferred as the

the qualities
of pleasure,
pain,cognition,etc. Traditionally
well. But in Vaisesika
view
as
regarded as the Vaisesika
the

III. ii. 4

existence

of

soul

the existence

activityand

of

is first inferred

by

of its

reason

pleasure,pain, etc.,in

III. ii.6-y

this

is

challenged by saying that we do not perceivethat the

etc. belongs to the soul and
not
to the body and
so
no
activity,
be arrived
at
by inference, and in III. ii. 8 it is
certaintycan
inference

therefore

suggested that

authority of

the

on

Vaisesika
in

"I"

proof of

what

10-18, also

i.

IX.

representeda

that

lead

of

salvation.
salvation

perception as
think

to

me

Vaisesika

with

(I.i.

it goes

Then

the

on

it turns

comes

the

final

"

"

to

self

depend

self,and

only

thus

additional

an

ii.
{ahani)(ill.

as

the
of

specialexcellence

that

1)

the

of the

to

on

fact

that

back

to

result

dharma,

say

the

of real
of

the

of

purpose

according

plaining
ex-

it is

to

salvation
the

that

second

supplemented
Vedas.

ostensible

it leads

Vaisesika

sutras.

dharma

and

the

which

thought

in the

Then

not

of the

self is

prosperity(abhyudaya) and

which

accepted

this

therefore

grounds

depends

Vedas

the

Mimamsa

{dharma)

attained.

are

in

Vjiis^ikamtras begin

by

have

to strengthen the

virtue

To

be

11).

Philosophy
The

is to

directlyperceivethe

can

we

of

existence

school

metaphysics

soul

proof of the existence

considerations

These

we

and

already find

we

of

scriptures(agamd).

{aham\

of the

inference

the

existence

is given that

for the
the scriptures

on

the

conclusion

feelingas

our

the

to

us

sutra

{nihsreyasa)
validityof the
prosperityand
and

that

says

knowledge, produced by
characteristic

features

of

cept
(dravya),quality (guna), class concategoriesof substance
and inherence
(visesa),
(sdmdnya), particularity
(samavdya)1.

the

The

dravyas

and

mind.

are

The

earth, water, fire,air,ether, time,

gunas

are

space,

soul,

colour, taste, odour, touch, number,

qualityof belonging to
separations,contact, disjoining,
upward movehigh genus or to species2.Action {karma) means
measure,

Upaskdra notes that vi"esa here refers to the ultimate differences of things and
not to species. A
special doctrine of this system is this, that each of the indivisible
element
features of difference.
of even
the same
has specific
atoms
2
of
heaviness
the well known
oiliHere
(gurutva),liquidity
qualities
(dravatva),
demerit
and
merit
ness
(adharma) have been
(samskdra),
{sne/ia),elasticity
(dharma),
1

altogetheromitted.

These

are

all counted

in later Vaisesika

commentaries

and

com-

Nyaya-Vaiksika Philosophy

The

286
downward

ment,

three

The

movement.

contraction,expansion

movement,

[ch.

and

horizontal

of dravya,guna
qualities

common

and

karma

they are existent, non-eternal,substantive,effect,cause,

and particularity.
Dravya produces other
possess generality

that

are

and

dravyas

and

the

karma.

produced by

the

its effect,but
effect.

the

inhere

Gunas

dravya,

themselves

by

not

devoid

the

of guna,

contact

cannot

contact

remain

at

time

is

is the

disjoining.Dravya

or

its

in

material

is dissimilar
The

karma.
and

disjoiningare

not

being

by

than

more

numbers

Upward

contact.

Contact

of

cause

if there

second

is

no

there

pendiums.
reals

substances

or

Yoga

It must

It is

If karma

only when

have

It must

extensive

in motion

it is meant

be

may

not

of

duce
pro-

contact

Each

is not

of

karma

produced
tacts
con-

many

result

of

many

heaviness, effort

and

result of karma.

karma

that

In

is not

the

karma3.

there

is

may

not

first book

the

Kanada

but
effect,

no

be

the

Guna

means

the

next

relative

in Vai^esika

be

may

effect. He

in VaiSesika

that "guna"
Samkhya-Yoga.

there

first says

to

cause

that

says
the

qualitiesand
would

that

under-

subtle

not

be akin

to

what

I.

i.

call dharnia.

would

should

karma

be noted
in

the

also the

species(vtsesa)are

as

be

may

and

(sdmdnyd)

genus

Karma

it does

result

disjoiningare

chapter of

cause,

though

even

and

is the

result of

movement

dravya

In the

dravya
colour

thing

one

non-

general effect

dravya.

one

is the

causalityof

the

denying

than

thing2. A

and

than

more

of

the

dravya

in this that

guna

more

(of the atoms). One

colours.

For

is the

Dravya

to

by

with

one

dravya.

one

cause

two, three, etc., separateness,

effected

connected

of

cause

karma1.

without

even

Karma

dravya.

the

is

(samavayi)

cause

dravyas, guna, and karma; guna

(derivative)
material
cause
(asamdvdyi) of dravya, guna and karma.
of contact, disjoining,
and inertia
is the general cause
is not

are

than

more

independent

an

of

produced

or

and

gunas,

is also

(vegd). Karma

cause

disjoining.Karma

or

one

and

dravya alone,

in

further

possess

of

cause

cannot

object,inheres

necessarily

destroy either

not

and by
destroyed both by the cause
is destroyed by karma.
Dravya possesses
is regarded as the material (samavdyi) cause.

and
in

is not

are

gunas

guna

does

karma

But

gunas.

Dravya

Karma

and

karma

other

gunas

use

the

karya ceases

is related to

felt that two

be

noted

of karma

or

that

more
more

things were

one

that "karma"
as

dravya is produced. See Upaskara

of
thing,then with the movement

than

meritorious

we

moving.

in this
or

12.

one

sense

is quite different from

vicious action

which

is the

cause

the

more

of rebirth.

viii]

Philosophyin

standing; being {bhdva)

only

be both

may

The

genus.

{satta)in

with

of

says

and

is hence

substance, quality and

visesa

that

as

the

ultimate

is

genus

of which

virtue

action

mate
constitutingthe ulti(independent of any percipient).

exists

this he

287

sutras

continuityonly

but
species,

differences (of atoms)

In connection

Vaisesika

indicates

universals
and

genus

the

being

as
things appear
existent;
only relativelybe regarded as relative genera or
may
genera
be regarded as a separate category, since it
species.Being must
is different from dravya, guna
and karma, and
yet exists in them,

and

has

no

is and
identical

or

genus
must

entity in

all other

species. It gives us the notion that something

be regarded as a category existing as one
all dravya, guna, and
versal
karma, for in its uniit has

being

in the
special characteristics
different objects in which
it inheres.
The
specificuniversals of
thingness {dravyatva),qualitiness(gunatva) or actionness (kar~
nature

as

no

categorieswhich are separate from universal being

{bhdva or satta) for they also have no separate genus
or
species
be distinguishedfrom
and
one
another, but bhava or
yet may
matva)

being

also

are

the

was

first

In the

in all.

same

Earth

substances.

and

found

in ether

liquidity,and

touch; air,touch;

book

Kanada

but

smoothness
of

none

(dkdsa). Liquidity is

touch

from
itself inhere

in

other

The

is eternal2.

and

of

these

called
from
has

sdmdnyato

inference

(asrnadvisistdndm)
It should

known

was

at

Substance

the word

"

be
a

noted

time

to

that mercury

be

which

possesses
II.

i. 13 has

of

name

be

water

mentioned.

inferred
be

may

Since

this

is

not

(dravya)

type of inference

known

for

ferred
thing in-

substance

air

by

inferred

does

quality,and

characteristics

"vdyu"

is

derived

different

from

accounting

for

of others

admitted

is not

Caraka.

adravyatvena"in

certain

existence

later than

is that

and

be

can

of air is of the

from
The

drsta.

scriptures.The

the

motion

substance, it

imperceptible things

of

qualitiescan

specialquality of

etc.
horns, tails,

possesses

any

touch; water,

liquids
naturallyliquiditself1.

characteristics

the

with

(snigdha)\ fire,

is
only when they are heated, while water
be seen, yet its existence
Though air cannot
touch, just as the existence of the genus of cows
from

deals

lead, iron, silver,gold, become

butter, lac, wax,

because

second

colour,taste, smell,and

possesses

colour, taste, touch,

colour

of the

chapter

us

the

This is important for mercury

quality and action.

been interpretedby me

It should
as

"

be noted

that

adravyavattvena."

The

288
of

giving
the

that

Nyaya

of

giving

would
has

(ether).Akasa

there

be

is

being

second

that

smell

of

notion

like

one

As

is eternal
when

not

are

absent

is

it is

that

touched,

like air.

first

space

notion

or

is eternal

tries to
of

cause
things,be-

this

or

much

so

to

appears

or

He

not.

the

existence

third

book

of soul

arises

only
in

seen

discusses

and

bered,
remem-

one

way

definitely
the question

gives his

the

some

reasons

discussion

with

it is eternal.
is

from

sound

which

is not

then

concludes

of the

resembles

is

seen

non-eternal

that

are

which

is

have

particularfeatures

these

thing

fire,

things. Space

doubt,

the

seen
a

proving

reasons

of

but

what

non-eternal, but

chapter

is

when

when

or

of

when

attribute

rightlyseen

of the

inference

As

givesthe
quickness. It is

from

One

one.

either

seen,

another,

of other

this

which

eternal

far away

so

the

before,or

seen

it is

(a

quality. And

eternal

as

in

general way,

such

sound

that

number
The

in

some

in

appears

to show

entirelydevoted

the

fact that

there

to the
must

in which

knowledge produced by the contact

and their object inheres.
the senses
The
knowledge of sense-objects
(indriydrthd)is the reason
by
substance

some

"
Upaskara in interpreting
samjilakarma" in n. i. 18, 19 as
makes
it
dvandva
while
a
Upaskara's
Upaskara
compound.
genitivecompound

time

being

seen

it

attribute

whether

of

sound

be

of all non-eternal

cause

not, he discusses

grasped,whether

be

and

since
can

simultaneity,and

that this is

Like

when

or

but

or

under

coming
other

of

notion

thing is

of akasa

with the motion

inter-spacerelations in connection
a
preliminary to discussingthe problem whether

diverse
sun.

it is

is defined

is the

Time

notion

this.

to

nearer

Time

in the young,

being.

supplies the

things which

substance

occupied
un-

hypotheticalsubstance

inheres, because,
of which

into any

enter

in

only

book
Kanada
chapter of the second
is a specialcharacteristic of earth, heat

youth

the

the

as

of

invented

is one2.

of water.

coldness

and

sound

It is

akasa

so

the

In
prove

one

admitted

be

find

we

infer the existence

to

us

substance

some

is akasa.

substance

rest

movements

thing can

characteristic

the

not

must

to

that

that
lead

not

quality of

the

quality)is

fact

of the

account

space,

in which

[ch

things {samjndkarmd). Because

is already in usage
names
(and not

thing, the phenomenon

one

ilosopky

to

names

by us)1. On

Ph

Vaiiesika

I have

differed from

seems
interpretation

to

be far-fetched.

He

wants

to

twist it into

an

existence of God.
*

This

is accordingto "arikaraMisVa's Upaskara.

interpretation

argument

for the

it is said

then

inference?

good of turning to
lending its aid to
comes

body

alone
the

that

that

say

is

pain, and

by speciallimitations
the

strength of

which

is

and

there

this way

and

this

no

book

yet it is many
is also

proved

by

its

cause.

it is said
should

cause,

that

on

effect

the

When

speak

we

that

considered

be

effect,for

Air

{vdyu)

made

up

can

of anything

thing which is great

not
perceived to hav"

is

of parts, because

{rupasamskara
form) in

in

it. 'Colour

is thus

and
specialqualifications

with

it has

i.e. in air there

"

cognitionof taste, smell,and

the

to

in all. But

is visible

Colour

colour

there is colour

when

not

only a negation of the eternal,so that

The
non-eternal
is something eternal.

in its unmanifested

colour

think

we

is

it is great and

actualityof

the

when

anything else.
production of pleasure,

the

fourth

of the

compounded.

colour,though

self and

one

inferred

be

can

ignorance (avidydy.

(mahat)

of the

because

that

proves

is

yet has

non-eternal, it

as

also

place

the

individuals

chapter

existent, but

take

only

soul

Yajftadattathe

or

is removed

regarding

as

is the

scriptures1.

{nityd).It

eternal

is

first

the

In

the

doubt

refers to

cognition,the

what

Yajftadattagoes,

or

goes

Devadatta

by

the

difference

no

Devadatta

but

of "I"

Devadatta,"

am

periences
ex-

reply to this is that inference

existence
viction.
only strengthens the con-

whether

is meant;

"I

such

The

same

doubt

notion

there

As

the

we

the

there

directlyperceived in

Yajftadatta"or

am

When

self is

if the

that

"I

as

[ch.

Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy

The

290

touch

not

is

only

visible

only
In

conditions3.

is also

explained.

the quality
Number,measure,separateness,contact, and disjoining,
of belonging to a higher or lower class,action, all these as they
abide

in

number

sutras

of those

etc.

the notion

But

eye.

things possessing colour

differed here

"

from

not

also of genus

of

The

eye.

th(

perceivedby

quality(gunatva)

the meaning

I have
"

avidyd
eternalityof the
This

of the need

regarded

differed here
"

is what

that the self

meant
originally

also because

they are
scriptures,

being and

of

colour

are

no

the

"

limitations,and

sutra

have

to

given in Upaskara. I think the three

"Sukhcuiuhkhajnananispattyavi"sadekatmyam"vyavasthato nana," and """

I have

trasamarthyat ca

which

visible

are

to

mean

as

one,

though for

the

sake

of many

enjoined by

the

many.

also in my
that

was

of the performance of acts

we

do

meaning
not

know

from

the

of any

regardsthis

Upaskaray which
which

reasons

lead to the

non-

atoms.

is meant

in the later distinctions of udbhutariipavattvaand

samsk"ra

in Vais"sika

has many

word
bhutarupavattva.
collection (samavdya), production(udbhava) and
elasticity,
see
Upaskara iv. i. 7.
hibhava). For the last three senses
The

senses.

not

It

means

being overcome

anud-

inertia,

{an id-

viii]

Philosophyin

perceivedby

are

and

sound

and

manas

291

(justas colour,taste, smell,touch,

senses

perceived by

are

the

by

etc.

all the

Vaitesika sutras

the

one

cognition,pleasure,pain,

sense,

number

the

by

etc.

visual

and

the tactile

sense)1.
In the second

in three

exist

earth,etc.

be any

cannot

acts

produced by
specialkinds

with

specialkinds

it is said
and

sense,

elements

radicle
from

ovaries

and

those

of the

or

of the

even

when

which

one

of

are

wise
other-

are

in accordance

atoms

All combinations

of dharma.

of atoms

due

are

super-mundane bodies are to

for explaining the fact that things must
be admitted
have been
given names
by beings having such super-mundane bodies,and
of the authorityof the Vedas.
also on account
In the first chapter of the fifth book
action {karma) is discussed.
Taking the example of threshing the corn, it is said
to

that

the

soul

in

of

state

the

flail in

not

due

to

the

and
effort,

in touch

soul;

for

the

the

with

with

it is due

due

the

to

hands,

flail is not

the
to

in the

impact

flail is due

of the

uprisingof

impact

due

to

of the

the

the

so

the

of the
case

and

with

its contact

to

movement

But

threshing pot

contact

is due

hand

the hand.

with

hand

Such

of the

movement

its contact

to

of dharmas.

objects.There

combine

may

that the

(upastambhaka). Bodies

combination

the

book

of the five elements

of different

the central

as

fourth

forms, body,

kinds,those produced

two

of the

compounding

the atoms

three,but
of them

chapter

is

movement

upliftingof

its contact
flail. On

with

the
the
of

account

(gurutva)the flail will fall when not held by the hand.

directed
Things may have an upward or side motion by specially
motions
{nodanavisesa)which are generated by specialkinds of
effort the body may
efforts. Even
without
move
during sleep.
heaviness

The

of needles

movement

towards

magnets

is due

to

unknown

an

first acquires motion

by
{adrstakaranaka). The arrow
of
inertia
its
and then on
directed movement,
account
specially
it falls
that ceases
(vegasamskdra)keeps on moving and when
down
through heaviness.
with extremely crude explanaThe
second
chapter abounds
cause

This

sika sutras

portion has

been

of Kanada.

It

taken
must

from
be noted

the Upaskara of Sankara

here

that the notion

Misni

of number

on

the

Vaih-

according to

But this mental

oscillation {apeksabuddhijanyd).
or
relativity
touched
either
is
or
seen
; and it
can
relativity
only start when the thinghaving number
visual
the
the tactual
or
is in this sense
is said to depend on
that notion of number

Vai^esika is due

to mental

sense.

19

"

The

292

Ny

ay

Vathsika

a-

[ch.

Philosophy

physicalphenomena which have no philosophical

importance. All the specialphenomena of nature are explained
cause
planation
ex{adrstakaritam) and no
as
being due .to unknown
unknown
the nature
is given as
to
ol this
(adrsta).
of certain

tions

said

It is however

moksa

self,manas,
is in contact

with

steady and
regarded
The

whole

of the
Vedic

to

of the
proper

persons
the

things,how

dharma

and

place as

In

are

eternal

of

cause

is visible.

the

mind

becomes
aka"a

are

of the

work

generated by adrsta,
death

to

thing

time.

in earth

called
with

it is of atomic

size.

Space

and

time

are

up

of many
have

that

tively
rela-

small

(atomic) and

of small

is not

great size

those

anutva

parimandala (round) belongs to

called mahan
are
or
paramamahan

beginning

while

great and

size of

manas

its

made

different from

also the notions

since
all-pervasive);

has

thing'sbeing

In accordance
are

The

things non-eternal.

heat

be

may

eternal

qualitiesin

the

size is invisible
a

moksa

how

and

soul.

that

in non-eternal

is therefore

same

gifts

that

showing

to

often

it is said

and

(great)there

or

of the

book

atom

same

atman

great

space,

lead to birth and

(the atoms).
Visibilityis due

at the

and

body. Time,

passions are

Atomic

great size. The

eternal

former

is devoted

qualities
produced by

causes1, but

mahattva

of the
the

in which

is that

which

therefore

contact

to

tact
con-

through sympathy but on account

of certain
the enumeration
scriptures,
purities
and imbrings in adrsta, purification

result of the

seventh

change

due

are

no

not

adharma

the

things
in the

book

sixth

performances,which

takes

in the

is

rebirth,and

no

the

alone, by

pain

no

injunctionof
of

how

is

is

there

inactive.

as

made

self

the

there

there

pain
objects.Yoga

and

senses

of adrsta

the absence

body with soul, and thus

(salvation);pleasure and

of

are

that with

and

The

big.

Akasa

the atoms.

(the supremely

of the

great

also considered

measure
as

being

size
"supremely great" (paramamahat). Atomic
and the mind
(parimandala) belonging to the atoms
(manas) and
the supremely great size belonging to space, time, soul and ether
measure

(akaia) are

regarded

In the second
and

chapter of

separateness

other

are

qualities.There

the appearance
1

I have

eternal.

as

to

is

of number

differed from

be
no

the seventh
admitted
number

in them

book
as

it is said that

entities

in movement
is false.

Cause

distinct
and
and

unity
from

quality;
effect

of this sfitra.
the Upask"ra in the interpretation

are

viii]

Philosophyin

neither
The

one,

Contact

they distinctive separateness (ekaprthaktva).

of the notion
of duality,etc.
unity is the cause

of

be

may

due

effect of another
contact

293

have

nor

notion

Vaifesika sutras

the

the

to

action

and

contact

disjoiningin

of

is

so

and

one

the

things,or

two

or

is neither

disjoining.There
effect since

they do not exist

independently {yuiasiddhyabhdvdt).In the eighth book it is said
that soul and
not
manas
are
perceptible,and that in the apprehension
of qualities,
action, generality,and
particularity
due
is
their
with
the
to
contact
perception
thing. Earth is the
of perception of smell, and
the
air are
cause
water, fire,and
nor

of taste, colour

cause

described
neither

action

of

in

which

through

is different

the

made

in this connection

thing

to

of

help

mind

but

which

All
the

with

other

any
or

The

main

to

"these

two

related

are

that

effect,cause,
notion

is the

the

above

can

be

kinds

before

keeps

cause

as

the

is also
of the

connected

anything
as

serve

effect,"and

or

trary
con-

as

liriga(reason).
with

is associated

and

of

directlyperceived

in contact,

as

will

"this

one

kind

through Yoga practices).

of hetu
(reason) or the

It is said

thing, as

point

is another

negation applies. Allusion

the specialperceptual powers

inseparably connected,

as

in

the

is described.

term

things

is existent

which

memory

which

to

existent

there

negation

yogins (sagesattainingmystical powers

In the second
chapter the nature
middle

Even

from

negation is

that

as

which

another;

non-existence2.
the

that

book

ninth

be attributed.
and

non-existent

and

In the

(asat) is defined

non-existent

non-existence

existence

touch1.

qualitycan

nor

be

may

way

and

non-existence

become

may

cause

this,"or

since

this may

gism
produced through premisses,there may be a formal sylloVerbal
the above
condition.
from
propositionsfulfilling
False knowledge (avidyd)is
inference.
without
cognitioncomes
also be

due

the

to

observation
of

defect

of

due

wrong

to

the

expectant

knowledge (vidyd).

this is true

impressions.The
In

tenth

the

since they are

pain are not cognitions,
certainty.

pleasureand
doubt
1

and

Upaskdra

here

elements,
specific
2

In

explainsthat

but

dhvamsdbhdva

negation of
ydbhdva

this cannot

the previous three

each

other

kinds

it is intended
be found

(generalnegation).

have
other),

are

senses

opposite

it is said
not

that

related

produced by

to

those

in the sutras.

of non-existence,

(negationafter
in each

that the

mal-

and

non-observation

or

senses

prdgabhdva (negationbefore

destruction),and
been

described.

anyonydbhdva
The

fourth

one

duction),
pro-

(mutual
is sdmdn-

294
A

dravya

The

Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy

may

be caused
with

of its contact

because

(motion) is also

Karma

is also

in the

inheres

effect is also

of the

fire is also

Works
have

Vedas

in the

and

cause

The

cause.

cause.

tact
Con-

contact

which

in the
A

cause.

thereby helps the production

specialqualityof the heat of

cause.

the

according to
visible effect

no

since it inheres

it inheres

of the

cause

inheringof the effect in it,for

thing the effect is produced.

the

another

cause

since

cause

by

[ch.

direct

injunctionsof

them, they

because

of

cause

have

in the

Philosophy

scripturessince they

and
prosperity,
validity.

the

are

the

Nyaya

the

sutras1.

of the sixteen
Nyaya sutras begin with an enumeration
of rightknowledge (pramdna), object of right
viz. means
subjects,
lustrati
knowledge (prameya), doubt (samsaya),purpose (prayojana),ilThe

instances

{drstdntd),
accepted

conclusions

(siddhdnta),

{nirpremisses (avayava),argumentation {tarkd),ascertainment

naya),debates (vdda),disputations(ja/pa),destructive criticisms
(vitanda),fallacy(hetvdbhdsa),quibble (chala),refutations {jdti),

points of opponent's
thorough knowledge
attained.

In

is attained

the

sutra

successive

defects
{mithydjftdnd),

/ma\

and

{nigrahastkdna),and

of these

second

the

by

defeat

ultimatelyof

the

hold

that

by

is
highest good {nihsreyasa),

it is said

that

salvation

disappearance

false

knowledge
birth (jan(pravrtti),

(dosa),endeavours

proof are said

to be of four kinds, perception{pratyaksa),inference
(anumdna),
analogy {upamdna), and testimony (sabda). Perception is defined
determinate
as uncontradicted
names
knowledge unassociatedwith
with objects.Inference
is of thre
contact
proceeding out of sense
from

kinds,
and

inference

Upamana

from

is the

sorrow.

effect

to

cause

Then

of

(apavarga)

of

of

means

(purvavat),effect
characteristics

common

knowing

the

{sesavat)
(sdmdnyato drstd).
to

cause

with
anything by similarity

well-

any

\ known

thing.
6abda is defined

here
order

This
and

testimony of

reliable

of the doctrines found in Nyaya

brief summary
there with the views of Vatsyayana, the commentator.
is

of the sutras, and

of later

day Nyaya

the two

systems

the

as

in the

It is curious

(foreigner),
may

as

be

to
an

tries to present their ideas with

possible.The
lightof
notice

general treatment

later writers

and

that Vatsyayana

as

authority(apta)'
sutras, supplemente
This

little additions

follows

from

the
those

expounds

of Nyaya- Vai^esika

commentators.

says

authority).
apta (reliable

that

an

arya,

rsi

or

mleccha

vm]

Philosophyin

Such

testimony

and

are

be

to

Nyaya

sutras

295

things which
may
beyond experience. Objects of

may

which

said

are

tell

the

self

about

us

{atman\ body,

be

perienced
ex-

ledge
know-

sense-objects,

senses,

understanding (buddki)ymind
births,
(manas), endeavour
(pravrtti\reand
enjoyment of pleasure and sufferingof pain,sorrow
salvation.

Desire,antipathy,effort (prayatnd),pleasure,
pain,and

knowledge

indicate

the

existence

the

senses

upholds movement,
as
arisingout of the
senses

and

tejas,vayu

qualitiesof
objects of the
at any

occur

Endeavour
Dosas

body.
to

men

when

the

sense

five

Body is that which

the rise of pleasure and pain
with sense-objects1;
the five

elements,

such

prthivl,ap,

as

smell, taste, colour,touch, and

above

five elements, and

fact

The

that

these

sound

are

also

are

the

cognitions cannot

many

indicates the existence

of mind

{manas).
what
is done
means
by speech, understanding, and
(attachment,antipathy,etc.)are those which lead
moment

and

vice.
from

cessation

through

attainingwhich,
is called pray

settle

to

for

or

Pain

is that

pain

is called

of similar

confusion

wants

etc.,one

of
the

senses.

one

virtue

Ultimate

from

akasa

the

and

contact

derived

are

of the self.

one

suffering2.

causes

Doubt

apavarga3.

arises

or
conflicting
qualities
opinions

of the

giving up

which

alternatives.

two

which

himself

sets

one

for

That
to

work

ojana.

both
the
(drstdnta)is that on which
and the expert (pariksaka) hold the same
common
man
opinion.
of
four
Established
conclusions
texts
kinds,
or
(siddkanta)are
viz. ( 1 ) those which
are
accepted by all schools of thought called
school
held by one
the sarvatantrasiddhanta; (2)those which
are
Illustrative

or

similar

example

schools

but

opposed by

siddhanta; (3) those

which

also

called

naturallyfollow

opponent'sviews
proceeds then to
show

which

are

refute

the

being accepted

1
2

Here

own

I have

followed

the

granted by
uncritically
that

consequences
the

pratitantrawill

conclusions

other

adhikaranasiddhanta\

specialskill and bring

disrepute (abhyupagamasiddhantay.
his

called

others

(4) those
a

follow

of the

debater, who
and

thereby

opponent's intellect
premisses

The

are

to

five:

Vatsyayana'smeaning.

finds
that when
here
one
Vatsyayana comments
wishes to avoid misery,and findingbirth to be associated
and thus is emancipated.
3
is no
to emphasize that there
Vatsyayana wants
cessation from pain.
4
here.
I have followed
Vatsyayana's interpretation

things full of misery, he

unattached
with pain becomes
all

bliss

in

salvation, but

only

The

296

ay a-Vaitesika

Ny

[ch.

Philosophy

of the thing to be proved);

(1) pratijha (the first enunciation
which
establishes
the conclusion
the
on
(2) hetu (the reason
examstrength of the similarityof the case in hand with known
(positiveor negative
pips or negative instances^: (3) uddharana
illustrative instances)
by the instance);
; (4)upanaya (corroboration
the

(5) nigamana (to reach

Then

the

come

enumerated

been

have

second

The

against the
doubt,

doubt

of

means

which

always

was

book

held

in the

first sutra.

deals

with

that

it is held

doubt

validityof

of

the

objections
refutation

In

the

happening

there
happen,
things regarding which
since

not

two

arises

ferentiatin
special dif-

the

when

things are not noted.

Buddhists, are supposed to object

between

objectors,probably the

the

could
the

between

characteristics

to

nigrahasthana,which

refutations

the

doubt

that

proved).

tarka,nirnaya,vada, jalpa,vitanda,

right knowledge (pramana).

difference

arose,

Certain

been

objectionsagainst the possibilityof

of certain
of

of

has

which

(hetvabhasa),chala, jati,and

fallacies

the

definitions

conclusion

the

in

pramana

two

and

general

particularlyof
generated before

perceptions on the ground that if they were

the
sense-objectcontact, they could not be due to the latter,
and
if they are
produced after the sense-objectcontact, they
of the objects,and
could
establish
the nature
if the two
not
happened together then

there

would

be

of

notion

no

succession

cognitions. To this the Nyaya reply is that if there were

of
be no
of right knowledge, then
there would
means
no
means
of which
the objector would
refute all
knowledge by means
of rightknowledge; if the objectorpresumes
to have
means
any
in

our

of valid

means

of valid

means

existence
from

same

instruments
of
1

dyam

at

of

cannot

Just

as

say
from

instruments, one

objectswe

can

of

other

things

ca

Sabdah

themselves

may

that
the

be

the

kinds
vious
pre-

instruments,
ence
previousexist-

are

regarded

as

the

rightcognition
of
right
objects

to

piirvasiddham dtodyamanumiyate sddhyam ca

anumdnam
bhavatiti,
hydtodye svanatah

anlarhile

no

are

infer the

can

infer the

there
diverse

musical

objectsof knowledge1.
things (e.g.the senses, etc.)which
of right knowledge with
reference

Yathdpahdtsiddhena fabdena
sddhanam

all.

he

different kinds

of those

knowledge

our

of those

The

knowledge

of different musical

of sounds

so

then

knowledge

dtovind

piirvasiddtodyavifesam pralipadyatetathd dham

upalabdhivisayam pahatsiddhena upalabdhihetund pratipadyate. Vdtsydyana
bhdsya, It. i. 15.

v"dyate

venuh

piiryyate iti svanavifesena

The

298

Ny

Vaiiesika

a-

ay

quite sufficient and it is needless

sambhava
aitihya (tradition),

are

of

in terms

also understood

well) and

as

corn

for the

tradition

sambhava

and

The
said

if

"

be

abhava

the

thing is

there

is

bushel

contains

same

understood

contained

measure

in verbal

included

are

these

as

of

in the

within
is

four

corn

and

pramanas

arthapatti,

recognized,but they
mentioned

is then

in great detail.

where
any-

inference.

pramanas

sound

in it is

eight gallons of

testimony

pramanas

eternity of

eternityproved

(when

as
(non-existence)
separate

is included

included

of

theory

the

[ch.

accept arthapatti(implication),

to

lower

that

that

abhava

validityof

to

know

we

understand

we

the

higher measure

Philosophy

before.

refuted

The

the

and

are

non-

The

meaning of words is said to

refer to class-notions (jdti),
and the specific
individuals (vyakti),
fested.
positionof the limbs (dkrti),by which the class notion is maniClass (Jdti)is defined as that which
produces the notion

of

(samdnaprasavdtmikd jdtih).
third book
begins with the proofs for

sameness

The
the

self

with

its

in

which

us

each

that

there

specific
object,but

own

produced

It is said

atman.

or

of the

no

things as having
the

eyes

together
there
fruit

as
no

could

for the
If it is said

by

manas

as

self and

sense
1

be

not
to

the

reminded

senses

experience of
that

the

would

not

be

According to Vatsyayana, in
takara, however, thinks that there

the
is

explained
two
one

would

eyes

visual

we
sense

be

have

the
a

two

effected
purpose

same

for

name,

by

unless

soul,then

which

sour

another.

be

well

as

being

tion,
recogni-

no

recognizedby

cognize;

if

ness
If conscious-

instrument

as

united

been

taste.

serve

of the

if there

to

have

quarrel over
and

there

recognize
images produced by

could

require some

sensations

again

things1; moreover
by the sight of

sour

would

separate instrument

perceptions could

its

sensations

be

of the

be

only

entity

self then

able

also

not

could

one

it would

as

two

there

unity of

the

men;

only,then

manas

co-ordinate

of
be

; the

of

the

knower

no

cognizer then

permanent

(mind), then

entitythe
admitted

before

perception could
visual perception

one

belonged

would

them

seen

other

some

were

would

one

in visual

were
one

self,no

is associated

different

the

permanent

of

sense-cognitionsand
object as distinguishedfrom

gathered together the

perception of the total

the separate sense-perceptions.If there
would
be no
sin in injuring the bodies
were

existence

senses

exist

must

the

the

different
works

this

which

it

manas

is

though
work
senses.

in both

the

of the
Udyoeyes.

viii

Philosophyin

Another
show

for the

argument

this could

and

no

and

desires

due

be

and

held

is also

by

some

refuted.

touch

earth, etc.,can
of which
earth

elements
but

of

only one,

objects.The
that

said that there

do

find

not

and

of smell

only

can

grasp

is made
the

tinctive
dis-

(cognition)and

is

difference between

no

consciousness

our

be called.

two

with

are

Samkhya

diverse

assumes

these

The

explained on

the senses,

and

atman

reflection

catch

from

forms

in

the

position
sup-

external

tion
explana-

objectionagainst the Samkhya

antahkaranas

of

elements

of the elements

organ

in

it may

name

manas

four

non-phenomenal consciousness,

denied, and

of

the

smell,taste, eye,

of buddhi

antahkarana

Buddhist

the

sense

smell.

distinction

phenomenal
by whichever

of contacts

of

features

though the
it
qualities,

four

cit. We

is also

visual

Incidentallythe

sense

distinctive

Thus

the

the

respectivelyby
the

contains

but

one,

made

cognitiveacts

The

is the

possesses

ether

that

in

experience

only organ of sensation

four qualities,
water
three,

earth

epistemology

it is

skin

made.

and

therefore

the

the

buddhi

ksiti element.

attachments

that

Samkhya
cit (pure intelligence)
it is
the

All

their

to

desires,

some

senses1.

qualityof earth, viz.

Against

with

desires.

due

are

of the

only grasp

which

is born

all other

are

they are

infants

are

and

which

this,that

also

The

fire two, air one,

is

explained.

in

without

infants

up

so

be

not

of soul

creature

born

in

previous existences.
The
body is made

299

previous experiences,and

to

desires

is material

to

every

to

seen

are

that

argued

and

sutras

quiteearly stages of infancy

anything but similar experiences in

pain

due

Moreover

is

one

be

not

previous lives.

by

admission

signs of pleasure and

view

Nyaya

yet imagining, thinking,etc., could

senses,

and

the

the

external

objectsthat may
lie near
it, that there were
productions of
really momentary
crystalsand no permanent
crystalcatching different reflections at
world

just as

crystaldoes

different times

is refuted

said that all creations

in those
In the

coming
1

of the

in of

It is well
of the

savihita

where

cases

case

to

are

the

for it says

momentary,

but it can

momentariness

that

elements.

(Caraka) regarded

the

Samkhya
But

the

senses

as

was

of milk

qualitiesand

remember

coloured

by Nyaya;

transformation

new

gross

from

that

only be agreed to
actuallyexperienced.
curd

into

disappearance
did

believe that

not

Samkhya- Yoga
bhautika

or

be

it cannot

view

there

is

no

of old ones,

but

the

stituted
con-

senses

were

representedin

Atreya-

constituted of the gross elements.

The

300

VaUesika

Nyayadestroyed

is

old

destroy the

and

Desire
these
Manas
if it

be

cannot

borne

The

another.

recollections

antipathy also belong

then

the self and

by

two

the

to

conscious

conscious

was

No

ones.

either

belong

can

the

curd

The
originatesanew.
with soul {atman) takes place within the body
of manas
contact
which
ledge
is outside
the body; knowin that part of atman
and
not
the object for
or
belongs to the self and not to the senses
New
when
even
they are destroyed knowledge remains.
tions
cognimilk

old

the

and

[ch.

Philosophy

the

body

for it is

dependent

actions

done

cannot

one

reap

of recollection

causes

by

the

(manas).
self. Again

upon

it would

have

fruits of the

the

of

None

mind

the

to

or

soul.

the

to

taneous.
simul-

be

can

to be

actions

part of self

of

given
(3) repetition,(4) sign,

on

follows:

are

(i) attention, (2) context,

of the possessor
(5) association, (6) likeness, (7) association
and
and
the
possessed or master
servant, or
things which
each
to follow
other, (8) separation (as of
are
generally seen
husband
and
wife),(9) simpler employment, (10) opposition,
(n) excess, (12) that from which anything can be got, (13) cover
as

covered, (14) pleasure

and

caused

which
as

that

of the

and

pain causing

of

memory

that

them, (15) fear, (16) entreaty, (17) action such

chariot
reminding the charioteer,(18) affection,

(19)merit and demerit1. It is said that knowledge does not belong

the question of the production of the body as
to body, and then
due to adrsta
is described.
Salvation
(apavargd) is effected by
the

through
In

destruction

the

the

fourth

it
(defects),

As

in

that

such

as

the

soul

(atman)

of karma.

book

is said

defects

other

from

being permanenly separated

manas

the

of

examination

moha

raga

Buddhist

of

course

(ignorance),is
(attachment) and

at

the

dvesa

dosa
of all

root

(antipathy).

thing could be produced by

is only a stage in the
destruction, it is said that destruction
of origination.Isvara
of the
the cause
is regarded as
process
production of effects of deeds performed by men's efforts,for
against the

is not

man

reference

things
no-cause

The
on

the

have

always

found

is made

be the

doctrine of

ground

that

the

doctrine

Nyaya

see
sutra

according to
of those

who

his efforts.

say

is

thingsare

eternal

thingsproduced
m.

that

(ammttta), for
impossible.

no-cause

which

that all

always

success

being by
cause,

some
we

that

to attain

to

into

come

would

view

ii.44.

is next
and

all

then

refuted

destroyed.

The

doctrine

that

all

other

of the

things are

things,and

merely

the

the

what

that

The

for

of other

be

may

for

men,

Buddhists

even

by many
sorrows,
As
there
is no
pleasures.

hold

time

the

man

and

sometimes

who

in the

to

that there

are

wholes,

or

are

regarded as being like

before
they can ripen.

pleasureshere

sorrow

their relations

substances
are

some

of

who

no

karmas

take

301

(sunyavadin Bauddhas)

virtue

by

are

parts but

which

there

though

sorrow

they

fruits of

fruits of trees

Even

nihilistic Buddhists

qualitiesand

refuted.

then

Vaisesika

Caraka, Nyaya and

i]

vii

and

there,birth

means

enjoys pleasure is
mistakes

one

who

man

mented
tor-

is in

pains for
less
deep dream-

who
attains
sleep,so there is no affliction {klesd)in the man
this state is attained all efforts
once
(salvation)1.When
apavarga
for ever, for though efforts were
(pravrtti) cease
beginningless
with

they

us

there

with

attachment, antipathy,etc.

to

discussions

short

are

all due

were

regarding

the

{ahamkdra) ceases
knowledge
of whole
(dosa); about the nature
of atoms
nature
{anus) which cannot

the

in which

way

of the
and

true

be

against the doctrine

vadins
be regarded as having
that nothing can
separated from thoughts. IncidentallyYoga
is then

egoism
of defects

causes

parts and

further

Then

about

divided.

introduced

the
cussion
dis-

of the

Vijnanarealitywhen

any

is mentioned

as

leadingto rightknowledge.
The

of the fifth book

whole

is devoted

(nigrahasthdna)and
Caraka,
When
sutras

we

Nyaya

of purposes

in the

later addition

kinds

of refutations

Vaisesika

and

Nyaya

former

met, whereas

have

to be a

(jati).

sutras

the

compare

find that

we

futilities

seems

of different

enumeration

the

to

which

the

with

sutras

two

sutras.

latter

Vaisesika

different

three

or

the

is much

streams

geneous.
homo-

more

of materials
relatingto debates
large amount
as
a
practicalart for defeating an opponent would lead
that it was
probably originallycompiled from
suppose
The

treated
to

one

and
used
were
by Hindus
existing treatises which
in
fit to hold their own
Buddhists
alike for rendering themselves
when
debates with their opponents2. This assumption is justified
other

some

1
2

used
with

Vatsyayana
A
to

notes

reference
certain

get
force, and

that this is the salvation of him

to the

Suvarnaprabhasa sutra
preparationsfor improving
took

the

has known

who

shows

that the

their voice

worship of SarasvatI

Buddhist

in order

to be

IV.

mind

i. 63.

missionaries
able

to

who
(goddess of learning),

they
in bringing readilybefore their
supposed would
help them
in need at the time of
and ideas of which
they stood so much
to

Brahman,

argue

they

all the information

debates.

The

302

found

disputationsas

Nyaya

work

works

other

no

are

in

Nyaya

Philosophy

which

have

of
description of some
and
drstanta, prayojana, pratijfla
vitanda)
definitions

the

such

others

of those

given

definitions

where

the

some

other

are

viii. There

treated

the

the

of these

categories (e.g.
closely
very

follows

There
are
Nyaya sutras.
jalpa,chala, nigrahasthana,etc.,

of

of two

that

the

in

definitions

the

as

those

literature,excepting

Caraka's

matters.

[ch.

(78 A.D.),ill.

Sanskrit

early

with

sutra

of Caraka

Caraka-samhita

and

sutra

the

in

medical

the

in

found

Vaitesika,

( jati)quibbles(chala),etc., relatingto

futilities

the

compare

we

Nyaya-

differ

authorities

logicalcategories mentioned

There

more.

Caraka

in

are

(e.g.pra-

tisthdpand,jijndsd,vyavasdya, vakyadosa, vdkyaprasamsd, upafound

in the
not
are
lambha, parihdra, abhyanujhd, etc.)which
and points
Nyaya sutra}. Again, the various types of futilities (jati)
of

opponent's refutation

siitra

not

are

in

found

found

in Caraka.

There

forms

in the

slightlyvariant
in

Caraka, upamdna

Caraka

of these

treatment

leave

we

fifth

there

book,
in

sutras

is

to

other

some

earlier,whereas

was

It does
been

the

work,

whole

Nyaya

not

use

which

the second

through the Nyaya

be

sutras

technical

terms

century

to

terms

which

some

other

unknown

schools

of

disputation
compilation

the

A.D.

of

embodied

are

in the earlier work.

Another

could

stream

polemic againstthe
Sautrantika

thought

to

have

flowing
doctrines

Buddhists,

the Samkhya,
Vijftanavada Buddhists, the nihilists,
and

Nyaya

the

contained

not

is that of

attributed

the

Nyaya sutras
sents
repreof
atmosphere
disputationshad

hotter

were

of these

these,Caraka's

compilation of
more

and

the
fore
there-

seems

Caraka

therefore that this part of the work

seem

could

of

between
It

sutras.

both

Of

the

is much

Caraka

great agreement

that of the

plain that

Nyaya sutras.
nigrahasthana of the

jatiand

earlier work.

when

but

earlier than

which

of

anything

find in the

we

for their treatment

the

later work

necessitated
in this

what

in
and

sutra

know

it is
the

are

e.g. aupamya

to

seem

subject,and

than

the
and

indebted

were

works,

two

not

high degree probable that

terms

some

disputationsin

varieties

on

of Caraka

treatment

of

terms

the

out

does

this

on

less technical

simpler and
If

work

Nyaya

the

are

Nyaya

which

Nyaya siitra,arthdpattiin Nyaya

arthaprdptiin Caraka.
about

in the

{nigrahasthana)mentioned

the

which

we

the

Carvaka,
find

no

does
know
Like Vaisesika,Caraka
the threefold division of inference {anunot
tn"na) as purvavat^ fc$avat and sdmdnyatodrfta.

vm]

Nyaya

further allusion
had

seen

with

elsewhere.

The

Vaisesika

Vaisesika

sutras

sutras

argued only against the Mimamsa,

them

Nyaya

and

sutras

The

points.

most

on

is the

and

have

we

already

ultimatelyagreed

with

dispute

in the

as

303

Mimamsa

Vaisesika

in the

the

question
of the eternality
of sound.
of the doctrine
The
question of the
of knowledge (svatakpramdnyavada) and the akhyati
self- validity
sutras

discussion

points of

alluded

never

methods
an

as

of illusion of the

doctrine

are

same

alien

between
in the

to

{Nyaya

sutras,
these

element;

Mlmamsists,
later

Nyaya

form

Mimamsa

the two
later

and

The

sutras.

and

found

not

are

which

ii. 38-42

IV.

over

Nyaya,

advocacy

46)

in Vaisesika

of

also

seems

and

chief

Yoga
be

to

in

not

are

keeping with the general tendency of the Nyaya sutras, and the
Japanese tradition that Mirok added them later on as Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasada Sastrl has pointed out1 is not improbable.
Vaisesika

The

sutras,

knowledge
self

(atman),

also

adhere

under

the

of

inferringthe

for

reason

Vaisesika

with

same
more

in the

questions of

classifications

definition.

purvavat,

as

Vaisesika

The

(V. S.

III. i. 7-17,

when

thing

inherence

so

it,or

lead

These

on.

ii. 1-2,

knowledge

and

efforts

to

but

are

the

they

the

non-

is almost

Nyaya

sutras

perception,but do not bring

sesika
udbhutarupavattva which Vai-

of

inference

gives three
samanyatodrsta, but no

and
do

Nyaya

know

not

another, or
in

is said

when

of

tions,
classifica-

of

inference

to

be

it is in

third

of another

collections

of these

instances

or

Inference

inference

mere

the

of

it inheres

when

The

Nyaya.

4-5).

with

is in contact
in

of effect may

IX.

of

only be perceived
(conglomeration etc.).
from

sesavat

sutras

ceptional
per-

can

manas

or

question

and

sense,

of

give only particulartypes

and

of

samskara

the

On

does.

colour

with

as

proximity

objects of

existence

definition

technical

give a

close

samskdra

of

simultaneity{ayaugapadya)
the

the

doctrine, that

conditions

special

The

and

ii. 1, describe

III.

the

produced by

as

senses

the

to

and

i. 18

ill.

thing ;

kind

of

made

relation
one

kind

effect,and

instances
specific

ence
of infer-

reaching a general theory. The doctrine of vyapti

came
(concomitance oihetu (reason)and sadhya (probandum)) which belated
been properly formuso
important in later Nyaya has never
without

either

sutra,

in the

III. i.24, no

between

hetu

Nyaya
doubt

and

sutras

assumes

in the

or

the

Vaisesika.

knowledge

Vaisesika

of concomitance

sadhya (prasiddhipurvakatvdtapadesasya),
1

J.A.S.B.

1905.

The

304
the

the

term

Vaisesika

but

Nyaya

sabda

pramana

and

referred
other

Vaisesika
such

pramanas,

include

them

Vaisesika

the

do

not

Nyaya

sambhava
arthapatti,

as

within

sutras

applies not

The

know

to

seem

them

to

be

the
and

person,
of

three

which
is not

is
even

know

sutras

of

aitihya,but

by them,
at

The

Vedas.

only

and

admitted

pramanas

more

separate

great validityof the

sutras.

of

Nyaya.

(foreigners).Upamana
right cognition in Nyaya

of

in the

to

later

mleccha

means

be

to

testimony of any trustworthy

that trustworthy persons
may

the

rsi, dry a

connotation

scriptures{sabda) as

count

as

[ch.

seems

it in the

the

says

as

know

we

the

and

Vaisesika

they tacitlyadmit
to

Vatsyayana
regarded

not

sutras

but

kinds

do

sutras

pramana,

Vedas,

vyapti as

the term

Philosophy

known,

not

prasiddhipurvakatvaof

loose than

With

vyapti is

technical

but

ay a-Vaiiesika

Ny

but

all1. The

the

sika
Vaise-

perceptionof negation(abhava) through

such negation refers (IX. L
the perception of the locus to which
1 -10). The
Nyaya sutras (II.ii.1, 2, 7-12) consider that abhava as
non-existence
or
negation can be perceived; when one asks another
clothes

"bring the

to

absent

are

absence

in the

believe

sutras

in

clothes

some

there

is thus

sutras

about

an

of

say

nothing

visesa

and

samavaya

materialityof the
been
important
in

the

But

senses.

with

VIII.

Vaisesika sutras

the

this

5-6

can

do not

marks

it is

the

Vaisesika

perception,

to

is different. The

subjectsof

much

pains

to

Vaiseska
prove

question does not seem

The
slight reference

hardly

mention

be

the

name

regarded
of"

Nyaya
karma,

dravya, guna,

main

take

Vaisesika.

ii.

; so

categoriesof

sutras

finds that

Nyaya and
as
being due

matter

form

Nyaya

the

of abhava

which

The

discussions3.

be

the

he

argued that
directlyperceived2. Though

between

handling

about

brings them

can

the acceptance

sutras

The

and

agreement

yet their method

marked,"

not

are

non-existence

or

question

which

the

to have
to

this

sufficient.

as

Isvara,"whereas

his existence
on
eschatological
Nyaya sutras
try to prove
grounds. The reasons
given in support of the existence of self
in the Nyaya sutras
are
mainly on the ground of the unity of
the
and the phenomenon
of recognition,
whereas
sense-cognitions
the

an

these pramanas
The onlyold authoritywhich knows
of sambhava
is different from
which
interpretation

arthaprapti{Caraka

is Caraka.

Nyaya

The

details of this example

are

The

Ny"ya

incidentally
gives a definition of jatias

savdtmikd

jdtih

"

calls

arthapatti

viii.).

ill.

sutra

he also gives

But

and

no

doubt

[lh ii.71).

taken

from

Vatsyayana'scommentary.
"

samanapra

and

Dvaraka,

who

Prasastapada
sutras

of

The
unfortunatelybe ascertained.
liarity
pecuPraSastapada'sbhasya is this that unlike other bhasyas

There

to

first brief

comments),

it does

dissertation

based

lost.

the

follow

not

main

their

on

but

sutras

contents1.

bhasyas on the Vaisesika sutras, namely

but these are now
probably
Bharddvdja-vrtti,

other

two

were

Rdvana-bhdsya
of

explanations of the text of the sutras and

elaborate independent explanations by explaining

independent

an

sika
Vaise-

of the

bhasya (commentary)

of

time

also

cannot

continue
the

is

wrote

The

near

first give brief

(which
then

in Prabhasa

Vdyu pur ana that he was born

the disciple of Somasarma.
was

the

from

appears

[ch.

Nyaya-VaitesikaPhilosophy

The

306

and

References

the

to

Padmanabha

former

Misra

and

also

in Kirandvalibhdskara

found

are

in

Ratnaprabhd

2.

Four

11.

2.

bhasya, namely Vyomavati by

Kirandvali
by
Vyomasekharacarya, Nydyakandali by "rldhara,

commentaries

written

were

this

on

Udayana (984 A.D.)and Lilavatihy Srlvatsacarya.In

these JagadlsaBhattacarya of Navadvlpa and Sarikara
other

two

also

wrote

and

Upaskdra. Of

these

best

for

native

of the

name

was

wrote

his work

The

modern

of

Bhurisrsti

and

mother's

Saka

in 913

in

era

of its

account

on

the

called

sutras

of Srldhara

nature

student

villageof

Nydya

exposition is probably

of

Its author

Vaisesika.

was

and

Acchoka

was

(990 A.D.) as

he

by Aksapada

or

father's

His

Bengal (Radha).
name

sutra

written

was

commentary

it written

on

himself

he

writes

Gautama,

of

and

is knowi

by Vatsyayana

date

Vdtsydyana-bhdsjya.The

the

Vaisesika

of his work.

the earliest
as

elaborate

Baladeva

the end

at

the

on

Nydya-kandali

simplicityof styleand
the

wrote

the

on

commentary

Misra

to

Prasastapdda-bhdsya, namely
Kandda-rahasya. Sarikara Misra (1425 A.D.)

commentaries

Bhdsyasukti

addition

has

Vatsyayana

not

tary).
bhasya (elaboratecommenof the
a
no
compendium
He himself makes
He
takes the categoriesof
of the categories
{Paddrthadharmasamgraha).
properties
dravya, guna, karma, sdmdnya, vitesa and samavdya in order and without raisingany
1

bhasya of Prasastapadacan

The

such

which

are

creation

important
and

in later

with

date
and

as

measure

the transformation

the Vaiiesika sutras

definitely
; he
it is not

are

on

by heat

these
on

that he lived in the

is difficultto

available

6th century

doctrines

doctrine

to
a.d.

us

of

of atoms

of pilupaka in

in his narration

occur

points.It
or

the

as

theory that the number

Vaiiesika

5th

of the

Some

them.

les, the doctrine

of the molecu

silent

on

discussions, such
the

of number,

is the earliest writer

improbable

say

Nyaya- Vaisesika

of colours

calls his work

and

he has got to

dissolution,doctrine

contributes to the atomic

time

what

plainlynarrates

discussions

hardly be called

claim

nection
con-

for the first

ascertain his
after

Kanada

vi 1

1]

been

Literature

Nyaya

but
definitely
settled,

there is

307
to

reason

believe

that he

lived

in the

time

beginning of the fourth century A.D. Jacobi

a
places him in 300 A.D.
Udyotakara (about 635 A.D.) wrote
Vdrttika
on
Vatsyayana's bhasya to establish the Nyaya views
and
to refute the criticisms
of the Buddhist
logicianDirinaga
(about 500 A.D.) in his Pramdnasamuccaya. Vacaspatimisra
a
(840 A.D.) wrote
sub-commentary on the Nydyavdrttika of
Udyotakara called Nydyavdrttikatdtparyatikdin order to make
clear the rightmeanings of Udyotakara's Vdrttika which was
ing
sinkin the mud
it were
other bad writings
as
through numerous
{dustarakunibandhapankamagndndm). Udayana (984A.D.)wrote
a
sub-commentary on the Tdtparyatikd called Tdtparyatlkdparisuddhi. Varddhamana
(1225 A.D.)wrote a sub-commentary
that
called the Nydyanibandhaprakdsa. Padmanabha
wrote
on
and Sarikara
that called Varddhamdnendu
a sub-commentary
on
some

(1425 A.D.)wrote a sub-commentary on that called the

Nydyatdtparyamandana. In the seventeenth
century Visvanatha
known
Visvandthawrote
an
as
independent short commentary
wrote
a
vrtti,on the Nyaya sutra, and Radhamohana
separate
the
known
sutras
on
as
Nydyasutravivarana.
Nyaya
commentary
other
In addition
works
the Nyaya
to these
sutras
on
many
value have been written
independent works of great philosophical
the Nyaya system.
The
most
on
important of these in medieval
flourished
who
times is the Nydyamanjari of Jayanta (880 A.D.),
of the Nyaya
shortlyafter Vacaspatimisra.Jayanta chooses some
for interpretation,
but he discusses the Nyaya views
sutras
quite
Misra

and
independently,

thought of

of other

criticizes the views

his time.

It is far

more

systems of Indian

comprehensive than Vacaspati's

lucid. Another
most
delightfully

Tdtparyatikd,and its style is

important work is Uday ana's Kusumdnjali in which he tries to
of Isvara (God). This work
ought to be read
prove the existence
with its commentary
Prakdsa
(1225 A.D.)and its
by Varddhamana
sub-commentaryMakaranda
by Rucidatta (1 275 A.D.).Udayana's
Atmatattvaviveka is a polemical work against the Buddhists, in
which
to
;

he tries to establish

these

have

we

times. Of these
with

the

the

with

Nyaya

doctrine

of useful

number

followingdeserve

present work.

its commentaries
\samgraha

the

works

of soul.
on

Muktdvali,

Dinakarl

Nydyanirnaya,

Nyaya

specialmention

by
Bhdsdpariccheda
Tarkabhdsd

and

In addition

in

in later
tion
connec-

Visvanatha

Rdmarudrl,
of Kesava

with
Tarka-

Misra
20"2

with

"

The

308
the

Nydya-Vais'esikaPhilosophy
Nydyapradipa,
Varadaraja with

commentary
of

Tdrkikaraksd

of

Mallinatha, Nydyasdra

the commentary

Niskantaka

of the

Deva

^ivaditya,

of

Saptapaddrthl

Madhava

[ch.

of

Dhara

city of

of

Janaklnatha Bhattacarya with

the Nydyamaiijarisdra by Yadavacarya, and Nydyasiddhdntadipa
of "asadhara with Prabhd
by Sesanantacarya.
Nydyasiddhdntamanjarl

and

The

school

of

as
Navya-Nyaya
Nyaya philosophy known
with
of
A.D.
1200
Mithila, about
began
Garigesa Upadhyaya
admitted
Garigesa wrote only on the four pramanas
by the Nyaya,
new

viz.pratyaksa,anumana,upamana,and sabda,and
topicsof Nyaya

metaphysics.

But

it

not

cussions
his dis-

that

happened

so

of the

any

on

attracted unusuallygreat attention

(inference)
and
of commentaries
Navadvipa (Bengal),and large numbers
on

in

anumana

of

commentaries

portion

of his

treatises

work

sabda

on

Bengal,which

of
of

commentaries

Tattvacintdmaiii, and

and

anumana

became

the

on

for

commentaries

anumana

independent

many

also written

were

thenceforth

The

studies.

Nyaya

written

were

Siromani

Raghunatha

of

home

the

centuries

some

scholars

the

by

carya
BhattaGadadhara
Bhattacarya (1580 A.D.),
(1500 A.D.),Mathura
taries
(1650 A.D.)and Jagadlsa Bhattacarya (1590 A.D.),commen"iromani's commentary
on
on
Tattvacintdmani, had been

widely read

Bengal. The new

most
important study in Navadvipa
who
of thinkers
produced an extensive

very

contribution

The

was

concept

for

Thus

should

be

and

thinking
From

century the

the

Mr

dates
s

wished

the

on

to

preciselyth(

define

concept with another

one

specifythe

so

relation

that

smol
(e.g.

the exact

clearlyexpressed,and that thei

ambiguity. Close subtle analytic

development

of

system

mentioned

highly technical

of

paper,/.

A.

S.B.

(Behar) ;

pre-eminently the
1915.

am

indebted

but from

home
to

the

of Nyaya
it for

some

sixteenth
fifteenth
studies.
of the

in this section.

Ifvaranumana
notable

started in Mithila

was

century Bengal became

Cakravartti's

natui

be
or

school of Nyaya

new

series

subject1.
metaphysics,theology,

literature

the latter half of the twelfth century to the third quarter of the

the seventeenth

See

of

confusion

no

appeared a

the

concepts2.

they

should

concomitance

of the

other

when

example

fire),
they would

and

with

of the concomitance

nature

there

became

mainly in developing a syster

specify accurately and preciselyan;

to

its relation

or

and

Nyaya

consisted

linguisticnotations

of

of

school

in the direction of

not

but
religion,

ethics,or

to

in

of Raghunatha

exceptions.

as

well

as

ever,
his Padarthatattvanirfipanaare, how-

vin]

Nyaya

Literature

309

expressionsmark the development of this literature. The technical

thus generallyaccepted
expressionsinvented by this school were
even
the need of accurate
by other systems of thought,wherever
subtle
and
felt. But
from
the time
that Sanskrit
thinking was
ceased

be

to

the

vehicle

philosophicalthinking in India the

this literature has gradually lost ground, and
it
hoped that it will ever
regain its old positionby

importance of
can
hardly be

attractingenthusiastic
close

I cannot
far

so

the

as

worked

large numbers.

Buddhists

this

at

first to write

the

was

logic and

of

in

chapter without
mentioning the fact that
logicalportion of the Nyaya system is concerned,

Jains and

it,the

students

this

though Aksapada
of

of

in medieval
had

subject and

made

valuable
of

Dasavaikdlikaniryukti

comprehensive

had

times

criticized

independently
count
Nyaya acJaina logic

the

contributions.

Bhadrabahu

account

In

(357 B.C.),Umasvati's

Tattvdrthddhigama sutra, Nydydvatdra

Divakara

of Siddhasena

(533 A.D.)Manikya Nandl's (800 A.D.)Pariksdmukha

sutra, and
Suri
Pramdnanayatattvdlokdlamkdra of Deva
(1159 A.D.) and
of Prabhacandra

Prameyakamalamdrtanda
and

Pramdnasamuccaya
Pramdnavdrttika
the

(650 A.D.)with

Buddhist
Indian

and

of

Buddhist

difference

Dharmaklrtti

of

Dharmottara

works

(500A.D.),

Dinnaga

Nydyabindu

commentary

interestingof the
diverse
points of

of

Nydyapravesa

kdrika

specialnotice.

deserve

the

are

most

systematic logic1. The

the
Hindu, Jain and

on

between

logic require to be dealt with in

logicand can hardly be treated within

separate work

on

of the

the compass

present volume.
It

is

bhdsya and

the

Udyotakara's

of

importance seems
science of logicin
the Buddhists

that roused
the

Jain

notice

interestingto
to

this

; and

it

of

Varttika
been

period was
to

no

written

write

in the hands

the

the

Varttika.

Vdtsydyana

work

Hindu

Dirinaga'scriticism

was

Udyotakara

method

have

between

that

it appears

logic

on

that

the

Jains and
Hindu
Nyaya

of the
of
The

treatinglogic separatelyfrom

and

Buddhist

metaphysics

till we
not
independent study was
accepted by the Hindus
work
of
Hindu
there is probably only one
to Gangesa, and
come
importance on Nyaya in the Buddhist
stylenamely Nyayasara
of Bhasarvajna. Other
works
older Hindu
generally treated of
as

an

See
of

Indian

Jain

Logic
and

Medieval

Buddhist

School, by Dr

Logic.

S.

C.

Vidyabhusana, for

graphy
biblio-

The

310

-Vaisesika

Nyaya

other

only along with metaphysical and

inference

[ch.

Philosophy

pointsof Nyaya

interest1.

doctrine

main

The
The

took

things remain

of

the stroke

impression

on

serve

or

my

things
they produce any

Whether

is

environments

immaterial.

you

on

or

us

it is

or

that

arrange

the

jug

tinues
con-

but

because

any

other

the

is

of

experience to be existing.
As the Nyaya- VaiSesikas
depended solelyon
valid reasons,
they dismissed the Samkhya

ence
exist-

perceiver

all the

their

on

account

on

to

exist

to

Existence

things,and

of

characteristic

or

continue

effect

Thus

mo-

held
so

it is broken

suppose,

If I

would

exist, the

collocations

of

pieces by
not
because they can
produce
either
directlyor
purposes

the Buddhists

as

of their characteristics.

is one
not

exist

doctrine

things,and

destroyed.

until

or

Things

us,

through knowledge,
did

be

thing can
jug unless

stick.

suitable

until

Philosophy2.

the

of

view

the

remain

to

dismissed

having

permanent

Vaisesika

Nyaya-

common-sense

that

themselves

an

Vaisesika

Nyaya-

mentariness

of the

same.

surrounding
general

most

this that

things

testified by

are

on

accepted the
water
{ksiti),

and

sound
itself

as

hear

organ3.

in touch

and

he

has

all the books

the

of the

manifests

such

his

as

which

from

who

admitted

the

want

to

it shows

the
Thus

present

heai
sen*

to

the

consulted in

been

fuller

deai

of tim(

the existence

be acquainted with

serves
de-

man

hearing,cannot
facultyof that

referred to have

all-

fests
it mani-

that

as

demerit.
of

sense

Vaisesika

and

bibliography

the paper called "The

History of Navya
in
Mr
A.
S.
Cakravartti
B.
\nj.
Nyaya
Bengal,"by
191 5.
8
I have treated Nyaya and Vaisesika as the same
system. Whatever
may have been
new

school

of

logic should refer

sounds

past through the

the

Nyaya

only there

and

impedes

they

of all persons,

ears

it is

these

to

on

the
as

akasa

writingof this chapter.Those

the

with

of his merit

reason

extending

Almost

earth

propagating sound; though

ear-drum,

the

In addition

(kdld) as
1

by

of

cause

of his demerit

account

on

thus

only in

though

man

the

as

sense-organ

to

(bhutas\

and air {marut). These

atoms
are
{tejas),
fifth substance
{akdsd) is all pervasiveand eternal.

regarded

pervading

four elements

of the

fire

(ap\

eternal; the
It is

doctrine

atomic

experience and
cosmology, but

their originaldifferences,they
agreement

by
been
*

except in

some

are

minor

those of the other.

regarded

since

about

600

A.D.

as

being

in

complete

mented
points.The views of one system are often supplecharacter of the two systems has already
The original

treated.
See Ny"yakandali, pp.

to

59-64.

vni]

MetaphysicalCategories

endless
have

futuritybefore
knowledge of

no

for

time-notions

our

did

of kala

is

existence

regarded

and

their movements.

is

creation

order

of

It has
The

mode

with

in which

by

existence

time;

{buddhinirmdnd)

the buddhi

Samkhya

to

records

the

unit
its

traverse

separate from
of kala

account

them

atom

an

to

The

to

could

we

nothing

changes.

real

taken

time

no

be

all

appearance

buddhi

our

would

of any

no

been

there

there

the time

as

unit of space.

own

it and

associated

the

admit

not

Had

us.

311

the

atoms

separate entity

as

as

it represents the

its

perceptions. But
kala in Nyaya-Vaisesika is regarded as a substance
existingby
with
the changes of things it reveals itself
itself. In accordance
as
past, present, and future. Samkhya regarded it as past,present,
and
of the constitution
of the things
future,as being the modes
or

in its different
astronomers

These

all be

must

of kala
substance
related
The

to

is

appears

regarded
as

the soul

substance

is relative

of which

virtue

and

in the

and

things

the

person;

pain,desire,etc.

the

perceived as

changes

lower2.

in
Over

regarded
are

like dik

is

link which

series,one

and

time

as

are

separate

is

atmans

tions
; all affec-

of memory

and willing,
are
generated
knowing, feeling,
and
the
with
the
senses
manas
objects.
soul,

above

See Nydyakandali, pp.

which

the

on

as

the

all these

cause

and

of

our

intellectual

have

and

Nyayamanjari,

of things which

suffer

Isvara.

pp.

change

66-69,an^ Nyayamanjari,

p. 140.

have

we

experience
not

taneously.
simul-

definition

The

136-139.

eternal.

See Nydyakandali, pp.

manas

after another

we

the senses,

knowledge, feeling,or

of soul with

thus

coming

64-66,

the soul with

connects

separate affection of the soul,and

sutras

being

stance
sub-

eighth substance

The

the vehicle

in size and

of

connection

is conducted

is that

kala

downwards;

thereby produces the affections

willing.With each singleconnection

the

(dik). It

space

and

with

qualitiesof knowledge, feelingsof pleasure

Manas
(mind) is the ninth
belong to dtman.

It is the intermediate

ception
con-

all-pervading,
partless

There
is all-pervading.

It is atomic

of the soul such

by

planets.

Nyaya-Vaisesika

an

are

and

and

upper

{atmari)which

substance.

The

yet tradition has given us varieties of it in the eight

But

for each

as

of the

motion

in association

many

right,left,east, west, upwards

directions

the

(adhvan).

it1.

seventh

one.

evolution

to the

with

contrasted

which

which

by
also

of

manifesting stages
regarded it as being due

The

but denied

Vaihsika
it of

things

The

312

Ny

consists

of substance

ay

Vaitesika

a-

[ch.

Philosophy

in this,that it is independent

whereas
by itself,

things such as quality(guna),action (karma), sameness

or
specific
individuality
(visesa)
or
generality(sdmdnya),speciality
of
show
inherence
themselves
and the relation
(samavdya) cannot
the help of substance
without
(dravya).Dravya is thus the place
all the others
which
of rest (dsraya)on
depend (dsrta).Dravya,
the other

karma,

guna,

entities of which
man
a

visesa,and

samanya,
all

things in

the

world

of

right thinking,comes
differences

and

passions and
attains

of

to

Nyaya-Vaisesika

diversityof

the

reduce

is

self,and

be

must

something

percepts and
or

that at the root

to which

universal
the

on

due

was

number

the

book

book

substance

of "redness

karma.

In the

"

and

of

subdivision

Samkhya
1

or

Buddhism

we

the

The

is thus

It classified the
ultimate

types

of each

types

percept

"

see

thus

we

defined

as

type
six

are

see

In

that for each

in
red

which
call the

that

which

dravya (dravyatvd).So also guna

of dravya also
of different kinds
followed.

The

perceptionthere

notion

"oneness," and

mands
de-

lying
under-

independent entityon

an

principleof classification is

same

take

we

(dravya); dravya

the characteristic

has

be

to

appears

the concept

rests

If

etc.

the

entity. These

of that

presence

dravya, guna,

"

book,"

the

to

that

The

thought.

experience.
of

and

tries to

strength of

kind

any

nor
principle,

abstract

of each

held

way

have

neither

concepts of experience into several

categories(paddrtha),and

the

is liberated2.

perceptionis due.

the

and

promptings

which

pluralistic
system
experience to any

of mere
logicalcoherence
taken directlyfrom
it admits
are

principleis

When

reason

to

ceases

their

of the
entities

original

respectivecharacteristics

with
of

nature

of

in
pitfalls

entities,he

patent facts of experience

dismisses

and

six

up1.

cultivation

the

in accordance
of the

conviction

above

the

work

know

to

made

are

specialmerit, by the
through some
thorough knowledge of the fallacies

the

are

samavaya

contrastingit

unit of sensation

and
the
with

(say

Abhava

is mentioned
in the Vaihsika
as
(negation)
dependent on bhava (position)
abhava
writers
such
include
a
as
as
Nyaya
Udayana
separate category,
but Sridhara a contemporary of Udayana rightly
remarks that abhava
not counted
was
bhava
by Pra^astapadaas it was
abhdvasya prthaganupadefah
dependent on
tvabhdvdt."
na
bh"vap"ratantryat
Nydyakandali, p. 6, and Laksandvali, p. i.
Later

sutras.

"

"

"

Tattvato

viraktasyasamihajftate^ubahyadhyatmikcsu visayesu dosadar"andt

frutismrdtmajnasya tadarthani
karmdnyakurvatah tatparitydgasddhandni
tyuditdni asahkalpitaphaldni
upddaddnasya dtmajndnamabhyasyatah prakrstanivartnivrttau

bhdvdt.
takadharmopacayesati paripakvdtmajMnasydtyantikaiartraviyogasya

p. 7.

"

Ibid,

apprehended as having odour

air is

or

Nyaya-VaitesikaPhilosophy

The

314

materials.

of earth

fourth

The

hot

hot, neither
been

The

kinds

three

are

of

touch, cold,

would

sound.

no

(number),that entityof qualitybelonging

of which

virtue

been

have

them

count

can

we

as

two, three,

one,

conception of numbers
two, three,etc. is due to
of the mind
state
(apeksabuddhi); thus when
oscillatory
The

etc.

jugs before

two

that

my

is another

then

The

the

is called

qualityof

determinate

seventh

of

is

virtue

things by

other

of which

the

the

measure

the

hrasva

for then

of any
two

as

jug

and

one

in the

then

then

an

in

dvitva

us

jugs.

the two

are

of

arise in

many

the

the

size

of

of

measure

the

dyanuka
(hrasva)2. Of course
number
a

in the

compose

This

kind

new

the

rate
gene-

is its

lutely;
abso-

own

of

different

atoms

again

when
and

the

three
not

the

small

(hrasva)

dyads (dyanuka)
"

measure

small

view introduced by Pra^astapada.Nyaya

a Vaisesika
distinctively
"arikara
silent on this matter.
See
Mora's
ii. 8.
Upaskdra, vn.

be noted

that the atomic

measure

appears

in two

but

regarded as

is

It should

the

dyad,

be

should

namely

the

whereas

kind, namely

generate

atom

still smaller

been

have

{parimandala),

of the

number

(dvyanuka),

molecule

dyad

of measure,

dyads. So

tryanuka

the

two

(samkhya)

it cannot

atom

is

is

partlessatoms

measure

of it would

(parimana)

small and

or

dyad (dvyanuka) it is not

(atomic) and
generates the anu

that

of the

the

thing. Its

generate

atom

great

eternal,and

; it is

other

as

of the

measure

(small) measure

measure

The

atoms

of the

bringing forth

be

such.

as

measure

when

to

there

perceivethem

we

parimandala parimana

are

(dvitva)and

well

as

there

parimiti (measure), that entity of qualityin

called

then

is

apeksabuddhi ;
twoness

numbers

of them

small

This

"

perceptionsthat

speak

measure

notion

relative

manner1.

The

than

the

of
perception(nirvikalpa-dvitva-gund)

conceptions

similar

This

arises the

indeterminate
and

I have

eyes,

jug.

jugs there

two

prehended
ap-

Sparsa belongs to ksiti;ap, tejas,and

(sound) is an attribute of akasa. Had there

is samkhya

things by

to

there

sixth

There

be

can

cold.

nor

akasa

no

skin.

the

fifth sabda

The

(touch),that qualitywhich

is sparsa

only by

vayu.

of the presence

account

on

[ch.

forms

as

""

seems

eternal

as

in

"paramanus" and non-eternal as in the dvyanuka. The parimandala parimana is thus

a
variety of anuparimana. The anuparimana and the hrasvaparimana represent the
dimensions
two
of the measure
with reference
and dirgha are
of dvyanukas as mahat
to tryanukas. See Nyayakandali,
p. 133.

The

vni]
{hrasva) of

the

dyad

Qualityof Measure

is the

of the

tryanuka. But when

tryanukas we find that the
the

of the

cause

For

them.

as

bigger does

also

tryanukas
thing become.

bodies

grosser

constitute
Thus

the

{mahat)

composed
body,

gross

of the

cumulation

the

find that

accumulation

but

parimana
but

of

also

nukas
trya-

parimahat
be

tryanukas

the

means

mitted
ad-

identical,for

not

Here

long {dirgha).

as

by

much

so

makes

parimana

coexistingwith mahat
only appear as great

things not

measure

of other

"

region of these gross

of the tryanukas is

the

"

great

great

mahat
things of still more
of tryanukas is not only regarded as
measure
dirgha (long) and this dirgha parimana has to

as

as

we

"

"

measure

to

come

many

the

The

but

we

measure

of mahat
mana.

of the

cause

tion
accumula-

"great" {mahai) and "long" {dirgha)parimana, and hence

which
is greater
thing generated happens to possess a measure
of

the
and

longer

Now

the

hrasva

individual

type of

which

measure

of grossness,

or

length

in

and

grossness
hrasva

and

tryanukas

should

atomic

and

cause

be

then
the

the

even

circular

to

smaller

than

if the

measure

greatness,
of

still
hrasva

of

measure

tryanukas, the

size of the
the

also

of the

to

great

is

atoms

measure

dyanukas ought

the

hrasva

more

dyanukas. So

the

atomic, small, and

The

accumulation

more

of the

{parimandald)

distinct

accumulation

an

that
measure

their

still

generate

of the

of the

measure

atoms.

ought
expect

generating by

as

than

the

was

separate and

{hrasva).As

effect,so

its

should

we

small

as

them.

composed

regarded as having

is not

length,generates

(small) parimana

parimana,
the dyads

dyads

length but

or

is called

greatness

which

atoms

of the

parimana

degree of greatness

lower

the

the

than

be

if
garded
re-

nukas,
dya-

atomic

more

should

measures

be

regarded as representingsuccessivelybigger measures

duced
proshould
be
but each
of measures,
cumulation
by the mere
regarded as a measure
absolutelydistinct,different from or foreign
not

to

the

other

generates

cause

and

the

be

still

since

the

constituted

not

found

that
measure

the

still

parimandala

generate
But

It is therefore

measure.

to

smallness

measures

the

the

and

of atoms
share

of the

measure

dyads

and

atoms

of their effects, but

and

dyads

and

subtleness

ought

atoms

in

smallness

dyads

it is their number

do

it is to be

to

effect.

their

are
tryanuka molecules
and
dyads respectively,

and

in the

if grossness

effect,the

of their causes,

measure

of the

that

greatness in the

more

more

held

to

seen

yet

are

argued

not

generate

which

is the

the

cause

The

316
of the

to

of the
as

be

latter.

and

explains anuparimana, hrasva

dlrgha parimana. The parimana

and

which

atman

regarded

are

all-pervasive,

as

(absolutelylarge). The

akasa, kala, dik,

(nitya). All

[ch.

Philosophy

This

paramamahat

atoms,

eternal

Vaiiesika

a-

parimana,

akasa, kala,dik

is said

ay

of the

measure

parimana, mahat
of

Ny

kinds

other

and

manas,

of

atman

parimanas
regarded

are

parimanas

belonging to

as

non-eternal

things are regarded as non-eternal.

The
eighth is prthaktva (mutual difference or separateness of
things),that entityor qualityin things by virtue of which things
appear

as

different

perceived by
such

this

as

The
virtue

destroysthe
The
rise in

not

to

that entityof
vibhdga (separation),
of things.
connection
contact
or
twelfth

and

gunas,

perceptionsof long

guna

by

connected.

as

us

is

the

to

and

(connection),that entity of

things appear

eleventh
us

that). Difference is
as
a
mere
negation

from

this pot.

is not

is samyoga

of which
tenth

positivenotion

as

jug

ninth

The

and

us

is different

(e.g.this

short

and

time

aparatva, give

and

paratva

which

guna

time,

remote

near.

The

other gunas

(knowledge),sukha (happiness),
dvesa
(antipathy or hatred) and
(will),

such

buddhi

as

duhkha

(sorrow),icchd
can
occur
yatna (effort)
only
The

with

characteristic of gurutva

which

things fall to
belongs to water. The

The

practised or
soul
1

to

virtue

of

(oiliness)

kinds, (i)vega

different directions,

of which

gross

its old

recognized1.Dhartna
the

in

by

thing
state
even
though disturbed, (3) bhdthings are constantly
quality of atman
by which
and
by which things experienced are remembered

get back

is that

vand

that

is of three

(velocity)which
keeps a thing moving
account
on
(2) sthiti-sthdpaka
(elasticity)
tries to

soul.

of sneha

guna

of samskara

guna

to

(heaviness)is

ground.

the

reference

is the

qualitythe

enjoy happiness or

presence

to attain

of which

salvation2.

enables

Adharma

is

is a special
characteristic of the soul, contrary to
bered
knowledge, by which thingsseen, heard and felt are rememof
and recognized. Through unexpectedness (as the sightof a camel for a man
South India),repetition
in
samskara
(as studies, art etc.)and intensityof interest,the
is silent
becomes
however
particularly
strong. See Ny"yakandali, p. 267. Kanada

Prasastapadasays

intoxication,sorrow

on

these points. He

and

also
*

that bhavana

and

only
by the samskara,

says

dharma

points out that this view

specialkind

of contact

is
(smrti)

memory

Prasastapadaspeaks of

Srldhara

that by

does not

kartnasdmarthyam).Sacrifice etc.

of the mind

produced (ix.
as
being a qualityof
(merit)

cannot

admit

2.

soul

the soul. Thereupon

is a power of karma
(na
for these actions being momentary

that dharma

be dharma

with

6).

viii]
the

Categoryof Universality

opposite quality,the
suffer.

to

man

things and

of

the

it for

arranges

their merits

or

Karma

means

be held

be

to

destiny

or

soul

rest

; it is the

movement

irreducible

as

of

is the fourth

them

to

spite of all

In

perceived as
and

sat

karma.

This

karma.

sameness

highestgenus

the
universal),

the

as

sat

or

samanya

nilatvajdti
(the genus

in

call them

we

spite

is thus

of

cows.

they

us,

existence

is called

aspect

or

another, both

objects around

all

are
a

ness,
same-

things,dravya,guna,

rests

jati,and it is
dravya, guna, or
ox

on

(being)is called parajdti(highest

jatisare called aparajdti(lower

of

dravya,

jatissuch

intermediate

sometimes

that

three

sattd

genus

and

cow

of
the

cause

things.Thus

in all the

intermediate

other

such
universals),
still more

exist

to

in

sameness

separate thing which

This

and

kinds

the genus,

means

one

existing.This

or

is found

as

we

between

such

have

It

do,

traction,
(3) con-

All

general.

gunas

notice

diversityin all

which

regarded

that

of colour

found

are

the

category.

sameness

thing which must

There
dravya or guna.
in

movement

just as
they belong to move.

difference

of the

quality of

(1) upward, (2) downward,

substances

generalityor

of

third

realityas

movement,

on

Samanya

unknown

leads

brings about the cosmic order, and

with
experience of the souls in accordance

the

which

things to

is that

soul

which

(4) expansion, (5)

karmas

in the

demerits.

five kinds

are

Adrsta

of which

presence

317

karma,

or

gotvajati(the

as

The

of

intermediate

blue).
have a specialaspect

of guna,

cow),

genus

jatisor

or

genera

species,such as
jati);here however
pasutva (animal jati)and gotva (the cow
as
a species,
gotva appears
yet it is in realitynothing but a jati.
The
It is jatiwhich
aspect as specieshas no separate existence.
from

appear

aspect appears

one

theycannot
action

is

to

as

generate the effects which

destroyed its

power

genus
are

and

only

from
reaped

to be

{samarthya)cannot

as

last.

another
at

So dharma

species.

as

future time.
is to

be

If the

admitted

which
of conduct
produce happiqualitygenerated in the self by certain courses
ness
for him
other
conditions
of
when
time, place, etc. Faith
helped by certain
(Sraddhd),
non-injury,doing good to all beings,truthfulness,non-stealing,
sex-control,
control of anger, ablutions, taking of pure food, devotion to particular
gods,
sincerity,

as

strict
fasting,
to each

The

caste

adherence
and

Patafijali's
Yoga)
dharma

which

account

of the

Vallabha's

stage of

the yamas
and
duties and
to these
niyamas (cf.
Yoga by a meditation on the six padarthas attains a
(moksa). Srldhara refers to the Samkhya-Yoga
brings liberation
of
method
attainingsalvation (Nyayakandali, pp. 272-280). See also

who

person

scripturalduties, and the performance of duties assigned

life,are enumerated
by Prasastapada as producing dharma.

to

strictlyadheres

and

attains

Nyayalllavati,pp. 74-75.

(Bombay,

191

5.)

Nyaya-Vaitesika Philosophy

The

318

be

thus must
jatior samanya
independent realitythough it
This

the

representedin

this

regard

should

consciousness

be

to

sameness

the

all

cow

as

thus

negation theory of

admitted

be

to

of

sameness

visesa

Through
sensation

that

with

other

souls

things

The

comprehended
perceived

are

reference

the

this

within

the

in that
with

the
jati,

diverse.

world

No

single

probably agrees
be

due

the

to

Panditasoka

that

says

there is

could

we

have

known

is

cooks, for the similarityappliesto

together,then
infinitum.

these

should

Whatever

it is

cow

from

as

No

samanya

this

no

can

samanya

be

in Six

Sdmdnyadusanadikprasdritd
does not think that either by perceptionor

prabhdy

should

requireanother

things, viz. the action

requireone
and

"

the

factor to

common

that another, and

can

be

admitted

to

pointed
Buddhist

out

as

Nydya

we

have

exist

as

an

being externallyperceptible
Tracts.

The

Vedanta

know
jatias a
by inference we can
and Manijati.See Veddntaparibhdsd,Sikhdmani
"riharsa'sKhandanakhandakhddya,
pp. 1079-1086.

So it discards

69-71. See also

is not regarded as a separate category, for it
Similarity
(sddrs'ya)
in difference {tadbhinnatve sati tadgatabhuyodharmavattvam)
identity
pp.

of

"

separate substance.

other

result of the impressions of past experiences of existence

that this notion
and
is formed
transferred erroneously to external

only

non-existence

objects.Apart

without

cook

simply by seeing any

is not perceived is non-existent

being perceptible
is such,
sannopalabhyate tattadasat).Samanya

is non-existent.

samanya

entity. But

could be established.

is
cooking by virtue of which the notion of generality
establish
the action of cooks that cannot
similaritybetween

(yadyadupalabdhilaksanaprdptam
therefore

it

singlething running through

no

the samanya

his action of

to

regressus ad

also

explained
Samanya has

this difference must

If the specificindividualities of

them

and

be

some

If there

cooks.
hold

as

the external

sensation,and

Buddhist

formed.

jatiin

ceived
per-

thing
non-destructible;for even

or

from

receive

we

if it did exist then

any

negation

sameness

cannot

of

presence

different individuals (e.g.cooks) by virtue of which

For

that

selves.
themspecificdifferences amongst the atoms
difference existingin the atoms, emancipated
The specific
minds
be regarded as eternallyexisting,
and it
and
must
of

existence

said

horns

two

destroyed2.

latter is not

any

the

individuals

of

destruction

who

All perceptionas
separate reality.

thing is due to
jatiis eternal

object1. This
the

have

to

this

independent

discover

the

ception
per-

He

cow.

Buddhists.

the

cow

and

separate and

aforesaid

the

by

as

non-cows
as

negative perception,whereas
which
is a positiveperception,

is

non-cows

dent
indepen-

any

sameness

sameness

and

guna

iapoha). The

realityperceived in experience might also

The
his own
head1.
on
Nyaya-Vaisesika
of

of

separate

dravya,

existence

the

as

having

as

in

but
said that
realityof samanya,
reallybut the negation of all non-cows
realizes the negation of
of cow

was

is

is existent

denied

Buddhists

The

karma.

regarded

[ch.

is defined

as

1]

vi

is

on

Categoryof Inherence
of its presence

account

yogins who can

Samavaya,
virtue

by

the

different

two

and

peculiarrelation

of

substance, action, and

and
are

between

later

and

disconnected;

were

and

and

inseparablereality.
is the

contact

which

nature

exist

and

the

the

table

stance
jatiin sub-

relation

samyoga

if

as

take

they
place

disconnected

as

when

as

both

are

why

cause

may

{yutasiddha),such

pen

unified

so

effect,and

or

and
karana

samanya,

indissolublyconnected

as

same

The

substance

as

identical

one

or

connected

the table.

on

pen

the

to

relation

visesa, appear

thing. Samyoga

be

such

inseparableinherence

appear

same

on

and

attribute,cause

thingsof the

two

may

my

the

and

one

and

attribute

inherence, is

substance

karma,
whole,

one

of

things

atoms
karya (effect),

they represent

This

different

as

appear

inseparablerelation

attribute,substance
that

atoms

perceive them.

of which

(cause) and

that

319

I put

substances

is the

by

guna

for a while. Samavaya

they appear to be connected
however
makes
absolutelydifferent things such as dravya and
and
karana
and karma
or
karya (clay and jug) appear as
guna
one
{ayutasiddhd). This relation is thus a
inseparable whole
virtue of which

independent category. This is not regarded as

because
eternal
and
like samyogas
(contact)but as one
that object(e.g.
This
no
cause.
or
jug) may be destroyed
and

separate
many
it has
but

the

by anybody always

The
of

things which
as
tacitlyassume
Vedanta

between

does

not

of Causation.

Theory

Nyaya-Vaisesika

The

true
admit

the

existence

relation of samavaya

of the

II. ii. 13) that if a samavaya

a
(Brahma- siitrabhdsy
different things,then another
connect
two
samavaya

and

there will

so

it

vicious

as

two

the

of

either

seed

anavasthd

before it

kinds
and

the
be
at

vicious

all.

It is well

of anavastha"

the

tree,

or

to

be

to

necessary

(anavasthd).Nyaya, however,

would

remember

prdmdniki
when

would
to

that

connect,

the

(validinfinite,as
the

the admission

Indian
in

case

and
passions),

systems
of the

another

of anything involves

an

sisting
sub-

admitted

relation is to be

that

of the avidya and

as
infinite)
(vicious
be completed.

can

infinite

as

6ankara

Thus
qualities).

and

and

entities that it intended

two

that

expression in our language,and which

in all our
ordinary experience. Thus

finds

substance
different entities (e.g.

two

speculationstook

of its

in most

says

it with

being

remains1.

The

into

brought

never

six

realities

we

was

things are called the six padarthas or independent

experienced in perception and expressed in language.

These

view

which

relation

samavaya

to

connect

another,
not

gard
re-

ledge
acknow-

question of
aprdmdnikt

infinite chain

Nyaya-Vais'esikaPhilosophy

The

320
admitted

they
had

dravya,

admit

to

not

admit

and

that

the

as

karma

guna,

ultimate

of the collocation

In the

production of

of atoms,
peculiarities

effect too

the

was

and

accessory

other

etc.)had

wheel

instrumental

other

the

they
they did

for

atoms.
constituting

admit

not

that
held

They

cause.

within

power

(such

causes

the

powers;

did

they

potentiallypre-existentin
material
cause
(e.g.clay) had some

effect

of the

arrangement

or

the

Visesa

samanya.

continuallychanging their qualities,

be produced out of everything by a

things were
everything could
that

change

and

[ch.

collocation

that
the

it,and

stick,the

the

as

the

of these

stroyed
de-

two

produced the effect which was not existent

the
is called
but
before
was
newly produced. This is what
of asatkdryavdda. This
is just the opposite of the
doctrine
be destroyed (ndSamkhya axiom, that what is existent cannot
the

and

cause,

could
be
never
vidyatesatah) and that the non-existent
produced {ndsato vidyatebhdvah). The objectionto this view is
is non-existent
is produced, then
such
possible
imthat if what
even
bhdvo

things

Nyaya-Vaisesika
that

the

as

horn

could

is that

answer

is non-existent

be

can

the

also be

view

produced, but

produced.
that

is not
that

anything

is

which

The

produced

non-existent1.

was

It is held
which

cause

is neither
there

is

Mimamsa

by

to

reason

no

except
between

the

antecedent

succeeds;

movement

time

does

not

be

it must

the

of

that

effect,but

be

can

the

transcendental

plained
exsatisfactorily

is

nothing
sequence)
of

invariableness

mere

it the

make

to

unconditional

an

is any

(parispanda). There
relation (antecedence and

suffice

in the

Nyaya objectsthat this

legitimatehypothesis,for

there
this

as

resides

power

this

nor

movement

and

cause

unseen

effect. To

suppose

invariable

the

an

of observation

matter

that

the

produces

operation in causal
by molecular

an

hare's

cause

antecedent

as

what

of
well

(anya-

variabilit
thasiddhisunyasyaniyatdpurvavarttita).
Unconditionalityand inand
are
indispensablefor kdryakdrana-bhdva or cause
effect

relation.

For
of

accompaniments

upon

indirect.

In

something

they are

other

words

unconditional

else

the

invariable

an

but

antecedents;
or

example,

non-essential
antecedent

not

their

antecedent

Nyayamaiijari)

adventitious

also be

able
invari-

unconditional, only collateral

antecedence

(na svdtantryend).

invariable

may

or

of
p. 494.

The
the

is

conditional

potter'sstick
jar; but

the

is

an

colour

[ch.

Nyqya-VaitesikaPhilosophy

The

322

and finds
as
{atindriyd)
metaphysical or transcendental
efficiency
other
than
unconditional
invariable complements
nothing in the cause
of operative conditions
(kdrana-sdmagri),and nothing
in the effect other than the consequent
phenomenon which results
the jointoperationsof the antecedent
Certain
conditions1.
from

general conditions
of

such

Isvara,
destiny(adrsta)are regarded as

effects

{kdryatva-prayojakd).Those

determine
It may

be

not

of

out

place

repudiating transcendental
and

nature

conditions

of

system

mechanical
The

causal

presence
certain

called

asddhdrana

to

notice

relation

not

merit

kdrana.
while

Nyaya

the

deny

which

of

mechanism

the

{dharmd),

of

existence

which

constitutes
the

through

of nature.

like the

then

that

fulfil themselves

that

order

relation

the uniform

only by
a

and

systems

natural

ends

moral

sddhdrana-kdrana

are

(sakti)in

will

of all

cause

causes
specific

here

power

like

common

the

causation, does

natural

metaphysical
a

which

effects
specific

the

the

called

are

cause) as distinguishedfrom

(common

is

{dik\ time (kdla\ the

relative space

as

of concomitance,

relation

of genus

which

be

can

to

species,

ascertained

and

uninterruptedexperience of agreement in
and agreement
from
in absence, and not by a deduction
of causalityor identityof
a priori principlelike that

essence2.

The

material

samavdyi-kdrana

clay is technicallycalled the

have seen
as
we
jug. SamavSya means

such

cause

of the

the

as

intimate, inseparablerelation

an

samavctyi when
with

the

materials

is called

karana

inseparably connected
effect. Asamavayi-karana is that which

its materials
of the

of inherence.
found

are

of
produces its characteristics in the effect through the medium
of
the samavayi or material
cause,
e.g. the clay is not the cause
the colour of the jug but the colour of the clay is the cause
of the
colour of the jug. The
colour of the clay which
exists in the clay
in

inseparablerelation

colour

Any

of the

thus

quality(guna) or
in the

cause

the

clay is

effect
1

Dr

See

called

relation
the

Ray's Hindu

of the colour

cause

movement

samavaya

is called

P. C.

is the

of the

the

asamavayi cause
which
existingin

determines

the

asamavayi-karana.

jug.
of

This

the

the samavaya

characteristics
The

jug.
of

instrumental

Chemistry, 1909,
B. N.

pp. 249-250.
Seal's Positive Sciences

of the Ancient Hindus,

NydyamaHjari, Bhasdf"ariccheda,
pp. 263-266. Sarvadars'anasamgraha
with Mukt"vali
and Dinakari, and
Tarkasarngraha. The doctrine of Anyathasiddhi
for

this portion Dr

on

was

systematicallydeveloped from the

Buddhism.

time

of

Ganges^.

viii

Dissolution

nimitta

and

material
and

stick

We

{sakakdri)causes
produce the effect

to

be

may

of the

causes

Creation

accessory

cause

the

and

regarded

know

that the

the

the

that

effect,e.g.
colour

black

extraneous

is

jug

Thus

which

help the

potter, the wheel

the

the sahakari

and

nimitta

effect.

Nyaya-Vaisesika regards the effect as

before the operation of the

holds

those

are

the

as

323

in the

gunas
the

black

of the

burnt,on

colour

effect,
except

of the
in

of the heat

account

the

are

producing it,but
of the gunas

causes

clay

is the

where

cases

generate other

to

cause

cause

in

cause

heat

it
in

of the

cause

qualities
; thus

comes

as

when

an

clay
colour,though the

get red

we

existent,
non-

of the

colour

portant
imoriginalclay and the jug was black. Another
exception is to be found in the case of the production of
the parimanas of dvyanukas and
which
trasarenus
not
are
duced
probut
their
or
a
by the parimanas of an arm
dyanuka,
by
number
have already seen.
as
we

(Pralaya)

Dissolution
docrine

and

(Srsti).

Creation

pralaya is accepted by all the Hindu

systems
the
the
Mimamsa1.
to
According
Nyaya-Vai"esika view
except
Isvara wishing to give some
respiteor rest to all livingbeings
taneously
desires to bring about dissolution (samhdrecchobhavati). SimulThe

of

it the

with

adrsta

forming bodies, senses,

and

As
(sakti-pratibandhd).

other

or

the

bodies

as

of all

separationof
or

elements,

gross

result of this

act

to

ceases

further

no

and

bodies, senses,

being. Then for the bringing about

produced things(by the desire of ISvara)

the atoms
are

senses

the

souls

all the

residingin

into

products come

of the dissolution

force

thus

and

commences

all combinations

all earth

disintegrated;so

is reduced

to

disintegratedatomic state, then all ap, then all tejasand then

the souls associated
and
all vayu.
These
disintegratedatoms
and
with dharma, adharma
past impressions{samskdrd) remain
the

suspended
souls

in their

in their

own

natural

condition.

inanimate
condition

are

For

lifeless and

we

know

that

knowledgeless,

these
connected
entities. It is only when
are
non-intelligent
with bodies that they possess knowledge through the activityof
In the state of pralaya owing to the adrsta of souls the
manas.
1

The

doctrine

but the sutras

of

of both

pralaya and
the

systems

srsti is found
seem

only in

to be silent

on

later

Nyaya-Vaisesika works,

the matter.
21

"

The

324

part of

give some

I!
of

as

of

times

adrsta.
adrsta
At

in

it acts

is

the

the

with

one

vayu,

atoms,

and

atoms.

When

gross

form,

Isvara

and

work.

Brahma

this

of all
may
the

such

the

tejasatoms

god

lead

creation
Even

attainment

to

turn

of

the

for the

arranges

here

in the

and

by

the

souls

in contact

come

and

thus

play.

atoms

of

formed

are

full

vayu

contact

air atoms

all the

then

in

vayu

worlds

Isvara

by

do

to

created

are

the

by

of

rest

the

for the

of

enjoyment and sufferingof

karma, good or bad. Isvara brings

for any

not

it finds

of this

originates.
by
conglomeration of water
conglomerate and then the earth
thus conglomerated in the
are

and

arranges
kinds

function

the

is directed

thus

the

formed,

elements

Brahma

Brahma

men

adrsta, by

are

ap

four

begins

process

souls it is called

creative

of creation

dvyanukas

the
the

beings.

the

eternal

one

world-creation.

the diverse

the

this desire

constructive

for the

the

first

action

is formed

fruits of diverse

about

this

This

it to

(e.g.of pralaya)
of atoms
disintegration

atoms

the time

tryanukas

then

of

and

create

creation)the

action

and

the

of

at

of

By

the

way

After

the

and

function

another

similar

the

of time

conditions

of dissolution

time

atoms.

to

adrsta.

as

specific
capacityin

of creation

kinetic

with

certain

unification

suspended

time

the

souls

(e.g.that

the

At

wishes

{sahakdri)helps the

integrationand

When

all the

under

causes

other

at

creation,Isvara
in

of Isvara

accessory

and

of

works

Isvara

desire

[ch.

not

the time

At

Philosophy

conglomerate. It is not an act of cruelty on

Isvara that he brings about dissolution,for he does
of the livingbeings.
rest to the sufferings

do

atoms

Vaiiesika

Nyaya-

selfish purpose
have

sorrows

from

worldly

but

their

place

attachment

highest good, mukti.

enjoyment of pleasures and

pains according to the merits

our
ordinary experience we

and
find

demerits
that

for the

that

Moreover

of

men,

master

try fo;

and

the

good
they
Isvara

sufferingof
just as in

awards

prizes

deeds1. Many Nyaya

punishments according to good or
books
puty
dedo not
as
speak of the appointment of a Brahma
for supervisionof the due
disposal of the fruits of karma
bad

or

according

to

merit

demerit.

or

creation

were

brought

men,

that

it may

or

Isvara
The

is one,

about
be

for if there

will of Isvara

not
1

due
were

It is also held
in accordance
to

many

that

with

pralaya and
the

karma

of

play {Hid) of Isvara.

Isvaras they might quarrel.

mere

only bringsabout
See Nyayakandali, pp.

dissolution
48-54.

and

creation,

Proof of the

vin]
also

but

karmas

our

always

acts

could

pleasures and

{icchd)of
as

Isvara

Samkhya

the

asserts

that

this be

then

but

world
the

some

momentary
is made

and

effects

as

their

as

but

causes

is

notice

we

that

answer

thingsmust

many

thence

be

taken
each

formed

if I had

could
fires,

I say

to

the

volumes

that

that

for

have

such

agents
effects

ordinary

have

effect must

The

case.

only

small

of

fire,and

from

the

us

to

with

there

small

puffsof

quantitiesof
could

burning

infer the

I hold
of

existence

smoke
smoke

forest

had

and
fire,

there

is smoke

that

I had

Thus

concomitance.

"wherever

only observed

of smoke

world

is that

present

of smoke

concomitance

notion

inference

sufficient reason

of observed

case

the

to

dividual
in-

like any

cause

view

from

in the

good

hold

to

The

between
two
gives is that the concomitance
in its general aspect neglecting the specific

of the

cases

fire";but

us

said

Nyaya

of
peculiarities
seen

be

cannot

cause

that every

law

the

day, that

every

it is

as

mountains, rivers,

with

in form

utterlydifferent

so

is

cause

suppose,

far

so

said

be

world

this manifest

this

Buddhists

against this

objection made

If

cause.

arrangement

and

have

effect must

other

any

its

call effects.

we

all

Isvara

parts like all other

of

up

Jains

ever-existing

and

effect

ordinarily perceive may

we

etc.

oceans

that

like

have

the

an

the

of the

cause,
as

is also

atoms,

as

of

The

believes that

must

cient
suffi-

cosmos.

and

all its order

with

agency

is not

jug)

prakrti is

of the

his will out

(e.g.a

to

effect. The

other

effect

desire

icchd of IsVara

the

the

(God). Nyaya

effect

of atoms

an

This

of Isvara.

objects(e.g.jug, etc.),which
being

with

Buddhists

the

by

this

is permanent

collocation

modifications

and

demerits.

arrangement

universe

world

This

Isvara.

and

teleology of

and

of Isvara

due

also be

must

changes

Existence

Carvakas,

every

so,

disposal of

consequent

compared

the

all order

this

For

it

merits

be

of the

existence

atoms.

for without

Yoga system.

the

fashioned

the

all its

with

Proof

Mlmamsakas,

deny

and

thus

may

explain

to

has

is in

find it in the

we

us

in accordance

place

take

325

corresponding change in the

of order or harmony could not happen.
perfect harmony with men's actions.

to

demerits

and

merits

Their

and

of God

general way,

ripen, and

not

world

in

us

in the form

exterior

The

among

sorrows

world

exterior

Existence

small

and

lead

could

therefore
should

of fire in the

is

large

not

be

forest?

Thus

should

conclusion

our

[ch.

Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy

The

326

be

not

that

effects

smaller

only

preceded by their causes, but that all effects are invariably

therefore
This world
and
unconditionallypreceded by causes.
is
be preceded by a cause, and this cause
being an effect must
are

This

IsVara.

because

body, not
we

does

he
that

shoots

of seeds

visible

no

said that

It is sometimes

exist.

not

has

and

they are
produced by any agent. To such an objectionthe Nyaya
is that even
they are created by God, for they are also

see

not
answer

day

Isvara

see, because

cannot

we

cause

every

effects.

That

we

because

there

is

do

not

see

maker

no

out

come

of

but

them,

them

fashion

to

one

any

is not

the creator

because

not
can-

objectorcould distinctly
prove that there was
invisible maker
no
shaping these shoots,then only could he point
of contradiction.
But so long as this is not done
to it as
a
case
of enquiry and it is therefore legitiit is still only a doubtful
case
mate
be

for
well

as

This

If the

seen.

to

us

the

as

infer that

At the

beginning of

father

who

is

always engaged

four kinds

created

He

creation

The
The

being effects must

infinite knowledge and

has

He

in

doing

of atoms

have

He

cause.

is like

our

good1.

us

Physics.

and
earth,water, fire,

are

is all merciful.

the Vedas.

Nyaya-Vaisesika

the shoots

cause,

world

manifest

is Isvara.

cause

all effects have

since

air atoms.

cosity
weight, fluidity(or hardness),vischaracteristic
(or its opposite),velocity,
potentialcolour,
taste, smell, or touch, not produced by the chemical
operationof
heat. Akasa
(space)is absolutelyinert and structure-less being
is supposed to travel
of sound, which
only as the substratum
tion
combinawave-like
in the manifesting medium
of air. Atomic
is only possible with
Atoms
the four elements.
cannot
These

have

exist

in

an

mass,

number,

uncombined

air however
Two

three,four,or
of
current

by

Dr

the
1

See

five

of atoms

to form

dvyanukas

creation

in the
in

an

uncombined

themselves

has been

B. N. Seal in his Positive

have

also

an

I"vardnumana

pp.

as

Sciences of the Ancient

inherent

Jayanta's Nydyamanjari,
and

view

was

tendency

190-204,

and

to

Kadacit

cules
mole-

generally

pointedout
Hindus,

unite,"and

that
that

Udayana's Kusumafijali

with

of

Raghunatha.
tribhirarabhyateiti tryanukamityucyate, kadacit
kad"at pancabhiritiyathestam kalpana. Nyayakandali, p. 32.
2

the

view, there

also another

state.

into grosser
this

was

spheric
atmo-

(dvyanuka).Two,

binarymolecule

form

stage;

tryanuka,caturanuka, etc.2 Though

"atoms

Prakaia

consists

combine

atoms

condition

aturbhir Arab hy ate

viii]

Molecular

they do
of

into
threes,or fours,"either by the atoms
falling
threes,fours,etc. directly,
or
by the successive addition

of
atom

one

each

to

the atoms
preceding aggregate1."Of course
possessed of an incessant vibratorymotion.

regarded as

are

however

must

327

in twos,

so

groups

Changes

be

noted

physicalexplanationof
will of Isvara, which
with

in

this

the union

gives the

connection
of atoms

direction

behind

that

It

this

there is the adrsta, the

of all such

unions

in harmony

the

of the universe,"
principleof a "moral government
that only such things are produced as can
be arranged for the
so
due disposalof the effects of karma.
"An
elementary substance
suffer
thus produced by primary atomic combination
however
may
qualitativechanges under the influence of heat (pdkajotpatti)?
The
impact of heat corpusclesdecomposes a dvyanuka into the
and
transforms
of the atoms
the characters
atoms
determining
pinge
all in the same
them
The
heat particles
continuingto imway.
transformed
reunite the atoms
to form
so
binary or other
in different orders

molecules
the

that

is

of atomic

change
under

there

arrangements,

which

account

for

finally
produced. The Vaisesika
qualities
into simple atoms, then
first a disintegration
the final re-combination,
and
then
qualities,

characters
specific

holds

or

the influence

or

This

of heat.

is called

doctrine

the doctrine

pilupdka (heatingof atoms). Nyaya on the other hand thinks

for change of qualiis necessary
that no disintegration
into atoms
ties,
of

but it is the molecules

which

characters

new

assume

under

the

according to Nyaya directlyaffects

out
withand changes their qualities
the characters
of the molecules
Nyaya holds that the
effectinga change in the atoms.
heat-corpuscles
penetrate into the porous body of the objectand
therebyproduce the change of colour. The objectas a whole is
reconstituted again,for
then
and
not
disintegratedinto atoms
influence

such

of heat.

procedure

called

the

is

of the few

one

and

doctrine

Vaisesika
Chemical

Heat

is

experiencedby

observation.

This

is

of

systems2.

compounds

Utpala'scommentary

See

B. N.

never

pitharapaka (heating of molecules).This

the later Nyaya
points of difference between

Dr

thus

on

of atoms

Brhatsamhita

Seal in P. C. Ray's Hindu

take

may
I.

place between

the

7.

Chemistry, pp. 190-191, Nyayamanjari,

Nyaya and
Though there
(vn. 1),the Nyaya
in the Vaitesika sutras
are
slightindications of these matters
development of the theory
A systematic
the matter.
sutras
almost
silent upon
are
after Vatsyayana.
of creation and atomic
combinations
appear to have taken place
There
Udyotakara's Varttika.
Vaihsika sutras that they had any of those

p.

438, and

is very

little indication in the

differences

indicated here.

The

328
of the

atoms

bhuta

same

there

view

Nyaya

ay a-Vais'esika, Philosophy

Ny

no

are

of many

bhutas.

differences

in the

or

[ch.

According
of the

atoms

the

to

same

quality and characteristics of the

bhuta
due only to diverse collocations
are
compound of the same
Thus
i.4) that there is no
of those atoms.
Udyotakara says (ill.
of a barley seed and
the atom
difference between
paddy seed,
bhuta,

all differences

and

since these
of heat

particlesthe
that

take

atoms

in the

originalbhuta
characters depends on the
etc.

characters.

new

The

atoms.

etc. of the constituent

colours

and

colours,tastes

of these

change

impact

It is heat

of

transformations

the

cause

can

the continued

Under

of earth.

all but atoms

are

alone

heat

of

physical

substances

intensityor degree of heat and also on the

Heat breaks
speciesof tejascorpusclesthat impinge on the atoms.
and forms
into atoms, transforms
their qualities,
bodies in contact

in contact,

the

on

separate bodies

them.

with

of Vaisesika) holds that in

Prasastapada (the commentator
the highercompounds of the same
bhuta the transformation
takes
of the compound
place (under internal heat) in the constituent atoms
the compound
as
molecules, atoms
speciallydetermined
and not in the original
of the bhuta enteringinto the comatoms
position
of the compound.
milk is turned
Thus
when
into curd,
the transformation
curd takes place in the atoms
determined
as
milk

as

milk

in the

molecule

should

originalbhuta
curd

as

has

thus

not

to

molecule, and

milk

be

of which

it is not

milk

is

place in the milk atom, and the

be disintegratedinto ksiti or ap atoms.

the Vaisesika

view

the germ
both

are

the

and

heat

it is

and

when

the germ

blood

of the

the germ

atomic
1
"

mother,
which

the animal

to

form

heat

the

breaks

atoms,

atoms

and

is called

in

the animal

under
germ

(kalala).But

nutrition
up

grouping formed
chemicallycombine
thus produce cells

from

the molecules

i.e.atoms

their

by

constituents

contact

vayu

into its constituent

germ-plasm

the food

force

again in

paniments
(withaccomhomogeneous earth

plasm develops,deriving its

plasm

determined
These

bhutas)are broken up into

these that chemicallycombine

biomotor

So

molecule

of earth

of other
and

milk

change

substances,which

ovum

modes

isomeric

The

the

of the

atoms

modification.

takes

the fertilized ovum,

atoms,

the

disintegratedinto

the

that

necessary

the
with
and

the
of

specifically
plasm.
germ
the atoms
tissues1.

of
This

drambhaka-sa7nyoga.

See Dr B. N. Seal's Positive Sciences,pp. 104-108, and Nyayakandall, pp. 33-34,

Saririrambhe

paramanava

eva

karanam

na

Sukra-Sonitasannipatahkriydvibhdga-

The

330

Ny

ay

Vaiiesika

a-

Philosophy

[ch.

changes the colour of a fruit is different from that which generates

or
changes the taste. Even when the colour and taste remain the
a
same
particularkind of heat may
change the smell. When
is broken
by cows
special kinds of
grass eaten
up into atoms
its old

heat-lightrays change
forms

such

In the
is thus

those

as

that

belong

into

distinguishedfrom

be

smell

into

milk1.
all action

of matter

matter

on

activity(prayatnd) is
of motion
as
against the Samkhya
telligen
(ineverything other than purusa

all forms

considered

which

and

Conscious

motion.

to arise in the
to

to

Nyaya-Vaisesika system

resolved

doctrine

taste, colour, touch

evolution

of cosmic

course

and

therefore

subjectto vibratorymotion.
The

The

of

Origin
in

manner

which

(Pramana).

Knowledge

of
knowledge originatesis one
discussion in Indian
philosophy.

the

We
topics of
that Samkhya- Yoga explained it by supposing
already seen
favourite

most

have

the buddhi

that

(place of consciousness)assumed

the form

of the

was
object of perception,and that the buddhi so transformed
then intelligized
or purusa.
by the reflection of the pure intelligence
The
Jains regarded the originof any knowledge as being due t(
a

withdrawal

of

of
intelligence

veil of

karma

was

covering

of certain

all effects

being

as

due

to

the

invariably,
unconditionally,
effects. That collocation (sd.magr?t

which

as
produced knowlege involved certain non-intelligent
intelligentelements and through their conjoint action

and
collocation

determinate

is thus

Govardhana's

"

knowledge

called pramana

originof knowledge2.

None

semblage
as-

which

collocations

immediatelypreceded these

as

all-

the

self.

the

Nyaya-Vaisesika regarded
and

which

or

of the

was

produced, and

well
contradicted
un-

thi"

of th"
determining cause
composinj
separate elements
the

Nydyabodhini on Tarkasanigraha^ pp. 9, 10.

sdmaAvyabhicdrinlmasandigdhdrthopalabdhim vidadhati bodhdbodhasvabhdvd
defined "pramana"
JVydyam an/art, p. 11.
gri pramanam."
Udyotakara however
upalabdhihetu (cause of knowledge). This view does not go againstJayanta'sview
I have
of the
followed, but it emphasizes the side of vyapara or movement
the objectscome
in contact
with them and knowledflj
senses, etc. by virtue of which
is produced. Thus
siddhamindriyddi, asiddhanca tatsannikarsddi
Vacaspatisays:

as

which

"

karana

vy"pdrayannutpddayan
caritarthamiti

ndnyatra
Thus it is the action
of

eva

caritdrthah

tvindriydditatsannikarsddi

karnam

sdksddnpalabdhdvcva phale vydpriyate."Tdtparyatikayp.

of the

knowledge, but

as

senses

as

pramana

which

this production could

not

is the direct
have

taken

cause

vd

15.

of the production

place without

the

vm]

Nature

causal

the

collocation

that

sometimes

the

collocation

is sufficient

from

the

absence

of

collocation

the

course

collocated

involve

called

be said

can

primary
to

it is

cause;

determine

combination

that

is not

combine

in any

produce

to

causal

the

effect.

Of

entity separated

an

things. But

only

for
effect,

the

singleelement
composing
stop the production of the

combined

or

the

331

to
or

preceding collocations
These

be

can

jointcollocation

their

of Pramdna

it is the

case

effect

the

jointly.

only intellectual elements

(e.g.indeterminate
qualification
(visesana)in determinate
perceptions,
not

cognition as
the knowledge

of

in inference,the seeing of similar things in

liriga
the hearing of sound
in sabda) but also the assemblage
upamana,
of such physicalthings(e.g.
proximity of the objectof perception,
which
all indispensablefor
are
capacity of the sense, light,etc.),

the

all co-operate
further

in

determinate

is called

that

Nyaya
by

the

belong

within

always

remains

in its

appearance

that there

of

purusa

of the

whom

to

or

conceives

purusa

with

then
illusion,

the

or

percept

buddhi
the

as
perceives,

nor

purity. If

transcendental

own

the

concept

is but

Samkhya

the

cendental
trans-

mere

has

blance
sem-

to

admit

knowledge according to them. All knowledge

is false. And
since all knowledge is false,the Samkhyists have
to explain the originof rightknowledge.
precious little wherewith
There
that

is

no

real

Buddhists

again some
simultaneouslywith
are

who

generation of

the

knowledge corresponding

to

it,and

that

advocate

doctrine

the

object there
corresponding
an

is the
to

the

rise of any knowledge there is the rise of the objectof it. Neither
the object by the
is the knowledge generated by the object nor

knowledge ;

but

evident

this view

subjectand

that

the

there

is

does

object,they also

are

sort
not

to be

parallelism.It is
knowledge should

of simultaneous

explain why
regarded as

causes

in

some

"

sense.

Pramatr-

tadeva

tasmat

caritarthatvamacaritdrthatvam
pramdnasya
pramdne
kathancit.
lahetuh. Pramdtrprameye tu phaloddesena pravrtte iti taddhetu

prameyayoh

knowledge nates
origion
a
particular

ever,
knowledge belongs,how-

the

feels,neither

nor

of

form

the

purusa

knows,

view

Samkhya

influence

and

The

contact
or

the

for knowledge does

quite unintelligible,
it is non-intelligent,
though it contains

as

content

neither

in

; this is

buddhi

(knowledge).
it

that

transcendent

to

it the

The

pramana.

argues

of buddhi

state
not

cognitiveand physical elements

the same
plane,combine
together and produce
tions
knowledge. It is this capacityof the colloca-

origin of knowledge.

"

Ibid.

phap.\5.

The

332

Vaitesika

but

this

correspondence? Why
itself both

that shows

for
irrational,
in such

how

can

Vijfianavadins, that
and

as

that

knowledge

it is
its

as

itself

object,is

subjectand

as

also
ject
ob-

require

If this be the

it ?

the

knowledge

object should

as

illuminate

subjectto

as

illuminate

knowledge

knowledge
knowledge divide

manner

knowledge

should

of the

doctrine

object. The

the

[ch

ilosophy

its

both

alone

Ph

object. If knowledge and the object are

comes
corresponding points in a parallelseries,whence
manifest

or

express

Nyaya

case

we

might again expect that knowledge as knowledge should also

requireanother knowledge to manifest it and this another, and so
ad infinitum.Again if pramana
be defined dLSprdpana (capacity
on
of being realized)
then also it would
not
hold, for all things being
be

realized,so

there

These

pramana.

views

as

and

other

any

intellectual
involved

and

in the

the

plane
produced2.

on
are

same

alone

as

Vaisesika

know

that

the

valid

is thus

of

be

to

in which

that

as

four

explain

not

regarded

as

be

called

origin of

the

effect

an

like

Carvakas

source

of

of

Nyaya.

perception{pratyaksd)

admitted

sources,

added

sabda

Buddhists

The

knowledge.

two

physical phenomena

many

Pramanas

the

admitted

mana)*. Samkhya
2

do

moreover

could

which

nothing

cannot

its

The
We

be

thing known

the

in the same
originor production occurs
effect,
namely by the jointcollocation of causes
transcendent
element
is no
physical1. There
production of knowledge, but it is a production

other

way

Buddhists,

would

Knowledge
Inowledge.effect,

any

the

accordingto

momentary

pratyaksa

and

(testimony) as

inference

and

the

{anu-

third source;

the

Nydyamafljari,pp. 1 2-26.
of knowledge Gangesa,
Discussingthe question of the validity

See

great fame, says that

it is derived

result of

inference from

later naiyayika

the

correspondence
thingwith the activitywhich prompted us to realize it. That
I am
which leads us to successful activity
sure
is valid and the oppositeinvalid. When
I
with the perceptionof an
be
that if I work in accordance
I
shall
successful,
object
call it valid knowledge. Taltvacintdmani, K. TarkavagisVs edition, Prdmdnyavdda.
of the

perceptionof

The

Vaiiesika

Vaisesika
"

only

as

our

sutras

admitted

two

tacitlyadmit
pramanas,

pratyaksamekamcarvakah

Prasastapadadivides all cognition

the Vedas

as

perceptionand

pramana.

The

view

that

cepted,
acinference, is traditionally

taccdpi,etc."
vidyd (rightknowledge) and avidyd

kanddasugatau punah

anumananca

(buddhi)
(ignorance).Under
avidyd he counts
samiaya (doubt or uncertainty),viparyaya
who
or
(illusion
anadhyavasdya (want of definite knowledge, thus when a man
error),
had never
it for the firsttime, he wonders
a mango,
seen
sees
what it may be)and svapna
and
(dream).Right knowledge {vidyd)is of four kinds, perception,inference,memory
the supernaturalknowledge of the sages (drsa).
the Vaiksika
I. i. 3,
sutras
Interpreting
as

vni]

Perception
adds

Nyaya

four-fold

the

fourth,upamana

division

333

(analogy).The

which

principleon

depends is that the causal

collocation
which
generates the knowledge as well as the nature
characteristic
kind of knowledge in each of the four cases
is
or
different.
The
the object of
same
to us
as
thing which appears
become
the object of inference
sabda
our
perception,may
or
mode
of manifestation
of knowledge
or
(testimony),but the manner
being different

of pramanas

in each

that inference

and

the

different

producing knowledge being

admitted

and

case,

sabda

in

manner

conditions

or

each

it is to

case,

different

be

though
objectindicated by the perception. Nyaya
they point to the same
thus objectsto the incorporationof sabda
(testimony)or upamana
the
that
since
the mode
within inference,on
of producground
tion
of

is

knowledge

are

different,these

be

to

are

pramanas,

held

different

as

pramanas1.
Perception
The

naiyayikas admitted

they

believed

These

senses

to

could

akasa, of
Thus

the

by going
The

forth

and

separate

Perception is defined
associated

not
VI.

i. 1, and

VI.

character

i. 3, to

as

with

with

mean

that

upamana
1

their

and
(analogy)
and

specific
objects

in contact

with

them/

upasthd)recognized

recognized here

as

such

rightknowledge generated by

the

senses

are

body.

simultaneous

of doubt
sound

and

error

cognition(such

worthy
depends upon the trustas valid in themselves.
consider scriptures

that the validityof the Vedas

author, he does

and
Arthdpatti(implication)

The

up.

colour, etc.,of things.

manifest

not

made

was

of

the

not

Their validity
is only derived by inference from

and

the

object,devoid

the

other

any

of their

in trustworthypersons

ear,

attribute

discharged by

so-called
of the

functions

senses

are

the

was

thereby coming
senses

of these

functions

of the

sound
the

the

teristic
specialcharacthe
composed. Thus

(ydkypdni,pdda,payu,and

senses
as

only

can

of the five elements.

with

were

receive

to

rays

them

to

over

general motor
contact

they

which

cognitivesenses

other

or

in contact

come

cognitivesenses

Samkhya

for the

one

of which

element

send

conative

in

of

perceive sound, because

which
the auditory sense,

could

eye

each

the five

only

composed

could

of that
ear

be

(Pratyaksa).

the trustworthycharacter of their author.

also classed as inference

are
anupalabdhi (non-perception)
faith
as
are
regardedas being the same
aitihya (tradition)
hence

cases

of inference.

Sdmagribhedat phalabheddcca pramdnabhedah

Anye eva hi sdmagriphale pratyaksalingayoh
Anye eva ca sdmagriphale sabdopamdnayoh. Nyayamanjari,

p. 33.

The

334
as

the

at

the time

Ny

Vaisesika

a-

ay

Philosophy

object as heard from a

the object is seen) or name

of the

name

when

If when

see

sound

of the

knowledge

we

associated

as

utteringit,just

person

association, and

man

cow,

[ch.

here

says

with

the

is

percept

terminate1
dethe

cow,

be

cannot

perception but as
rightknowledge which

counted
That
of the

sound-knowledge {sabda-pramdnd).
is generated directlyby the contact
object is said to be the product of the

as

the

with

senses

in which

the

which

perceptionin

thing is taken

it appears

at the very

without

indeterminate

as

Indeterminate

(savikalpa)determinate.

{nirvikalpa)and
is that

be divided

Perception may

perceptualprocess.

tion
percep-

first moment
with

association

any

of
name.

perception takes place after the indeterminate

stage
with all characteristics
is justpassed ; it reveals things as being endowed
and names
and qualities
justas we find in all our concrete
Determinate

experience.Indeterminate
and

characteristics
of

association
names

universals,but
it is

name

connected

are

perception of

more

with

to

regarded

be

is said

product
from

as

to

this stage there

at

it forms

percept

which
the

the

no

the

once

the

at

time

known

of that

should

perception. Only

separate auditory name

constitute

being

is not

name

hearing

their

determinate

the

savikalpa-pratyaksa.If

having the perceptionof a thing of

then
me
anybody utters its name

of

thingswith

the

less indistinct. (When

or

the

called

thing

perceptionreveals

nirvikalpaperception which

that

results

the

of the senses
with
perceiving process of the contact
object. Of this nirvikalpa(indeterminate)perception it is

the
held

later

the

by

directly,but

yet

stage without
arise.

The

naiyayikas
it has

which

the

indeterminate

that

be

to

we

admitted

determinate

as

of

conscious

not

are

perception is regarded

first

necessary
could

consciousness
as

it

not

the first stage

of

perception. At the second

stage it joins the
of perception in producing the determinate
other conditions
ception.
perof the sense
with
The
the object is regarded
contact
with the dravya (thing)called
as
being of six kinds: (i) contact
in the

process

with the
(2) contact
(samyukta-samavayd) in which
samyoga,

relation,(3) contact
the

genericcharacter as
(rupatva),which inhere
1

with

they
the

universals
in the

(qualities)
through

the

inhere

able)
(insepar-

gunas

of those
gunas

in samavaya

(such as

colour

thing

etc.)in

qualities,e.g.colourness

in the

samavaya

relation.

naiyayika of great reputation,describes perception as immediate

lakuinam).
(pratyakfasya saksatkaritvam

Gangesa,

awareness

gunas

later

Sense-contact and

viii]
speciesof

This

for the

is

eye

is in samavaya

relation,and
kind

the

thus

of contact

the kind

by

the

known

called because

eye

this

case

is

see

only

with

there

is in touch
kind

of

is

that

Nyaya

kinds

of

jug

the

the

akasa

auditory

in the

samavaya

can

here

the

on

(6)There

is

the

it the

absence
is

substances

and

is

negation.
in

eye

of the

jug
perceivedalong
be

It will thus

ground.

empty

which

space

ground. My

ground and the

the ground which

only

not

relations

ear.

negation {abhdvd) is perceived,

(as qualifyingcontact). This is so

qualityof

admits

in

samavaya

The

which

no

with

perception of

the

the

perceivesonly the empty

of an object and through

the absence
that

called

contact

samaveta-samavaya.

as

by

visesana

Thus

exists

in samavaya

perceivesound in a peculiar
called samaveta-samavaya.
The
(5)
generic
the universal of sound
is
(sabdatva) perceived

namely samyukta
qualifiedby

of colour

perceivedby

sound

of contact

the

of

auditory sense

of contact

kind

another

as

character

kind

said to be

and

of sound

character

generic

is another

are

is akasa

sense

the

or

sounds

which

by

samyukta-samaveta-samavaya,
in contact
with the thing,in the thing the colour
relation,and in the specificcolour there is the

There

(4)

relation.

335

is called

contact

universal

colour

Perception

seen

qualitiesbut

all

and

existing and as being directly

apprehended by perception(so far as they are directlypresented).
The
most
important thing about the Nyaya- Vaisesika theory
of

perception is
of the

contact

usefulness
and
the

or

which

the

seen

the

is

objects,but

not

factors

sense

in any

of touch
in the

system

and

taste

of

cases

does

(atindriyd)power

clear perception

not

the

are

of the

admit

are

of any

{sakti)than

that

All

ledge
know-

it is called
of

and

its

with

senses

actual.

but

senses

sight,hearing
Vaisesika

of contact

objectswith

is of the

contact

and/'

senses

instruments

metaphorical

sense

according to Nyaya-

that the

the

are

The

in contact.

are

the

involvingthe appreciationof its

regarded as the process of perception

knowledge produced

the

senses

objects is
only in the case
senses

and

distinct

the

object to

beginning from

perception. The self,the mind, the

kinds
the main
factors by the particular
perceptual knowledge is produced.
and
arthaprakdsa,revelation of objects,

the

The

the

process

its result

perception when
production and

the

with

whole

the

harmfulness,

is indeed

which

that

thing,sometimes

objectsare

between

this

sense

of the

real

as

Not

in contact

with

smell

as

well.

and

we

have

material

kind

of transcendental

of actual

vibratory

other

Nyaya-Vaitesika Philosophy

The

336

which

movement

The

of

production
is

but

perceivean
not
only with
I

of

this

them

sense-contact

It is

urged

that

be

etc.

of

and

sense

as

result

as

is in touch

but

also with

the

and

also

predicated. The

are

is called

dlocana-

is roused

there

the

pleasurablecharacter

perceive the
pleasure-givingcharacter2.

certain

regarded

When

of inherence

first stage

appreciation of

this

also

object should

relation

produced by

sense

result of that

as

have

to

me

tactual

hardness,

the

at

(sukhasddhanatvasmrti) and
before

in

effects

rence,
occur-

physical causes.

the colour

which

and
jhdna (sense-cognition)
of its previoustaste
memory

orange

the

or

specificcolour, or

object itself of

-with the

visual

with

the

of

sense-cognition1.

transcendental

no

to

movements

my

associated

universals

result

orange,
its

is similar

and

conglomeration

the

of

purview

is thus

knowledge
which

one

the

within

is

[ch.

of

the

as

orange

direct

that

result

pleasurable

of

perception

operating as a concomitant
through the action of the memory
stand
cause
(sahakari). 1 perceivethe orange with the eye and underthe
pleasure it will give, by the mind, and thereupon
understand
by the mind that it is a pleasurableobject. So though
perceptionresults immediately by the operation of the mind,
with sense-contact,
yet since it could only happen in association
and
be considered
it must
as
a subsidiaryeffect of sense-contact

this

hence

perception.Whatever
intermediary processes, if the knowledge

contact

regardedas

we

condition
with

be in contact

with
when

erroneous

not

with

the

objectis thus

the

sive
succes-

result of

primary

perceptionsand not only can

the
and
objects,their qualities,

of all
the

them

but

it presents

also
an

with

negation.

object in

(atasmimstaditi)and
presents an object with

possess

which

is

be the

sense-

is
appertains to the object with which the sense
should
regard it as a result of the perceptual process.

Sense-contact

associated

may

if it

and

in contact,

visual

character

and
the

pensable
indissenst

universal*

perception
which

it does

rightknowledge {pratnd)is that

character
which
it reallyhas
a

khalvatlndriydSaktirasmdbhirupagamyatc
yayd saha na kdryyasya sambandhajfldnasambhavak.
Nydyamanjari,
Na

Sukhddi

manasd

tasya karanatd

p.

69.

buddhvd
tatra

kapitthddica caksusd
manasaivdvagamyate
.

.SambandhagrahanakdU yattaikapitthddivisayamaksajam
sthitam
bhdsyakrtaicetasi
jndnain tadupddeyddijildnaphalamiti
.

sukhasddhanatvajfldnamupddeyajndnam.
Nydyamanjari^

pp.

69-70;

see

also pp.

66-71.

The

338

Ny

Vaitesika

a-

relation
subject-predicate

it in

The

avikalpika stage

the

but
particular,

the

universal

as

ay

attribute

when

reveals

the

no

I say "this is
universal
of

name

taken

in

one

particularare
as
subject and

{jdtyddisvarupdvagdhina

orange."
with

at this

stage,

and

sweep

not

substance

predicate or
tu

an

associated

association

the

of relation

terms

as

there is

as

and

thus

[ch.

Philosophy

mitho

jdtyddlndm

and

visesana-

visesyabhdvdvagdhiti
y"vaty. He thinks that such a stage, when
the objectis only seen
but not associated
with name
or
a subjectpredicaterelation,can be distinguishedin perception not only in
the

of infants

case

of

things,but

association

also

of the

occurring at

dumb

or

that

persons

in the

of

case

and

names

all

do

know

not

ordinary

relations

could

the

names

for the

persons,

be

distinguished
explaining the

in
Srldhara,

succeeding stage2.
Vai"esika
with the above
to be largelyin agreement
view, seems
Srldhara
view of Vacaspati. Thus
says that in the nirvikalpastage

as

only the

not

But

universals

at this

as

manifest

stage there is

no

differentiation and
the

by comparison. But
in the thing are
are
ordered

as

differences

the
perceived_buj;

were

of other

memory
unification

differences

and

perceived,only they

"different from

this"

or

things,there

such
the

"similar

as

as

can

only

universals
are

to

not

well.
is no
result

they
consciously
as

this,"which

can

only take place at the savikalpa stage3. Vacaspati did not

bring in the question of comparison with others, but had only
notion of the thing in definite subjectspoken of the determinate
The
later Nyaya
predicate relation in association with names.
writers

however,

following Garigesa, hold

an

ferent
altogether dif-

opinion on the subject. With them nirvikalpaknowledg

the knowledge of mere
predicationwithout
any associa

means

tion with

I.

the predicate refe

subjector the thing to which
such a knowledge is never
vikalpa
nirtestified by experience. The
stage is thus a logicalstage in the development of perceptual

But

the

cognition and
1

not

psychological stage. They

Tatparyatika, p. 82, also ibid. p. 91,

"

prat hamamdlocitd'rt

hah

would

sdmdnyavilesa-

vdn."
2

naiva
3

tacca

Ibid. p.

84,

"

Nydyakandali,
na

p.

sdmdnyamdtram

s"m"nydk"rasydpi
yam

tasmddvyutpannasydpi

namadhtyasmaranaya

purvamesitavyo vi-

namadheyamarthapratyayah."
"ata/i savikalpakamicchatdnirvikalpakamapyesitavyam^
189 ff.,

grhnati bhedasydpi pratibhdsandt napi

samvedandt

grhnati yadi paramidam

vi"c?aficobhayamapi

vivicya
s"manyam

na

svalaksanamdtram

vyaktyantaradarSane pratisandhdndcca, kintu

samanyamayam

viiesah

ityevam

pratyeti vastvantaranusandhdnavirahat, pinddntardnuvrttigrahandddhi

vivicyate,
vydvrttigrahanddviksoyamiti vivekah."

viii]

Indeterminate

like to

dispense with
knowledge of

Perception

339

it for

they think that it is impossible

the
to have
a thing as
qualifiedby a predicateor a
quality,without previouslyknowing the qualityor the predicate
{visistavaisistyajndnam
prati hi visesanatdvacchedakaprakdram
jndnam kdranam)1. So, before any determinate knowledge such
not

as

be

"I

cow,"

see

preceded by

"this

is

cow"

or

indeterminate

"a

cow"

arise

can

it must

presenting only the

indeterminate, unrelated, predicativequalityas nirvikalpa,unconnected
with
universalityor any other relations {jdtyddiyojandrahitam vaisistydnavagdhinisprakdrakam nirvikalpakanij1.
But this stage is never
psychologicallyexperienced {atindriyd)
and
it is only a logicalnecessityarisingout
of their synthetic
conception of a propositionas being the relationingof a predicate
with a subject. Thus
Visvanatha
in
his
Siddhantasays
an

stage

involve
does not
cognition which
relationing
be
for
the
of
the form 'I know
cannot
perceptual
perception is
the jug'; here the knowledge is related to the self,
the knower,
the jug again is related to knowledge and the definite content
of
forms
the
which
jugness is related to the jug. It is this content
of the predicate'jug'
predicativequality(yisesanatdvacchedakd)

muktavall,

which

"the

is related

knowledge

knowledge. We
jug without having

to

of the

quality,the
of the

jug

could

which

the

universal

content3."

be

the

this is the

universal,and
related
But
sesika

to the

both

this

must

intuited

be

which

particularwith
the

old

the

and

knowledge

in order

that

the

possible,there must
pure predicationshould

nirvikalpastage, the
testified by experience is after
not
In the
proposition "It
necessary.
and

the

be

rendered
or

But

therefore

cannot

new

the

of the

dicative
pre-

knowledge
at

stage

known

be

of which

though
logicallyindispensably

admission
all
is

have

cow,"

the

directlybefore

is

cow

it could

an

be

it is associated.

Nyaya and Vaisavikalpa perceptionwhich

schools

of

validityof the
the Buddhists
denied.
Things are not of the nature of momentary
versal
endowe^wJtrT~cTass-charactersor unibut they are
particulars^
and thus our
knowledge of universals as revealed by the
and is directlyproduced
perception of objects is not erroneous
of savikalpaperhold that the error
-vThe
Buddhists
by^objects.
ception
consists in the attribution of jati(universal),guna
(quality),
admitted

the

Tattvacintamani, p. 812.

Siddhantamuktavali

on

Ibid.

p.

809.

karika, 58.
Bhasapariccheda
22

"

The

340

dravya (substance)to things1.

the universal
and that of which
is predicated are
identical entity. Thus
the same
the predibut are
cation
universal
the
in the savikalpa perception involves

universal
different

not

of

an

of

false creation

difference

remark

that

which

thing and yet the

again the percept "man
the

and
was

regards
of
for

and

kriya

the
the

know

we

to be

that

the

stick"

from

fourth
of the

in any

way

vitiate

until the

second

bring about

to

mind

that the
with

it

memory
as

or

this

The

fact that

operation of memory
identical

But

with

this

identityis
Vacaspati says

causes

Nydyamanjari, pp.

when

93-100,

it
as

"Panca

the

main

caite

ciated
asso-

memory

necessary

in

it is borne

in
111

was

long as

so

the

thing but is only ass

previouslyacquired,ther

of the

never

that

being

as

But

name.

why

reascn

thhe

should

one

that

which

object of visual
through the help of

cause

the

can

be

whatever

of

considered
may

sense-contact

be
is

kalpana bhavanti jatikalpana,gunakal-

dravyakalpand ceti,tdSca kvaridabhede'pibhedakalpyabhedakalpandtkalpana ucyanle." See Dharmaklrtti's theoryof

/and, kriyakalpana, ndmakalpand

pandt kvacicca bhede

dicating
pre-

cannot

is not

name

past impressions {samskara) this

concomitant

the

operates

being directlythe object of perception,for

the

jati,guna

therefore

fact that memory

as

perception. To

dhists,
Bud-

categoriesrelated to
be regarded
perception cannot

the association.

before, for

seen

ference
dif-

different

as

as
was
being the same
be
cannot
any objectionto the association
Buddhists
further object that there is no
identifya thing seen at the present moment
was

the

of the

believe

and

are

Now

them.

stage through the jointaction of

is not

name

ferent
dif-

"stick"

that

Vaisesika

substance

perception.

easilyexplained,for the

order

and

question of

The

completely different
thing are identified,
if it
is regarded as

"man"

is

objectionVacaspati repliesthat the

make
thing roused by its sightcannot

The

perceptionerroneous.

former.

unity between

no

and

Nyaya

stage of

name

is

objections it

different

to the

of the

memory

ciated

with

there

of substance

As

erroneous.

is

and

name

of

something

ontologicalpositionwith

Nyaya

determinate

the

the

and

first three

of them
at

is

name

singlething or substance, though

altogetherdifferent
as

is not

the

speak

to

the

to

motion

But

moves.

and

similar

error

also

So

none.

was

substance

the

appliesto action, for

from
from

there

where

quality is not different from

thing as qualifiedis thus an
same

[ch.

Philosophy

(name), and

nama
kriya (action),

The

-Vatiesika

Nyaya

Perception,pp. 151-4.

See also pp. 409-410

of this book.

viii]

Transcendental

Contact

341

present, this perception of identity should

effect of it. But

the

Buddhists

be

regarded

still emphasize the

as

point that an
and
place and

object of past experience refers to a past time

is not experienced now
and
therefore
be identified
cannot
is experienced at the present moment.
an
object which
has

be

to

admitted

that

was

It

that

Vaisesika

early Nyayainvalid

as

with

is not
factory
Vacaspati's answer
very satisleads ultimatelyto the testimony of direct
tion
percepIt is easy to see
challenged by the Buddhists1.

for it
which

an

differed from

it

for

it
in

only

could
the

was

dismiss

not

this,that

same
a

the
the

as
name

savikalpa perception
nirvikalpa and
associated

was

with

the

a
thing of perception at this stage. As it admits
gradual
of
the
effects
of
causal
development
perception as
progressive
of the mind
with the
through the contacts
operationscontinued
the influence of various
self and
the object under
intellectual

and

(e.g.memory)

not, like Vedanta,

it does

which

give knowledge
well

as

the

can

and

will.

The
of

we
particular

smoke
we

can

by

any

sandal

in

visual

general.Jnanalaksana

associate

wood

sense.
our

the

contact

perceptionsof
Thus

visual

the
I

see

when
sense

we

is in

is that

other

smoke

and

with

with

all

virtue of which

by

when

looking

touch

all

ing
correspond-

contact

senses

are

universal associated

is in transcendental

sense

with

in contact

when
the

with

in contact

which

with

is in contact

sense

my

one

sdmanyalaksana,
contact
samanyalak-

general way) of
predicated. Thus

be

may

it my

smoke

called

nature

transcendentally(alaukikd)

are

universal

with

is

Nyaya

to

transcendental

particulars(in

through

collocations.

yogaja (miraculous).The
by coming
by virtue of which

is that

the

tion
previouslyacquired. The variaknowledge in the soul depends upon

not

was

and

jndnalaksana
sana

only

regarded as a separate sense

with
in contact
pleasure,pain, desire,antipathy
later Nyaya writers speak of three other kinds

come

contact

causes,

requirethat rightperceptionshould

production of

as

varietyof causal
Mind
according

and

of

physical(e.g.lightrays) concomitant

at

its

perceiving
piece of
colour
only,
a

perceive it to be fragrantwithout any direct contact

objectwith the organ of smell. The sort of transcendental

but still we
of the
contact

{alaukikasannikarsd)by
1

virtue

of which

Tdtparyatikd, pp. 88-95.

this is rendered

The

342

these

and

Pleasures
to

be different from

conceives

that
be

we

for
self-revealing,

that

kind

same

manifested

have

for the

happen,
do

not

so

that

sake

there

that

was

associated

This

shows

collocation

remembered
in their

make

in

rated
gene-

it should

this

does

not

one

that

thus

are

of

duhkha

and

act

as

case

duhkha.

knowledge.
generated

are

in direct

through

perceptionor
in

generated

are

should

operation. It
demerit

one

manifested

are

qualitieswhich

the

and

merit

sukha

in

with

case

the

different,

so

themselves

not

objectseither

causal

them

another

are

between

knowledge

conditions, and

other

believed

are

things beyond
the

subtlest

Even

of future

so, then

have

differences

some

duhkha

senses

our

the

we

events

and

which

intuition

however

concomitant

Siddhantamuktavali

on

at
to

be

of

be

causes

of the

most

acquire this

can

power

and

concentration

objects directlyby
time

some

have

the

true, e.g. sometimes

"To-morrow

Karika

pratyaksa

they

powers

may

come

that

distant

most

ourselves

the

have

to

by gradually increasingtheir

have

cannot

were

words

all; and

to

in

thingsthat

with

result

yogins

mind.

in other

feel

we

production.

The
distant

if it
should

one

fact that

the
and

of certain

They
as

to

and

of

course

in memory.

be

must

sukha

with

that sukha

is the

self

in

painfulexperiences that

in association

the

so;

generates sukha

thing which

same

this difference is due

by the

hand

other

to

might
in others.
Moreover
even
admitting
argument's
it is knowledge itself that appears
as
pleasureand pain,

pleasurableand

Such

is not

sukha

as

found

never

knowledge. They

feelingin others,or

its nature

are

the

On

generates sukha

of

etc.

for

it is evident

and

sukha

having some
knowledge

even

experience which
the

or

after

them

grasp

the

character.

in that

behaving

as

appear

things,but

illumines

or

[ch.

knowledge acquired by
is not counted
as
perception1.
pains (sukha and duhkha) are held by Nyaya
For knowledge interprets,
knowledge (jftana).

contacts

two

Philosophy

But

jnanalaksana.

called

possible is

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

63 and 64.

my

We

must

brother

notions
I maj

will

remember

ceive
pertheii

that

come,"
Gangesa

cussed
disperception
has
which
that
cognition
above, and held that perceptionshould be defined as
the specialclass-character of direct apprehension.He
thinks that the old definition
involves
of perception as the cognition generatedby sense-contact
vicious circle
a
of
(Taltvacintamani,pp. 538-546). Sense-contact is stillregarded by him as the cause
kinds
the
six
but
the
He
it
should
be
in
definition.
to
included
not
perception,
agrees
of contact
above.
described firstby Udyotakara as mentioned

discarded

the definition of

as

given in the Nyaya

sutra

which

we

have

viii]
and

Inference

this

happen

may

jfiana,which
by the mind.

is also
This

perception called
past perceptionsby
at

it is

that
eye, but

the

only

which

that

senses

present

moment

which

; thus

we

fragrance is

According

Vedanta

to

of inference.

to

and

rose

percept

ceive
perthe

perceived by

not

the visual

associates

this

acquired perception
is
pratibha-pratyaksahowever

The

reference

of

memories
with

see

form

other

the

associated

are

the

cognitionis produced, it
cognition,e.g. This is a pot, but
the self by the mind
I know
as
When

from

perceives it directlyand

is with

pratyaksa directly

manasa-pratyaksa, by

fragrant; the

it.

case

as

different

course

other

manas

percept with
is

the

regarded

pratibhana-

is called

This

true.

be

to

is of

of

visualized

be

to

343

happening of a
is produced only as
after

this it is

this

"

event.

objective

an

again

related

to

is effected

This

pot."

future

by

mind

for reperceptionof the cogniagain coming in contact

tion
second
which
had already been
soul.
This
the
in
generated
and
all practicalwork
can
reperception is called anuvyavasaya,

the

proceed

as

result of this

anuvyavasaya1.
Inference.

Inference
and

the

been

on

most

valuable

this

subject.

the

thing on
with

it,as

that since
in

be

cannot

hill.

In

"fire"

necessary
1

This

that
later

To

sadhya.
the

hetu

Nyaya doctrine

produced at a later
Prabhakara, which

example)

moment

or

must

must

make

of
cognition

be contrasted

technically

is

been

paksa, and

the

term

inference

the

it is

present in the paksa,

self in association with

with

fire

be

has

correct

be

also

assertion

the

remember

we

this^smoke

is called

is associated

fire,there
which

has

about

assertion

an

hill

like

made

has

Nyaya

lihga must

that the

proof (pramana)

lirigawhich

or

without

about

That

hill in this

is called

that

risingfrom

example

an

of

means

making

mark

the

finding smoke

smoke

(the

in

It consists

hetu.
or
calledJiti^a,
made

second

contribution

strength of

when

yonder

is the

(anumdna)

cognitionis

doctrine
triputipratyaksa

of

taneously
given simulknowledge
holds
that the object,knower
according to Gangesa,
cognition),
in knowledge.
(determinate
Vyavasaya
of this
that I am
aware
but
the
cognition
the
of
the
object,
gives us only
cognition
and
is called
former
one
the
succeeding
objector cognitionis a different functioning
anu

(after)
vyavasaya

and

"idamaham
(cognition),

janamiti

are

vyavasaye

all

na

bhasate

tadvai-

jnanasya
bodhakendriyasannikarsabhdvat kintvidamvisayakajnanatvaviHstasya
bhdtadrtam
vaiHstyam
svasya
ca
svaprakaie
vyavasaye
sistyamatmani bhasate; na
janamitina vyavasdyah
sitnmarhati,purvam vihsanasya tasydjnandt,tasmddidamaham
kintu

anuvyavasayah.'"Tattvacintdmant

:,p. 795.

The

344

in it

sadhya

objectssimilar

known

in all other

and

which
i.e.,
(sapaksa-satta),

sadhya (possessingfire
be

not

Vaifesika

Nyaya-

in

present

such

it is invalidated

that

the

should
could

not

be

also

be

of

one

these

hetu

the

what

hetu

seeming
Thus

which

by

does

paksa)

possess1.

not

technicallycalled
sound

that

"

is

is eternal

quality

since

be

not

opposite way

violation

may

it is

be

hetu
the

hetvabhasa

because

or

made.

be

it is visible

sound

(here the
technically

is

of

any

make

could

which

of

of the

only

hetvabhasa

This

viruddha-hetu,

eternal,

does

which

should

the

inference

Again, hetvabhasa

asiddha-hetu.

called

the

possess

that

technically called

sound

is
fallacious,for visibility

must
liriga

not

would

thus

correct

no

that

inference

the

is

the

possess

certitude

spoil the

would

inference, and

fallacious,or

the

perception {pratyaksa) or
(abddhita-visayatva).The
liriga

that

the

having

direct

by

sastra

conditions

to

inferred assertion

by it an inference in
The
possible {asat-pratipaksa).

such

determining

as

is

of

testimony

known

are

in

paksa

object as does
from vipaksa or

absent
sadhya (vipaksa-vydvrtti
the sadhya). The
not
possess
such

the

to

[ch.

present example). The

in the

any

Philosophy

the

second

type,

exemplifiedin the

created

the

hetu

"

case

being

opposite of sadhya {vipaksa),namely

know
that
non-eternality,for we
non-eternalityis a quality
which
belongs to all created things. A fallacyof the third type,
created

is present

technicallycalled
sound

is

in the

anaikantika-hetu^

eternal,since

it is
"

object of knowledge

an

an

is found

object of knowledge.

(pranteyatva)is

present in things eternal

here

is not

absolute

type, technicallycalled

example
Here

fire is not

"

pratyaksa

fallacious.
found
time
1

in

for

The
cases

that

fifth

be borne

in

kind
particular

sounds

in mind

our

ears

of movement

not

the

it is created

since

fire is hot, and

under

as

e.g.

that Nyaya

the Mlmamsa

existed

"

being

hetu, but

it is

hetu

like
hence

did.

sound

did not

like
believe

Eternalityof sound

certain conditions, e.g. the

of the vocal muscles.

fourt
in th

jug,

etc,

hetu

is

the
is

is

with

stroke

same
non-

of the

Mlmamsa

they
of

be

to

the

jug

meant

th"

with

in the doctrine

eternal indestructible entities,and

the

possess

fallacy,called prakaranasama,
opposite hetus are available at

where

sound, which

theorythat

manifested

hot,

shows

Now

(anaikantika). A fallacyof the

kaldtyaydpadista,may be found

opposite conclusions,

It should

of
eternality

the

do

in

sadhya

the

that

case

11
(i.e.
things possessing sadhya), as well

which
things that are not eternal (i.e.
of
sadhya), and therefore the concomitance
as

the

in

were

drum

only
or

The

346
that

there

wherever

observed
which

and

known

was

concluded

of smoke

those

relation

the

to

view

concomitance

the

the

in which

been

smoke

with

under

which

the

fire,I

But

Nyaya

all those

could

cases

case

that

enough.

hundred
a

it cannot

any
was

cases

hundred

the

should

where

there

of

existence

Thus
where
cases

be asserted

the
there

I had
where
from

of the
but
fire,

latter
may
seen

there

as

that

smoke
all

in

should

former

smoke,
was

it that there

an

is

and

neither
is any

there
ass

nor

relation

in the Six Buddhist

in

that
be

not

ass

fire.

where

cases

an}

shouh

of absence

case

been

cases

with

of fire

technically

vyatirekavydpti.But
have

case

there

of smoke

existence

in

see

smoke

was

it is necessary

The

in

(vydp-

shall

we

of

every

sign

of concomitance

fire there

See Antarvydptisamarthana, by Ratnakara^anti

Bibliotheca Indica, 1910.

concomitance

there

fire,but
no

of

ourselves

assure

held,

enough

of smoke.

of absence

to

concomitance

is

inference

an

concomitance

we

wherever

be

case

every

of inference1.

knowledge of any such

fire,and if in all the

no

it is not

anvayavydpti and

is not

that

there

only

of the

be

called

with

concomitance

observation

no

but

enunciate

holds

i.e. not

case

should

cause

fire,without

validityof

the

school

smoke

perceived

is smoke

smoke,

the

it refers to the

means

the

are

the

had

if we

ascertainingthe

Mlmamsa

was

I had

of

correct, and
The

there

was

there

of its

memory

when

of

bahirvyaptias

to

chapter,that

I knew

the

discovery of

containing smoke

cases

signate(sddhya),how

valid.

been
next

we
fire,

since they did

antarvyapti. The Buddhists
of generality,etc. preferredantarvyapti
notions

that the process

case

had

been

of

the

tigrahd)had

fire is

circumstances

the

ihetu)with
each

with

hill,

comitance
{anumiti). The contechnicallycalled vydpti. When

question arises that since

depend mainly on the validityof

will

the

in

of the inference

concomitance

of concomitance
Now

had

it is called

admit

not

with

of the

observed,

be

with

it is called bahirvydpti\and
having fire,

conviction

the

hill. The

associated

as

anttmana)

or

the

smoke

was

we

we

fire {trtiya-lihga-pardmarsa)
is thus

with

{anumitikarana

hill

fire which

inseparablyconnected

fire in the

was

in the

and

when

remembered

yonder hill,we
there

[ch.

fire. Now

was

smoke

since
be

to

us

there

liriga(smoke)

this refers to

then

to

that

concomitance

in

(yyapti) of

before,

Philosophy

there

smoke

was

concomitance

the

smoke

was

there

perceived that

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

even

this

in
sitting,

might

have

smoke, but
of concomiNyaya 7racts,

Invariable

viii]
tance,

of

or

antecedent

and

cause

that

be

may

or

an

of

large number
produced the smoke,

very

the
followed
vind

yato

the

it

above

there

with

the hetu

doubt

which

wood

that

But

there

them,

have
lead

unsettle
had

the

of

of such

with

of

of

without
But

have
1
2

the

the

know

we

but

by

the

hidden

demon

doubts,

and

that

that
who

if

fire

might

one

wood

green

should

duced
pro-

did

it.

indulged

we

and

disturb

not

concomitance

or

observation

on

which

at

or
we

The

consideration2.

either

things

kind

the field of

(e.g.the

of them

fixed

natural
would
an

that

be

not

and

moon

was

the

pening
things hap-

certain

certainlyexist, even
essence.

that different

effect,and

there

could

which

the

identityof

essential

inference,and

could

identityof

neither

that

rise of the

order

happen

happens
of

of

that

effect

and

cause

held

Nyaya

types of inference

suppositionof
it

of

relation

whereas

of other

sometimes
same

Thus

all work

effect,nor

and

ocean). A

other

of

and

vyapti

essence,

cause

quite a number
brought under
tide of the

hetu

But

practicalactivities would
doubts
such
as
{vydghdta). Thus

species,exhausted

and

genus

the

of

naiyayikas generallyagreed as to the method

of concomitance
notion
or
vyapti {vyaptigraha),
tried to assert
that the validityof such
comitance
cona

former

relations

smoke1.

be

to

relation

any

the

identityof

of

the

the

some

always depended
or

and

concluded

endeavour

careful

by

and

the

was

ass

fire in

was

suspension

notion

arrived

but

immediately

was

there

real hetu.

end

no

work

the

forming

that

we

the

there
be

mained
re-

(yasmin sati bhavanam

bhuyodarsanam, Nydyamanjari,

the

the

not

but

our

the

Buddhists

ass

antecedents

anvaya-vyatireka might not be a real hetu,

other
condition
some
(upadhi) associated

dispensed

to

us

all the

ass

smoke

say

what

an

of the

introduction

when

even

iti

was

was

would

be

the

It

without

smoke

{ardrendhand) produced smoke,

it

all

to

be

might

smoke,

of

of

observations

and

in

that

be

we

disappearance of the

only could we
{vyapti)between

might

in green

that

bhavanam

concomitance
course

that

smoke.

followingit,but even
had so experienced in

smoke

that

disappearance of

na

122),then

p.

such

347

the

and

ass

observed

the

cases

and

the

same,

by

without

ass

the

have

never

If it were

enough.

Concomitance

effect between

might

one

ass,

that is not

Unconditional

in such

kinds
cases

of

causes

often

it is difficult to

and vyaptigraha.
Tatparyatika on anumana
Tatparyatika on vyaptigraha,and Tattvacintamani of Gangesa
See

on

vyaptigraha.

infer

from

cause
particular

the

though different

that
the

Nyaya-VaiiesikaPhilosophy

The

348

effect,
yet

same

there

causes

If each

found

ever
how-

produce

to

difference between

some

effect

holds

Nyaya

often

are

be

must

effect.

the

[ch.

one

by itself with its

and peculiarities,
it will be found
other attendant circumstances
then be possibleto distinguishit from similar other
that it may
be due either to a heavy
effects. Thus
a flood in the street
may
downpour of rain immediately before,or to the rise in the water
of the river close by, but if observed
carefullythe floodingof
found
due
such specialtraits
the street
to rain will be
to have
from a similar floodingdue to the
that it could be distinguished
from
the floodingof the street
in the river. Thus
rise of water
stances,
of a specialtype, as demonstrated
by its other attendant circumflows by small
the water
the specialmanner
in which
and

effect

rivulets
due

another.

sheets,will

in

or

rains and

to

not

enable

is taken

infer that

to

us

the rise of water

to

in the

flood

the

was

Thus

river.

we

uniform
based on
Nyaya relied on empirical induction
the Buddhists
and
uninterruptedagreement in nature, whereas
assumed
of causalityor identityof essence.
a priori principles
It may
be out of place here to mention
that in later Nyaya
not
works
great emphasis is laid on the necessityof gettingourselves
such upadhi (condition)
assured that there was
associated with
no
that

see

the_hetu
that
a

the

hetu

relation of
smoke

produce

account

on

we

; fire must

smoke.

cannot

be associated

case

which

smoke

no

that

of smoke

of smoke

could

with

concomitance,

all fire does

be

because

fire there

is

this

must

with

duce
pro-

order

It is

produced.

is fire. In order

and

not

smoke

an

there is fire. But

no

to

must

the
be

condition, and
be assured
be assured
hetu

to

condition

necessary

fire is associated

is smoke

there

the

validityof vyapti,it is necessary that we

there should
with
be nothing associated
the

with

happened, but
the sadhya in

greerTwoodin

with

is thus

wood

Green

say that there

the concomitance
in every

concomitance

unconditionallyassociated
Thus
inseparableconcomitance.

of this condition

account

the

was

(upadhi)without
so

of which

which

settled

so

of the
that
ditioned
con-

by wide

experience(bhuyodarsana).
Prasastapada in defininginference as the "knowledge of that
with the reason
associated
(e.g.fire)
(e.g.smoke) by the sightof
the reason"
described a valid reason
nected
(lihgd)as that which is conwith the object of inference
(anumeya) and which exists
wherever
the object of inference exists and is absent in all cases

viii] Prasastapadas Interpretationof Inference

where

it does

exist.

not

This

is indeed

the

of

name

another
in

or

infer

can

said.

by

vakatvd)with

when

as

non-existent
with

concomitance

it is

there
a

is

cow

is

no

family
a

cause

infer

can

it

it is

neither

cow

horn,

this

is

ass

one

because

it has

between

horns

horse
the

nor

and

horns

horns.

for
fallacious,

cow,

are

it has

has

ass

is

no

existence

because

horns, it

have

it has

or

doubtful

(ill.

us

(hetu)

reason

inferred

the horse

all that

for he tells

the
association,

proper

if I say

have

may

we

be understood

object to be
(aprasiddhd)or it has

concomitance

no

or

cause,

infer

can

we

say

are

also

can

for
fallacious,

if I say

Again

that

in the

(sandigdha).Thus
horns

they

the

to

verse

(believedto be the

says

from

mutually connected, or in opposition

of inherence
ii.
and
a relation
i.
We
III.
(ix. 1
9).
because
it is duly associated
reason
{prasiddhipurthe objectof inference. What
this association
was

according to Kanada
there
i. 15) that where
is either

Kasyapa

Kanada

effect

the
effect,

thing by

what

as

Kanada)

the

from

same

the

Nyaya
vipaksdsattvaof

same

of paksasattva,
qualifications
sapaksasattva and
a valid reason
(hetu). Prasastapada further quotes
that this is the

349

not

and

though
The

cows.

of paksasattva and sapaksasattva,

fallacyis a combination
for not only the present paksa (the ass) had
no
horns, but no
of vipaksasattva,
horses had any horns, and the second
is a case
have also horns.
for those which are not cows
Thus,
buffaloes)
(e.g.
it seems
that when
Prasastapada says that he is givingus the view
of Kanada
he is faithful to it. Prasastapada says that wherever
first

there

is smoke

When

he

remembers

there is fire. But

inference such
from the

is

there

the

with
a

of

inference,but

that

inference into
of

one

from
two

this that

and
class),

samanyato

that

the

where

of

drsta.

some

Inference
can

classes,drsta

member

holds

only

of inference.

generalnature
such

are

enumeration

be

that

inferred.

(from

effect

an

are

the

not

examples for showing

tion
merely shows a connecthe

class to another

He

then

divides

teristics
experiencedcharacmember

of the

same

(perceivedresemblance) is

Drsta

previously known

these

that

of types of

its effect,or

from

is inferred

cause

smoke.

no

feels certain

and

Kanada'

is

unerringlyperceivesthe

concomitance

regard to

"

as

fire there

no

and

cause," etc.,Prasastapada

only types
the

if
fire,

is

this concomitance

knows

one

smoke,

there

case

and

the

inferred

case

is

class. Thus
an
example of it we can point
as
exactlyof the same
of
has a hanging mass
that by perceivingthat only a cow
out
I see the same
flesh on its neck (sasna),
hanging
whenever
I can

The

350

when

to

Thus

on

with

namely

strength of

the

on

performance
which

infer that

it is

[ch.
a

But

cow.

quality the inference

objects,it is called samanyato

is

common

perceiving that the

good harvest I may
the

Philosophy

animal

an

different class of

objectsfor

the

of

neck

of flesh at the

mass

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

of

work

of the

infer

that

will
sacrifices,

they

work

also be

of the

priests,

rewarded

with

the
performed (i.e.

are

drsta.

is rewarded

peasants

the

tended
ex-

attainment

of

has arrived {svanithe conclusion

to which
one
heaven). When
scitdrthd)is expressed in five premisses for convincing others
either in doubt, or in error
who
are
or
are
simply ignorant,then

tion
pararthanumana. We know that the distincof svarthanumana
(inferencefor oneself)and pararthanumana
made
by the Jains and Buddhists.
(inferencefor others) was
is called

the inference

does

Prasastapada

he

inference,but

of

not

make

sharp

to

mean

that

seems

of five

conveyed to others by means

called pararthanumana. But
of

innovation

entirelynew

this

of two

distinction
what

infers,it

one

premisses in

need

be

not

classes

which

it is

case

considered

Prasastapada, for

in IX.

be

can

as

an

2, Kanada

alludes to this distinction (asyedam kdryyakdradefinitely

nasambandhascdvayavddbhavati). The five premisses which are
himself

called in
called

are

and

Nyaya pratijhd^hetu drstdnta, upanaya, and nigamana

in Vaisesika. pratzjnd,
apadesa,nidarsana, anusandhdna,
Kanada

pratydmndya.

of

these

of

any

is of
Pratijfia
nidarsana

the

have

in

the

same

similar

as

of

case

Dr

mere

hill is

motion

no

also

being1). He

fiery;
more

which

case

that

was

it has

because

serviceable

as

points out

Vidyabhusana says
familiar

has

motion

is

to

"An

is

in the

seen

cases

cited to

smoke

Nyaya,

of the

the

name

apade"a."

and

the term

last two

are

kinds,(i)agreement
substance

in absence

arrow),(2) agreement

an

has

substance

be of two

may

"

second

Nyaya drstanta,but

to

entirelydifferent. Nidarsana
in presence
(e.g.that which
in the

we

the

mention

not

premisses excepting

course

is very

does

however

case

is

as

what
(e.g.

is not

universal

of the

fallacyof

seei

the

exampl"

example before the time of Dignaga served as

help the understanding of the listener,e.g. The

like

reasoning, but

kitchen

(example).Asahga

Dignaga

converted

made

it into

the

ample
ex-

universal

expressiveof the universal or inseparableconnection

proposition
and the major term, e.g. The
hill is fiery; because it has
the middle term
between
is
that
has
smoke
as
a kitchen
all
smoke
{Indian
fiery
Logic, pp. 95, 96). It is of
;
had
like a kitchen
that
an
as
{iabdah
true
course
imperfectexample
Vatsyayana
i.
has
it
but
in the
I.
Prasastapada
utpattidharmakatvadamtyah sthalyddivat,
36),
it from
Diftnaga or Dirinaga from
Prasastapadaborrowed
proper form. Whether
that
proposition,

is

"

"

Prasastapada cannot

be easilysettled.

"

Doctrine

vm]

Concomitance

of

351

{tiidarsanabhdsa).Prasastapada'scontribution
of the

enumeration

nidarsana, but

the

different from
to

the

Keith

Professor

questionof
to

The

of

novations
Prasastapada'sapparent into
himself,and
by Kanada

alluded
definitely
has

discussed

not

the fallacies of

that
nature

this

the

latter borrowed

it is

and

ascertainment

of

is the

middle

of the

between

with

the

inference,but

that which

immediately

with

inference

does
but

the
But

he

the

with

patti

that the
the

therefore

was

Buddhist

this

logic by

major

was

with

the

mere

collection

latter

in

both

leads

that

the

the

is

in the

to

lingaminor

major, for
of the

nection,
con-

with

associated

of

nature

doctrine

of

was

between
either
unless

this

of

positiveor negative instances

Nyayakandali,

pp.

to

contention

was

the

and

middle

identical

its effect and

with

tadut-

contribution

new

or

that

and

tdddtmya

Dharmaklrtti's

connection

concomitance.

by Vacaspati have

shown

probability a

former

bhasya
Prasastapada's

lead

(srnrtyanugrhito
lihgaparamarso).

The

all

regarded

be

the

it

of the

to inference

the

major

whether

these

memory

Dharmaklrtti.

principleof

root

should

that

follow

regard to the
of Dirinaga as

point.

the

memory

with

immediately

Udyotakara's criticisms
to

the

of its connection

connection

most

inference

an

and

present perceptionof the middle

is silent

reference

that

question

is that

answer

memory

of the

memory

is the

present perceptionof the middle

not

the

former1.

middle

or

major

His

associated

the

middle

inference.

i.e.the

whatever

reason

the

raises the

leading to

paramarsa,

the

liriga
(reasonor middle) through

present perception of the

connection

no

says

On

definitely
proved

concomitance

Vatsyayana
the

is

it from

previouslyperceived. Udyotakara

no

alternative.

nidarsana, unless

of the connection

the memory

definitely

of inference

most

important part of inference.

be made
can
by the sight of

as

It however

us.

Dirinaga preceded Prasastapada,there

suppose

traditional

other

some

of the

above,

all

are

that

to

shown

from

was
problem
being
circles independently of Nyaya. There
is
that Prasastapada borrowed
suppose
thing
anyProfessor
Keith
Stcherbatsky or
supposes,

Dirinaga as

I have

able
systems that it is reason-

lost to

now

study

however

from

for,as

is

in Vaisesika

reason

no

which

that

pursued

in other

current

are

sist
con-

premisses and the fallacyof

the last two
premisses are so

of

names

to

seems

five

that he collected them

work

indicates

the

what

suppose

Vaisesika

of the

thus

was

will
200-255.

in

essence

grasped a
not
give us

The

352

Ny

desired connection1.

the

If

separate relation.
that

such
fire there

no

is

relation

then

smoke,

for there
perfectsatisfaction,
caused
smoke
was
by fire and
it

ascertained

be

can

that

it cannot

preceded by

that

argument
known

to

only

can

lead

be

infer the

to

us

effect

and

of

or

morning by the
identityof essence
tree) also

there

identity of

be

cannot

nature

in either

of

of this

and

any

if

certain

even

it for

granted

connection

of fire at

preceding time

there

are

relation

(e.g.the

identical

are

of concomitance
these

that

they

do

know

not

of

there

this

determine

the
effectively

not

causal

svabhavadva

Tatparyatikd^p.

be
any

be

scribed
de-

further

with

about
the

and

that

the

have

there

major.

These

under

only
argued that

of Pahcakdranl
relation.

former

smoke

be

is

the

then
vitiate

that
searcl
take

to
a

The

natural
later

in order

to

five conditions

the
nor
(i) neither the cause
is perceived,(3) in immediate
(4) the cause
disappears,(5) in
perceived,

determining the causal relation

effect is perceived,(2) the cause

Karyyateranabh"vadva

and

method

the

effect is

exist

the

to

cannot

discovered, we

be

ol

be

cannot

latter from

It may

wood).

thing has

one

any

infer the

may

middle

the

introduced

darian"t.

cause

things (e.g.smoke) are

things (e.g.fire)and when

other

{upddki) cannot

between

the

many

of

sunrise

therefore

Some

ways.

(e.g.green

Buddhists

succession

is

cause

conditions
which
always be certain unknown
may
is
validityof inference. To this Vacaspati's answer
and careful
of cases
after observing a large number
conditions

na

also

of

perceptionof smoke

the

for fire is connected

versa,

conditions

such

immediately

then

inference,for

they

connection, we

vice

not

sociated,
as-

accepting for the sake

therefore

with some
naturallyconnected
such is the case, though we
may
nature

Unless

yesterday morning). In the case

(tdddtmya as in the case of the pine and

The

inference.

the

of

sunrise

by another, but

inferred

with

element

was

determined,

essence

being

case

invisible demon.
invisible

cedence
ante-

there

in each

not

cases

the

that

smoke

presence

as

ascertained

contemporaneously with it. Moreover

where
but there is no
inference is possible,

and

may

the

and

be

no

Again

effect and

is smoke

an

was

that

causalitycan

precede the

by

there

fire alone.

fire and

immediate

proof

no

not

said

be

invariable

it cannot

is

of this view

determined

fire there

being

[ch.

be

cannot

causalitymeans

there

no

Philosophy

in his refutation

Vacaspati

cause-effect

the

that

says

-Vatiesika

ay

105.

are

niyamakdt avinabhavaniyamo'

darhttdnna

The

354

Ny

is that

fire).Kevalanvayi
could

based

be

not

object has

"this

Vaitesika

a-

ay

type of inference,the vyapti of which

negative instance, as in the case

since it is an
object of knowledge

on

any

name,

Now

{idam, vdcyam prameyatvdf)?

is not
case

the

{vacyatvd);

yatva

or

of

object
form

of

that

earth

that

elements

differs

from

there

only

has

inference

differs

earth

"

of
specialqualities
those

where

cases

as

other

This

had

third

infer

to

is upamana,

Vaisesika,

with

before
other

known

"what

gavaya?"
it, it is just

forester

he travels

similar

This

to

knowing

on,

he

cow

forms

called

then

known
have
said

was

the
been
to

be

of the

animal
due

to

gavaya,

by

the

animal

by

not

forester-

gavaya

name

also

gavaya,

upamana
with

If

but

its name

process
is made

man

then
The
when

by

to

gavaya.
of

its

forester

some

city and
the

the

finding it

and

upamana.
of the

man

n(

"

testimony (sabda-pramdna).

generated by
unknown

the

forest,asks

opinion that this is a

unknown
thing by virtue
called

it

and

the

thing is
similarityto a known
had pointed out a gavaya
to a
that

such

of

reason

replies "oh, you do

after hearing this from

seeing a

on

hitherto

an

in

only

use

by Nyaya

forester

cow";

and

of

the

in

the

to

goes
the

like

be

it has

known
associatinga thing unby virtue of its similaritywith som"
of the city who
has
a
man
never

Thus

and

the

"abda.

consists

name

{gavaya)

ox

is

know

be

thing.

wild

seen

its

and

it alone.

it and

is admitted

and

since

anything by

and

which

pramana,

it is evident

of agreement

could

inference

Upamana
The

possessing
differ from

not

here

elements,

possessed by

was

of the

case

in

does

water;

as

name.

There
negative instances.
exactly the proposition of our

is

from

earth.
we

of it

specialtraits

all that

or

from

taken

instance, which

one

in the

as

based

stances
positive in-

elements

positiveinstance

be

to

where

any
and

is prame-

is vacyatva

such

other

be

to

there

that

found,

earth, such

be any

cannot

there

smell, since

is not

concomitance
is

be

therefore

wherever

"

knowledge,

cannot

specificquality of

other

agreement

kevalavyatirekiis

in agreement
inference

has

here

vyapti

of

cases

an

third

the

which

is known

case

of
therefore
know
object of knowledge ; we cannot
there was
where
no
object of knowledge (prameyatva)

necessarilyon
The

such

no

an

name

no

[ch.

Philosophy

had

told him

would

have

this

would

knowledge

is

tion
the associathe

observer

vin]
strength of

the

on

animal

realists,and
as
similarity
Similarityis

the

All

persons.
Vedas

the utterances

rightknowledge

of

derived

from

the

Vedas

himself.

The

because

they

but
itself,

Vedas

separate

did

but

But

person.

validityof

by

the

said

Vaisesika

in

The

from

See Nyayamanjari

given by
strange

the forester

animal

should

be treated

in view.
alone

on

as

case

oldest

Nyaya

itself"upamana."

and

Udyotakara

called

view

hardly
the
this

that the instruction

was

"

name

Vacaspatihold

association of the

to the

probablythis

wild

not

by

the instruction

made, but there

"

was

ox

pretation
inter-

of the instruction of the forester too.

memory

What

upamana.

that it was
"

name

wild ox"

Pra^astapadaheld that upamana

When

he had
of testimony (aptavacana),

and the
perceptionof similarity,

to this association

is

later times.

the association of the

So it is the perceptionof similarity

with the other
us

infallible

an

Vaisesika.

Nyaya-

The

upamana.

of the forester that the

the

was

But

the

(anu-

tacitlyadmit
authority.But anyhow

by virtue of which

possiblewas

was

the

{abhava)is of great
negation or non-existence
philosophy. In this section we can describe its
Kumarila2
the point of view of perceptibility.

interest in Indian

only

inference
of

us

of

problem

nature

establish

to

the

admit

sutras, which

the

Negation

as

not

before, this explanation

scriptureson its own

Vaisesika
was
interpretedin

how

was

I have

as

corroborated

pramana,

is

give
out

came

Vaisesikas

The

valid,for

is

they sought
validityof testimony {sabda)on the strength of
miti) on the ground of its being the utterance
as

and

is the

of the infallible Isvara.

utterances

sabda

of

not

act

separate

rightknowledge which
infallible and absolutely
truthful

by Tsvara

uttered

is

perception of

the

with

received

testimony

or

knowledge

were

355

the

in accordance

instruction

Sabda-pramana
from

experience of

name

the
and
similarity
called upamana}.

derive

Sabda

known
similarityof the unto a known
The
one.
naiyayikas are thorough
such
of
as
they do not regard the observation
being due to any subjectiveprocess of the mind.
indeed
but yet the
perceived by the visual sense

of the

association

we

and

Upamana

two

factors

Vatsyayana

accessories that lead

as

meant

is not

clear,but

very

Dinnaga supposes that according to him the result of upamana was the knowledge of
holds that
the knowledge of a thinghaving similarity.
or
Vacaspatiof course
similarity
he has correctly
interpreted
Vatsyayana'sintention.
the

means

of
associating

name

to

It is however

definite that upamana

object{samakhyasambandhapratipattirupama-

new

which
of similarity
ndrthah, Vatsyayana). Jayanta points out that it is the preception
leads
directly

to the

association of the

be

regarded as the direct cause

testimony (Jabda). See Prasastapada
Udyotakara,Vacaspati and Jayanta on

cannot

See Rumania's

treatment

and

name

and
and

of abhava

hence

the instruction

it cannot
consequently

Nyayakandali,

pp.

be

220-22,

of the forester

classed under

Vatsyayana,

Upamana.
in the

Slokavarttika, pp. 473-492.

23"2

The

356
and

Ny

[ch.

Philosophy

philosophy we shall deal

negation (abhdvd) appears as

followers,whose

his

Vaiiesika

a-

ay

in the

with

intuition
an
chapter,hold that
with reference
there are
to the object negated where
no
{tndnairi)
ence
of ordinarycognition(pramdna) leadingto prove the existmeans
next

{satparicchedakam)of
existent"

"it is not
contact

with

sense

our

eyes

(e.g.in

of
the

jug) to

of

non-existence
the

neither
that
the

if

since

both

are

ground, we
jug, and when

ground,

of the

case

of non-existence

perception. A

he
of

man

time, since

be

did

he

not

not

has

case,

non-existence

then

be

see

be

urged

think

perceiving the

memory

of the

being any

of

non-existence
inference

see

ground

in the

mind

rises

preceded by

any

notion

our

never

say

at all to visual

there

were

their non-existence

but

when

the
any

tigers.There

in the rise of

sense-

and

of

in

is

even

the

place where

of them,

tigers there
place and without

there

say

could

reference

aware

of

without

for it is not

can

we

we

thus

no

sittingin

jug

the

evening if there were

any tigersat
sittingin the morning, he then thinks and

the

there

them

in the

was

when

it could

therefore

other

which

may

but he might
tigers,

is asked

shut

we

grasped by
jug (which is absent) and

the notion

the

see

perception. We

the

at

that

no

existence
perception of the nonboth
the ground and

perceptionof

in the

is absent

remember

no

and

is

the

in the

contact, which
that

the

the

nor

of the

case

there

indeed

It is true

object.

the

perception,for

to

ground visuallyperceptible,we could

of the jug. But
regard to the non-existence

with

same

then

jug
called

we

and

due

that the notion

held

thing. They

be

cannot

here

turn

we

that

notion

the

later

on

he

place where

becomes

aware

morning, even
operation of the
is

no

question of

of non-existence,

of concomitance

of any

kind,

non-perception of the jug could

be regarded as a reason
for the non(linga),
perception of the jug
is related to the jug and not to the negation of the jug, and
no
is known
between
concomitance
the non-perceptionof the jug and
and

neither

the

ground

its non-existence, and

non-perception with
about
to

be

the notion

explained

admitted

nor

the

of
question of the concomitance
non-existence
culty
diffiis brought in,the same
of non-existence
{abhdvd) which was sought

will

when

the

recur

again. Negation

is therefore

to

be

cognized by a separate and independent process

of knowledge. Nyaya
however
the
that
perception of
says
non-existence
(e.g.there is no jug here) is a unitary perception
of

one

as

whole, just as

any

perception of positiveexistence

(e.g.

viii]
there

is

ground

should

to

as

the

on

well

as

by

the

the

is therefore

there

the

jug

there

arise

be

said

negation

of the

in the

without

any

to

jug

Both
the

of action

the

of

of

knowledge

the

of the

non-existence

the

ground
knowledge. The

of

357

visual

the

jug
and

organ,

why the knowledge of the ground

perception,whereas the knowledge of

reason

be due

to

is taken

kind

no

of Negation

ground) is.
knowledge of

same

separate process

view

Mimamsa

on

should

be

said

to

non-existence

be due

of the

jug
principle

the

ground is perceived.The
that in order to perceive a thing one
should
have sense-contact
with it,appliesonly to positiveexistents
and not to negation or
non-existence.
be cognized even
can
Negation or non-existence

in

as

Non-existence

sense-contact.

and

hence

there
be

It may

contact.

act

same

be

cannot

that

urged

or

of

non-existence
this the

To

other

reply is

question

any

if

stance,
positivesub-

here

well

as

sense-

required
apprehend negation

places which are far away

to apprehend negation it

that

of

is

sense-contact

no

could

apprehending negation,one

is not

from

him.

is necessary

thing and

know
be perceived. We
it exists must
a
place where
and yet the qualitycan
its quality to be different,
only

be taken

in association

the

that

We

well.

be

its locus.

apprehended
but

before

along

later

the

In

it is

on

of

memory

with

the

thing and

the

later

reallyno

in this

case

the

as

hension
appre-

is said

apprehension of

to

existence
non-

(e.g.of jug) perceived

non-existence

perception of

so

non-existence

when

case

it is

only through

non-existence

apprehend

can

of

with

locus

the

of

non-existence

cording
(abhdva) can thus, ac(e.g.ground). Negation or non-existence
to
Nyaya, generate its cognition just as any positive
do.
existence
can
negativity or mere
Negation is not mere
vacuous
absence, but is what
generates the cognition "is not,"
as

position(bhavd) is what
The
Buddhists
deny

that

when

specifictime
but

negation
and

spite of such
negation could

that

relation.

There

is also

relation

apprehended,

it

(e.g.this is not
could
apprehension, we

an

thus
no

"

be

associated

relation
e.g.

jug

between
in

the

is the

hold

negation. They
is apprehended

with

with

now);

here

think

never

them

in

any

negation and its

negation of jug), for
the

pratiyogithere is no negation,and when

is not
even
negation there is no pratiyogi. There
could have admitted
for we
of opposition{yirodhd),

there

is the

of

existence

conditions

pratiyogi(thing negated
when

the

is

space

in

generates the cognition"it is."

there
the

it,if

The

358
the

the

of

negation

for how

Ny

the

can

ay

jug

"Vais'esika
existed

negation

Philosophy

before

of the

jug

all?

and

[ch.

opposed the jug,

the jug, without

oppose

be asked whether
Again,
effectinganything
tion
negais to be regarded as a positivebeing or becoming or of the
of not becoming or non-being. In the first alternative
it
nature
will be like any other positiveexistents,and in the second
it
case
at

will be

eternal,and

and

permanent

it may

it cannot

be

related

this

to

or

kinds of nonparticularnegation. There are however

many
perception,e.g. (1)svabhavanupalabdhi (naturalnon-perception
there is no jug because
is perceived);(2) karananupalabdhi
none
that

"

there is no smoke
here, since there is
(non-perceptionof cause
no
fire);(3)vyapakanupalabdhi (non-perceptionof the species
there is no
pine here,since there is no tree);(4) karyanupalabdhi
"

"

of smoke
here,
(non-perceptionof effects there are not the causes
since there is no smoke); (5) svabhavaviruddhopalabdhi (perception
of contradictorynatures
there is no cold touch here because
"

"

of

fire); (6) viruddhakaryopalabdhi (perceptionof contradictory

effects

there

"

is

cold

no

here

touch

because

dhavyaptopalabdhi (oppositeconcomitance

of

smoke); (7) virud-

past is

"

not

of

sity
neces-

depends on other causes);(8) karyyaviruddhopalabdhi (oppositionof effects there is not here the causes
since
destructible,

it

"

which

give cold

can

there

since

is

fire);(9) vyapakaviruddhopa-

of snow
touch
there is no
here,
(opposite concomitants
because
of fire);
(10) karanaviruddhopalabdhi (oppositecauses
the fire);
there is no
shiveringthrough cold here,since he is near
labdhi

"

"

of opposite causes
(11) karanaviruddhakaryyopalabdhi (effects
for
of shiveringsensations
this place is not
occupied by men
is full of

it

smoke1).

There
but

is

no

that

doubt
does

that
not

in the

above

that

prove

ways

there

is this that

there

are

certain

speak

we

is any

cognition of negation (heturnabhdvasamvidah).

say

"

situations

reason

All

that

of negation,
for the
we

justifythe

which

can

use

(yogyata)of negative appellations.But this situation or yogyata

What
is positive
all speak of in ordinary usage
in character.
we
sort.
of perception of some
as
non-perception is of the nature
of
the existence
Perception of negation thus does not
prove
negation, but
which

that there
only shows
are
only interpretedin

perception of
1

the

ground where

See Nyayabindu,

p. u,

and

the

are

that

certain
way.

visible

Nyayamarijari,

positiveperceptions
positive

It is the

jug
pp.

is absent

53-7.

that

viii]
leads

view

Nyaya

of Negation

359

of

having perceived the negation of the jug

(annpalambhah abhdvam
vyavahdrayati)1.
The
Nyaya replyagainstthis is that the perceptionof positive
speak

to

us

existents

is

have

right to

no

the

that

it is the

same

the

the

distinct

jug

is there.

jug, and

without

the
for

existent

negation with
the

even

such

relation

and

space

subsists

the other
in

of

one

similar

as

way

have

then
even

quarrel is only

over

to

the

call it

jug,"it does
been

be

to

between

colour, taste,
with

ground

"ground,

not

matter

admitted.

relation

tion
Nega-

the

qualifiedand

the

sutra

Kumarila

the

the

the

negation

that

sense

to take

and

its
is

one

abhava

does, though

Mlmamsist

is

quality

the

where

(IX.i.6) seems

of

relation

associated

it appears

between

Vaisesika

The

etc.

which

between

opposition,in

The

is not.

without

it

it,then
of

being

is admitted

is noted

negation

as

time

{yisesyavisesana). The
pratiyogiis

it,it

tion
percep-

as
by perception as much
positive
any
of the objects of perceptiononly are
ferent;
difin the perception of positivesense-objects

diversities

that

call

the

category has anyhow

nature

just as

then

the

If identical

shall expect

we

without

ground

is this

different?

or

may

"the

But

is but

we

It is said

is valid.

ground

jug.

difference

jugness" or

is; the

are

you

the

distinct

the

alone

the

on

If different

some

apprehended

is

there

former

ground
ground, and

the

category. If

perception of negation,and

the

for whatever

the

much,

the

without

with

as

name,

with

the

as

that

say

ground

identical

jug

when

fact

non-perception of jug

of the
the

much

as

the

the
explain it away2. In Vaisesika
four kinds
of negation are
enumerated
as
(1) prdgabhdva (the
negation preceding the production of an object e.g. of the jug
before it is made
(thenegation
by the potter);(2) dhvamsdbhdva
of an
followingthe destruction
object as of the jug after it is
destroyed by the stroke of a stick); (3) anyonydbhdva (mutual
have

commentators

tried

to

"

"

negation

e.g. in the

"

cow

there

is the

ff.,and

also

See Nydyabindutikd, pp.

34

Prasastapada says

the production of

of the cause,

so

that

as

it says that the non-p

upon
of its non-existence.
But evidentlyhe

non-existence

is also

hanayogyah)and

Nydyamanjari,

of it is the
the non-production

commenting

is not

is

an

actual

the

pp.

effect is the

an

the

horse

the

sensible objectis the

satisfied with
senses

sense-contact

of the preception of non-existence

collocatingcause
vagrahanasdmagri), Nydyakandali, pp. 225-30.

the

{bhdvavad
with

and

48-63.
sign of

sign of its non-existence.

receptionof

directlyperceived by

that there

negation of

view

existence

Sridhara

in

sign {linga)

for he says that

abhdvd'pindriyagra-

non-existence

which

{abhdvendriyasannikarsd'
pi

is the
abha-

The

360

Ny

always exists
other places is
"

of the

of

find here

notice

not

[ch.

in any

debating

devices

of Salvation.

the

Nyaya philosophy arose

disputes and debates; as a

continued

we

seeker

that

probable

of

Acquirement

for the

of this

Philosophy

cow) ; (4)atyantabhdva (a negation which

when
there is a jug here, its negation in
e.g. even
not
destroyed)1.

necessity

It is

Vaifesika

a-

that of the

in the horse

The

ay

other

related

terms

many

of

system

sphere
atmo-

an

consequence

debates

to

Indian

in

which

philosophy.

do

we

These

are

tarka, nirnaya, vdda, jalpa, vitandd, hetvdbhdsa, chala,jdti

n

and

igrahasthdna.
Tarka

its real

deliberation

means

it thus

nature;

suppositionto

some

of

nature

When

conclusion

which

to

arrive

we

tries to
called

that

there
his

prove
vdda.

is

Jalpa

means

which

seeking to
those

are

seeks

establish
which

or

appear

as

each

in which

defeat

when

new

any

hetus

the

means

two

the

as

of them

the theses

the

is

disputants

their

respectiveopponents.
destructive
only a
opponent's doctrine without

to

the

formulate

specific

When

of

each

reasons,

dispute

refute

the

tarka.

in which

atman,

with

five fallacies

enumerate

sutras

to

of

right

respectivetheses,such

an

about

of

it is not

to

come

Nirnaya

result

give wrangling rejoindersin order

A jalpa is called a vitandd
criticism

tarka.

to

their

thesis

own

suppositions;
to

discern

to

in favour

reasons

{samsayd)

as

is not

or

thing

of the mind

take

to

opposite partiesdispute over

doctrines

of other

is doubt

have

we

seeking

oscillation

there

anything

of

consists

an

unknown

an

the exclusion

inference,but merely
conclusion.

on

but

are

it is

Hetvabhasas

doctrine.

reallynot

of
(Jietvdbhdsas)

so.

the middle

Nydya
(hetu):

viruddha
savyabhicdra (erratic),
prakaranasama
(contradictory),
portune).
(tautology),sddhyasama (unproved reason) and kdldtlta (inopreason
Savyabhicara is that where the same
prove
may

opposite conclusions
like the atoms
it is

which

are

sound

eternal,and

intangiblelike cognitionswhich

is that

where

jug

eternal, because

is eternal

(e.g.sound

is
The

the

reason

section like this.

intangible
because

non-eternal); viruddha

the

doctrine of negation, its function and

problems, have many

is non-eternal

premiss to be proved (e.g.a

produced); prakaranasama is that

opposes
it is

are

it is

because

diverse aspects, and

it is

value with reference

to do

impossible

them

to

logical

diverse

in
justice

small

The

362

example.

example (e.g.sound

fallacies of

[ch.

Philosophy

fallacies of the

the

Prasastapada counts
counted

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

is

also

Dinnaga

it is

eternal,because

incorporeal is eternal as the atoms

;
counted
the
Dharmaklrtti
also
a
nd
but atoms
not incorporeal)
are
that
fallacies of the paksa (minor) ; but Nyaya rightlyconsiders
will completely safeguard
if avoided
the fallacies of the middle
which

incorporeal,that

inference

the
repetitions.Chala means
for the
of the opponent's arguments
misinterpretation
dictory
defeatinghim. Jati consists in the drawing of contrathat

and

intentional
of

purpose

is

these

are

mere

conclusions, the raisingof

the deliberate
the

means

the

self-contradiction,
inconsistencyor
As

tricks

by

work,

which

to the

before

of
utility

of which

the aim

the

ought

like,by

the

is

the victorious

descriptionof

so

many

be defeated

in

be to direct

to

his defeat

which

glory of

the

people to

might

opponent

an

like with

the

or

defeatingan opponent. Nigrahasthana

the opponent's argument
as
involving

of

exposure

opponent.

issues

of

intention

conclusivelyproved

false

debating

metaphysical
that lead to

the ways

emancipation,it is said by Jayanta in his Nyayamanjari that these

had
to as
to be resorted
a
protectivemeasure
against arrogant
disputantswho often tried to humiliate a teacher before his pupils.
If the

teacher

pupils in
and

onward

would

him

it was

could

silence

not

shaken

be

deemed

therefore

for the attainment

for the

protectionof
of these

being

necessary

has

his

and

called

Carvakas

other

existence

of soul

but

faith

that

the

Nyaya

also denied

The

naiyayikas ascertained

the

devices
ledge
know-

sutra

as

of Soul.
of soul

Carvakas

Susiksita

Buddhists

plodding

was

that

it

existence

who

regardec

and

products of bodily changes;

The

follow,

acquire these
of his pupils. A

existence

the

thought

of the

of salvation1.

doctrine

as

the

he who

enjoined in

attainment

denied

life

been

that

should

faith and

therefore

Carvakas

consciousness

necessary

own

for the

opponent,

great disorder would

and

of moksa

The
Dhurtta

the

there

admitted

destroyed

was

of any

at

wer(

th"
death.

permanent

self.

all the

categories of metaphysics
corroborated
by experience.

mainly by such inference as was

They argued that since consciousness, pleasures,pains,willing,
be
etc. could
not
belong to our body or the senses, there must
1

See

kantaka

Nyayamanjari^
of

pp.

586-659, and

Mallinatha, pp. 185 ff.

Tarkikaraksa

of Varadaraja and

Nis-

vin]

Doctrine

of Soul

363

of the self
entity to which they belonged; the existence
is not
proved according to Nyaya merely by the notion of our
of Mimamsa,
self-consciousness, as in the case
for Nyaya holds
that we
cannot
such
depend upon
a
perception,for it may
some

be
I

It often

erroneous.

black,

am

be

relied

for

upon,

inference
which

that

result

body

but

in the

or

produced.

facial

of the

the
of

some

factor

not

prove

the

are

collocation
manifested

be

can

did

than

know
believe

antitheistic
the

leave

these
that

inequality of

it to

to

pleasures
be

must
men

formed
perworld

the

karma

admit

as

chance.
irresponsible

Salvation.

and

vara

the

that

action

bad

it,it is better

to

of

the distribution

and

Since

establish

to

the

and

good

behind

We

offered many

of

kinds

basis of inference.
Buddhists

though

ness
acquiresconscious-

failures prove

and

past lives.

seeks

But

with

its actions

body, yet
the help of

in
inequalities

Is

Nyaya

time.

self

travel

not

at

show

reasons

determining

any

It is not

collocations1.

successes

due to the different

in their

suffer

to

signsof pleasureby their different

be due to anything else than
this could
not
past experiencesin past lives of pleasuresand

features,and

pains and

the

entity to

eternal.

does

in itself and

It is unconscious

pains. Moreover

these

found

same

in the

action

that

etc.

the

be

we

they are produced

production of

the

it is with

birth children

the memory

the

has

So

i.e.exists
all-pervading,

the

at

from

result of suitable
at

have

everywhere

because

body

is

or

upon

that

when

places (vibhu),and

disconnected

bodily limbs,

Even

all

in

of

Never

as

as

adhere

of collocations.

exists

is thus

as

admitted

part of the body, but

time

colour.

any

has it been
experienced, nor
like the body, so the soul must

in any

same

seen

has

white

am

perception cannot

have

self-consciousness

our

etc.

located

atman

on

that

such

self cannot

consciousness, emotion,

destruction

must

the

I say

that

be

been

atman

and

evident

self

the

that

to

as

the

it is

safely depend

cannot

the

but

happens

the
that
in

existence
the
the

of

Isvara

the

on

Jains,the Sarpkhya
existence

of

Isvara

and
and

arguments.

refute

of

of the

existence

to
Nyaya wanted
Isvara
by an inference

samanyato-drsta type.
1

See
"c.
Jiianasamavayanibandhanamevdtmanascetayitrtvam,

pp. 432 fF.

NyayamaKjari,

The

364
The
world

and

it

the

this view
effect like

of

atheists

universe.

But

no

a jug) and
(e.g.

therefore

of

the

produced by

could

producer

in

general sense

have

may
other

as

the

consider

arrangement
thus

though

in
the

different from

yet

man,

order

inference

effects
without

by

be

never

creator.

The

creator, since

its construction.
and

arrangement

effect and

Just as

that the

inference

it is

Everything
has

has order and

the potter knows

that

has
is

order

and

all the purposes

may

from

not

jug.
has

of the

ground

not

hold,

actuallycreated

that
and

many

the

does

would

see

we

the

has

world

arrangement

effect and

an

and

"order

creator

now

stands

creator, like the

arrangement

produce them,

therefore

effect and

an

even

plants are

general.

world

of

dailyshooting forth
to

in

sider
con-

things produced

of

it for the existence

found

and

creator,"an

of the

objection that

proved

of

existence

arrangement

(e.g.
trees)which are
being
any creator

for it can

the

same

disregard

case

of

similar

the

to

are

concomitance

and

The

is not

we

with

not

specificcase

smoke

arrangement

from

each

kitchen

the

that

and

fire in each

and

order

the

"

creator

it differs from

which

and

arrangement"

creator"

was

order

answers

general with

the

general with

be inadmissible.

not

an

to

of

and

fire,but yet

fire in

have
"

of

of
peculiarities
of

universe

sort

the "order

fire in the

forest

concomitance

here, we

the

the

arrangement," for
the

universe;

(sannivesa-visistata)

this,Nyaya

peculiarityin

find in

we

To

existence

; thus

specificcases

of the

productions that

between

and

specificindividual

the

So

such

some

of fire

kind

order

"

is from

of

order

certainlya
human
tions
produc-

of

that

argued

the

by

and

was

arrangement

in human

"the

and

of

specificcases

be

inferred.

be

there

that

arrangement

for, it

an

but

admitted

is not

arrangement

and

not

is to be taken

concomitance

and

eternal

arrangement

argue

and

is found

that

arrangement
or

creator

the

deny

order

it could

universe

if this

would

the order

from

is also

whole

is not

this world

even

way

the

as

Many

order

the

world

the

that

But

they

difference between

and

slips
geologicalchanges and landdestructive
operationsproceeding in

these

in

can

to

effect.

production.
they

contrast

that

assumed

be

effect. In

an

holds

from

and

therefore

never

other

it may

nature

was

Nyaya

any

occur,

the

[ch.

Philosophy

Jains and other atheists held that though things in the

have production and decay, the world as a whole
never
was

produced,

result

-Vaitesika

Nyaya

The

has

world

therefore

jug

an

in

order
is

an

creator.

that he makes,

God

VIII

so

Isvara knows
He

omniscient.

all the

purposes

knows

all

all

requirememory;
always happy.
of

karma

men

the

protects

results of his

by

the

external

of
so

take

body

are

produced

philosophy
To

of

so-called
The

is not

the

also

can

is in itself bodiless

body and through

by his will create

is

by

indispensable for

well
self

our

say that

it in
the

if any

our

ception
con-

be

regarded as his body,

of
changes and movement

his will

changes

and

movements

with

common

the

most

world

was

served

therefore

person

systems of Indian

full of

and

sorrow

intensifythe

to

everything is

therefore

; the wise

other

is

force

of

{sarvam

sorrow

attached

never

that

to

the

pleasuresof life which only lead us to further sorrows.

bondage of the world is due to false knowledge (mithydconsists

which

jndnd)

also

that

vivekmah)

duhkham

our

pleasure only

wise

with

is

atoms1.

believed

bits

small

sorrow.

Nyaya

in

thinking

self,namely body,

my
; when

as

will of

naiyayikas in

The

the

in the

in

as

may

place,so

He

etc.

manas,

in accordance

self which

our

Isvara

atoms

the

directlywithout

body. Some, however,

with

the

as

not

produces dissolution,creates, or
the
by which each man
reaps

Isvara
no

does

therefore

him

is thus

order
As

so

body

him,

our

will

has

he

just as by

that

eternal,and

in the

world,
of

association

same

such

sense

and

universe

and

perceived by

produce changes

though

universe

the

deeds.

its will

can

will is

own

of this wide

internal

His

world,

365

things always

things are

of any

intervention

any

Salvation

and

the

once

says, of the

true

senses,

as

feelingsand

manas,

knowledge

proofs {pramand),

self that

own

my

of

the

the

which
ledge
know-

six

padarthas and
objectsof knowledge

logicalcategories of inference is
attained, false knowledge is destroyed. False knowledge can
be removed
thinking of its opposite {pratipaksaby constant
when
of things. Thus
bhavana),namely the true estimates
any
pleasure attracts us, we are to think that this is in realitybut
and

of

thus

the

{prameyd),

pain,
will

and

never

attract

the

other

right knowledge

us

again.

Thus

it will

about

it is that

with

dawn

the

and

it

destruction

or
antipathy to things and
knowledge our attachment
called dosa, cf. the klesa of
ignorance about them (collectively

of false

Patanjali)are
With
1

the

also

destroyed.

destruction

See Nydyamaiijari, pp.

U day ana's KusumdnjalT.

of attachment
190-204,

hvaranumana

actions
of

(pravrtli)for the

Raghunatha

Siromani

and

of

production
there

sorrow

in

state

in

perfect

mukti

happiness
can

its

never

It

original

knowledge,

that

is

the

is

in

and

of

state

natural

willing,

the

of

really

happiness.
purity

of

state

as

It

is

unassociated

etc.1.

Nyayamanjarl,

pp.

self

499-533.

the

passive
with

Nyaya-

bliss

remains

in

absolute

being

speaking

of

all

remains

to

nor

of
of

and

according

knowledge

which

divested

is

the

to

cessation

etc.)

mukti

pure

spoken
though

willing,

of

negative

sometimes

(ananda\
be

of

state

qualitilessness,

purity.

own

feeling,

leads

the

self

the

with

attachment,

that

With

which

state

and

karma

viii

and

ceases

knowledge
of

[ch.

rebirth

experiences.
in

The

state.

neither

is
of

its

emancipation

inert

it

bondage

(consciousness,

own

Vaisesika

its

is

qualities
its

and

body

with
false

the

produce

cannot

Philosophy

and

cease

Without

ceases.

sorrow

actions

its

desires

of

fulfilment
it

Nyaya-Vaiiesika

The

366

but
itself

in

painlessness
state

state

state

of

absolute
of
of

pleasure,

mukti
self

in

pain,

CHAPTER

IX

MlMAMSA

purely

common

such

monistic

common

sense

an

the

original
four

things

universal

manifest

the

class

only

as

collocation

viewed

physical

Thus

circumstances
combination
the

and

objects

Nyaya

is

inhere.
class

of

notion,

without
relation

relation

between

has

would

number

conceived

were

qualities,actions,
between

reals

etc.

substances,
1

On

the

No

of
of

to

be

difference

of the

and
word

us

able
was

merely
is

other

any

physical
so

the

by

produced.

Soul

with

knowledge,

etc.

quality, action,

its

entity,

separate

principle

any

types, which
all

produce

was

Chapter

of

IV.

of

by

an

their

substances,

acknowledged
it

as

construction.

consisted

which

see

are

knowledge
of

is

and

actions, and
Mimarnsa

there

as

philosophic

to

in

sense,

different

even

soul, mind,

without

principle

three

qualities

meaning

give

also

things

of certain

and
as

being

of

which

in

admitted

be

fail to

is

substance

to

conceived
of

entity

entities

naturally
had

combination

also

different

it the

(jndna)

knowledge

sense,

of the

contacts

So

all

produced,

are

many
which

is viewed

collocation

the

so

inhering

production

qualities

its

unconscious

Samkhya
infinite

and

respective

etc.

by

as

as

entities

genesis

the

to

material

entity, and

Causation

of

stantive
sub-

are

substances.

soul, just

to

our

out

but

illuminates

The

nature

inert

an

The

in

just

jug

which

conditions.

of

event.

the

separate

objects.

of the

regarded

separate

as

(jndna)

similar

as

be

to

of

they

existence

separate

perceived

material

is

any

Space, time,

that

perceived

etc.

quality belonging

of

qualities

impression

with

with

coming

as

Samkhya).

is

and

supposed

are

the

connection

Knowledge

regarded

also

is

notions

substances.

the

in

action

or

other

distinct

themselves

of

What

work

not

conceptions

considered

colour, taste,

as

did

be

the

convey

substances.

have

and

from

experience

at

ultimate

(e.g.prakrti

or

which

the

should

experience

qualities such

entities

karma

that

tendency

looked

of view

point

elements, soul, etc.

as

Review.

philosophy

sense

entities

as

Comparative

Nyaya-Vaisesika

THE

PHILOSOPHY1

to

exist

conceived

Philosophy

Mimamsa

368
that these

but

were

so

aspects of

many

combination

types of reals in different proportions. The

them

of

rudiments

the

which

What

merely

however

call

we

form

kind

some

from

in

been

pointed
emphatic manner.
of

our

by

out

the

Even

transcendent

of

could

knowledge

in

to
as

some

school

Nyaya
Samkhya

did

to

attempt
self

fixed

in

not

the

on

of

is

ground

that
must

again based

upon

attributes

of the

latter to

inference

since

the

to

inhere

in

another

inhere

inhere.

on

of

that

the
in
the

of

need

passing states
moral

uncritical

in the

the

fixed

of

them

our

strength of

self is thus
the

had

to

gap

existed

it

This

assumption
and

that

was

here

left

demonstrate

by

non-

self

quality,
hypothesis
a

that substances

it

was

the

nature

also that

other
could

knowledge was
substance
a
attributes)
take

their stand

ordinary thought
the

principleas

(buddhi) as being

former, and

of

None

nature

substance.

some

entirelyseparate,

were

self-conscious

conclusions

and

strong

of the

fill up

to

knowledge

qualityrequiring(similarlywith

in which

hardly
this has

prove

the

consciousness).The

object of

an

therefore

and

and

hypothesis of

ground

admit

inadequate analysisof consciousness

and incessantlychanging.
intelligent
Nyaya fared no better, for it also
and

thought-

demonstrated

its

grounds

on

necessityto

transcendent

sense

the

to

be

which

object,to

very

try

support

the

on

could

purusa

cling,and

matter

(pure

purusa

translucent

struggle
and
emancipation. Samkhya had first supposed
of changing reals, and
be merely a combination

virtue

had

then

to

entityas

permanent

knowledge

contact

or

experience ; and

sense

its transcendent

existence

towards

holds

ness
conscious-

pure

reflection

bare

them

Samkhya

entity as

the

common

it had

of

another

ordinarilyunderstood, can

as

experience,and
a

in

causes

experience of

knowledge

demonstrated

existence

about

brought

a person.
thought or
distinct
hypothesis of a pure self,as essentially

this

separate

in its

of transcendent

transforms

consciousness

But

but

is with
thought ordinarily,

or

into conscious

matter

cations
manifested, collo-

thing

transcendent

thatjherejs a

this pure

changed incessantly

were

there

within

matter, knowledge,

illuminatingmatter-stuff.

of subtle

andjhat by

be

knowledge

mind

new

any

already

was

of

of reals

and

about

bring

not

phenomenon
form.

of matter

of the three

reals contained

developments

combinations

As

etc.
feelings,
willing,
and new
phenomena

did

all

[ch.

direct

evidence

and

draw

upon
their

of this self-

Mlmamsa

370

it,and

had

it

this

into them

priests.These
different schools
with

(which are

references

the

he

written

that

attempts

at least of one

much

the

Mlmamsa

various

about

Bhartrmitra

works

Jaimini has

of it borrowed.
that it was

are

But

deemed

survived

the

now

it
so

all other
sutras

ground

written

were

not

are

Jaimini'sMlmamsa
and

B.C.

200

from

of other

matters

of what

that it has

Commentaries

system.
such

school

before him.

made

were

probably written

were

how

say

hensive
compre-

is evident

subject.These

originalwork and how much

with some
degree of confidence

work

masterly a

of

cannot

we

in different

the

and

tempts
(lit.at-

only a

are

school

one

is his

be said

may

and

now,

dealt with

who

enquiries

scholars

Mlmamsa

Mlmamsa)

views

the

gives to

preceding writers
available

of

many-

probable that there were

sutras
Jaimini'sMlmamsa

That

systematic compilation of

and

different
of

cussions
Dis-

the

regularrational

it is

the foundations

us

literature.
about

common

by
beginnings

thought.

[ch.

smrti

circles

enquiry),and

of this

the

rituals,and

the

represent

rational

more

in different

begun

were

at

became

sacrificial

of the

rise to

gave

doubts

and
intricacies

seems

Philosophy

work
it

on

by-

(alludedto in

Nydyaratndkara
10 of S lokavarttika) Bhavadasa
verse
(Pratijhasutra63),Hari and
Upavarsa (mentioned in Sastradlpika).It is probable that at least
persons

as

preceded Sahara,

of these

some

known
about
would

Jha
verse

of

the
have

him

about

speaks
"abarasvamin by
basis

by

upon

an

of

Kumarila.
Brhatl

commentary

often

on

57

he
B.C.

later

the

on

it
"

flourished.

the

on

Mlmamsa

person

alluded
as

Brhatl

mentary
com-

bhasya

that

was

current

the

commented

was

"

Prabhakara

by

(as they say)

Prabhakara's

based

son

Sahara

of

Varttikakara

as

thing
any-

Ganganatha
of

being

as

yathahuh

says

of

Dr

It

to
"

famous

evidence

works.

Sabara-bhasya
This

the

It is difficult to say

King Vikramaditya
Ksattriya wife. This

merely referred to
Dr Ganganatha Jha

Varttikakara.

of this

wrote

the

of

unknown
and

Prabhakara

in which

of

writer

Sabara-bhasya.

time

which

is the

by

the

as

the

upon

had

Rjuvimala by 6alikanatha Misra,

mentary
com-

the work
another
who

also

mamsa
compendium on the Prabhakara
interpretationof Mlhakara
Prabthat
called Prakaranapancika. Tradition
says

views
are
(often referred to as Nibandhakara), whose
marila
Kualluded
to as "gurumata," was
a
pupil of Kumarila.
believed
temporary
to be the senior conBhatta, who is traditionally
his celebrated independent
of "arikara(788 A.D.),
wrote

ix]

Mimamsa

exposition of Sahara's
vdrttika (dealingonly

Literature

bhasya

371

parts known

in three

Sloka-

as

philosophicalportionof Sahara's
work
contained
in the first chapter of the first book
known
as
as
Tarkapada), Tantravdrttika
(dealing with the remaining three
chapters of the first book, the second and the third book) and
Tuptikd (containingbrief notes on the remaining nine books)1.
Kumarila
is referred to by his later followers as Bhatta, BhattaThe
scholar and
next
pada, and Varttikakara.
great Mimamsa
follower

of Kumarila

viveka,M

with

the

Mandana

was

imamsdnukrarnani

Parthasarathi

and

later

vdrttikaywho became

Misra, the

on

the

author
of

commentator

converted

by

Sankara

of

Vidhi-

Tantra-

to Vedantism.

(about ninth century A.D.)wrote his Sdstradipikd, Tantraratna, and Nydyaratnamdld followingthe footprints
of Kumarila.
other followers of Kumarila,
Amongst the numerous
the

of Sucarita

names

the

Mis"a

author

of

Misra

the author

of Kdsikd

and

Somesvara

specialnotice. Ramakrsna
Bhatta
excellent commentary
the Tarkapada of Sdswrote
an
on
and
tradipikd called the Yuktisnehapiirani-siddhdnta-candrikd
Somanatha
his Mayukkamdlikd
the remaining chapters
wrote
on
of Sdstradipikd.Other
works
which
Mimamsa
important current

deserve

notice

Nydyasudhd

are

such

deserve

Nydyamdldvistara

as

dhinl,Mimdmsdbdlaprakdsa

of Sankara

of

Subo-

Madhava,

Bhatta, Nydyakanikd

of

Vacaspati Misra, Mimdmsdparibhdsa by Krsnayajvan,Mimdmsdnydyaprakdsa by Anantadeva, Gaga Bhatta's Bhattacintdmani,

etc.

Most

writingof
for

mentioned

of the books
this
Hindu

chapter. The
is indeed

here

of the

importance

great. For

been

have

not

only are

consulted

in the
ture
litera-

Mimamsa
all Vedic

duties

the smrti
performed according to its maxims, but even
and rituals
literatures which regulatethe dailyduties,ceremonials
all guided and explained
of Hindus
at the present day are
even
The
by them.
legalside of the smrtis consistingof inheritance,
adoption,etc. which guide Hindu civil life even
proprietoryrights,
is explained according to the
under
the British administration
Mimamsa
Its relations to the Vedanta
maxims.
philosophy will
be briefly
indicated in the next chapter. Its relations with NyayaVaisesika have
also been
pointed out in various places of this
as propounded
chapter.The views of the two schools of Mimamsa
be

to

by

Prabhakara
1

and

Kumarila

on

all the

important topicshave

in his
Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasada"astrisays,

Nydya Tracts, that "Kumarila

preceded Sankara

by

two

introduction to Six

Buddhist

generations."
24"2

Mimamsa

372

pointed

been

also
win
he

and

after Kumarila

gleaned

the

Varttikakara's

vague.

references

It did

develop

not

later times

subjectin
know

the

excellent

The

of

the

the

Mimamsa

doctrine

excepting

the

depends on
knowledge

for

the

on

I do

English except
Prabhakara

the

on

is based.

of

knowledge
the

Validity

its

structure

the

means

that

asserts

nor

tude
certi-

all knowledge
is

memory

neither

truth, and

own

condition

extraneous

(svatah-

whole

remembering (smrti)or

it itself certifies

the

and

of Mimamsa.

philosophy

action

other

any

written

Nyaya

which

on

Mimamsa

itself,for

in

cornerstone

philosophy

of trutnT The

valid

of

of
ojf__theself-validity

forms

pramanya)

Jha

doctrine

Svatah-pramanya
doctrine

know

we

theirs alone.

and

in

the

frequentlyreferred.

Paratah-pramanya

The

written

Ganganatha

I have

to which

Mimamsa

Dr

What

from

purely expository nature.

be

can

slightand

gathered

Works

in

texts

also

are

of their views

of

Vedic

Prabhakara.

Mimamsa

on

by

one

and

that

mostly

philosophy

be

only

after them.

but

were

work

of any

not

further

any

the

little of

can

said

deal

sutras

contributions
also

views

not

Hardly
philosophy

Mimamsa

interpretationof

by Kumarila
philosophy consists

of Mimamsa

livingit is

Mimamsa

very

could

strong rival1.

the

to

[ch.

however

while
very

The

them

to

made

Sahara's

of them.

out

been

and
sacrifices,

with

connection

as

Prabhakara.

principlesof

the

with

has

views

times, but

Kumarila

contribution

new

any

in later

regarded by

was

Prabhakara's

out.

followers

many

Philosophy

on

any

other

validity. But Nyaya holds that this selfvalidityof knowledge is a questionwhich requiresan explanation.
that

It is true
is

its

under

in

produced

knowledge

is

anything

blue, it

visual

true,
1

There

asked

but

these

Kumarila's
was

views

whether

or

views

course

were

the
no

by

him

the

not

trick and

only

rightones.

latter said he
historic value.

When

touch

with

not

Kumarila's
then

this

perceive
this

Prabhakara, his own

His disciples
dead.

own

views

so

were

to

erroneous,

pointed attacks, whereas

said that Prabhakara

up and

rose

defeated

generated is
the knowledge

performed according

be

said that his

Kumarila

we

that

knowledge

rites should

up

knowledge

contact, and

being able to convert

pretended that he was

rouse

was

the

of

saying

of visual

in any

Prabhakara
to

by

meant

result

his burial

Prabhakara's.

held

defeated, but

this has of

attempted a

Prabhakara

were

is not

piece

truth?

own

direct

story that Kumarila,

is a

is

certifythat

cannot

his views,

Kumarila's

its

is the

the visual contact

as

what
of

proof

contact

pupil,to
then

as

but

us,

conditions

certain

long

as

he

was

alive.

But

ix] Objections
ofKnowledge
againstthe Self-validity
it has
how

conditioned.
it

Moreover, knowledge

affair and

mental

? In
representation
other words, how
can
perception a blue thing guarantee
my
that what
is subjectively
perceivedas blue is reallyso objectively
can

certifythe objectivetruth

is

373

of its

"

"

well ?

as

have
is

After

perception of anything
perception that what I have
my

such

any

So

reallyso.

blue

as

do

we

perceived

as

not

blue

this so-called

of knowledge cannot
self-validity
be testified or justified
by any perception. We can only be certain
that knowledge has been produced by the perceptual act, but
there is nothing in this knowledge or its revelation
of its object
from

which

valid

or

its

If the

true.

validitythen
and

never

come

perception is also objectively

certify
any knowledge should
ledge,
no
invalidity,
illusoryknow-

would

be

no

a
perception of even
mirage we should
to grief. But
are
we
disappointed often in our perceptions,
and
this proves
that when
follow
the
we
practically

which

only be

can

with

perception we

our

what
of

piece
and

It is

the

following our

of

hence

that

production of

there

directions

every

infer

can

we

as

by

the

on

in

find later

we

knowledge is
such
depends

be

cannot

ascertained

undecided

are

the

them

upon

to

of

speak

the

to

its

validity,

correspondence of the perception

practicalexperience.Again,

result of certain

said to rise without

meaningless

as

for

causal

tions,
colloca-

its

production,and
depending on anything else.
validityof knowledge, for

validityalways refers to objectiverealization of our desires and

with our
knowledge. People
attempts proceeding in accordance
only declare their knowledge invalid when proceeding practically
in accordance
with it they are
disappointed. The perception of
a

mirage

is called

invalid

when

proceeding

in accordance

with

the purperception we do not find anything that can serve

poses
of
of water
The
truth
validityor
(e.g.drinking,bathing).
knowledge is thus the attainment
by practicalexperience of the
from
it {arthakriydobjectand the fulfilment of all our purposes
jndna or phalajhdnd) just as perception or knowledge represented
selfthus
is
There
them
no
to the perceiver.
validityof
our

knowledge {svatah-prdmdnya), but

samvdda

or

to

supposition that

by

objectivefacts of experience1.
that this Nyaya
objection is based on the
see
knowledge is generated by certain objective

agreement

It is easy

ascertained

validity is

with

the

collocations of conditions,and
1

See

that

Nyayamanjari,

knowledge
pp.

160-173.

so

produced

can

Mimamsa

374

Philosophy

[ch.

by its agreement with objectivefacts. But this

be
theory of knowledge is merely an hypothesis; for it can never
experiencedthat knowledge is the product of any collocations ;
become
of cerhave a perception and immediately we
aware
tain
we
tested

be

only

objectivethings; knowledge reveals to us the facts of the

objectiveworld and this is experienced by us always. But that
world generates knowledge in us is only an hypothesis
the objective
which

hardly be demonstrated

can

prerogativeof knowledge

by experience. It

that it reveals

all other

is the supreme

things. It

is not

we
phenomenon like any other phenomenon of the world. When
produced in us by the external
say that knowledge has been
warranted
collocations,we just take a perverse
point of view which is unby experience; knowledge only photographs the

for

objectivephenomena
only
to

theory which

and

knowledge
like

not

been

has

knowledge

is

nothing

show

to

generated by these phenomena.

appliesthe ordinary conceptionsof

this is

other

any

there

; but

us

evidentlyunwarrantable.
for

phenomena

it stands

that

This

is

causation
is

Knowledge
them

above

and

all. There
be no
can
validityin
interpretsor illumines them
things,for truth appliesto knowledge and knowledge alone. What
with
facts by practicalexperience is but the
call agreement
we

agreement

of

jective
previous knowledge with later knowledge; for obto us
never
come
directly,
they are always taken

facts
on

the

than

what

is

kinds

latter do

not

different kinds

that

on

we

why

us

to

be

what

is said
in its

to

on

be

which
or

the

generate the

never

that

on

is indeed

knowledge

any

reveals

objectivefact

or

makes

we

can

say, for

objectivefacts and
never
perceivedby

knowledge is
objectivefact,for

its revelation

all

objectivefacts
This

illumination.

self- validity(svatah-prdmdnyd) of

revealed

rise of

than

more

for this

knowledge

Why

rise of

it for
the

certainty

former,

of any

aware

production (utpatti).As

objects are
between

are

The

so.

dependent

dependent

are

account

of revelations

it does

other
There

by knowledge.

experience only shows

not

no

arise indeed
by knowledge.
knowledge revealingdifferent things,but

of

it is revealed

before

have

they

them

on

experienced ;

never

and

knowledge,

is bestowed

different
these

of

evidence

to

knowledge

knowledge depends
Thus
illuminatingthem.

us;

and

soon

there
the

as

is

no

knowledge

ledge
knowis produced,

intermediate

revelation

of

is

link

objectson

producing its action of revealing

knowledge is not only independent

for

ix]
of

Self-validity
of Knowledge
else

anything

(svakdryakarane
is

in

its

svatah

knowledge

any

and

certain

valid,and

mind

the

at

of

we

of the

its

action

own

well

as

Whenever

there

impression that
naturallythus prompted to

are

; but

knowledge

with

There

is

work

indecision

no

rise of

knowledge as to
knowledge rises,it

just as

it is

it the

its direction.

to

time

in

jndnasya).

pramdnyam

it carries

(pravrtti)according
our

rise but

own

375

the

in

ness
correct-

with

carries

certaintyof its revelation,presence, or action. But in cases

of illusory
perceptionother perceptionsor cognitionsdawn which
the notion
that our
originalknowledge was not
carry with them
valid. Thus
of any knowledge may
though the invalidity
appear
later
and
in
accordance
to
with
which
us
by
we
experience,
it the

former

rejectour
itself to

goaded
works

it carried

us
us

knowledge

of mind.

This

it the

is what

knowledge
of

conviction

knowledge,

is valid,
and

the

its indication.

according to
his

according to

that his

with

to work

on

when

knowledge, yet

he does
in

not

Mimamsa

so

certaintywhich
Whenever

with

the

when

man

conviction

uncertain

passiveor

means

firstrevealed

it says

temper
that

the

immediately with its rise,though

validityof knowledge appears
be derived
from
later experience or some
its invalidity
other
may
data {jndnasya pramdnyam
svatah aprdmdnyam
ledge
parataJj).Knowattained
later on
is proved invalid when
a
contradictory
in or when
etc. are
our
experience {bddhakajndna) comes
organs
known
defective
to be faultyand
{karanadosajndna). It is from
these
that knowledge appearing as valid is invalidated; when
take

we

all necessary
think

that

knowledge

certified

at

be doubted

unnecessarilywhen

not,

we

must

defect

any

in

sense

or

look

to

care

they
the

do

moment

because

any

the

thus

be

The
We
could
the

have
not

regarded
place

diversityof

its

yet find them

the

validityof

production

need

not

as

sense

after

it is invalidated
of

memory

later

on.

Memory

depends

upon

existing latent impressions,and

arisingindependently by itself.
its

organs

in

perception.

knowledge arises by itself and that it

If this be so,
been
generated by sense-contact.
left unexplained. But|in
perceptionsis however

just said

have

of

even

phenomenon

previous experience,and

cannot

Thus

exist.
of

and

enquiry we do not find

contradiction
in later experience. All
is thus regarded as valid independently

knowledge except memory

by itself as a generalrule,unless
is excluded

not

for these

that

Philosophy

[ch.

philosophy explaining all perceptionson

the Mlmamsa
sense-contact
probably could

the

Mtma?nsa

376
Nyaya

face of

the

ground

of diverse

afford

silent

remain

to

such

on

accepted the Nyaya view of sense-contact

with slight modifications, and
yet
It does

svatah-pramanya.
a

conflict between

these

knowledge. Evidently

at

it

that

of them

with
of

virtue

there

the

Their

inference.

actions

experienced at the time

knowledge arises we argue

never

when

the

must

have

The

acted.

only

dependent on anything else

knowledge is found to depend on
in the

as

of the

rise of

of

case

later
of

is

to the

on

Thus

it

rise of
as

with

the

of

imagined
knowledge as well

be

to
as

the

senses

the
be
must

same

be

may

phenomena
in the

gives
which

be

the

are

manner,

not

Thus

vary

take
cognitionsof course
regarded as the material
be

such

some

which

and
as
our

place in
cause

colouringof

cause
a

white

of the

one

be

we

the

felt

be

not

are

these

to

only

are

ferred
in-

characteristic

and

knowledge

in

proceed

may

in relation
with

senses

felt,for

the

later
to it.

objects

first-hand.

render

material

the

how

to

of

existence

cognitionsof objectsare
and do not happen always
the

different moments;

soul

which

thus

may

{samavdyikdrand) ; but there

other
or
specificassociations
the

specificcognition possible. The

either in the

and

at
differently

movements

which

to

where

case

first start

our

all the same,

for these

is found

conditioningfactor,yet the
of its validitystrikes us
notion

sketch

senses

the

our

inferred.

(asamavdyikdrana)
that

us

contacts

such

and

objectivefacts

original,
underived,immediate,
Prabhakara

and

such

nature

of the

contact

be

on

it looked

else cannot

knowledge,

nature

which

ledge
previousexperience or knowthe dependence
In other cases

We

operation and
is that though

production

always have
directlyexperienced from

later

may

rise of

in accordance

on

knowledge.

which

the

of

the

senses

physical collocations conditioningknowledge

operating before

conscious

knowledge

to

anything

on

that

seems

memory.

knowledge

been

from

where

case

be

of

specialcapacitiesin them by
with
be perceived,was
us
a
in producing the knowledge
of the rise of knowledge, but

could

things

doctrine

their

have

the

were

such

objects,or

the

which

of

matter
are

the fact that

held

view

ledge
of know-

condition

principlesof

point of

the

as

to

appear

different

two

of

was

not

It therefore

important point.

an

not

cause

piece of cloth,the

production
immaterial

(e.g.in
colour

of

causes

the

case

of the yarns

this

or

subsist
of the

which

378

imams

[ch.

Philosophy

with the soul.

The
(4) of the manas
objectsof perceptionare of three kinds,(i)substances,(2)qualities,
(3)jatior class. The material substances are tangibleobjectsof
earth, fire,
(forin their fine atomic
water, air in large dimensions
be perceived). The
states
they cannot
qualitiesare colour,taste,
junction,
smell, touch, number, dimension, separateness, conjunction,diswith

the

and

organs,

sense

priority,
posteriority,
pleasure,pain,desire,aversion,and
effort1.
It may
Kumarila
senses

Bhatta

senses

without

entities which

he

prefersthis

having

into actual

coming

last view

kinds

stage is called

(determinate). The
their

Kumarila

the

pertaining to

the

these

wherein

infant

perception,whereas
1

See

mdmsd,
2

35

noted

kind

objects
objects.The
to

it

as

out

the

senses

appears

sense

is

things

the

nor

genus

that

of

has

present

around

differentia is
there

is

the

of indeterminate

This

view

to

resemble

the

Buddhist

rest
5a

conceived

are

etc., and

Dr

being imaginary

as

GariganathaJha's Prabhdkaraml-

Pratyaksasutra,40 etc., and

that

to meet

sun

nature

being almost

and

Samkhya-Yoga
virtue of which

the stars.

It is the

of this vrttiis not

a

did

Nydyarattidkara on it.
not think like Nyaya that

but
the objects(prdpyakdritva)

(vrtti)by
functioning
as

some

all the

in this connection

of

and

etc.

Slokavdrttika, see

actuallywent

the

as

Prakaranapaflcikd, pp.
pp.

of

is its per-

being merely the specificindividuality

in
regards it as being the only valid element

(svalaksana)and

it

the

subsist.

two

in

seem

defines

which

view

thing

or

cognitions that the new-born

himself. In this cognition neither
presented to consciousness; all
perception may

savikalpa

cognitionthat

that the

the

individual

the second

association

says

first

simple perception,called non-determinate

object itself pure and simple,and resembling

dlocana

mere

of

and
objects2,

stages, the

two

nirvikalpaperception of

objects. Thus

first is a

their

perception.

of

first moment

ception at the

or

satisfactory.

more

perception in
nirvikalpa(indeterminate)and
two

are

with

determinate

and

that

says

functions

certain

as

in contact

being

as

he

capacity of revealingthings
with them, or that they might

the

contact

actuallycome

Indeterminate
There

either

of the

nature

objects. Thus

the

conceived

entities

be

with

the

to

as

that

in conclusion

mention

to

undecided

rather

be

as

place here

contact

may

or
activities,

of

was

of their

or

the

be out

not

the

senses

held

could

of the
functioning

that there
grasp
sense

further clearly
explainedand

different category

(fattvdntard).

even

It may
the

was

be

senses

special

such distant

that reached

Parthasarathi

the

objects

ix

Indeterminate

impositions. But
the

stage, but these

do

we

Rumania

both

differentia

the

and

genus

do

and

the

other

defined
class

characters;

only when

in

common

are

not

remembered
hence

the

stage of

data

of other

that

and

genus

data

and

other

as

ceived
pernot

are

properly,and

not

involvinguniversal

as

the

difference

perception

the

the

this,that

indeterminate

in the

latter

in,but this association

perception
to

is

between

particular.It

and

refers

other

those

to

It is also held

percept.

objects of

that

though

since

the

such

enter

into

the

indeterminate

cognition.
both

the

perception,it

Kumarila

also

indeterminate

and

agrees
the

factors

is to be
with

one,
as

did

the

yet
not

regarded

Prabhakara

determinate

case

of memory

indeterminate

holding

an

as

are

things

themselves

perception is based upon the

former
also apprehends certain

valid

percept

constitutingthe

determinate

things

the

memory,

features

other

as

its differentia

long

manifest

cannot

things creeps

determinate

memory

as

stage1. So

its character

determinate

the

the

thing

well-

fullyapprehended
the

in

belonging to

as

that

see

be

class,though

only

at the first
perceptionof the thing remains indeterminate
pressions
perception. At the second stage the self by its past imbrings the present perception in relation to past ones

apparent

memory
in

the

to

we

or

genus

characteristic

through

cannot

stage

indeterminate
these

realizes

is thus

of

things;so

as

in

or

it differs in certain

certain

to possess

which,

to

"individual"

an

apprehended

be

can

because

only

us

its character

which

consciousness

belonging

at the

it

other

some

indeterminate

characteristic

and

and

presented to

individual

and

things from

it is found

with

the

at

other

with

to

relation

things in

to

comparison

indeterminate

the

themselves

379

that both

think

Prabhakara

which, the percept has to show

be cognized as
differentia;a thing can
contrast

Perception

perceived in

are

manifest

not

remember

not

Determinate

and

as

in

perception

valid2.

Some

Ontological

Problems

Doctrine
The
other

of
1
2

with

the

Perception.

(jdti)of a percept in relation to

difference
be regarded in the main
a
as
indeterminate
determinate
and
perceptions.The problems
whole
and
and
were
notion)
(part
jati
avayavavayavi

perception of
things may thus

between

of

connected

the

class

by "ridhara.
Compare this with the Vai-Sesika view as interpreted
See PrakaranapaHcika and Sastradipika.

Philosophy

Mimamsa

380

[ch.

ing
disputein Indian philosophy.Before enterPrabhakara
first introduced
the
into discussion about jati,
(part) and avayavl (whole). He argues as
problem of avayava
an
exponent of svatah-pramanyavadathat the proof of the true
of anything must
existence
sciousness,
conultimatelyrest on our own
is distinctly
and what
recognizedin consciousness
established.
be admitted to have its existence
must
Following
Prabhakara
this canon
says that gross objectsas a whole exist,
the material
since they are
so
are
perceived.The subtle atoms
and their connection
cause
cause
(samyoga) is the immaterial
and it is the latter which
renders the whole
{asamavayikotrand),
different from the parts of which it is composed ; and
altogether
it is not necessary that all the parts should be perceivedbefore the
holds that it is due to the pointof
Kumarila
whole is perceived.
call it a separate
look at a thing that we
view from which
we
of parts. In reality
tical,
whole or only a conglomeration
they are idenbut when
we
lay stress on the notion of parts, the thing
look at it
we
appears to be a conglomerationof them, and when
from the pointof view of the unityappearingas a whole, the thing
appears to be a whole of which there are parts (seeSlokavdrttika,
Vanavdda)1.
the idea of havingmany units within
though incorporating
Jati,
of whole in this,
that it resides
one, is different from the conception
in each individual constituting
that jati(yydsajyain its entirety

subjectsof

the

hot

According to Samkhya- Yoga

thingis regardedas the unityof the

universal

and

the particular
dravyam, Vydsabhdsya,III. 44);for there isno
{sdmdnyavis'esasamuddyo
other separate entitywhich is different from them both in which they would inhere
as

be
can
Nyaya holds. Conglomerations

exist at

distance from

one

another (e.g.

hi tadavayavdh),
and
(nirantard

of two

kinds, namely those in which the parts

and
forest),

those in which

itisthis latter combination

which is called a dravya,but here also there is no

it is the parts connected in a particular
way
them that is called a thingor a whole. The

gether
they exist close to-

(ayutasiddhdvayava)

separatewhole distinctfrom the parts;

and

having no

Buddhists

as

perceptible
space
Panditasoka

believe in any whole {avayavl)

which
; it is the atoms
another appeared as a whole occupying space (paramdnava
not

in connection
eva

hi

between

has shown

with

did
one

pararupadeSapari-

defavitdnavanto
avabhdsamdnd
bhavanti).The whole
hdrenotpanndhparasparasahitd
and
Buddhist Nyaya
is thus a mere
nota
(see
reality
Avayavinirdkarana,Six
appearance
that
the
atoms
however
held
were
(niravayava)and hence it
Tracts).Nyaya
partless
the atoms.
The existence
would
be wrong
to say that when
we
see
an
we
see
object
and
of a whole as different from the parts which belongto it is directly
experienced

there is no

valid

reason
"

it :
against

adustakaranodbhutamandvirbhulabddhakam

asandigdancavijndnam

hat ham

mithyetikathyate"
JVydyamanj'art,
pp.

550 ff.

ix]

Jati and Samavaya

but
vrttt),

the establishment

of the existence

argument

that

denied,because

of

jatishould

whole

(class)
consistingof many
or
jatiexists because it

class character
in the

us

in the
when

individuals
that

sense

of

brought

into

to

class

inherence

exist

the conception

is

in other

individuals,even

exist.

to

ceases

the

the

The
parts (individuals).

class)comes
generated by which

with

refutes

it involves

(e.g.cow
is

relation

of wholes

distinctly
perceived by
particularclass. It is eternal

in any

individuals

of that
relation

included

it continues

of the

one

be

381

When

into

dividual
in-

new

being, a

new

individual

the

is

class-character

existing in other
individuals; for inherence
{samavaya) according to Prabhakara
is not
eternal
is both
an
entity but an entity which
produced
and
the
not
produced according as
thing in which it exists is
non-eternal

holds, but

as

things in

eternal,and

or

it exists.

class-character

does

class-character

with

destruction

relation

not

is itself

nor

the

according as

many,

which

of

or

regarded

there

individual

that
its

or

destroyed or

in

highest genus
that

argues
we

Prabhakara

the

satta

would

of

class-character

find that the individuals

With
a

new

the class-

the

duals
indivi-

the

common

the existence

of

is

apprehended

class possess

some

of
He

acknowledged by Nyaya.

(being)as

existence

is

of

jati is essentially
thing in relation to

admit

not

dividual,
in-

of

of a
apprehension of the class-character
other similar thingsof that class by the perceptionof
But

that

exist.

to

apart from

the

characteristics.

of

inherence

production it
produced. But

Apprehension

supposes.

number

destroyed,the

the

only
ceases

separate existence

no

is

Nyaya

as

subsist

nor

it is

one

infinite

is the

elsewhere,

destroyed,but

that is

as

individual

any

individual

an

jatihas

Nyaya

as

When
go

that

of inherence

character

it is not

cause
be-

common

possessed by all the heterogeneous and disparate

thingsof the world as can give rise to the conception of a separate
jatias satta, as demanded
by the naiyayikas. That all thingsare
characteristic

said to be sat

(existing)is

more

or

less

word

or

without

name

perience
quality. Our excorresponding apprehension of a common
but
we
existing individuals,
always gives us concrete
can
never
experience such a highest genus as pure existence or
be perceived.When
form which
being,as it has no concrete
may
that it is possessed
we
speak of a thing as sat, we do not mean

the

of
is

any

such

simply

that

class-characters

as

individual

has

the

satta

its

(being);

what

specificexistence

we
or

mean

svaril-

Mtmamsa

382

[ch.

Nyaya view of perception as taking only the

etc. (sanmdtra-visayam
being apart from qualities,

the

Thus

pasattd.

Philosophy

thing in its pure

untenable
by Prabhakara, as according to
pratyaksam) is made
the thing is perceived direct with all its qualities.
him
According
however
Kumarila
to
jati is not something different from the
comprehended

individuals

view

when

that

namely

look

we

with

identical

(jatias

lays its

jatiis thus

of

view

Kumarila's

stress

latent, but when

itself to
The

at

the

we

identical

as

apprehension

held

that

to

and

with

jati)it
as

comes
jatibe-

of

jatiwhich

view

presents
latent.

becomes

is thus

of

that

point of

individual

individual

as

notion

another

is the

point

one

individual

the

the

it from

at

by Samkhya,

from

it is
individual),

look

jatior

as

directlyperceived.

individual

an

the aspect

consciousness,and

it is

similar

consciousness

our

upon

(the individual

it and

by

only

matter

points of view or angles of vision from which we look

Kumarila
at a thing. Quite in harmony with the conception of jati,
tinct
is not
holds that the relation of inherence
anything which is disof different

but

things themselves
particularaspect or

in which

the

from

only

phase

dJiarmadharminoti),Kumarila

svarupam

jati is perceived by

the

jdtirindriyagocard).
of place
It is not
out
Prabhakara
Kanada

find that

we

school

Mimamsa

things

is not
the

on

from

admitted,

well

very

well

very

The

knowledge

knowledge

at the

the
is

self

or

the

and
directly
as

serve

nature

involves

the

identical

same

perceptual,inferential

The

inferred

as

or

the

which

be effected

things.

differences in atoms,

for

of any

samavdydstu
Prabhakara

with

admitted

the

separate category

by

the

differentiation

eternal

of
of

visesa

the

ordina

category

the

basis

of

quality of prthaktva
the

by
the

of

difference of

or

of visesa.

purposes

knowledge.

knower,

All

moment.

other

object,and the
knowledge whether

the known

kind

must

necessarilyreveal

directly.Thus as in all knowledge

immediately perceived,all knowledge may
the

specif!

things the;

knower

perception from

of

by

the
on

evidence

the

on

category of visesa

that

exist,

things themselves

agrees

that

mention

as

to

{tatraikabuddhinirgrdhyd

senses

accepted

ground

these

constitute,can

to

the

another,

one

may

qualitiesof

All

of the

supposed

150, abheddt

Pratyaksasiitra,149,
(Slokavdrttika,
that

it is

point of

view

of self. The

the self
be

garded
re-

division

ix

Character
Self-revealing

of

the

or

revealingpowers,

of Knowledge

383

anumana
pratyaksa (perception),
(inference),
the point of view of the objects of knowledge with
etc. is from
reference
to the varying modes
in which
they are brought within
the purview of knowledge. The self itself however
has no illumining

pramanas

knowledge,

as

for the

its very

It is

both

appearance

could

deep sleep we

in

even

self is present

of dreams.

remembrance

by

for then

then, as

even

self,the knower,

the

proved by

is

knowledge {samvid)

the

have

that

and

the

reveals

objects.

generallyargued against the self-illuminative character of

knowledge that all cognitionsare of the forms of the objectsthey
said to reveal ; and if they have the same
form we
rather
are
may
identical reality
the same
Mlmamsa
too. The
say that they have
It is

cognized

different

not

were

felt

been

have

objectionsis this,that

these

to

answer

by cognition

that

from

one

we

could

and

such,

as

cognition (samvedand) of a person

special kind of quality (dharmd)
self
a

of

virtue

by

certain

object is

is that
self has been

favoured

this,that

it illumines

agency

remembrance
such
as

manifested

and

left

only

the

in

such

the

in

the

reference

to

objectof

nition
cog-

active

operation of the

not

indeed

less,
absolutelyform-

by

forms

which

things are

mind

the

which

knowledge

as

cognitionis

dream

{adrsta).Dream
of that

it is

the

perceived previously,and

were

were

and

Even

not

Cognition has no other character than

reveals objects. The
things only are

and

forms

them.

objects that
unseen

manifested.

have

about

which

cognitionalcharacter

the

could

felt that

operation with

have

and

us

been

Cognitions are

illumined

to

has

determined,

to

have

not

induced.

they

to

another, they

the

cognized objects. The

that such
a
simply means

active

or

reference

with

for

believed

his

which

cognition and

the

apprehend

we

if the

and

of

were

cognition is

was

with

reveal

reference

which

the

aroused

by

thus

only

kind

to

pressions
imthe
of

previouslyexperienced. Only

impressions of cognized objectsare roused in dreams

of pleasurableor painfulexperience,
beget justthat amount

of the

can

in accordance
to

have

do

not

with

the

operationof adrsta,as

the person

deserves

previous merit or demerit.

The
Prabhakara
Mlmamsa, in refutingthe arguments of those
who
hold that our
cognized
cognitionsof objectsare themselves
since we
other cognition,says that this is not
by some
possible,
would

in accordance

experience
lead

us

to a

any

with

such

regressus

his

double
ad

cognitionand

for
infinitum,

also because

if a second

it

cognition

Mimamsa

384
is necessary
and

If

it could

then

then
interpretthe first,

to

on.

so

cognitioncould

be

not

to us, but

itself to

reveals

illumination

is of

that
the

us

not

the

presence

of

The

we

requirea third

another

course

known
un-

its

and
self-cognized,
the
objects. From
of this self-

presence

its presence

only

cognition,

of

it is

infer the

can

it is

would

cognitionis not

it reveals

moment

[ch.

objectof

because

course

of

that

be the

self-valid.

objectsalso
cognizing knowledge. But
and

Philosophy

is inferred

that

for inference
can
cognition itself,
only indicate
it can
an
object and not in the form in which

the

be

apprehended

draws
a
by perception (pratyaksa). Prabhakara
subtle distinction
between
perceptuality(samvedyatvd)and being
object of knowledge {prameyatva). A thing can only be apprehended
whereas
inference
can
(samvedyate)by perception,
only
indicate

the

of

presence

object itself. Our

Kumarila
is
in the

every

in

one

Prabhakara

object of another

perception and

the

different

is indeed

manifestation

of

ception
per-

that it ends

perceiver behaves
as
object is known

he
the

the

the
the

Prabhakara

knower,

as

nition.
cogthat

view,

the

and

known,

(the doctrine

simultaneously illuminated

are

existence

object of perception.But
a
relationshipbetween

from

knowledge

or

presence

cognitionitself1.
in holding that

activityin grasping the

knowledge,

the

the

the

perception involves
the perceived, wherein

agent whose
This

with

apprehensibilityof

perceiver and
the

indicate

apprehend

agrees

the

never

direct
that

says

also

only

apprehending the
apprehended by any other

be

cognitioncannot

cognition. Inference can

of knowledge but cannot

without

object

an

of

2.
triputipratyaksd)

The
The

question

valid,how
be

are

regarded

however

to

we

arises

that

if all

apprehensions

are

illusoryperceptionswhich cannot
problem of illusoryperception and

for

account

valid ?

as

of Illusion.

Psychology

The

psychology is a very favourite topic of discussion in Indian

philosophy. Omitting the theory of illusion of the Jains called
its

satkhydtiwhich
which

we

shall

different theories
or

have

we

before, and

Vedantists,

of the

chapter, there are three

viz. (1) dtmakhydti,(2)viparitakhydti
illusion,

describe
of

described

anyathdkkydti,and

in

the

next

(3)akhydti of

See Prabhdkaramimdmsdy

be.

cit. pp. 26-18.

by

the
Dr

Mimamsa

school.

Ganganatha Jha.

The

Mlmamsa

386

it holds

But

illusion.

for the

account

to

silver

remember

that

Philosophy
taken

is not

that

the

of

note

of

for
illusion,

the

at

non-distinction

mere

phenomenon

[ch.
of

time

is not

enough

is

definite

there

positiveaspect associated with it,viz. the

silver (seen elsewhere)with the conch-shell

false identification of

akhyati theory of Mlmamsa

of the conch-shell
are
peculiarities

that

The

to

holds

us.

noticed,

not

the

since
it is

special

erroneous

cognize positivelythe conch-shell as

silver (perceived elsewhere),for the conch-shell
is not
nized
cogall.
What
here
is
that
at
simply this,
happens
only the
that

say

the

features

and

fact that

that

result of

this

dual

the

present object is
at

appears

the

is not
the

the

apprehended,
in

seen

perceived;
difference

past

some

it is

and

between

that

real silver before

of silver

apprehended,

of

moment

by

as

the

illusioi

the

of

apprehension,and as such
perception (which is wholly

remembrance
not

and

ordinary valid
apprehension) of

between

difference

silver is not
of silver

of

the

of direct

matter

certain

illusoryperception partakes

of remembrance

character

valid

the

to

per-

things,

two

Owing

present conch-shell

place. Thus, though

different from

the

the

these

of silver roused

and

non-apprehension
and

between

remembrance

it is

silver remembered

takes

the

only a memory
appeared before him

has

being noticed,the

silver

cognition of silver.

of the conch-shell

features

common

time

the

mind

of the

and

the difference

apprehend

gives rise to

weakness

the

conch-shell

to

common

this

and

identifyor

we

fails to

ceiver

before

its

the

production to

yet

us,

th"

sight of

the

and

as

illusoryperception
be

valid

as

as

real

perception. Both

kind
of activity01
give rise to the same
the part of the agent, for in illusoryperception the perceive
would
be as eager to stoop and pick up the thing as in the ca"
of a real perception.Kumarila
agrees with this view as expound(
by Prabhakara, and further says that the illusoryjudgment is

valid
real
does

the

cognizor at
judgment could be.
to

not

matter,

experience finds

the
If

for it is admitted
out

the defects

originalperception which
production1. It is easy to see
at

the

of

moment
1

illusion to
of

its

he

has

the

cognitionas am
subsequent experience rejectsit,that

the

this view

that

time

maintain

of any

self-valid

that

the

production

the

is valid.

time

had

Mlmamsa

doctrine

See Prakaranapaflcikd,Sastradipikd,and

at

that

The

later

invalidate

perceptionit can

was

the

when

that

in Mlmamsa

all

to

of its

adopt

cognition

akhyati theory

Slokavarttika,

sutra

2.

ix]

Inference

tries to

establish

the

view

that

the

387

illusion

due

is not

to

any-

positivewrong knowledge, but to a mere

negativefactor of nonof mind.
So it is that
apprehension due to certain weakness
though illusion is the result,yet the cognitionso far as it is cognition,
is made

of two

elements,the present perception and

both of which
far as they are
true so
are
individually
memory,
present to us, and the cognitionitself has all the characteristics of
of the validity
of a cognition
any other valid knowledge, for the mark
up

is its power
in the

as

is

to

case

prompt

Is this

"

In doubtful

to action.

us

post

or

man?"

what

tall

object and thus far it is valid

perceptiongives rise to two different kinds
the pillar
and the man), doubt
in. So
comes
some

involved
self-valid

as

as

in doubtful
other

any

cognitionsalso,

is actuallyperceived
But

too.

this

when

of remembrance
the

(of

element

cognitionsshould

be

of apprehension

regarded

cognition.
Inference.

Sahara
has

been

idea

of

of

says

that

known

to

when

exist

between

thing when
knowledge is called
one

tries to
that

in

subsist

show

that

togetherin

the other

of
third

any

other

is

one

or

eliminable

on

coexistence
or

does

factor.

the

this kind

the basis of this

is

condition

have

things,we can
perceived,and

Kumarila

their

relation

permanent

only possiblewhen
two
cases
things(e.g.smoke
thing (e.g.kitchen, etc.)in

relation,i.e. when
upon

two

inference.

inference

large number

fixed

certain

notice

we

and

fire)
pendent
inde-

some

depend

not

It is also

sary
neces-

things(smoke and fire)coexistingin a third

of
of the existence
thing should be so experienced that all cases
one
involving the existence of the
thing should also be cases
of one
of the existence
thing (e.g.fire),
other, but the cases
that

the

two

of
of the existence
though including all the cases
extensive sphere where
(smoke), may have yet a more
When

(smoke) may

not

it be

of coexistence

case

the constellation

former

exist.

case

with

of Krttika

third

cases,

cause

and

effect

the latter

of the

contiguityof

RohinI, where, by

the rise of the

between

or

other

permanent relation,whether

the

latter may

the

of

(as in

early rise of the

identity(as in the relation
a

once

the

otherwise

case

of
or
a case
inferred),
and its species),
or
genus
two
between
things and
be

thing which had been apprehended in a largenumber of

as
is perceived,they fuse together in the mind
forming
25"2

and

one

whole,

one

(e.g.smoke)
cases

gamya
and
the

The

the

(e.g.smoke)

is called

exist

can

other

the
be

(e.g.wherever

gamya
the

Inference

involves

subsistingbetween

of

is smoke

there

there

inference, for

of

cause

the

it is itself
of

memory

found

they are
the

associated.

perception of

direct

case

and

fire)in

only
place

by virtue of such a memory

(e.g.hill)with the gamaka

It is
basis

thing (e.g.smoke) in it would

basis
the same
(hill)must

is

permanent

things (e.g.smoke

two

the

coexistence

kitchen);but the third thing is remembered

thing (e.g.
have
general way that the coexisting things must

where
that

other

the

general proposition,universal

inference.

relation

in

of the

existence

(e.g.smoke) vydpya or gamaka

of gamaka
in a thing (e.g.hill,
it is only by the presence
(fire)may be
paksa) that the other counterpart the gamya

gamaka with
fire)cannot

third

the

when

and

vyapaka

or

inferred.

of

in

in which

that

beyond

of that

result

as

[ch.

infer the
can
thing (hill)is noticed, we
with
its counterpart (fire).In all
of the thing (hill)
has
the thing (e.g.fire)which
a
sphere extending

existence
such

Philosophy

Mimamsa

388

naturallybring

to

that

mind

my

(i.e.fire)also.
Every case of inference thus proceeds directlyfrom a perception
holds
and not from
generalproposition.Kumarila
any universal
that the inference
gives us the minor as associated with the major
and

of the

not

fire. Thus
known

major alone, i.e.of

inference

in

gives us

general way

of fire,
yet the
and

the

contain

inference

that

of the

knowledge,
of

the possessor

of the

case

gamya

and

fierymountain

the

new

the

mountain

for

it

is the

was

sessor
pos-

anticipated

not

was

is thus

fierymountain

though

smoke

of

not

new
distinctly

anumdnaknowledge {desakdlddhikyddyuktamagrhitagrdhitvam
that
also be noted
sya, Nyayaratnakara, p. 363) \ It should

forming
a

third

the notion

thing

and

for the

that

in the

noted

there

in which

large
was

It is

the

this ; for

between
inference would
and

no

it

to

of

this
of

is

where

cases

note

that it is not

new

it is the

things,

remembered
it is

enough

concomitance

the

where

was

ance
concomit-

the

negativeinstances
by an
vyapaka was marked
the

unlikely that Kumarila

contention

two

is that

"

it is not

indebted

was

fire,nor

fieryhill that is inferred

knowledge (see Vidyabhusana'sIndian

the hill,but

give us no
Tatparyatikd,p. 1 20.

or

always
relation

permanent

of the gamya

Dinnaga'smain

it and

subsist

two

knowledge of any case

is not indispensablethat

absence

important

Dirinagafor

number

relation between

permanent

these

conception

and
failed,
in which

of the

in

"

the

to

nection
con-

for otherwise

Logic, p. 87

ix]

Inference

absence

of the

knowledge
the

of

forming
of

of the

large

in

exactly the

the

existence
of the

It is clear

of the

memory

of

the

invalid,but
us

acquirement

of

of two

thing

As

To

with

which

perience
ex-

two

any

thing in

some

failure
of

exist

perceived to

where

the

the

circle of

the circle of the

ence
exist-

this

If the

case

relation, is

is

possiblewithout
the

not

self-validity

for memory

account,

the

not

another
a

new

from

is not

is that

answer

of pramana,

status

is

the

is also

gamya

of the

process

that

it is

seen

garded
re-

memory
it does

as

number

no

the

of the

which

is not

and

seen

inference

at

for

the

not

all.
for the

propositionsnecessary
of inference

gamya

existence

means

is

of cases,

of the

existence

gained by

gamaka

of

number

of the

in

perception of

the

only

known

was
case

knowledge

regards the

inference

no

knowledge. But inference involves the

istence
knowledge in this,that though the coex-

new

it is

statement

if

this Kumarila's

things in

perception,for
gamya.

is

cases

becomes

that

on

new

is known

and

gamaka

that

it has

yet in the present

a

coincides

permanent

destroyed

to

in

relation1. The

gamaka for the other.

of inference
not
only includes all cases
and
of
species but also all cases
genus

arises

self-valid.

bring

not

In those

well.

as

of inference

gamaka

for

noted,

indispensablefor

permanent

the

of them

effect,of

question

as

in which

this form

The

is not

in

each

is not

be

non-perception of any case of

of inferringthe presence
us

gamya

gamaka,

coexistence

the

also

in
particularcases
together in another

relation2.

same

and

cause

with

thing

that

of

coexist

expectancy

in that

gamya

relation

of the

number

to

should

vyapya,

notion

found

an

or

negative

associated

creates

of

such

things were
relation

gamaka

389

plicit
ex-

convincing others

hold that three

and Prabhakara
(pdrarthdnumdnd) both Kumarila
the first three
Thus
premisses are quite sufficient for inference.
the purpose
hetu and drstanta
quiteserve
premisses pratijna,
may
of

an

anumana.

There
viz.

two

kinds

of

former
Kumarila

"

is

that

kind

stronglyopposes

of

mdtrddeva

and

view
not

by

to

Kumarila

samanyatodrstasambandha.

inference

Buddhist

only by the negative instances and

tasmddanavagate'pi sarvatrdnvaye

according

anumana

pratyaksatodrstasambandha

The
1

are

where

the

is
(vydpti)

that concomitance
the

permanent
tained
ascer-

positiveones.
vyatirekebahufah

sdhitydvagamaNydyaratndvyabhicdrddarsanasandthddanumdnotpattiranglkartavyah.

kara, p. 288.

sarvatasca

"

Mtmamsa

390
relation

between

has
fire,

been

Philosophy
things,as

concrete

two

The

noticed.

in the

latter is that kind

[ch.
of smoke

case

of inference

between
not
permanent relation is observed
two
general notions, as in the
things but between
the

two

where

concrete

of

case

and

ment
move-

where
there is
change of place,e.g. the perceivedcases
involved
with it;so from the
change of place there is also motion
change of place of the sun its motion is inferred and it is held
that this general notion is directlyperceivedlike all universals1.
Prabhakara
recognizesthe need of forming the notion of the
and

relation,but

permanent

that this permanent

is taken

he

relation

in connection

He

subsist.

things is

third

relation

notion of the permanent

the

tween
be-

tions
point,whereas in all other associaof time and
place the things in which these two subsist
together are taken only as adjuncts to qualify the two things
fireand smoke). It is also necessary
to recognizethe fact that
(e.g.
of smoke
in fire is only conditional,the
though the concomitance
two

When

such

concept

smoke

is

conviction

of the presence

of

presence

main

fire in smoke

of the

concomitance

the

the

lay any stress on the fact

and smoke)
two things(fire
thing in which they both

not

between

with

that

says

does

fire,the

firmlyrooted

of smoke
of

inference

Prabhakara

seen.

is

is unconditional

involves

this

to

seems

free

that

as

soon

as

any

{pratijnabhasd)and

influence.

of

the fallacies of the middle

indicate that the Mimamsa

Buddhist

from

mind

separatelythe fallacies of the

counts

of the enunciation
(paksdb/idsa),
example (drstdntdbhdsa)
along with

and

in the

the concept of the

fire is made

minor
the

lute2.
abso-

and

gether
logicwas not altocognition of smoke

The

cognition of fire also,and thus there

would
be nothing left unknown
to be cognized by the inferential
cognition. But this objectionhas little force with Prabhakara,
for he does not admit
that a pramana
should necessarily
bring
for
is
us
knowledge,
simply defined as "apprehension."
any new
pramana
So though the inferential cognitionalways pertainsto
it is yet regarded by him
as
a
thingsalready known
pramana,
since it is in any case
doubt
no
an
apprehension.

includes

within

Slokavarttika,)Nydyarattidkara, Sdsiradipikd,
Yuktisnehapurani,Siddhdn-

See

tacandrika
2

which
where

On

itself the

on

anumana.

the subjectof the

may
even

discovered

navagamdt%

means

of

oneself
assuring

vitiate the inference, Prabhakara

after careful
must

we

see

enquiryin

say that

it does

large number

not

exist

Prakaranapaiicikd,p. 71).

that there is no

has nothing new

of

cases

condition

to tell us.

He

the condition

{upddht)
says
cannot

that
be

{prayatnenanvisyamaneaupddhikatvd-

ix]

and

Upamana

is different from
has

seen

cow

(gavaya), and
the go, and
within

accepted by Mimamsa
in which
Nyaya took

(go) goes
apprehends

the

to

forest

in

it. The

and

which

sense

who

man

sees

wild

ox

the

with
similarityof the gavaya
of the go (which is not
cognizes the similarity
of his perceptionthen) with the
The
gavaya.
of the gavaya
in the go, as it follows
similarity

then

the limits

cognitionof
directlyfrom

is

that

391

Arthapatti.

Upamana,

Analogy (upamana)

Arthapatti

this
the

perception of the similarityof the go in the

is called upamana
(analogy). It is regarded as a sepagavaya,
rate
because
by it we can
apprehend the similarity
pramana,
It is
existingin a thing which is not perceivedat the moment.
not

of

not

was

gavaya
and

for

remembrance,

mere

what

not

was

and

seen,

and

Prabhakara

hence

could

seen

the

at

the

time

the

go

also
similarity

be remembered.

not

Kumarila

was

seen

was

not

The

the
seen,

difference

this

point is that while the

latter regards similarity
as
only a qualityconsistingin the fact
of more
than
the
set of qualities,
one
object having the same
former
regards it as a distinct category.
is a new
which
is admitted
Arthapatti(implication)
pramana
Thus
know
when
that a person Devadatta
we
by the Mimamsa.
is alive and
concile
perceive that he is not in the house, we cannot rethese two
facts,viz. his remaining alive and his not being
in the house
the

without
and

house,

this
the

outside

on

outside
presuming his existence somewhere
of Devadatta
of cognizing the existence
method
is called arthapatti(presumption or
house

implication).
The
exact
psychologicalanalysis of
cognitionis a
disagree. Prabhakara

matter

on

holds

and

Prabhakara

which

that

in this arthapatti

mind

the

when

knows

man

Kumarila
that

datta
Deva-

habituallyresides in his house but yet does not find him

is living(though acquired
there,his knowledge that Devadatta
of proof) is made
other means
doubtful,and
previouslyby some
the

house.
of

of this doubt

cause

The

and

thus

The

mere

it throws

forces

outside.

somewhere
without

of Devadatta

absence

but
implication,

the

is that he

us

to

That

hypothesis of

absence

not

from

the house

into doubt

imagine
can

which

of Devadatta

find Devadatta

does

the very

only

be

found

the doubt
from

existence
must

his

cause

of Devadatta,
remain

by implication,

cannot

the house

the

is not

that Devadatta

at

is not

be

removed.

enough

for

Mimamsa

392
the

making

also that he
home

that

presumption

also be dead.

might

creates

doubt

the

Devadatta

that

for

house,

perceptionof his absence

regards my first knowledge that

as

he

livingand

was

this

home;

at

[ch.

is outside

he

I know

But

not

was

Philosophy

from
he

is

and it is for the removal

of this doubt that there creeps in
living,
the presumption that he must
else. The
be livingsomewhere
perception of the absence of Devadatta
through the intermediate
link of

doubt

then

must

of

beyond
is

doubt,

least element

the

leads

and

and

as

may

dead,

the
well

of

his

the

that

absence

external

an

being

man's

of

exist

the

fire

in the

existence

only

alive into doubt

it was

doubt

the house

be

cannot

the

the

the

presumption
other

house

he

be any

doubt

house

that

There

is

absence

leads
an

from

two

we

the

the

may

is found
the

with

how

removed

it does

livingand
can

the

doubt?

The

cause

The

real

that

then

he

not

his
very
of

procedure

life of Devadatta.

be outside

must

the house.

from

So

there

It is the

of his external

between

the

the mind

of his external

from

come

existence.

The

mind

which

it

contradictorypoles both
See Prakaranapancika, pp.

of

113-115.

to

the

existence.

life of Devadatta
cannot

not
can-

certainty

perception of his absence

presumption

house, and

is

therefore he is

was

too.

presume

absent

the

to the

opposition

presumption

between

us

Devadatta

remove

be

and

in the house

doubt,

doubt

Devadatta

only

removed,

the

the

about
The
doubt
quite the other way.
by previous knowledge or
being removed

about

of his life associated

is

ful
doubt-

is

means,

when

made

regard to the life

by the supposition

can

of its removal

cause

life of Devadatta
some

Doubt

that

doubt

with

resolved

is not

creates

livingis

house, then

his

the doubt

of doubt

already known

is

supposition that

the

Devadatta

created

at

house.

the root

or

Devadatta

that

the

explanation of Prabhakara,

this

necessarilybe

outside

from

by

follow

not

because

fact which

the

the

Devadatta

removed

cause

living.If

of

should

being

follow

the

be

for it does

Devadatta

by

inference

ment
ele-

no

perceivednon-existence
of

objectsto
fact that

if the

absence

of

when

however

that

says

by

the

fact of

the

is

perceived to

is

the

there

he

uncertainty1.
Kumarila

of

the

presumption

thrown

smoke

that

that

presumption

In inference

the

doubt

of

presumption

the

to

it has

when

in

else.

only when

for it is

of

notion

somewhere

remain

but
possible,

house

into the

passes

and

rest

his

without

oscillates

accepts

but

that

shoots,and

these

which

by

beneficent

lead

can

the

sacrificer

Sabda

of the

most

word

or

Heaven

to

in sacrifices

to exist
or

such

some

of existence.

state

Sabda

is believed

specialpotency

[ch.

Philosophy

Mimamsa

394

is

pramana.

regarded

recognized

as

Indian

separate

of

systems

of

means

proof by

thought excepting the

and
this
Vaisesika.
A discussion
on
Jaina, Buddhist, Carvaka
fore
value and I have therehas but little philosophical
topic however
with
give any attention to it in connection
The
validityand
Nyaya, and the Samkhya-Yoga
systems.
writers
of the Vedas
were
acknowledged by all Hindu
omitted

they

had

that

they

the

were

Mlmamsists

to

had

this

of

word

strove

and
Their

it with

wordy battles over

sought to establish

it. Some

that

authority

derived

not

was

trustworthy person or God.

Evidently a discussion on these
it

though

days

of India.

It

laying down

The

for the

Mimamsa,
of

was

Mimamsa

slightextent
of

to

has

which

writing philosophy for

salvation

upon

rational
Vedas

of

means

Mimamsa

as

it is its very

valid

are

of debate

with

be

in the

for the

its

their

It does

do, but
with

old

purpose

and

to

help

of

sacrifices

doctrine

dispensed with

dation
foun-

the

dwell

seeks

Vedas.

epistemo-

own

laying

not

the
the

of the

with

important subject for

written

and

any

in themselves.

but little value

has

dealt

systems

of

interpretationof the

sake.

own

one,
any-

eternal.

were

interpretativemaxims,

brief examination

proof cannot

authority

solely to

of maxims
compendium
be rightlyunderstood
may
But

as

its

other

as

due

of

its structure

the

were

it has

been

from

most

right

by

and

theme

the

written

end

matters

sutras

for

canons

logicaldoctrines

fact

in

was

the

not

were

words

favourite

very

and

denied

who

nor

in time

beginning

no

they

thority
au-

supposition
others, particularlythe

while

God,

prove

Buddhists

the

authority on

Their

us,

the

to

not

to

much

so

serve

as

which

the

rightlyperformed.

of word

in connection

(sabda)
with

soul.

Sabda (word) as a pramana

the knowledge that we
means
get about things (not within the purview of our perception)from
relevant sentences
by understanding the meaning of the words of
which

they

viz. those
The

are

made

up.

uttered

by

first becomes

men

valid

These
and
means

sentences

those

be

of two

kinds,

belong to the Vedas.

it is not
knowledge when

which
of

may

ix]

Sab da Pramana

uttered

by untrustworthy

itself. The

before, and
but

the

as

of words

of

means

validityof

as

the

be

of

Even

proof.

sentence

name

have

we

or

be

may

of

to

of

means

have

we

us

proof;

accept sabda

to

inferred

writer

would

that

yet

of its

ground

the

on

the

that

if it is admitted

of sentences,

not

for when

speaker is not
understanding the meaning

person

difficultyin

no

known

in

involving a knowledge of the

known
by any other acknowledged

being uttered by a trustworthy person,

the meanings
explain how we understand
even

is valid

second

course

counted

it is for this that

means

any

of

are

be

the

sentences

cannot

proof, and

separate

of

meanings

relations

words

therefore

cannot

and

persons

of

meanings

395

known,

or

of

any

sentence.

Prabhakara
or

thinks

understandable

are

letters of
thus

to

be

serve

as

of

reason

found

in

regarded

form

of

of

of each

word

word

the

letter-sound

vanishes

the

it is

moment

behind

of the

successivelydying perceptions of letters,and

the

word

an

whole

the

the

As

potencies

of the

direct

agree

their

own

of
on

be

nature

potency

auxiliaries

of the word
has

verbal

this

the

the

impressions
this

to

be

cognition.

Both

on

to

that

hearing
be

mitted
ad-

for the

necessary

originatesfrom
admitted

brings
bringing

of

meaning. If even
comprehended, it has

certain

lacks

letters,it

denotative

or

and

be

uttered,but

certain

the separate
the

latter is

Prabhakara

and

point.

peculiardoctrine

natural

but

of

with

combines

contains

cannot

hearer

cause

have

word

which

the potency

Another

not

word

meaning

purpose.

Kumarila

impression which

comprehension

that

the

is to

existingin the letters by which the

be comprehended.
The
may
tion
percep-

leaves

about the

The

word.

separate potency

denotation

about

constituent

any

understanding the meaning of

apprehension of the meaning of any

our

letters,

meaning, and are

auditory perception which

yield

for

means

of

of letters. The

cannot

elements

as

in the

are

combinations

as

however

word

all sounds

that

powers

refer to certain

expounded

here

is that

all words

out of
by which they themselves
of their comprehension
objectsirrespective

non-comprehension by

the

hearer.

The

hearer

will

that the
to him
meaning unless it is known
such
and
in question is expressive of such
a
meaning,
that meaning
the word
all along competent
to denote
was
it is the hearer's
knowledge of that fact that helps him to

understand

the

Mimanisa

396
the

understand

to

conventions

to

the words1.

of

themselves.
to

be

of

this

arise

could

as

Again
they are
which

of

word.

have

believed

effort

the

been

the

The

on

senior's

only

commands

be

deduces

only

as

Thus

denotation

when

holds

each

that

related
thus

to other

the

word

and

genus,

understand

to

it

him

according to

word

no

be

can

apart from

taken

the

sists
con-

agency

the

pronounces
is the

that

cause

fests
it only mani-

of

meaning

"

"

cow

the

comprehended
such

accusative

something is to
only as
appears

be

done

Kumarila

thinks

that

however

separate meanings which

are

with

Nyaya

cow

or

it

the bovii

specifickind

dnaya

that

means

"

bring the

coi

independently express
into a sentence
subsequently combined
idea (abhikitdnvayavdda). Thus

character
God

the
with

gam
words

expressing one connected

dnaya, according to Kumarila,

class in the accusative

(cow)

connected

sentence

to

any

doctrine

This

sentence.

of go

case

in the

According
meanings.

having

as

yields its meaning only as being generally

factors or only as a part of an injunctive
sentence

action, viz. bringing

though
required by

word

gam

that

intended

in gam

thinks

person.

; but

pronouncing

Mlmamsa

would

ever-existingword.

comes

vdda), and

hdna

other

is

who

Vedic

results

manifestive

man

the

see

meanings of words can

known
from
words
occuring in injunctivesentences; he
this the conclusion
that words
denote
from
must
things
of
factors
the
related to the other
injunction(anvitdbhid-

horse."

"

the

to

the meanings
by which according to Prabhakara
mands
are
acquired may be exemplified thus: a senior comand
bind
to
a
horse, and the
junior to bring a cow
to the
noticing the action of the junior in obedience

and

the

convention

process

of words

child

hearer

such

agency

This

us.

denotative

that

predicted by any
be eternallyexistent

by

while

be

to

It is easy

of which

this effort of

that

that produces the word

to

to

is due

give meanings

of
self-validity

manifestive

forth

put

thinks

Nyaya

to

some

manifested

are

the

on

think

not

word

and

denotation.

performance

present

ever

they

the

are

with

names

proper

of

cause

does

acknowledged

about

doctrine

not

all words

only

the

by

commandments,

thus

[ch.

Mlmamsa

particularmeaning
people who introduce
are

It is

word.

Words

bearing

the

of

among

is admitted

of

meaning

association

the

that

Philosophy

created

and

gam

dnaya

all words

and

means

bovine

the

independently
associated

them

means

with

their

ix]

Non-perception

bring;these
cow."

two

But

with

shows

only

combined

former

what

the

into the

theory the

kind

some

it appears

sentence

have

the

on

connected

then

are

of

word

action,and

specialkind

meaning

the

with

bring the

"

it is

that

means

gam

particularsentence

of action

associated

as

397

in the

is,as

bringing, but

above

it cannot

meaning separatelyby itself. This theory of Kumarila

which
is also the Nyaya theory is called abhihitanvayavada1.
it is only the Veda
that can
Lastly according to Prabhakara
be called sabda-pramana, and
of it which
only those sentences
any

contain

injunctions(such

with

these

only

inferred

things). In
But

speaker.

The
In
kind

addition

of

the

the

words

of

of

to

see

Kumarila

thing.

is

is

in

this

is the
visible
that

are

to be

can

the

vision

of it

to

by

is

no

object,there
such

and

an

inference

accounted

perceptionof
we

for is

which

have

Patanjali,
appendix.

by

the Sphota doctrine of sound

sounds

of letters

composing

Dr

be noted

It may

which
a

how

admit

of

in

it is

is
But

object
vision

no

it is easy

perception of

want

non-perceptions

to be

solved.

existence

only

in the
S. N.

and

How

begrasped?
of pramana

complete

apart

word

former

in

case

Dasgupta'sStudy of

that Mlmamsa.

in the belief that

was

anumana.

positive(sadrupa) or

in this connection

consists

there

of

Some

visible

separate mode

Ganganatha Jha

word, there

of

case

these

wantof

or

namely anupalabdhi.
All things exist in places either
and
a negative relation
(asadrilpa),
See Prabhakaramimamsa

the

existence
non-

could

senses

of it also.

presupposes

fifth

perceived

non-existence.

exactly the point

to

the

perceiver.When
existence

the

be

cannot

perceivethe

of vision

want

admits

non-existence

the

room)

existence, but

of

want

It is for this that

the

trustworthy

perception of

that

with

nothing

in order

the

argues

jug

no

for there

senses,

of vision

is

(anupalabdhi).

people preferto explain this non-perceptionas

there is the existence
They say that wherever
there

all

Kumarila

pramanas

anupalabdhi for

viz.

into contact

come

validityof words
trustworthy character of

Non-perception

above

the

to

of pramana,

the

the

cases

considers

Pramana

thing (e.g.there

by

of

ground

Kumarila

of
a

all other

sacrifice in this way

sabda-pramana.

as

persons

the

on

this

perform

as,

from

form

did not
the
which

favour

momentary
was

fested
mani-

by the passing sounds of the syllables.The work of

Tattvathe syllable
See Vacaspati's
this word-manifestation.
sounds
is only to project
anvitabhidhana
see
of
the
doctrine
For
bindu, Slokavarttika and Prakaranapaiicika.

(sphota)but

not

created

Salikanatha's Vakyarthamdtrkavrtti.

Mimamsa

398
that

they

come

case

the

latter

within

[ch.

Philosophy

the

purview of the senses,

the negative existence

perception of

while

in the

only

can

be

of the movement
of the mind
which
we
by a separate mode
as
anupalabdhi. Prabhakara
designate as a separate pramana
holds that non-perceptionof a visible object in a place is only the
perceptionof the empty place,and that therefore there is no need
had

of

admitting a separate
meant
by empty space ?

there

jug

if the

us, then

before

space

If it is necessary

of

non-existence

of the

anupalabdhi.

as

pramana

is

for the

that

should

what

For

perception
absolutely empty

be

place be occupied by

stone

ought

we

of the jug, inasmuch

the
as
perceive the non-existence
place is not absolutelyempty. If empty space is defined as that
with the jug,then the category of negation
is not associated
which
to

not

is

admitted
practically

empty

is defined

space

which

which

be

or

separate entity has

as

to

words

thing

the

thing as

same

attempt

may

moment

jug,then

the
be

to

admission

the

accepted,

of the

be

made

want

to substitute

associated

an

for the

want

of

or

explain

to

positiveconception,it will
shift negation from the objectivefield to

in other
of

absence

perception of space at
of knowledge about
want

jug. Whatever
negation by any

attempt

an

the

the
of

notion

the

the

to

amounts

negation of

as

knowledge

of

also want

with

associated

we

separate entity. If the perception of

as

best

at

ledge,
know-

place of the external

knowledge about the

thing (inspiteof its being a visible object)and this naturallyends

in failure,for negation as a separate category has to be admitted
either in the field of knowledge or in the external world.
tion
Negaabhava

or

It is said

as

that at the firstmoment

moment

ground

also

negation.

of

negation

that

the
The

that

means

as

be in the

But
a

jug

only the ground

its

or

comprehension

is associated

its

there

the

the

comes

this

But

the

of

knowledge

any

to be admitted.

separate category has anyhow

with

this

the
the

perceptionof

then

at

want

the

of
same

only

the

knowledge
thing as
ground

the

ne:

of the

ju(

perception of tl

of the

separate category, for what

"

seen

of the non-existence

moment

to

comes

negation,and

without

is

other
"

of
the

the

jug

admissi"

meaning

if it is not

car

meant

fied
(the perception of the ground) is associated with or qualiof
the
of
the
the
want
by
knowledge
perceptionof
jug? For
of
ground cannot
generate the notion of the non-existence
there is a jug the ground is perceived.
where
jug, since even
qualifyingphrase that
only the ground is perceived
it

"

"

ix]

Self

399

meaningless,if things whose

comes

is excluded

presence

not

are

as
negative conditions
specified

And

ground.
of

negation

be

this would
in

which

us,

unaccountable

manner

qualifyingthe perception of the

requirethat we had already the notion
appeared

by other

means

that

noted

non-perception of a
notion of negation immediately and
and this is true not only of thingsof
of the

of past

memory

remember

there

that

the

object
"

negation of

has

the

the present moment

absence

thing

would

who
be

perform the
meaning of those

the

sacrifices

regarded

thus
sense
one

as

Kumarila
the

we

not

may

self in

of

have

from

the
the

knower;

body

present in all
many

of

our

our

it is not

so

the

on

is

The

soul

this

about

to

the

the

that
true

the

say

the

body,

many,
to

in

us

been
our

nitions
cog-

that

even

body

our
as

so,

the

or

embodied

cognitions. Moreover
not
are
always conscious

that

and
cognitions,

of ourselves

notion

is

body?
analysisof

says

parts of

forming
per-

the existence

perception of

no

of the

correct

ground

cognitions. But

as

body, for had it not

in all
self-persistence

notion

combination, yet the

specific
in all our
beings always appears
cognitionsof external objectswe
as

proof for

cognitions,and

our

their

self

men

the

from

it

would

what

and

it is manifested

Prabhakara

any

without

the
of

sensible

soul,for

speak of
thereby?

that

this also

there

where

differs from

however

consciousness

though

thinks

he makes

in those

is thus

eternal,omnipresent, and

the notion

have

we

which

Heaven

separate entity from

even

"

it is

Prabhakara

body.

should

why

texts

going
something entirelydistinct

all cognitions. Indeed

of self

of

Vedic

buddhi;

we

God.

commandments,
to

when

comprehended.

Vedic

and

and

organs,
in each

as

but also

of

want

or

be

can

"

special

proof. It should also

sensible object generates the
not
through other negations,

accept the existence

to

itself in

of

Self, Salvation,
Mlmamsa

of

us

perceptionsof non-existence, as
was
no
jug here. Anupalabdhi
which

by

separate pramana

to

in

our

of the

that self is different

consciousness

of self is

is not

cognized in

body

reason

for

admitting that

or
body is this, that movement
be attributed
to
willing,knowledge, pleasure,pain, etc., cannot
then be
the body, for though the body exists at death these cannot
that they must
found. So it has to be admitted
belong to some
the body apwith which
other entity owing to the association

the

self is different

from

the

Mtmamsa

400
pears

with

endowed

be

to

[ch.

Philosophy
movement

Moreover

etc.

knowledge,

the

to
not
are
etc. though apparent
perceiver,
yet perfeeling,
ceived
by others as other qualitiesof the body, as colour etc.,
It is a general law of causation
are
perceived by other men.
elements
of the constituent
that the qualities
(in the cause) impart
of which
but the earth atoms
the body
themselves
to the effect,
the qualities
of knowledge etc., and
is made
up do not contain
the inference
of a separate entity as the
this also corroborates
raised that
vehicle of knowledge etc. The objectionis sometimes
if the soul is omnipresent how
it be called an
can
agent or a

mover?

the

by

energy

So it is that

moves.

agent

on

of

self must

body.

The

from

the

senses,

continues

for

through.
The
question now
holds

that

the

self

cognized object,nor
self
what

means

which

is the energy

movement

fact that

the

also

it

loses

one

self all the

arises,how

being different

as

of

some

same

of

movement

as

the

senses

persistingall

cognized? Prabhakara
cognized apart from the
cognized without the cognizor

is self

cognizor is never
is the objectever
the cognitionas a
as

enteringinto
and the objectshine forth

the

causes

understood

be

when

even

perceive his

to

movement

this is

account

the

that

possessedby the omnipresent soul.

imparted by it to the body that the latter
it is called an
though the soul does not move

and

the atoms,

moves

he

admit

not

of
motion, for the principle

atomic

It is

does

Mlmamsa

But

factor.

necessary

Both

the

knowledge in
(perception
triputi-pratyaksa

in the self-luminous

have

already described as
It is not the soul which
is self-illumined but
as
three-together).
knowledge; so it is knowledge which illumines both the self and
the object in one
operation. But just as in the case of a mai
who walks, the action of walking rests upon
the walker, yet he is
regarded as the agent of the work and not as the object,so in th"
of the operationof knowledge, though it affects the self,
case
yet
the
is
it appears
not
as
agent and not as the object.Cognition
we

soul, but
and

the

soul

is manifested

in it as

in

the

"

I
cognitiveelement
from
all cognitions.In deep sleep therefore
cognized the self also is not cognized.
appears

Kumarila
the
as

body

is

however

"

the substratum

perceivesitself by

which

is distinct from

mental

perception(inanasa-pratyaksa)

mental

of the notion

inseparable
no
object is

is

when

thinks that the soul which

perceivedby

its substratum,

cognitionas

of

"

I,"or

perception,and

in other
the

words

the self

perceptionof

its

Mimamsa

402

self

the

considered

Kumarila

[ch.

Philosophy
be

to

the

merely

of

potency

generated
knowledge {jndnasaktiy. Cognitions of things were
This
self
the other
and
senses.
by the activityof the manas
itself can
only be cognized by mental
perception. Or at the
of salvation

time

there

the self remains

without
salvation

in pure

actual

any

is the

ananda

or

the

and

of all its

senses

of

energy
is

that

at

knowledge,

accepted

in the

the fruits of his

about
bad

and

good

the

performance

the

attainment

of
of

against the evil

nitya-karmas (such
of which

which

of

of

body

of

up

ever

Every day
of the

be

It may

admit

any

animals

results)and

state

is

the

guarantees

non-performance

characterized
of

non-production

energy

with

energy

and

and

Nyaya

mentioned

movements.

yet remain

unmoved
a

the

existence

universe.
is

no

beginning

in

men

the

these

nature

to

the

by

any

time, or

further

any

dharma

belong

that unlike
of molecular

of action

thing.Nyaya stronglyopposes this doctrine

explainall action by actual molecular

of

adharma

Mimamsa

did not

panda). It
(parts
manifested

itseli

the body and

relationingof

non-sensible

motion.

the

performer and

vibration

the

created

Neither

God.

Nyaya

means

the

being by

as
a
(iakti)
separate category which
considered
as
a 3akti can
move
being

itself. Manifestation

is

that

and

to the

the

as

universe

God

into

only

seeks to

the

that any

coming
that

God

any

suppose

operation of

supposes

being only of the

of

Though

reason

are

in this connection

existence of energy
self
The

the

the

supervisor,for

consider all activityas

in actual

not

as

have

admitted

for

etc. performed
(sacrifices

but

the

parents without

is it necessary

suffers

them
thereby exhausts
effects by refrainingfrom

benefit

This

parts, yet there

had

universe

should

no

and

destroyer of

and

creator

action

is

body

does

Mimamsa

it.

and

rebirth.

or

made

enjoys

by assiduouslyperforming
sandhya prayers etc., by the performance

the

as

there

the

the

effects of sin

produces sins).

dissolution

new

beneficent

certain

of

of salvation

view

man

and

kamya-karmas

himself
the

actions

stops the further generationof

being divested

also.

when

and

of any

potency

mere

This

Prabhakara

by

brought

is

Salvation

main

as

existence.

mere

of

state

devoid

self

The

senses.

time, remains

knowledge

the

So

manas

pleasure,pain,knowledge,
is it bliss
knowledge nor
these are generated in it by

as

; but

the

of

potency

self remains

self itself is not

operationof

the

its energy

the

nor

manifestation.
the

supposes

senses

the

as

qualitiessuch

Vedanta

as

existence

in which

state

willing,etc., for

of the

none

expression or

its characteristic

of

being

the

(atlndriya)

Mimamsa

ix]

have

and

Nyaya-Vaisesika

403

there cannot
knowledge of them. Moreover
be any
contact
{samyogd) or inherence
(samavdya) of dharma
with God
that he might supervisethem ; he cannot
and adharma
tools or
have
like
fashion
the world
to
body wherewith
any
can

one

no

the

Moreover

carpenter.

world

either

as

actuated

with

requirea

creator

or

were

the

could

or

have

as

beings

no

to

him.

create

dissolution

Moreover

So there

new

philosophy

and

he

would

God,

no

world

creation

any

should
he

is

in the

when

whom

towards

the

create

to

For

act.

pralaya. The

or

without

same,

motive

no

cruel

feelingof mercy?

creation, no

running

he

merciful

there

beginning

no

any

himself

creator,

no

has

be

been

ever

srsti
dissolution,

or

pralaya.
Mimamsa
From

what

Mimamsa
of the

as

have

we

before

said

in the

agrees

main

with

categoriesof thingssuch

rupa,

Rumania's

etc.

rasa,

Mimamsa

as

ritualism.

as

it will be

Vaisesika

easy

about

to

that

see

the existence

the five elements, the

differences

qualities,
points of jati,

the

on

also been
have
peculiarities
that
of these
before.
mentioned
On
some
points it appears
Kumarila
influenced
was
by Samkhya thought rather than by
Nyaya. Samkhya and Vaisesika are the only Hindu systems which
have tried to construct
a physics as
a part of their metaphysics ;
other systems
them

only

have

have

general with

layingany

The

but

the Vaisesika

specialstress

main

was

God, and

difference

self-valid
also that

flthermeans..
valid

view

To

it
do

as

The

former

and

that

was

not

this it

soon

as

us

Nyaya
requiredto

was

it did

derive

not

to test

necessary

would

its orders

that the

prove

validityfrom
its validity
hy any
its

to us

them
render

the selfthe

for the Veda

secure
or

of the

consists

began by trying to establish

they would appear

there being nothing to contradict
nothing in the world which could
to

with

of Mimamsa

ityof^lMin^wledge. This

advantage that

Nyaya-Vaisesikaabout

of

suitable.

theoryof knowledge.
Veda

differed from

have

or

and
physics of Prabhakara
little importance, as
they agree in
in not
view.
In fact they were
justified
for the performance
this part, because

common-sense

most

was

on

them

The

matters.

thus

of sacrifices the
the world

generallyfollowed

minor

on

Kumarila

Prabhakara's

and

etc.

samavaya,

municated
cominjunctionswere
valid knowledge, and
as

later

on

there

the Vedic

be

would

injunctions
26

"

Mtmamsd

404
other

The

invalid.

such

pramanas

indicate

to
described,firstly

were

Philosophy

[ch.

perception,inference,etc.

as

that

could

they

show

not

to

us

be

not
was
an
acquired,for dharma
existing
be
could
the
which
other
but
perceived by
thing
pramanas,
could
a
only be produced by acting according to
thing which
the knowledge of dharma
For
the injunctions of the Vedas.
of the Veda
therefore
the sabdapramana
and adharma
was
our

could

dharma

how

of

the

was

different

be

difficult to

Vedic

sentences.

it would

it

Secondly

only source.
knowledge

that

necessary
of

means

discuss
The

and

of creation

Hindu

God

had

eternalityof
that

the

Vedas.

Even

of

it would

have

batable
de-

dissolution

and

could

systems

them

verifythe meanings

doctrine

is

have

without

cognition,as

recognized by all other

as
acknowledged by the Mlmamsa
which

should

we

be

not

endangered

the

dispensed with

to be

on

account.

is defined

Veda

The

the

(also called

the

as

vidhis

collection

of

Mantras

and

Brah-

injunctivesentences).There are
three classes of injunctions(1)apurva-vidhi,
(2)niyama-vidhi,and
(3) parisarikhya-vidhi.Apurva-vidhi is an order which
enjoins
manas

something
(we

could

where

when

order

an

some

could

be

be

that

is ordered

alternative,and

an

the

only

remained

In

one.

undone

done

which

the

by

is

of

sacrifice).In

already

the vidhi

known

unknown

had

the

of these

one

would

done

been

it not

methods

A certain mantra
necessarilyas possiblealternatives.
the rein" {imam agrbhndm rasandm) which
could be

number

holding
There

of
the

cases

reins of

are

should
an

three

(1) When
they yield a meaning
sentences.

not

enjoined

however

is

be

as

vidhi.

already known

used

at

the

as

have

for the

not

is

should

threshing as the
the niyama-vidhi

all
parisarikhya-vidhi

that

corn

possiblebut only

as

insists upon

is that

following

from

In

up

for the

that "corn

apurva-vidhi the thing to be

and

washed

of ways,

to

us

chaff

the

alternative

the

number

nails,the order

the

to

us

in

restricts

(e.g.though

acceptable for

which

been

Veda

alternative

restricts

course

grainsshould be
duty was necessary

injunction).Niyama-vidhi

have

the

by

separated even

threshed"

only

above

thing could

is made

definite

the

by

except

e.g. the

known,

that this part of the

know

not

sacrifice

otherwise

not

or

but

"I take
used

in

time

of

ass.

main
some

but

principlesof interpretingthe Vedic

such
that connectively
sentences
are
not

then
individually,

they should

be

Vidhis

ix]

together connectively

taken

however

can

should

be

not

connected

vidhis

The

The

deity

whom

to

the

that

the

be

cannot

part of them

describe

those

with

that

it is

which

actions

mandates

the

by

When

is

proved by

force called

action

potency

desired

or

of

the

in

the

to

dilate

upon
make

Kumarila

and

sacrifices,rituals,and

detail,which

forming part
Even

the

to

of

preted
inter-

only

be

may

before

as

acquired.

injunctions of
and

whose

istence
ex-

scriptures is generated

This

the

and

value

have

exist

in time

capacity

beneficient
This

Heaven).
abides

which

agent

injunction

arthavadas

of the

to

which

performance

dharma

agent.

performer

pressive.
inex-

positive

or

results

of the

apurva

is like

until

in him

the

follow1.

It is needless

nature

produces

faculty

results

Sahara

the

in

of

as

the

Vedas

not

authority

or

apurva

(e.g.leads

sacrifice

the

best

Vedas

deed

according

did

forming

as

at

or

as

Vedas

the

in

the

in

mere

For

membered
re-

interpreted

found

for

as

performed

which

capacity

the

in

is

be

rejected altogether.

of which

performance

sacrifice

the Vedas,

either

treated

praising injunctions.

as

all be

interpreted

reasons

the

acquired by following

injunctive orders

be

or

deities

some

It should

praise some

be

give

be

to

are

offered.

sentences
or

of dharma.

source

untrustworthy

those

context

specificationof

therefore

as

should

arthavadas)

the

be

the

praise of

should

the

regarded

be

expressions

certain

of

they

vidhi-vakya (injunction)

of

Vedas

connected

for

certain

supplied.

main
in

only

can

existing things merely

(called the

the

is to

Thus

of

dharma

of

the

be

to

injunctions. Anything

us

which

is

be

to

tences
sen-

they

of

case

from

words

are

being

as

libation

as

injunctions

giving

sentences

taken

be

to

are

powers

suitable

separate

themselves

the

In

generally hymns

are

If the

(2)

together. (3)

preceding

which

405

separately by

properly interpreted are

mantras

or

whole.

incomplete

are

immediately

of

as

yield meanings

which

sentences

Arthavadas

and

anyhow

can

have

these, for
an

other
but

the

elaborate
relevant

works

voluminous

into

research

in

matters

little interest

for

the

great

student

philosophy.
1

See

vistara.

Dr

Ganganatha

Jha's

Prabhakaramimamsa

and

Madhava's

Nyayamald-

CHAPTER

of

Comprehension

which

by
the

who

knower

is

the

sometimes

object,

its

in the

and

sometimes
mind

perceptions
of

attainment

of

sense

to

him

adapt

himself

question

wherein

not

only

epistemological

metaphysical
based

the

schools

in actual

quently

very

or

thought.

scholars

learned

spread

large

all

number

were

for

the

and

of
not

in

Buddhist

thinker

Mlmamsa

once

purpose

securing

on

defeating

adherents

generally conducted

to

could
debate

and

he

could

their

teachers

merely

in

on

the

justify
pretation
inter-

differei

defeat

over

fre
schc

great Nyayc

by
his

probably
tours

one

was

of any

country,

of the
These

own.

and

attended

all

masters

of

debates

Extensive

spot.

and

ignored

defeat

the

the

and

prestige

of

by great

analysis

of these

parts

the

to

thinkers

the

public

great

undertaken
of

result

example

country

of followers

often

the

tried

together

meet

with

sometimes

The

has

of knowledge

theory

the

but

bearing

consistent

the

others

to

different
the

knowledge

schools

to

determining
for

in

from
over

the

often

important
If

appeal

an

and

side

situation

unimportant.

debates,

of

one

different

which

accustomed

were

another

of

as

for

painful things.

psychological
on

with

psychological experience,

the

by

experience
regarded

sometimes

of

All

knowledge

of

and

of

tions
percep-

environment

pramanya

metaphysical

knowledge.
of

theory

the

his

accordance

of

to

notion

(that

avoidance

It contains

analysis

an

indicates

of

theory
a

on

other

also.

one

his

to

the

consists

The

to

is

knowledge

inner

in

the

knowledge

of

knower

or

right

"

prdmdnya

of

an

work

subject

pramana

and

of

the

"

moves

of

validity

sense

movement

the

faithfulness

the

and

result

The

the

means

knowedge,

subject

pleasurable

an

and

means

the

in

of the

true),which

are

his

used

the

validity in

of

object

essential

more

controversy.

the

acquired.

knowledge

Issues

acquired, pramdtd

cognizes, pramd

knowledge, prameya
of

of

signifies the

knowledge

validity

Dialectic

Sanskrit

in

VEDANTA

OF

philosophical

the
the

than
Pram2na

SCHOOL

SANKARA

THE

of
the

many

fame

at

secure

tion
disputacountry

opposite schools

debates

were

fore
there-

passionless philosophical

x]

ch.

Old

mood

with

inflict

the

object

defeat

victory and

of

mind

debates

exposing
dialectical
him

the

of

the

the

the

But

is

different

the

contribution

end

of the

point of

position of
Indian
now

of

to

the

try

of

lay

the

far

before

as

we

my

(pratndnavdda)

thought.

Sarikara
sketch

to

so

the

Vedanta
views

Their

of the

opposed

was

work

on

through

pass

he

can

find

full

play

philosophical answer
the

belongs

of

the

theory

of

was

looked

at

of

the

ficiency
de-

be

Vedanta

of

here

from

the
the

to

indicate

school

in

the

traversed

to

by

on

of

solution

dealt with,
later

of

some

the

as

field of

it. I shall

solution

the

we

in this

an

place

in order

Sarikara

be

out

their
to

come

we

conflictingtheories

reached

of

comprehension

criticisms,the speculations

not

readers

to

respectivevictory

Vedanta

have

an

gence.
philosophical diver-

understanding

With

relations

will also

that

negative criticisms

is the

knowledge,

of

opponent,

vitandd, before

mutual

main

of

theory

Vedanta

philosophy

knowledge

schools
the

of the

view

and

to

it may

of the

by

the

by
close

school, their analysis,and

of each

philosophy.

survey

to

problem

clear

these

thinkers

philosophy, who

of

of the

view, the value

brief

has

final

the

of

of

metaphysical theory

also

attitude

advanced

an

real

the

which

from

the

of controversy

arts

present volume, and

student

indifferent

its associated

to

reading

important thing

most

Advanced

most

of

the

ultimately proving

called

student

experience

net

and

arguments,

consequently

that

answers

of

personal

self-contradictions

In

before

modern

debate.

picture of

quarrel, the

opponent
a

the

to

which

to

contradictions, and

to

the

of

sense

thought

find

and

sometimes
the

order

in

ascendency

different schools

the

of

aspects
and

on

make

us

we

original,a

philosophers, and

the

and

of dialectic

of

side, the

of each

to

in the

resources

to

party and

knowledge
by

give

experience.

root

silencing the

either

of

pursue

his statements,

opponents)

given.

no

of

series

All
for

works

the

often

was

school

to

inconsistent,led

philosophy

to

him

criticize

define

was

thwart

come

the

inconsistencies

to

interminable

(to

led

It

407

but

truth

establish

to

thought.

debaters
to

testimony

Indian

and

the

reasoning, anticipating the

theory

to

these

their

arriving at

victory of

that

attempt

asking

of

philosophical

Sanskrit

his

the

adhered

debater

of

of

of

of Controversy

opponents

on

particularschool

some

is

Methods

the

fore
there-

theory

the

main

offered

shall

by

attempt

chapter.

dealing with the

the general attitude

Before
review
main

the

School

philosophicaland
the

positionof

of

Vedanta

situation.

philosophical

The

to

Sankara

The

408

Vedanta

Review.

it

system

of the

[ch.

schools

advisable

seems

already discussed

epistemologicalquestions which
Vedanta
as
taught by Sankara

the

to

termine
deand

his school.

concerned
This

Buddhist

Sautrantika

The

the fulfilment

with

however

be

that

says

of his ends

in all his affairs

and

desires

is

man

(purusdrtha).

without

done

rightknowledge {samyagKnowledge is said

jhdnd) which rightlyrepresents things to men.
to be rightwhen
we
can
perceived them.
get things just as we
far

So

as

cannot

it is a patent fact that

this does

deserve

not

knowledge

is thus

contradiction

in

far

actions
in

our

all have

we

criticism
restricted

be

it

trusted

When

the

the

which

is called

not

perceived by
visual

that

world

invariably precede

that

the

permanent

this is

visual
all

existing from

before

as

our

association

perceptualexperience
its association

with

object as unassociated
is

perceived. As a
thought and mental

determined.

At

one

with

result

it is not
the

object is

name

of

the

perception
moment

derived

invested

"

from
an

fact that

that

and

of

is the

see

past time, is

name

to

hence

all

generated by

is not

be

to

I
the

momentary,

so

This

name.

this

as

sense,

things are

existed

never

seen," what

colour,horns, feet,etc., but

or

cow,

I had

cow

objects perceived is called kalpand

Our perceptionis correct
only so far as it is without
association
(kalpandpodhd),for though this is taken
our

how

followingits representationwe
representedby
things as were

such

this is the

object. For

now

manence

know

to

or

as

brown

this

or

enquiry about

Our

That

"

I say

object with

see

therefore

perception alone can be right which is

object and not merely suppliedby our imagination.

(samvddakatva).

generated by

and

cerned,
con-

to get
rightlyindicatingwhat we want
practicalexperience (arthaprdpakatvd).The perceptionis
can

get in the external

the

knowledge,

all concerned

are

we

when
right(abhrdnta non-illusory)
can

objectsis

its aspect of later verification

to

experience,for

of

examination.

or

perceptions of things

our

illumination

representationor

mere

the

evident

which

with

thi

and

pel

abhildpc

or

the
as

abhilaj
a

part

object,an"
error.

Tl

nirvikalpa is thus wh?

pratyaksa the manovijfiana 01
the

of

pleasure

"

and

perception reveals

the

pain is also
object as an

Sankara

The

4io

concept and

ideational

School

[ch.
has of

knowledge

that such

power

Vedanta

of

showing

being followed the thing can be got (yena krtena

then
is the similarityof the
arthah
prdpito bhavati). Pramana
knowledge with the objectby which it is generated,by which we
that this is our
ourselves
assure
knowledge of the object as it is
perceived,and are thus led to attain it by practicalexperience.
the

which

means

this

Yet

consists

later

the

of

in the

merely
and

to the

stage is pramanaphala

which

determines

attitude

This

world.

the

external

world,

the correctness
its value

for

question of

determining
firstmoment

in

us

the

relation

the

what

or

the

refers

only

of the

latter is

external

regarded

N.
{pratyaksabalotpanna

T.,

p.

20)

But what

is this

he

Its

Dharmakirtti's

nature?
specific

object and
ends.

our

with

The

knowledge

as

divested

element
presentative
is not
succeedingmoments

but

this

as

on

less,
characterand

express it,names

these did not

and

the

to

try

we

answer

specificcharacteristics of

those

means

of

world

character is said to be its own

own

real

unimportant.

as

productof the affirmative process of the

though we cannot express its character ; as soon
ideas consisting
of affirmation are
associated

presentativeelement.

the

perception to

practicalrealization
of the

the

out

knowledge is generated
itself. It only looks
to

it is in

from the

nature

ciations),
asso-

wards
perceiver to-

perception leaves

how

to

as

faithfulness

or

the

of

account

question
epistemological

other

of the

other

therefore

pramana

which

pramana

thing (devoid of

the

perceived object. The

not

newly-acquired knowledge (anadhigatddhigantf)as this is

jective
with the obto the perceiver in determining his relations

use

by

of the

vision

and

form

of the

part

nature
(svalaksana).
specific
this pointis that by specific

object which

clear when

appear

sannidhdndsannidhdit is at a distance (yasydrthasya

hazy when
and
N.
svalaksanam
1
N.,
T., p. 16). Sensendbhydm jnanapratibhdsabhedastat
p.
and
this has the same
the
characteristics
of
object,
knowledge thus gives us the specific

the objectis near

form
in the

as

and

the object itself; it is the appearance

of the "blue"
and when
this is associated by the affirmative

mind

result is the

concept

or

idea

'

'

nilabodharupamavasthdpyate

this is blue

"

in its specific
character
er

{nilasarupampratyaksamanubhuyamdna

...

hi vijnanam, N. T.
19) and this
(yatkincitarthasya sdksdtkdrijndnam tatpratyaksamucyate,N.

blue"

(m/abodka,N.

valid.
T.

This

blue

22) which

In

my

opinion

sensation

svalaksana

(adhyavasdya)and
presented

therefore

means

features of the objectand

presenting the specific

thing which
or

is valid

concept which

in

is direct
T.

is different from

is the result of the former

the association of the affirmative process

it contains elements
other than what were

pratyaya.

ntlavikalpanarfipa
nilasdrupyamasya pramanam
there is the appearancece
T. p. 22). At the first moment

N.
tvasya pramdnaphalam,
of the blue
(nilanirbhdsam

(paramdrthasat)and

th

ideational process,

or

with

to

the

pure

7)

acquaintance
this is real

and

the idea

"

this is

(pramanaphala)through
is regarded
sense,

and

sensation

Dharmakirtti

as

is

for

invalid
a

vikalpa-

of the moment
this is the

only

or
vikalpapratyaya
pramanaphala is the idea
though the latter is a product of the former, yet,

perceptionand

follows

it. But

give us the pure stage of the

(ksanasyaprdpayitumas'akyatvdt, N. T. 16).
sensation-presentation
N. T. "Nydyabindutlkd, N
Nyayabindu (Peterson's edition).

being the construction of succeeding

first moment

of

moments,

it cannot

x]

Yogacara Epistemology
The

Yogacaras

idealistic

or

above-mentioned

the

Sautrantika

come

into

what

is the

of

data

of

we

can

Buddhists

touch

with

take

Buddhists,

knowledge

411
their

and

and

say

cue

from

that

since

knowledge alone,

admitting an external world of objectsas

sensation
determining our
knowledge? You
say
sensations
are
copies of the external world, but why should
that

say

use

and

they copy,

into touch

with

that

not

objectsin

they

alone

themselves

exist?

; these

We

never

the
that
you

come

only be grasped
fore
thereby us simultaneously with knowledge of them, they must
be the same
as
knowledge (sahopalambhaniyamdt abhedo
for
it is in and
nilataddhiyoh)\
through knowledge that external
without
to us, and
objects can
knowledge we
appear
in touch

not

are

which

knowledge
such

with

then

much

by

if there

are

external

of

in

external

forms

of

of

powers

there

it is

be

to

The

is not

admitted

be

better

; for in such

ternal
ex-

question

should

objects,there
world

no

are

knowledge.

knowledge,

external

an

dreams

have

we

objectshave

diverse
infinitely

an

so

solved

tion,
assump-

possessingthe

as

diverselyaffectingand

determining

rather
be said that in
being so, it may
ledge-moments
beginningless series of flowing knowledge, preceding knowdetermine
by virtue of their inherent specificqualities
Thus
the succeeding knowledge-moments.
knowledge

knowledge

our

the

alone

; that

exists; the projectionof

knowledge brought
(vdsand)associated

with

succeeding one
pleasure,pain, etc.
soul

in which

blue

in

and

not

are

interpretedas
the

cognitions are

the

series continues

form

of

inhere,
Even

to

as

the

the

are

be

they

entity

the

same,

refer to

as

various
"

cognition,

in the

ously
errone-

Though

knower.

case

forms

perceivea

this is often

referringto a permanent
all passing and
momentary,

yet

so

of

one

long

as

person,

etc. can
recognition,
for these are evidentlyillusory
of the objects
the permanence

Devadatta, the phenomena of

happen in the succeeding moments,
far

but

knowledge, and

say

cognitions,so

illusion of

an

qualitiesrequiringa permanent

they may
knowledge appears.
but

is

by beginningless potencies of desire

it. The
preceding knowledge determines
and
that another
so
on.
Knowledge,

which

thing,"is

word

external

an

about

the

as

no

the

assumption

the

there

even

diversityin

the

that

acknowledge

objects,but
why

objects. So

that projectsitself in
self-apparentin itself,
jects.
to
as
referringto other external obappear

as

all

external

is

manner

We

so-called

the

can

memory,

Sahkara

The

412
believed

been

have

to

ceiver

or

knower,
the

knower

knowledge,

the
interprets
the

the

and

the

known.

off all references

brushes

idealism

things

ledge-moments,
know-

or

verdict

of

to

next

perthe

This

thoroughgoing
perience,
objective field of ex-

an

knowledge

involvinga

as

knower

and
considers
the
illusoryappearance,
of knowledge
flow
as
a
self-determining series in successive
schools of thought,
objectiveforms as the only truth. The Hindu
and

known

for

[ch.

destroyed the
There
is no permanent
entity as
at once
are
knowledge-moments

after their birth.

but

Vedanta

of

perceived before,
be, are
they may

whatever
moment

School

as

mere

and

Nyaya, Samkhya,
and

matter,

two.

With

the

and

which

was

the

after and

the

factors
proper

contact

brings

about

consciousness

it

considered

by Nyaya

as

indubitable

partly of

knowledge

of

nature

also

being were

consciousness

Thus

of instruments
into

comes

brings about
(bodhd) and

(bodhdbodhasvabhdvd).

of

this

other

indeterminate

bringing about
be perceived,but

in

fact that

the

definite

being.
ledge
know-

partly of

terial
ma-

in

perception the
with the object(e.g.
of the visual sense
jug) first
a non-intelligent,
non-apprehensible indeterminate
{nirvikalpd)as the jugness (ghatatvd)and this later

existence

course

into

came

the

between

practicalutilityof

the collocation

which

combining with the remaining

contact
etc. produces the determinate
factor

it

soul

important.

on

The

relation
the

not

was

in which

of instruments

consists

the

explain

duality of

only important thing,but

manner

unerring and

collocation

The

to

writers

is defined

Pramana

by

Hindu

accept the

Mlmamsa,

attempt

that

knowledge
knowledge
enquired

and

the

collocations

consciousness:
state

the determinate
its existence

of

sense-

this is

of consciousness

be

inferred from

as

consciousness,cannot
can

jug.
of
the

not
already in possession of the
perceiverwere
qualifyingfactor {visesanajhdnaas jugness) he could not have
comprehended the qualifiedobject {visistabuddhi)the jug (i.e.

the

if the

object

knowledge

which

possesses

of the

lihga takes

of

similaritywith

of

the

Buddhists

other

jugness).
part, and

In

inference
in

upamana

(anumdna)
the

sight

conglomerations. In the case

itself was
regarded as pramana;

material

knowledge

by those who admitted the existence of the objectiveworld,

called pramana,
because
of the same
it was
rightknowledge was
form as the external
objectsit represented,and it was by the form
of the knowledge (e.g.blue) that we
could
apprehend that the

even

xj

Nyaya

external

objectwas

external

world

world

towards

question how
the

the

with

external

world

called

pramana,

was

form

could

is

world

the

was

to

so

far

determine

the

about

ternal
ex-

our

the

convictions

it determines

as

our

form

yet it
like any

does

it

the

was

about

which

by

means

the

ganif)

with

other

the

as

Buddhists
of

collocations

in the

knowledge

was

but
other

result

of collocations

world.

Pramana

material

but

knowledge

pramana,

as

not

knowledge (anadhigatddhi-

new

demanded,

objectwas

the

whether

self

our

we

world.

external

how

question

happening
necessarilybring to us

not

of

important thing. Knowledge

the

associated

was

with

convictions

that knowledge was

generated in us, but could not understand
mere
a
phenomenon like any other objectivephenomenon,
thought that though as a guna (quality)it was external like
gunas,

The

pramanaphala.
little importance

could

{adhyavasdya)

answer

to

had

we

most

because

form

us

it is

generated

not

convictions

and

knowledge

convictions

sought

Nyaya

external

knowledge

how

but

it is pramana,

413

does

Knowledge

simply enforces our

far as knowledge leads

So

of the external

them,

also blue.

but

world.

attitude

Epistemology

whensoever

there

produced,

was

previouslyunknown

matter

no

known.

or

were

Even

the

of known

things may be repeated if there be suitable

collocations.
Knowledge like any other physical effect is produced
the cause
of it namely the pramana
collocation
whenever
is present. Categories which
such
class
are
as
merely mental

knowledge

(sdmdnya),inherence {samavdya), etc., were

much
as
independent existence as the atoms
The

conceived
colour

be

to

of the

collocation

of

(knowledge)
(sdmagrz) and
of

with

manas

confusion

thus

the

the senses,

to

be

the

impossible to understand
between
knowledge and
Nyaya

thus

combining

fails to

with
sciousness.
con-

than

by a certain
{phala). Jnana

united
of

(e.g.contact

of

element

about

result

it

objectiveworld.

of the

of movement

form

with

thus

was

the determinate

of certain

senses

having

turning

The

red.
to

certain

result

of the

the

brought
a

soul

the

in

produce

subtler

other

in

to

as

of the four elements.

as

believed

was

their movements

renders

black

movement

ended

distinction
of the

no

was

things

was

phenomenon

fire from

Such

molecular.

knowledge

object,etc.

the

There
the

consciousness

contact,

sense

rise of

much

as

jug by

indeterminate
the

of the

phenomenon

considered

collocations

manas

with

soul,

object,etc.).This
the real philosophical
an

external

explain

the

event
cause

Sahkara

The

414

School

Vedanta

of

[ch.

originof knowledge, and its true relations with the objective

world.
Pleasure, pain, willing,etc. were
regarded as qualities
which
belonged to the soul, and the soul itself was
regarded
which
could
be
not
as
a qualitiless
entity
apprehended directly
inferred
that in which
but was
the qualitiesof jftana,
sukha
as
Qualities had independent existence
(pleasure),etc. inhered.
of the

much

as

substances, but

as

when

produced, the qualitiesrushed

is very probable that in Nyaya

forward
the

substances

new

any
and

inhered

cultivation

were

in them.

of the

It

of inference

art

originally
pre-eminent and metaphysics was deduced
later by an
which
application of the inferential method
gave
the introspectivemethod
for its application,
but little scope
was

inference

that

so

jug

since

in to

came

it has

jugness) and
taken

experience was
the results arrived

material

of external

copy
the

But

events.

thing,devoid

of

of

it evident

made.
form

of the

thus

viz.

different

subtler
the

form

which

knowledge

different

itself,for

of which

from

the

element

the

with

the

objectswith

light of intelligenceis

the

same

from

which

objectswere
assumed

the

probably

was

elementary substances
in it another

was

element

This

substances
of

or

as

which

it

that

finds

comes

utterly
ligence
intelof

content

like

crowding,
its form

in touch.

its manifestation

in

This
in

all the
changeless entity amidst
fluctuations of the changeful processionof knowledge. How
this
of knowledge
element of lightwhich
is foreignto the substance

consciousness

as

the

"I,"

See

the

ment,
ele-

of

intelligenceis

illuminates
the
stationary light,"the self," which
is incessantlychanging
bustling knowledge which
accordance

the

the external

distinguishedit

the

being

translucent

as

touch,

in

same

once

and

copies those gross objects

the same
stances
subessentially

came

combinations.

material

is indeed

at

such

knowledge,
it

in

invisible

an

up, yet there

which
intelligence,
from

that

of the

made

was

had

as

of

matter

it

knowledge

consisted

grossness

fact that

combination

matter

and

criticize it1.

to

absolutelydifferent

then

even

knowledge

objects with

subtler

of which

the

that

though in a
But though

was

the

between

be

not

used

not

was

knowledge

as

weight

But

objectspossessed.
makes

; it

and

could

things,it

objectsthemselves

sort

far

so

is

testimony of personalpsychological
only as a supplement to corroborate
difference

the

perception(e.g.this

the

inference

by

at

understood

Samkhya

explain even

Nydyamanjari

on

pramana.

x]

Samkhya Epistemology
itself to

relates

knowledge, and

itself and

into

appears

how

knowledge

conscious, is

as

415

the

itself takes

it up

difficult

most

point

of the

Samkhya epistemology and metaphysics. The substance

of knowledge copies the external
world, and this copy-shape of
knowledge is again intelligized
by the pure intelligence
{purusa)
when
of

it appears

knowledge

is thus

and

knowledge)

conscious.

as

the

The

forming of

the

(instrument

pramana

buddhi-shape

and

of

process

the

validityor invalidityof any of these shapes

is criticized by the later shapes of knowledge and
not
by the
external objects{svatah-prdmdnya and svatah-aprdmdnyd). The
however

pramana
when

it is

with

buddhi

by

what

intelligized
by
by

not

be

may

the

to

prama

called

the purusa.

influence

transforms

between

distinction
and

did

due

to

its

all due

to

the

the

pure

and

akara

the

objects. Samkhya

external

the

that

world

copying, all stamped

as

and

it is the

to

Vacaspati

upon

of

into

make

not

any

(dkdrd)

knowledge

however

was

or

entity

its forms
of

same

of buddhi

regarded

such

in motion

transcendent

consciousness

agree

the

copying

admitted

according

but

contact.

sets

metaphysics, and

the

therefore

not

that

states
non-intelligent
did
Vijfianavadin Buddhist

The

consciousness.

physical contact

of purusa

touch

that

purusa

in touch

comes

purusa
of

(callit yogyata
according to Bhiksu) of

samyoga

who

The

inexplicabletranscendental

an

originalprakrtiin Samkhya

transcendent

right knowledge only

or

ordinary means

transcendental

It is the
the

lead

can

the

was

realist

forms

translucent

as

stance
sub-

the shape of the objects.

could
assume
(sattva)which
in this,that it did not
But Samkhya
also transcendentalist
was
of knowledge was
ledge
all that knowthink like Nyaya that the akara
had
which

Nyaya
the

to

show
forth

shone
there

; it held

was

in
no

and
intelligence,

that there

knowledge
distinction

that

being

was

and

between
so

transcendent

made
the

element

it conscious.

shaped

consciousness

was

buddhi
almost

With
and
like

far as the content

With
so
Samkhya however
physicalevent.
concerned
it was
and the shape manifested
in consciousness
were
element
indeed a physicalevent, but so far as the pure intelligizing
of consciousness
it was
concerned
a
wholly transcendent
was
affair beyond the scope
and
province of physics. The rise of
and physical.
both transcendent
consciousness
thus at once
was
The
Mlmamsist
Prabhakara
agreed with Nyaya in general

as

regards the

way

in which

the

objectiveworld

and

sense

con-

We

known.

the

"

in this

Pramana
the

of

phenomenon

prama
but

it

far

validityof knowledge
attitude that is generated
validityis

This

world.

it does

await

not

the

mana.
pra-

pramiti or

prama,

also

indeed

may

the

means

in

with

us

manifested
of

the

or

reference

with

verdict

the

conviction

the

to

rise of

the

specific
objective

knowledge,

later

any

experience in the
nirvikalpa (indeterminate)

as

the

objectand

not

class-notion

The

savikalpa(determinate)knowledge
knowledge thus formed
by relatingit with

the

called

as

hypotheticalindeterminate

non-sensible

holds.

as

Pramana

objective field (samvddin). Knowledge

the whole
means
knowledge of
a

be

reveals

For
they induce the prama.
or
produced, it always exists,
right knowledge is never
under
different circumstances.
manifests
itself differently
so

The

and

knower

which

knowledge

same

as

tions,
physical colloca-

should

that

is the

sense

the
itself,

with

it is

apprehension.

collocations

the

mean

be

may

[ch.

regarded knowledge

revealed

once

apprehension

direct

the

things

it

Vedanta

concerned

not

these

for whatever

at

are

of

But

us.

which

unique phenomenon
and

in

knowledge

induced

tact

School

Sankara

The

416

as

merely
Nyaya

only re-establishes
other

objects as

representedby memory1.
Prabhakara
rejectedthe Samkhya conception of a dual element
in consciousness
and
as
involvinga transcendent intelligence
(cit)
a

part, the buddhi

material

which

unique thing
and

knower

by

the known.

its faithfulness

upon

in

objects,but

external

has

(amMuti)

of

the
us

complete

self-revealing
aspects. But what
from
its self-revealing
character
declared

Kumarila

brought

about

by

the

consciousness
be

cannot

the

producing
Kumarila

non-sensuous

Samkhya

considered

consciousness, which, when

as

an

flash

one

force
to

that

action

and
the

all direct
in the

external

independent
knowledge

Prabhakara

apprehension
unit

in all its

in itself

was

did

world

apart

enquire.

not

movement

activityof the self which resulted in producing

of objectivethings. Jfiana itself
(jiidtata)

for

with

consciousness

jfiana(knowledge) was

can

Movement
was

that

perceived,but

necessary

regarded

represented both the

The validity
of knowledge did not depend
reproducing or indicating(pradarsakatvd)

upon

it

itself in

prompting

is thus

knowledge

; but

only be inferred as the

jftatataor consciousness
not

was

transcendent
nirvikalpa as
it became

mere

the dim

knowledge

clear at the next

moment,

of

things.

vibration,but

atomic

operation of

movement

which

of the
was

vibration

first moment

of

called savikalpa.

any

absolute

and

matter

could
the

as

there

be

basis

of

made

at

But

the

real.

anything

was

which

all.

had

Vedanta

of

enquiry
ultimate
That

be

and

the

the

most

[ch.
made

was

truth

which

question

could

all appearance,

philosophicalenquiry
Hindu

School

experience. But no
judgments about the

uncontradicted

the

Sahkara

The

418

knowledge

appeared
asked,

not

was

of

whether

regarded

was

whether

absolute

as

garded
re-

truth,

unchangeable reality.This
wonderful

charm

for

the

mind.
Literature.

Vedanta
It is difficult to

the time

ascertain

written, but since they contain

were

other

Indian

according
written

systems,
to

very

of the

even

the

when

refutation

I think

of almost

SunyavadaBuddhism

Safikara'sinterpretation),
they
early.

Brahma-sutras

it may

be

not

all the

(ofcourse
have

cannot

far from

the

been

truth

in

time in the second

written some
supposing that they were
century
revived
the period 780 A.D.
the monistic
About
B.C.
Gaudapada
the Mandukya
on
teaching of the Upanisads by his commentary
called Mandukyakarika.
His discipleGovinda
Upanisad in verse
the

was

teacher
the

on

forth

of

Sarikara

is the
and

A.D.). Sankara's

820

"

Brahma-sutras

of commentaries

host

(788

from

root

studies

Vedantism

on

originality,
vigour,and philosophicinsight. Thus
called
wrote
a
discipleof Sankara,
commentary
and

Govindananda

another

wrote

prabhd. Vacaspati Misra,

another

commentary

on

who

it called

the

about

sprang
of great

Anandagiri, a
Nydyanirnaya,
named

commentary

flourished

which

mentary
com-

841

RatnaA.D., wrote

Amalananda

Bhamatl.

his Kalpataru on
it,and Apyayadlksita
1260A.D.) wrote
(1 5 50 A.D.)son of Rangarajadhvarlndra of Kaftcl wrote his Kalpadiscipleof Sankara,
taruparimala on the Kalpataru. Another

(1247

"

Padmapada, also called Sanandana, wrote

the manner
known
as
Paflcapddikd. From
begun
on

end

the

would

whole

of the

expect that it was

to

Sankara's bhasya,

of

fourth

Madhava

sOtra.

be

but

in which
a

the

on

it

book

is

running commentary
abruptly at the

it ends

(1350),in

his

"ankaravijayay

ceived
interestingstory about it. He says that Suresvara reSankara's permission to write a varttika on the bhasya.
other pupils objected to Sankara that since Suresvara
was

recites

But

one

commentary

an

formerlya great

Mlmamsist

after his conversion

to

(Mandana

Vedantism)

he

Misra
was

not

was

called Suresvara

competent

to write

x]
a

Vedanta

good

vdrttika

treatise

but

this

on

called

419

the

bhasya. Suresvara, disappointed,wrote

tlka
Naiskarmyasiddhi. Padmapada wrote
a

burnt

was

Literature

in his uncle's

it,recited it from

house.

who

Sankara,

had

once

and

it down.
Padmapada wrote
(1200) wrote a commentary
on
Padmapada's Panas
capddikd known
Pahcapddikdvivarana. Akhandananda
wrote
his Tattvadipana,and
the famous
Muni
Nrsimhasrama
(1500)
his
wrote
it.
Amalananda
Vivai'anabhavaprakdsikd on
and
also
commentaries
wrote
Vidyasagara
on
Pancapddikd, named
Pahcapddikddarpana and
Pahcapddikatikd respectively,but
the Pahcapddikdvivarana had
by far the greatest reputation.
is generally identified
with
MadVidyaranya who
by some
hava (1350) wrote
work
his famous
Vivaranaprameyasamgraha1,
elaborating the ideas of Pahcapddikdvivarana ; Vidyaranya
excellent
also another
work
named
wrote
Jivanmuktiviveka on
seen

memory

Prakasatman

Vedanta

the

doctrine

of

emancipation. Sure"vara's (800A.D.)

excellent
work
pendent
Naiskarmyasiddhi is probably the earliest indeSarikara's
treatise on
philosophy as expressed in his
bhasya. It has been commented
by Jflanottama Misra.
upon
work
of great merit
known
another
as
Vidyaranya also wrote
Pahcadast, which is a very popular and illuminatingtreatise in
verse

the

on

main

written
commented

his

on
important work written in verse
teachings of Sankara's bhasya is Samksepasdriraka,
(900 A.D.). This has also been
by Sarvajnatma Muni
Sriharsa
(1190A.D.) wrote
by Ramatlrtha.
upon

Vedanta.

Another

Khandanakhandakhddya,

Vedanta
after

the

Citsukha, who

dialectic.

Sriharsa, wrote

probably

commentary

work

celebrated

most

flourished
also

it, and

on

the

on

shortly
wrote

an

Tattvadipika
called Nayanaprasddini written
which
has also a commentary
and
Misra
Raghunatha also wrote
by Pratyagrupa. Sankara
danta
Vework
A
on
commentaries
Khandanakhandakhddya.
on
of
epistemology and the principaltopics of Vedanta
known
merit
Vcddntaparibhasa was
as
great originalityand
independent

written

work

on

Vedanta

known

dialectic

as

by Dharmarajadhvarlndra (about 1550A.D.).

Ramakrsnadhvarin

ManiprabJid.
forms

principlesof
1

See

an

wrote

The

his Sikhdmani

on

Veddntaparibhdsd

with

expositionof

some

excellent
Vedanta.

Another

article
Narasimhacarya's

work

of

in the Indian

it and
these

son

his

Amaradasa
two

of the
supreme

His

taries
commen-

fundamental

importance

Antiquary, 191 6.
27

"

The

420

Sahkara

School

the

great

(though probably

last

of Madhusudana

AdvaitasiddJii

Vedanta

of
work

on

SarasvatI

who

[ch.

Vedanta)
followed

is

the

Dharma-

known
Gaudaas
rajadhvarlndra. This has three commentaries
and Siddhivydkhyd. Sadananda
brahmdncifidi,Vitthalesopadhydyl

Vyasa

also

wrote

Sadananda

dhdntasdra.

Veddntasdra

named

of it known

summary

also

wrote

which

has

Vidvanmanorafijini.The

and
Yati

much

though

touches
with

on

in other

bodha

Vedanta

well, as

also

Vedanta
The

subtle

doctrine

which

doctrines

of

of Ananda-

of

illusion very

drstisrstivdda,etc., with

great clearness.

by Apyayadlksita is very important as

divergent views of different writers on many

the

Veddntatattvadipikdand

interest.
well

as

as

in their

deep

Bhedadhikkdra

of Nrsimhasrama

important

an

work

above

The

works

is

the

on

only

which

on

the

It is useless
Vedanta

making
other

I think

thought

commentator.

sutras

some

than

There

is

first commented

were

held

the

form

half dozen

of

the

in the

regarded

been

as

danta
Ve-

based.

by

meaning

Brahma-sutras
of

to believe

reason

the

out

commentary

any

who

writers

have

of the

commentators

or

the Brahma-

that

There

of

without

Sarikara

Vaisnava

some

dualism1.

Vaisnava

system.

important

most

bring

to

upon

modified

be

Gaudapada.

attempt

to

points of
also good

are

is to

present chapter has

contained

as

reference

any

to

also

of

some

in

summary

dialectic.

Vedanta

list of

of the Vedanta

Muni

Vedanta

the

Siddhdntatattva

general summary

of

many

its relations

Siddhdntalesa
of

interest.

discusses

ajftanaand

of

nature

dealt

not

are

of Vedanta

of Prakasananda

points regarding the

cit,the

to

of the

it

important,as

Nydyamakaranda

important points

Veddntasiddhdntamuktdvali
the

Subodhi?ii
of Sadananda

is

interest

work

elementary

commentaries

Advaitasiddhi

to

treats

other

some

also two

works.

Bhattarakacaryya

excellent

an

A dvaitabrahmasiddhi

inferior

points of

many

Advaitasiddhisid-

as

been

more

Brahma-sutras

but also
only differed from Sarikara'sinterpretation,
themselves
in accordance
differed
with
the
largely amongst
the different aspects of
different degrees of stress they laid on
who

not

their dualistic
was

This

creeds.
the

only

Every
one

point will be dealt with

systems expounded by the Vaisnava

one

that
in the

of them
was

2nd

commentators

claimed

that

pretation
his inter-

faithful to the sutras

volume,

when

I shall deal

of the Brahma-sutras.

and

to

with

the

x]

Date

of the

the

Upanisads. Should
myself and claim that
additional

just one
myself inclined

view.

the

But

having

purport

same

in

Jacobi

Professor

of the

Hindus

found

in the

Brahma-sutras

vada

of

the

the
the

from

with

as

with

the works

was

the

of

the

of

contained

to

to be later

Buddhism

in

thanNagarholding that

Nagarjuna

the

Mahayana
Vacaspati Misra, we

and

better

were

Even

sutras.

find him

the
is

in the
; but

no

in such

the Prathat

to suppose

reason

to

so

I believe that the

philosophy of

known

quoting a

evolved

Sunyavada

concerned

less. There

no

as

regard to the Vijnanathe Sunyavada, but he regards

Vidyabhushana

are

the

than

work

references

in support of

Sunyavada
philosophy of Asvaghosa

jnaparamita
than

not

of

am

giving cogent reasons1.

date
of the philosophical

the

S. C.

the Brahma-sutras

the Brahma-sutras

of his arguments

the essentials

Tathata

the

only

be,

may

Yogacara system and the system of Nagarjuna

Prajnaparamita1. Nagarjuna's merit consisted

dialectical form
far

own,

regard to

the late Dr

be

of
interpretations

itself

that

are

interpretation

that

mentions

its

as

but with

composition of

I agree

juna.
both

which

shown

has

Vasubandhu,

one,

it would

faithful to the sutras

discussing

sutras

an

however

Vaisnavas,
(singularistic)
the

421

give

that the dualistic

of Sarikara.
interpretations
The
Srimadbhagavadgltd,
Ekanti

right

probably more

were

to

attempt
be

to

believe

to

Brahma-sutras

Brahma-sutras

the

Hindu

later times

writers
that of

as

of the Sdlistarnbha

passage

doctrine
of pratltyaof the Buddhist
give an account
samutpada3. We could interpretany reference to Sunyavada as
pointingto Nagarjuna only if his specialphraseology or dialectical

sutra

to

methods

were

referred

to

in

any

On

way.

the

other

hand, the

clearlypoints
Bhagavadglta to the Brahma-sutras
out a date
priorto that of Nagarjuna ; though we may be slow
such an early date as has been assigned to the Bhagato believe
vadglta
could
that its date
safelybe
by Telang, yet I suppose
reference

in the

placed so

far back

last part of the

thus
1

be

as

second

century

placed slightlyearlier

than

date

the

Brahmasutrapadatecaiva hetumadbhirvinisatah
in support of the view
that the Bhagavadglta is a

volume

of the

present work

"

of the

or

on

work

the

could

Bhagavadglta.
The

Bhagavadglta.

Vaisnava

in the section

B.C.

Brahma-sutras

The

B.C.

"

in the 2nd

first century

first half of the

the

will

Bhagavadglta

be
and

proofs

discussed
its

sophy.
philo-

Indian

Antiquary, 1915.
See Vacaspati Misra's Bhdmatl

on

Sankara's

bhasya

on

Brahma-sutra,

II.

ii.

I do
this

been

should

refer to

the

did

the

dealt

of

dualism

also the
seems

as

Hindu

inclined

Upanisads

Vaisnavas,

previous

who

had

worked

not

of

therefore

monistic

the

the

like. The

Upanisad
Upanisads
in

in

bold

systematic

the

karikas

reference

the

absolutist

by Gaudapada.
on
Gaudapada's

and

the

on

to

writer

Thus

the

at

karika, he

tried

the

crocodiles

of

rebirth, out

monistic

the

the

and

is

hardly

of
what

attainable

the

fession
con-

from

recovered

that

of

self
him-

not

makes

was

of

"he

his

mentary
com-

adores

by

by

of his
made
for all

kindness

Veda

to

significant
interpreted,

conclusion

says

dencies
ten-

very

did

of

Sarikara himself

(advaitd) creed

and

were

who

tator
commen-

monistic

seems

Upanisads

important

most

form

clear
It

other

any

Brahma-sutras

the

by Gaudapada,

Badarayana.

even

Veda,

it

form

some

like his

revived

manner.

people, by churning the great ocean

recovered
churning rod of wisdom
of

epicSamkhya

the

the

be

to

who

sages,

of

absolutist

an

seems

Mandukyakarika

by

in

system,

with

sympathies

that

out

fallingat the feet of that great guru (teacher)the adored

adored, who on findingall the people sinking in the ocean
dreadful

an

fact that

writer

think

to
was

formation

the

theist,than

other

no

that

the Vedas

the

Gaudapada

any

school, not

of any

Ekanti

as

to

am

Badarayana,

more

them

make

the

development.

the

the

of

writer

of

except

work

to

goes

explainsthe

that

the

that

also

result of this dualistic

after

formulate

This

and
"vetasvatara,

Sarikara.
man,

Brahma-sutras,

was

the

probably

dualists

already developing in the later days of

evidenced
by the dualistic tendencies of such

which

as

the

those

originallyregarded

know

by people

Upanisads,

It

of
for

with

the

Sarikara,
with

fact* that

the

Hindu

or

in accordance

were

not

of any

Gaudapada

as

on

attempted

monism

Upanisads

was

as

manner

was

was

I do

in conflict with

know

not

with

canonical

Gaudapada.

pure

coherent

the

come

[ch.

give an exposition of the

(apart from the Upanisads), either by writing
did Sarikara, or
by writing an independent

doctrine

as

combined

who

commentary

work

would

views

of the dualists.

it.

Gaudapada

monistic

as

work

Bhagavadgita,

to

monistic

Vedanta

do

we

Brahma-sutras

the

authoritative
the

that

commentaries

writing

that

show

such

ideas, when

monistic
had

held

that

of

interpretedthe Brahma-sutras

who

and

fact

supposition.The
who

School

evidence

of any

know

not

writer

Sahkara

The

422

his

great

lay deep in the heart

even
by the immortal

x]
gods1."

It

Buddhism

and

Gaudapada

423

that
particularlysignificant

seems

Sarikara

credit

and
not
Gaudapada
Badarayana with
the teacher
Upanisad creed.
Gaudapada was

teacher

of

Sarikara

; but

he

should

recovering
of

Govinda,

the
the

Sarikara
probably livingwhen
was
a student,for Sarikara
directlyinfluenced by
says that he was
his great wisdom,
and
also speaks of the learning,self-control
and modesty of the other pupils of Gaudapada2.
There
is some
dispute about the date of Sarikara, but accepting the date proposed

by Bhandarkar,
be

it to

yZ% A.D.3,and

Sarikara, Gaudapada

Pathak

and

Deussen,

suppose

that

in order

have

must

thus

was

been

flourished

after

that
the
Thus
says

he

possibly himself

was

to

on

goes

that

like the

that

found

he

great

Vasubandhu

and

A.D.

Buddhist
; and

for

thinking

considered

that

was

contradiction

that

that

there

agrees

with

being5.

In

IV.

shown

dictated

then

idesitd)

is

being

into
hold

is of

existents,whereas

being (Jdta) is of
who
quarrel with

non-existents

nor

Some

non-

them

liable to

are

non-coming-into-being{advayamajdtim).
that there is no
hold
who
coming into

one

19 of

that

others

are

the existents

those

that

{avivddah aviruddhascd).

it

in

coming

neither

and

being

has

He

"

quarrellingwith them
existents
(abhutasyd)\ there
say

who

him

adores

he

others

have

least 800

teach

(asparsayoga probably referring to

the good that produced happiness to all beings,
nor
neither
in disagreement with this doctrine

disputants hold

He

to

sky {gaganopamam4).

vacuous

of untouch

was

any

that

say

touch

the

Nirvana)

and

the

able

in his karikas

Buddhist,

be

teachings of the Upanisads tallied with those of Buddha.

at the beginning of the fourth
chapter of his karikas he
ledge
that he adores that great man
(dvtpaddm varam)who by knowwide as the sky realized (sambuddhd) that all appearances
as

{dharrnd)were

and

all

is sufficient evidence

that there

to

consider

may

livingtill at

Gaudapada
teachers
Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Asariga and
I believe

we

his karika

there

coming

no

was

again

he

says

being

into

Buddhas

the

that

in any

way

(sarvathd Buddhairajdtih paridipitah).

1
2
3

tesvara

have

Ankara's bhasya
Anandasrama

Telang wishes
would
lived

4
5

have

on

edition
to

him

Gaudapada'skarika,
of Sankara's

put Sankara's
in

only
years. J.
Compare Lankdvatdra,
p.

Gaudapada's karika,

date

805 A.D.-897

for 32

IV.

bhasya

29, Katham

2, 4.

on

Gaudapada's karika,
in the

somewhere

A.D.,

R. A.S.

as

edition, p. 214.

Anandasrama

he

did

not

believe

1916.
ca

gaganopamam.

p.

31.

8th century, and

that Sahkara

Venka-

could

Sankara

The

424

Again,
vddi),who

of

origination{jdti). In
know
he

be

to

that

says

These

the

IV.

of

name

Buddhas,

{dharmd)

were

adoration

which

it

he

90

the

said

by

knowledge.

He

the

in IV.

and

vacuous

{mukta)

Buddha

probabilityalso

work

is divided

and
of

spoken
which

we

98

and

by

nature.

99

the leaders

all appearances

that

closes

and

(vastu-

them

agraydna

to

one

in all

Gaudapada's

had

Again,

then

realists

deal with

Buddhas

pure

emancipated

not

was

could

refers

are

[ch.

for those

was

Mahdydna.

all appearances

first. It

know

that

says

Vedanta

of

they found things and

non-being, that the

since

afraid

were

he

in IV. 42

School

the

with

karikas

an

refers to the Buddha1.

into four

chapters: (1) Agama

(scripture),
(2)Vaitathya (unreality),
(4)Ala(unity),
(3)Advaita
tasanti (the extinction
of the burning coal). The
first chapter is
in

more

virtue
The

the

of

of

way

which

the

fourth

second, third,and

of

work

entire

Gaudapada's work,

Mandukya
Upanisad by
known
as
Mdndukyakdrikd.

the

explaining

is

the

chapters are

constructive
with

connected
particularly

not

parts

the

dukya
Man-

Upanisad.
In

first

the

chapter Gaudapada

manifestations
external

world

of the

while

awake

are

we

self:

begins with the three apparent

(1) as the experiencer of the
{visva or vaisvdnara
dttnd),

state
(taijasadtmd),(3)as the
experiencerin the dream
called the prdjha when
there
experiencer in deep sleep(susupti),
is no determinate
and
knowledge, but pure consciousness
pure

(2) as

bliss

the

He

(anandd).

attached

to

his

theories

of

creation

who

knows

these

experiences. Gaudapada
:

think

some

that

three
then
the

as

is

one

enumerates

world

has

never
some

proceeded

consider
others
(vitalactivity),
creation as an
from which
of that cause
it has
expansion {vibhuti)
proceeded ; others imagine that creation is like dream
(svapna)
and
magic (mdyd); others, that creation proceeds simply by the
as

creation

will of the Lord

from

the

; others

is for the

enjoyment of
(kriddrtham),for such
he
in

creates, but he
a
1

state

prana

proceeds from time ; others that it

for his play only
the Lord
or
(bhogdrtharri)
is the nature
(svab/idva)of the Lord, that
that

it

have

cannot

any

longing,as

all his desires

are

of fulfilment.

Gaudapada's karika,

IV.

100.

In

my

translation I have

not

followed

bahkara,

for he

has I think tried his level best to explain away

the most
obvious references
even
and Buddhism
to Buddha
in Gaudapada's karika. I have, therefore,drawn
my meaning
as
directly
Gaudapada'skarikas seemed to indicate. I have followed
in givingthe short exposition
of Gaudapada's philosophybelow.

the

same

principle

The

426

Sahkara

School

of

Vedanta

[ch

of

the one
or
unity; all imagination either as the many
(advayd)
is false ; it is only the oneness
{advayatd) that is good. There
is no many,
nor
are
thingsdifferent or non-different {na ndnedam
ment,
attach...na
prthag ndprthak)x.The sages who have transcended

fear,and
Vedas

appearance

and

third

the

and

death, coming

howsoever

it be

akasa.

All

the

upon

by

and

birth

also

conceived,

as

it is all the

while

its

death,

suffer

nature

own

all this manifold

change.
is but

mind

it3. One

upon

different

not

compounded

as

appear

is like the

truth

the
as

appears

but

are

distinction
is

no

result of

from

dreams

it cannot

birth.

All

tion
imposi-

an

in the

many

; but

imposed

immortal,

It has

birth

dream,

but when
the
as
waking state one
appears
many,
activityof the Togins (sages)is stopped arises this fearless

mind

in the

state, the extinction

to

be

all desires

mind

not

distracted

when

it stops.

Thinking

all. He

its final dissolution

should

thing
every-

not

awaken

pacify it
diverse objects

{layd) and

it towards

move

should

and by
pleasure(sukhaiti)
unattached, by strong effort making it motionless
should

He

still. When

he

; when

Brahman.

final cessation.

production at

any

; he

remain

traction

see

(citta)into

when

wisdom

of all sorrow,

anusmrtyd) one should stop

misery (dukkham sarvam
and
enjoyments, and thinking that nothing has any

birth he should

and

and

of all

taking part in
existingin all bodies

(magic). Duality is a
The
truth
(advaitd)by maya.

of maya

the

that

maya

one

therefore

going

things that

and

(svapna)

of the

gone

chapter Gaudapada says

is falselyconceived
as
(dkdsd) which

void

so

have

beyond the depths

perceived it as the imaginationlesscessation
{nirvikalpahprapancopasatnah),the one2.

have

In

and

anger

neither

there

When

is

there

being,the unproduced
In the fourth

not

taste

any

dissolution

into

passes

that
sign,no appearance
is no
object of knowledge

no

is then

the

into

is the
to

come

dis

perfe"
inl

omniscent

(sarvajna).
Alata^anti,Gaudapada furth"

called

chapter,called

nor

the

etc.
andndrtham,
Compare Madhyamikakdrikd, B. T. S., p. 3, anekartham
Compare Lankdvatdrasutra,
78,
Advayasamsdraparinirvdnavatsarvadharp.
mdh
tarhi
tasmdt
mahamate
yogah karaSunyatdnutpddadvayanihsvabhdvalaksane
vijUdndnam
niyah ; also 8, 46, Yaduta
svaciitavisayavikalpadrstyanavabodhanat
2

vdlaprthagjandh bhdvdbhdvasvabhavapara-

svacittadrSyamdtranavatdrena mahamate
bhavanti.
mdrthadrstidvayavadino
8
Compare Nagarjuna'skarika,

dhyaydh putra
karika,
mdydya

in.

eva

ca

28, Asato

vdpijayate.

B.

T.

S., p.

196, AkaSam

may

ay

janma

talvato

naiva

Safah-ngaiica ban-

kalpand, with Gaudapada's

jay ate bandhydputro na tattvena

asantaScdbhivyajyanietathdbhdvena

x]

Gaudapada

describes
without
form

final state1.

this
death

of argument
thus:

(effectin

All

which

Those

reminds
who

unproduced
eternal

yet changing?

from

that

with

which

such

that

the

phala)}

and

without

itself

cause

vatah), and

thus

said

have

to

dependent
would

be

look

we

come

to

is

others

reasons,

none

of the
all

at

but

truth

realityor

that

not

which

it

suffers any
its

in

both

look

touch

be

to

with

from

objectswhich

appear

the

who

reallytraversing the

reason

is

but

false

imposition

The

very

karika, B. T. S.
2

The

use

Buddhistic.
dharmah."

Alatasanti

name

p. 206, where

of the
The
Dharma

word

Hindu

he

sense

the
the
is

in any

be

of

{cittd)
from

particular

objectswhile

of
an

error,

for in
with

in touch

comes

diverse

tions.
manifesta-

quotes

by

the

vacuity.

verse

is the

then

sense

from

Compare

unborn

is

absence

of

Nagarjuna's

the Sataka.

of appearance
"

given by Jaimini,
injunctionsof the

the

the

Since

absolutely Buddhistic.

is that

is determined

nor

essence

in the

dharma

view

different

not

be

manifest

thereby

of their

to

mind

The

to

there

by it are
objectsseen
perceivethem to suffer production are
of vacuity {khe),for all production

on

being born,

perceived as

said

never

reason

mind

the

neither

be

mind

by

Those

produced.

the

suffer. When

we

reasons.

objects and

it could

that

future

ever

cause,

{svabha-

they seem
the point of

manner

them

at

cease

present, past, and

Therefore

no

(hetu

vanish, and

would

do

only

is

nature

(samklesd)that

connected

reasons

so

effect

birth,neither

own

they

exist

conclusion

Nothing is born
either
being, non-

for since

not

right
and

case

their

sider
con-

we

itself suffered

has

things do not exist they are

It is not
manifestations
in knowledge.
that the mind
produces the manifestations

them,

can

no

afflictions

we

in

example

no

effect.

no

; call

for otherwise

when

come

into

come

beginning anywhere cannot

production. All experience (prajnapti) is

things
the

has

is

effect there

of

called

it be

can

karyya
as
truly

cause

Nor

cause

the

to

there

cause

through

or

on

dependent,
does

one

being-non-being,nothing
the effect is produced out

nor

be

which

of

the

things

illustrated.

infinitum

to

that

that

reference

reference

by

being,or

Without

the

from

can

ad

consider

be

dialectical

(cause)as

production,there

may

again

regressus

karana

production ; how

no

is born

follows

Nagarjuna. Gaudapada

If it is said

has

case

How

and

either

anything

production.
about

which

427

(appearances) are

then
of

cannot

(aja),for it suffers

being

dharmas

us

regard

potential form)

and

the

decay2. Gaudapada

or

continues

Philosophy

or

entity is peculiarly

Codanalaksanah
Vedas.

arthah,

Sahkara

The

428

School

of the

Vedanta

of

[ch.

of absence

production it
could never
Everything has a beginning and
change its nature.
false. The
existence
of all things is like
end and is therefore
an
a
magical or illusoryelephant {mayahasti) and exists only as far
production,for

as

merely

it

it

being

of

the appearance

is related

or

appears

nature

of

experience. There
and things,but

to

production,movement

is thus
the

one

knowledge (vijiidna)is the unborn, unmoved, the unthingness

the
of
movement
(sdntam). As
(avastutva),the cessation
is perceived as straightor curved, so it is the
burning charcoal
(spanditd)of consciousness
and the perceived. All the

movement

curved)
does

imposed

are

not

upon
them.

We

between
to

in

could

any

consciousness

be

demonstrated
the
be

the

neither

things, so

neither

are

(atta),nor

is the

mind

of

thinks

samsara.

things

when

that

is not

as

thing

which

is not

which
from

all

the

mind

long

as

cycle of

the

there

ceases

not

are

So

suffer

to

notion

regarded

fore
there-

are

appearances.

has

that

relation

thing,but

those

produced

effect he

possess

causal
which

and

nor

produced by
and

cause

of

not

(acintyd). A

which

appearances

{samsdra), but
All
things are

existence

unthinkable

of that

cause

are

kind

thing (dravya\

do

realitythey

posed
im-

are

appearances

its appearance,

and
as

of

cause

appearances

one

indicate

ceiving
per-

(e.g.straightor
fire,
though in realityit

all the

consciousness, though
never

the

as

appears

attributes

charcoal
also

so

the

(dravyd) is
a
thing may
the

them

possess

the

upon

that

is

no

from

being produced

relative

point of view only {samvrti),there is therefore nothing

(sdsvatd).Again, no existent things are produced,
permanent
hence
there cannot
be any
destruction
(uccheda).Appearances
{dharmd) are
produced only apparently, not in reality;their
into

coming

All

exist.

seeds of

being

in

and

dreams,
That

appearances.
relative

point of
mdrtha), for the
relative

exist,do

are

exist;

but

thoughts

in

magic, men

of

neither
are

again

maya

does

magic coming
eternal

born

and

out

not

of

tible.
destruc-

nor

die,so

are

all

existingfrom an imaginary
view (kalpitasamvrti) is not so in reality
{parain all
existence
depending on others,as shown

they

with

as

appears

is after all not

exist,do

that

not

therefore

or

that

shoots

like

not

which

appearance,
not

and

maya,
are

appearances

magic

As

is like

are

which

exist

and

moving
fools

are

not
or

real existence.

exist,and

steady,or
deluded.

That

neither
none

of

things

exist

nor

those, are

x]

Vedanta
It is

obvious

so

Madhyamika
the

that

these

doctrines,as

to

Sunyavada and
held good of the ultimate

these

It is immaterial
are

we

whether

he

that he had

sure

teachings which
smallest
Upanisads

he

the

to

that

he

that

the

preached by

Hindu

or

highestrespect

believed

be

to

comment

upon,

the

Buddhist,

great Buddhist

studies

guaranteed

of

truth

Buddhist

on

for the Buddha

in detail

Vedanta

and

philosophy

Gaudapada took
he
probably because
tions
by the textual limita-

and

unspeakable

the

called

also

Mimamsa

(decision)of

the

as

claims

the

previous

them

on

attained

wonderful

now

in

the

Brahma-sutras

these

mentary

as

part of the

interpreted
differently

also

on

account

on

of the

to be mentioned
,

intended

the

com-

have

subtle

and

of the association

of the

great is the influence

of the

account

So

of

sutras

views

both
celebrity,

the

and

expressed in the earliest

available,written by Sankaracarya,
the

ideas it contains,and

expositionsare

distinguished

Purvamimamsa
were

the

or

Vedas

and elaborated
philosophy propounded by Sankara
we
speak of the Vedanta
followers,that whenever
the philosophy that was
propounded by
we
mean
other

be

to

Uttara-Mlmamsa

the

illustrious personalityof Sankara.

"

left

was

explain.

which

the later part of the Vedas

incorporated

by different exponents,

deep

and

it

(788-820 A.D.).

philosophy

sometimes

of

Mimamsa

Jaimini.Though

examine

to

the

Upanisads

views

Gaudapada's

Sankara
is the

far the

of

the

therefore

Brahmanas

of

How

of the

philosophy taught in the Upanisads and

of Badarayana. The Upanisads
in the Brahma-sutras
last part of the Veda
literature,and its philosophy is

exposition of

from

truth

the

Vedanta

form

and

his.

indefinable

lines.

the great Sankara,

disciple,

summarized

long

so

give his opinions unrestricted

His
the bigger ones.
main
emphasis is on the truth
realized to be perfect. He
only incidentallysuggested

Upanisad

the

it is

Upanisads.

vijnana or vacuity would hold good of the highest atman

of a revival
Upanisads, and thus laid the foundation

for his

and

that

Lankavatdra,

to

of

the

Nagarjuna's karikas

in

truth

was

the

for the

wished

from

it.

prove

Buddhist

as

found

borrowed

are

in the

as

429

Gaudapada assimilated all the

and thought that
Vijnanavada teachings,

to

attempt

doctrines

found

Vijnanavada doctrines,

needless

Sankara

and

names

of the

by

his illustrious

philosophy
Sankara.

exponents

Ramanuja-mata,Vallabha-mata,etc.).In
(e.g.

If
have
this

School

Sahkara

The

430

of

Vedanta

[ch.

chapter we shall limit ourselves to the expositionof the Vedanta

philosophy as elaborated by Sahkara and his followers. In Santhe Brahma-sutra
and the ten
on
kara's work (the commentaries
been
ideas have
brieflyincorporated which as
Upanisads) many
to be sufficiently
in Sahkara do not
found
clear,but are
appear
more

elaborated
as
intelligible

better

to take

but

elaborated

as

they

that

Nydya

foundation

however

sutras

but

are

of

In

is

the

did

in order

in

but

of

Vedas

and

Hindus.

Sahkara could only show

the

then

right one,

Mimamsists,

the

be

in the

opponents

held

who

be

the

in

inventor

interpreted the
existed

and

regarded

or

sutras

connected

infallible

as

also
were

by

the

that his

way

of

that

the

accomplishing
did

Vedas

his task

were

preach

not

any

there
in the Vedas
was
to
was
philosophy, for whatever
for performing this
to
us
interpretedas issuing commands
that action.
They held that if the Upanisads spoke of Brahman

demonstrated

and

the

of

kind

some

Sahkara
in the

be

not

and

the

the

the

could

worship
not
deny

Brahmanas

by

to

of

could

was

Mlmamsa,

purport

of

of its pure

nature

exaggerations intended

Brahman
that

salvation.

the

He

for

performing

form.

attractive

more

mandatory

or

mere

were

purport of the Vedas

nature

found

as

as

clared
de-

he

of

the

said

Absolute
that

which

the

karmaka:

da

by

in the

of the

certainlyof a mandatory
anxious
ordinary people who were
was

of

be

sought to prove that such could

Upanisads, which spoke of the truest

but

(sacrificial
injunctions)Brahmanas
the Vedas

into

explicitlyof

highest knowledge

attain

these

essence,

put the commandment

the

expositionof them
philosophy being founded upon the
The
most
accepted by all Hindus.

his

highest authority would

formidable

thus

were

the

Upanisads,

was
Upanisads which
Badarayana. The Upanisads

part of the

was

of

case

the

sutras

If

the

summary

to

that there

in the

enunciated

declare

openly

condensed
claim

not

to show

systematic philosophy

and

is available.

original system,

an

Upanisads

the

an

whom

Sahkara,

philosophy.

original source
extremely

Sahkara

form.

systematic
expounder
and

the

of

find it in

we

thought,the sutras (Jaimini

only originaltreatises,and no

the

these

than

as

It is therefore

of

systems

etc.)are

sutra,
other

Vedanta
the

Hindu

other

not

system,

their master's

to

followers.

followers,all

his

by

true

are

the

For

sutra,

the Vedanta

up

his

by

Vedas

nature,
for this

"

as
or

wise
"

the

the purport of
it was
that

intended

pleasure,

x]

Sankara

and

were

had

actuated

never

truth,but

the

controlled

the

their

intended

were

for two

of

knowing

intended

were

become

universe.

classes

of

wise
all

to

who

earthly

Brahman

parts of the Vedas

two

Sankara

persons.

absolute

the
the

for

disinclined

The

43

Absolute, Unchangeable,

one

of the

Upanisads

desire

any

and

senses

the

Truth

only

by

the

Upanisads, which

joys, demonstrated
as

and

did

thus

not

begin by formulating a philosophy of his own

by logicaland
psychologicalanalysis,
induction,and deduction. He tried to show
ence
by textual comparison of the different Upanisads, and by referthe

to

concerned

were

understood
the

of

content

in

demonstrating
their

it)as

uncontradicted

of the

view

ultimate

he

held.

referred

texts

Samkhya.

the

to

had

He

had

and

also

of

had

they
(as he

show

to

that

Upanisads was in favour

explain all doubtful and
that

of the

none

of

mahat, prakrti,etc.

interpretthe
physics,cosmology, eschatology,etc.

about

thus

to show

also

doctrines

of Brahman

He

to

that

Upanisads,

nature

end.

He

apparently conflictingtexts,

the

of all the

testimony

which

the

in

passages

few

to

that

the

scattered

ideas

found

in the

are

Upanisads consistentlywith the Brahman

philosophy. In order
that the philosophy of the Upanisads as he expounded it
to show
was

could

his opponents
criticize the
be

system, he had

consistent

and
self-contradictory,

wrong.

This

he

than
did

which

subordinate
it lent

to

Upanisad texts,

that

either

in

all
had

the

the

were

any

of
interpretation

the

to

the
in

prove

value

Upanisads
all,and

to

the

never

in rational

Brahman,

topics. Many

and

the

world

problems

of

of appearance

great

the

was

accept the

in great

contradicted

other

that

systems

They

erroneous.

and

contradicted
un-

truth.

absolute

thought, and
and

aid

purport of the

showed

was

Nyaya
categories which
and
self-contradictory

us

the

moreover

philosophy
or

as

for

supplemented his philosophy by constructinga Vedanta

ology, and by rethinking elaboratelythe relation of
the

and

inconsistent

was

gave,

its main

perceptual experience

put forth

to

of
interpretations
persuading the mind

Brahman

realistic

them

consistent
and

philosophy,to

bhasya on the Brahma-sutras

the Upanisads. Logic with him

on

place, as

Brahman

in his

only

testimony of
disciplesfollowed him

detail

he

objectionsthat

schools,to

that

which

also in his commentaries

had

His

all other
show

to

that

not

all the

remove

regarding the

philosophiesof

Upanisads, other
but

make

to

other

also

epistemthe

maya,

relevant

philosophicalinterest

which

had

left out

been

slightlytouched

or

and

reasonings
philosophical
for

aids

but

as

convincing
revealed

faith in the truth

logicis

of the

instructions

the

remembered

is

Malabar

the
a

used

logicgone

incarnation

Benares

he

wrote

Sahkara,

of

Siva.

travel

all

schools

It is regarded

India

thought

he advised
and

went

but

him

him

travelled in various
he established

acquired

his

defeat

to

Kumarila

into

then

then

the

then

and

came

over

that

in his twelfth

Upanisads.

ten

on

forth

he

decided

adherents

at the

the

residingin

It is said

to

of other

first went

to

point of death, and

defeated

He
disciple.

follower of his

ascetic

an

year

It is said that he

was

Kumarila's

to meet

converted

this time

debate.

in open

eighth

the Brahma-sutra

from

in order

been

He

his commentaries

and

miracles

have

to

sage

in

A.D.

Sivaguruwas

Badarikasrama.

on

800

Many

in his

renowned

to

bhasya

Benares,

to

is believed
ascetic

and

father

of the Narbuda.

he also wrote

on

over

of

he

turned

thence

Kumarila,

meet

He

his illustrious

returned

He

and

the banks

on

and

Later

year.

Taittiriyabranch.

of

cell

mountain

to

of

the

His

for upsetting

the Sankara-

as

700

Deccan.

discipleof Govinda,

the

between

born

was

of

astray. Many

such

in the

Brahmin

related

became

he

country

Yajurvedi

are

that

certain

almost

taken

work

true

Sahkara-jaya,etc.
digvijaya,Sankara-vijaya-vildsa,
as

be

to

The

Logic

in Sanskrit

written

that

strengthening our

Upanisads.

Upanisads

Sarikaracaryawere

lives of

and

accept them.

to

discussed

always

are

intellect

our

[ch.
were

be

always

criticisms

in the

mind

the

adapt

to

Vedanta
Sahkara

by

it should

But

his followers.

fullyby

of

School

Sahkara

The

432

own.

Mandana

He

then

places,and defeatinghis opponents everywhere

Vedanta
philosophy,which from that time forth

dominant

influence

in

moulding

religiouslife of

the

India.

Sahkara

carried

the

on

by writing commentaries
siitrasX.nz"

to

intended

was

there

is

other

rival

main

(Isa,Kena,
yaka,

and

the

teacher

Upanisads

ten

absolutist creed

preached

in the

he

was

on

the

works

Katha,

of

Sarikaraare

the

and

Chandogya), and

on

one

which

the Brahma-

Brahma-surras,

contending against some

which

held

cosmology

(bhasya) on the ten Upanisads

Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya,Brliadaran-

his commentaries

Prasna, Mundaka,

and

the Brahma-

and

was

Upanisads

commentary
that

Gaudapada

interpretationsof a dualistic tendency

Upanisads partly favoured the Samkhya

the
The

be

Throughout his
ample evidence

sutrasx.

that

to

the

on

that

prove,

of his

work

the Brahma-sutra.

Sahkara

The

434

As

particularconclusion.

sutras

except

second

book

Upanisad

devoted

Vedanta

and

creed

[ch.
of these

the

to

first two

the

textual

Sarikara'smethod

passages.

Vedanta

of

explained by Sarikara, most

first four

the
are

School

to
proving the Vedanta
be a consistent
system of metaphysics, complete in all parts, but
the Upanisad texts
in so interpreting
that they all agree
as to show
in holding the Brahman
that alone
be the
to be the self and
to
II Sahkara tries to
answer
only truth. In Chapter I of Book

of the

some

point of

does

not

objectionsthat
against his

view

difficulties

apparent

consist

chapters of the
of the
interpretations
of explaining the absolutist

of

be

may

absolutist
the

in

made

creed

absolutist

from

and

the
show

to

doctrine

that

did

not

some

present

refute
II
Chapter II
the Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisesika, the Buddhist, Jaina,Bhatwo
chapters and
gavata and Saiva systems of thought. These
real

any

of Book

Samkhya

In
difficulty.

his commentaries
of his system.
that

the

with

first four

the

on

The

of

conclusion

the

the

is

sutras

Upanisad doctrines.

of the revealed
be

known

reasonable
shows

So
and

right is again proved

is

final

no

argument
used

of the

bound

to

its

the

of

system

view

From

vindicate

ultimate

to

his

the
own

rationalitybut

the

on

truth

never

only

another

to

what

be
he

by logic

only be

thus

not
can-

debater.

arrive

can

and

shows

false,and

by

can

truth

judgment

are

founc
all

discovery of the real purpoi

thi
not
positionSarikara was

positionof

metaphysics.

be

we

discrimination

reason,

only with
Upanisads.

rational

The

alone.

Upanisads;

which

certaintyto

debater

be false

to

Sarikara

ultimate

one

to

ing
in show-

rightunderstanding

The

shows

points

considered

was

the

to

What

expert debater

main

in strict agreement

with

value

Upanisads.

alone.

reason

more

to be

in the
he

by

there

the
scriptures,

the

always

Reason

the

tries to

mainly occupied

was

premier position; its

secondary, only so far as it helped one

occupied

contain

sutras

of the work

rest

he

the

For

Vedanta

its truth

authorityof

the

as

did

thoroughly

depend

not

But

Upanisads.

on

what

experience. If therefore Sarikara's

of the Upanisads was
not
tradict
contrue, then it would
interpretation
that
therefore
bound
to show
experience. Sarikara was
true

was

his

could

contradict

not

rational

was
interpretation

If he

could
that

show
was

contradictions

that

his

faithful to
with

and

did

not

contradict

experience.
only interpretation

the
was
interpretation
the Upanisads, and
that

experience

could

in

some

way

its
be

apparent

explained,

x]

Sankara!
that he had

he considered

Interpretation

to do.

nothing more

435

He

writing
of the term, but giving us the
a
sense
truth as taught and
whole
revealed
in the Upanisads and
not
simply a system spun by a clever thinker,which may erroneously
to be quitereasonable,
Ultimate validity
does not belong
appear
but to the scriptures.
to reason
philosophy in the

started

He

not

was

modern

the

with

be the reason
premise that whatever
may
it is a fact that all experience starts and moves
in an error
which
identifies the self with the body, the senses, or the objectsof the
All cognitiveacts presuppose
this illusory
senses.
identification,
for without

self

pure

can

behave

phenomenal
a
perceiverthere would
cally
try to prove philosophi-

never

and without
such
perceiver,
does not
cognitiveact. Sankara

knower
be

it the

or

no

the

self unattached

the pure

with

This

him

to

is

self

pure

he is satisfied in

things,for
truth.

of the

existence

kind

any

of

distinct

as

that

showing

as

from

all other

the

Upanisads describe
impurity as the ultimate

to which

exception can be
taken, for it is so revealed in the Upanisads. This point being
granted,the next
point is that our experience is always based
upon an identification of the self with the body, the senses, etc. and
of pleasure,
the impositionof all phenomenal qualities
pain,etc.
is a beginninglessillusion.
the self; and this with Sankara
upon
Sankara
All this had been said by Gaudapada.
accepted Gaudapada's conclusions,but
proof of his thesis. He
refutation

thought
idea

of
that
in

was

showed

other

did

not

Upanisads

held

to

prove

For,

magic

mere

that

if the

the

show

self is what

is that all else is

quarrel on
with

the

one

side with

Samkhya

is
mere

the

do

than

the

was

could

it appears
or

maya.

but

to

Upanisads. He
self as pure being,

not

Mlmamsa

realists,both

be real.

Sankara

accepts it

or

maya.

as

This

It must
tries

never

indisputable.
clusion
con-

necessary

had

He

realists and

of whom

truth.

ultimate

ultimately real, the

illusion

that his

show

the

the pure

that

bliss

is maya,

This

teachingsof

of illusion

world

to

positive
only for the
he
being done
a

dialectic

thought.

more

the

and
intelligence
pure
world
the
as
being accepted
be

of

dialectic for

of the

use

with

pure

no

develop his

made

nothing

agreement

that the

matter

systems

had

he

on

accepted

thus

the
the

to

other

validity

The
in their own
but interpretedthem
way.
scriptures,
is to be
Mlmamsists
held that everythingthat is said in the Vedas
as
interpreted
requiringus to perform particularkinds of action,

of the

28"2

or

doing

from

to desist

School

certain

kinds.

other

containinginjunctionsfor the

implies that

it

be

nature

which
lead

is identical

could

that

Upanisads

not

meditation

but
the

worship

or

wisdom

him

on

that

of

performance

and

duties

truth

and

transcended

who

had

no

of

the

his

that

and

Veda

etc., belonged
that

to

they had
the Upanisads. They
duties). When
they
which

know

the

of

wisdom)

was

thus

inclined

led

truth
and

the

or

when

self

the

was

parts of the Vedas,

the

injunctionsrelating
intended

actions),were

teachings of
the

the

nature

for inferior

Upanisads,
of

ultimate

superioraspirantswho

of sacrificial duties

those

and

right to

no
were

but

follow

should

who

order.

deeds, such

Vedic

So

long

follow

karmins

succeeded

alone, they

had

reserved
to

required;

was

emancipation

other

for

Brahman.

actions,and

as

they

the

the
as

tions
injunc-

sacrifices

remained

in

higher teachings o
(performers of scriptural

of all
purging their minds
them
to the performance of the Vedic
tions,
injunckarmamarga (the path of duties),and wanted

field of

the

kind

any

would

point was

the

as

meditates.

so

his main

Brahman

the

only

perform

lower

order

desires

as

upon

earthlyblessingor for any heavenly

the Bhagavadgltd Sankara
on
commentary

demonstrate

to

not

for any

desire

joy. Throughout
tried

limits

the

For

declare

intended

were
reality),

had

to

which

jflanakanda (those

who

and

the

whereas
types of aspirants,
the

of

Brahman,

procedure

man

of

action

or

reality.The teachings of the

karmakanda
(those dealing with

the

of

does

meditated

highest truth

ultimate

to

be

view.

the

absolute

the

to

such

to

revealed

dawned

truth

the

kinds

Upanisads

self;such

our

results

agree

reached

one

with

beneficial

to

Sankara
the

interpreted

of certain

of the nature

that

mean

described
there, i.e. Brahman
particularnature
meditated
as
being an entity which possesses
upon

should

No

in the

should

Brahman

would

the

possessing

then

the

[ch.

also be

performance

descriptionof Brahman
therefore represent a simple statement
but

This

should

The

actions.

Vedanta

of

of the Veda

Upanisads being a part

the
as

Sankara

The

436

no

for

duties

in

entered
to

advanced

ordinary joys
The

the

jftanamarga (the way

study of Vedanta
perform.
who
were
no
longer
persons
The

of

life

but

wanted
for

complete
intending

a man
qualifications
emancipation.
necessary
to study the Vedanta
are
(1)discerningknowledge about what is
clination
eternal and what
is transitory(nitydnityavastuvivekd),
(2) disinof
to the enjoyment of the pleasures of this world
or

x]

Sankara

the

after

faith

{ihamutraphalabhogaviraga),
(3) attainment

(Jamadamadisadkanasampat) and
The

{mumuksiitvd).
study

the

the

have

When

the

force

him.

of wisdom

path

had

soon

as

was

or

adhikarins.

dualists

he

tried to

There

became

the

all

of the

he

that

the

attained

self alone

injunctionsceased
duties

of

path

intended
could

convinced

the Brahman

maya,

Thus,

for salvation

should
qualifications

realized

man

(jnana) were

persons

he

of

concentration

desire

these

self and

all else

with

who

the

once

realityand

any

as

identityof

emancipation.
the

person

Upanisads, and

about

truth

was

437

self-restraint,
renunciation, patience,deep

peace,
and

world

Interpretation

to

and

{karma)

for different classes

be

of

jointperformance of
Vedic
duties and the seeking of the highest truth as taught in
the Upanisads (jnana-karma-samuccayabhdvah). As against the
kind

of dualistic

the Vedanta
Sankara

of

former

in

and

interpretationof
remarkable

hidden

Buddhist

Hindu

thought

the

and

and

His

raised

could

has

may

close

build

than

by

but

based
these

discussed

by

Vedanta
As

as

these

will

be

to

subsistence
names

and

an

or

and

is

did

and

coherent

forms,

which

have

these

one

system

later

from

dissolution

pretations
inter-

raise

without

cause

doctrines,but
not

in the

"the

Vedanta

These

Sankara.

Sankara

in

of Sankara'

Sarikara's

with

discussed

Sankara

garded
re-

system

treatment

of

complete

for his

followers,and

his

a
on

was

person

short

according
in

which

he

of

sections,

of the
descriptionof some
thought as explained by Sankara.

this with

is extended

divine

basis

followers

problems

as

some

of
interpretations

the

in conflict

achieved

influence

great that

did. Our

on

his

direct

ciples,
disciplesof his disdoctrine
in the succeeding

rational

as

regarded by

so

his

to

Sankara

nowhere

(proceeds)the originor
which

doubt

no

adhered

features of the Vedanta

Brahman

any

between

exposition

this he

In

a
being almost
the
disciples,

as

been

and

metaphysics.
we

to

offered

treat

not

was

in the

philosophy

texts.

religionbecame

who

questions and

been

the

Upanisad

immediate

stronger way

are

the

older

times

those

philosophy
thought, as

difference

traits found

formulate

He

generations,tried
much

favoured

never

main

(pracchanna Bauddha),

later

incarnation.

Buddhist

to

success.

in

Upanisads

by Gaudapada and as explained by

this,that Sankara tried as best he could to

distinctive

the

the

The
interpretations.

consists

the

that

expounded

as

dissociate

show

no

main

which

of this world

includes

many

Sankara

The

438

determined
after

The

of Brahman

existence

world

have

must

in the

but

all other

Upanisads

as

having been originatedfrom

so

Brahman

is the

Sankara

which

the

the

for the

be threefold:

(1)The

modification

of

been

other

something

has

thing,
some-

of

spoken

than

world

is

tion
(imagina-

adduces

things have

which

from

cause

to

specially

world

by

even

the

as

works
a

cause,

be considered

produced

[ch.

fruit of

that

reasons

may
been

Vedanta

inconceivable

arrangement

an

the) mind1."

of

of

enjoyers,which contains the

according to space, time, and

agents and
formed

School

Brahman,
into

sprung

itself originatedfrom
being,but we could not think that Brahman
something else,for then we should have a regressus ad infinitum
{anavasthd). (2) The world is so orderly that it could not have
forth

from

from

which

come

then

(3) This
shines

hence

for

Brahman

according
being, and

pure
us

all. So

long

call

we

without
true

"

self

touch

any
as

is the

All

creation

sport; from
the

world,

exist

as

the
but

is

creation

Brahman,

the

all

cognitions.
identityof pure

gence,
intelli-

Brahman

self of

is the

are

illusory
things,with all that
dreamless
sleepwe are absolutely

only, while the real truth

all,as pure intelligence,
puree

for

one

being.
But

(Isvara)

point of

in the

view

in which

sense

individuals, we

accepting it
the

created

there
the
can

is

no

as

world

as

who

Isvara

maya,

world

exists,and

affirm

the

men

creates
we

existence

all
of

creating and maintaining the world. In

also is illusory.
illusoryand so the creator

in
is

self,is at

the

us

of

illusorymaya.

true

separate

as

It is the self of

appearance

that God

realityall
well

deny it,

we
ordinary waking life,

our

in

tries to

one

blessedness.
in

an

is

pure

Isvara,
as
engaged

as

is the

thousands

is but

be conceived

may

our

all,the self,

us

of our
phenomenal notions the nature
blessedness
realized. The individual
is partially

pure

blessedness,and

of

essence

when

in all

Sankara

but when

self which

true

the

itself forth.
us

are

(sdksi)which
objects of cognition

of these

it appears

as

to

pure

we

mine,

or

state

as

to

self with

identifyingthe
"

present

ever

the
even

it shows

source
intelligent
being is Brahman.

consciousness

through

as

undenied

denial

into

come

It is thus

it remains

is hence

has

immediate

well

self,as

in the

even

and

is the

self knows.

the

which
and

the

world

this

Brahman
as

The

source.
non-intelligent

efficient

Sarikara's
commentary,

the material

once

I.

cause

i. 2.

cause

{updddna-kdrand)

{nimitta-kdrand) of
See also Deussen's

the

world.

System of the Vedanta.

x]

Main

There

is

form.

call them

by

that

are

they

the

Vedanta

so

We

that

and
effect,

the

cause

"

the

illusion

mere

clay into platesand jugs and

but

it cannot

admitted

be

fact

than clay; their

anything more
of name
jugs are only appearances

platesand

as

the

different names,

many

by

mould

may

439

and

cause

illusoryimpositionon

an

and

name

of the

difference between

no

effect is but
of

idea

formations
trans-

and

form

it is but an
effect
{ndmarupd). This world, inasmuch
as
the
imposed upon
Brahman, is only phenomenally existent
and form {ndmarupa\ but
(vyavahdrika)as mere
objectsof name
the

the

cause,

Brahman,

The
The

main

absolute
in

many
us

the

to

show

different

passing

self,which

has
self.

they

The

determine

the

subject and

though appearing

world

also

All

other

events, mental

while

the

the

has

only

all is the

only

other

no

or

truth

physical,
and

absolute

self. While

changeable
un-

other
how

examine

to

as

apart from

as

reality and

underlying them
investigatedthe pramanas

sophy
philo-

the ultimate

this,that

no

appearances,

could

is

is one,

truth

systems

philosophy.

Vedanta
(non-dualistic)
school

individuals.

this

than

advaita

is the

reality
{pdramdrthika)1.

Vedanta

Saiikara

the

individuals

but

are

truth

the true

of the

of the

taught by

as

and

idea

idea

main

is alone

far

of

objectivetruth

titude
things or our atin practicallife towards
them, Vedanta
sought to reach
beneath
the surface of appearances,
and
enquired after the final
and
the macroultimate
truth underlying the microcosm
and
cosm,

Svetaketu,
"That

the

The

object.

important

most

text

{mahdvdkya)

comprehension

This

of

instruction

famous

Vedanta

Svetaketu."

thou, O

art

the

says,

of my

self

this
highest knowledge, for when
knowledge is once
produced, our cognitionof world-appearances
and purged
will automaticallycease.
Unless
the mind
is chastened
of all passions and
comprehend this
desires,the soul cannot
the

as

truth;

ultimate

but

when

salvation

by

instructs

all
All

him,

which
itself,

truth

this is

"That

is at

for

ordinary notions

me

to

the

and

with

pure

give any long

account

System of

bliss and

preceptor
the

becomes

pure

of the Brahma-sutras
the

Vedanta

of this part. Most

for

is anxious

cognitionsof diversityand

in his

the writingsof his followers.

he

once

Ankara's commentary

Deussen

soul

the

highest truth, the

At

identical

once

that is important in

from

of

thou."

art

and

done,

once

knowledge

systematisedby
excellently
taken

is the

of what

truth
gence;
intelliof the

has

been

it is therefore

necessary
un-

follows has been

is

there

cease;

many

forth

no

and

is extinct

attachment

his self

with

his connections
the

ever

with

the

the

world

the

and

experiences brought
past karmas

again
and

the

under

the

the

and

and

as

with

Vedanta

such

has

soon

we

all

Brahman,

his

the

world

and

all

continued

world

was

of

and

them.
ever

bad

led him

works

the

world

While

reaping the fruits

of his

own

self,worked

himself
relationshipbetween
Mukti
on.
(salvation)
process ran

self from
of the

the

subjectivepsychosis
of

state

pure

it held

different,for

self

that

that

truth

about

diversified world

time)

are

truth

about

it.

our

it. We
but

does
All

the

truth

one

cease,

Mlmamsa,

Yoga.
the

do

that

sense

not

not

only
also

do

know

But

world

is the

but because

represent the

not
our

garded
re-

as

imagination
only an illusory
true knowledge is acquired.

about

notions

(lastingthough they

false in the

reallyare,

world

was

is

when

know

process

cordingly.
ac-

undergo

to

and

the

true

of which

account

our

the self with

of

in want

self,on

reality

world-experiences,worldly

at all,but

to

come

and

by Nyaya-Vaisesika
by Samkhya and
intelligence
is

of

world

one

case

nature

the

illusoryperceptionsrepresentingthe
This
experience-cease.
happens not because

field of

take

of the

desire

no

the world

karmas

as

the

there

false

lasts tillthe moment

as

highest

of

real existence

no

which

of

the

by

condition

of pure

to

performed good

the world

unconscious

an

state

This

of the

ignorant

dissociation

world.
as

so

the

consisted

illusion

about

delusion

world,and
the

meant

he, as

known

external

of accumulated

force

and

ceased, though

itself with

world-events, and

his interests,

and

of karma

from

emancipated

foolishlyidentified

lieved
be-

divested of all

willing,but

had

and

real nature

the

he shines

systems

of himself

bonds

The

thine;

and

him,

became

unattached

others.

and

originalpurityuntouched

own

no

and

unreality or

The
the

had

the world

with

about

knowledge
the self

man

became

with

same

them;

joys

his

[ch.

All Hindu

salvation,he

to

absolutely free

as

psychosis,he

own

in

of all consciousness

this that when

and

We

process

sensations,perceptions,feelingsand

all
was

of mine

reduced

thus

was

idea

As

notion

attained

man

world-consciousness, or

of

duality,no

School

truth,the Brahman.

the

the one,

as

that when

as

Vedanta

illusion of this world

vast

by

of

Sankara

The

440

they

may

be

do

not

know

not

what

ordinary experiences of

the

the

from

self,the
world
the

nections
con-

the appearance
and

ultimate
the

abiding

beginningless
real

represent the
what
world

world

as

as

we

ourselves

about

us

is.

representing

Sahkara

The

442
world

disappears

-appearance

is necessary

the

illusoryperception of silver
perception of world-appearance is
of

realityor truth was

Sahkara explained

that
and

is

to

when

disappear

question
for

reference

there

entity,it

lasts,but

the

real

is

division

"is not"
such

association

into

For

they

existence
creative

we

the

the

of

that

only
real

do

creation
not

only

than

for there
maya,

appearance.

the

can

the

it

by
and

so

be

long

is

no

as

be

they

or

association

illusory. It is

no

error

affected
of the
real

and

found.

It is

it

only

has

ordinary logical
principleof
to

have

lasts.

"is"

own

as

and

they

pendent
inde-

If it has

any

nature, for

Brahman,

real with

are

other

association

association

nor

dream

no

its

be

cluded
ex-

be said that

exist

by

it

as

ance
world-appear-

said

as

no

the

long

so

perception.

illusive

the

as

sullied

way

since

is

(prdtttika-sattd).

the

They

us.

fact of their

function

lasts

in any

exist

not

illusion

makes

existence, for
baffles the

it to

persons.

it is dissolved.

neither

can

with

illusion

or

(avidya)

non-existence

ciated
asso-

either

creation

Maya

which

which

pounding
ex-

doctrine.

individual

to

deluded

maya

time

realityis grasped

with

are

and

function, that

truth, is
the

in

in

question illegitimate,

(tattvdnyatvdbhydm anirvacaniya). It cannot

logical category does not exist, for all our

perceived,but

maya,

begin

is known

illusorycognitions demonstrate

the

this

permanent

category

of existence

middle.

truth

bound

becomes

maya

existence

apparent

an

as

is

the

held

merely

emphasizes

thinks

knowledge

true

world-appearance
Upanisad

reference

when

the

long

therefore

Maya

has

brought

so

was

the

association, for

vanishes

entity in

existence

not

with

false

moment

been

has

realityand

unchangeable truth.

only

avidya

or

Vedanta

or

real

no

which

appearance,

not

is

affect the

not

Maya

cosmos

was

the

how

illusory

anywhere,

"many"

The

of

asked,
did

many"

Sahkara

system

association

the

to

fact

real

this

the

in

conch-

this

or

Upanisads

"no

that

is what

But

The

known.

was

is sometimes

Brahman.

with

does

truth

be

destroyed by

was

exist

not

constructive

his

In

did

the

there

by adding

(illusion).This

is maya

The

it

also

link

of buddhi

destroyed,so

Brahman.

and

one,

hence

illusion,and

an

reality,the

the

intermediate

glittering
piece to

shell the

knowledge

No

[ch.

dissociation

mechanical

it,no

Vedanta

of

for all.

once

just as by findingout

but

manas,

effect

to

School

the
but

the
with

empty,
a

mere

x]

Nature

In

what

is said

of this

falsehood

in the

is solved

Here

the

therefore

the

absolutelynon-existent.

"is"

hare's

since

is the

it does

the

it is neither

rather

also

the

it may

be

these

for

times, and

called

are

in

tuccha,

is said

be

to

the state
it is sat

time

"castle

of

(is),

it is asat

in

This

absolute

an

Or

sense.

the

falsehood

though

it appears

that

way

this,that

in

"is

(isnot).
world-appearance (jagat-

asat

in another

consists

that

sense

it exists

nor

"is not"

rightknowledge

for the time

so

of the

sat

said

world-appearance

be

to

falsehood

prapancd) that

in the

for all times

exist

itself in all

world-appearance

Since

us.

not

appearance,

The

"is"

sat

"is" and

that the

not," for

it appears

ignorance persistsin
but

is "is

volved
in-

as

world-appearance is

moment

"is not"

horn

existing,since

or

the

to

up

to

The

a.

is neither

of the

opposition

of may

explained

which

manifest

not

air"

been

indefinite

the

the

or

has

continue

it does

false ?

product

mere

The

It is not

dawns.

"

category of time.

its manifestation

has

false

category of the

by

not," since

be

to

443

world-appearance

world-appearance

"is not"

asat

nor

is the

sense

world

The

of World-appearance

of
to

be the

of the reality,
the
realityor an expression or manifestation
being,sat, yet when the realityis once
rightlycomprehended, it
will

be

and

will

manifest

exist

never

when

perception;
shell,we

that

the

exist

never

silver,the

the

the

Brahman,

the

"this"

silver is
before

that

us,

when

so

The

separate
of
the

the

real.

both

as

the

The

to

the

it

find in

we

that

out

appeared
before

saw

before, does

us

not

illusory

an

it is

conch-

at

the

time

as

"this"

of

(this

exist, and

now

the
to

world

; but

be

piece

having

conviction
of the
than

fact that

of the

case

Brahman,

other

the

had

the
comes

no

in the

as

of

when

case

conch-shell,the

existence

in the "this"

is
being, the reality,
that

the

world

once

never

has no
world-appearance however
the comprehension of the identity
real is realized

is the

same

as

that

negated. The negation here involved

thing negated (the world-appearance) and the

world-appearance

refers

as

is found

us

negation

existence

is found

we

In the

appears

directly realized, the

existed.

what

dismissed

at once

justwhat

exist,

not

illusoryperceptionof
(pointing to a thing before me) appeared as
of the world-appearance, it is the being (sat),

case

before

truth

existed

again.

"this"

silver;in

is

silver,though
be

existed, does

never

This

the

illusoryperception to
is silver),
yet it never
will

world

again.
once

that

say

the

is

School

Sahkara

The

444

Vedanta

of

[ch.

the
be contended
that when
it cannot
and hence
negation itself,
conviction of the negation of the world is also regarded as false
(forif the negation is not false then it remains as an entitydifferent
the unqualified
then this
monism
and hence
from Brahman
fails),
of the world-appearance; for negationof the
reinstates the reality

world-appearance is

much

as

false

the

as

of the

realization

world-appearanceitself,
the

negative thesis,
that the world-appearance does not exist,includes the negation
the only
of world-appearance,and hence
also as a manifestation
thing left is the realized identityof the truth, the being. The
of this illusion of world-appearance is this,that it
peculiarity
hence

and

as

appears

the

on

with

consistent

is not

there.

dawns.

This

indeed
is

appearance

of

This

or

inlaid in the
is dissolved

course

brings home

to

being {sat)though it
when
rightknowledge

the truth

us

which

appearance

an

truth

that the world-

is different from

what

we

to us
as
(sadvilaksand)\for the real is known
and
which
is proved by the pramanas,
will never
that which
of proof.
again be falsified by later experience or other means
A thing is said to be true only so long as it is not contradicted ;
of rightknowledge this world-appearance
but since at the dawn
be regarded
will be found
it cannot
to be false and
non-existing,

know

as

is

real

real1. Thus

false;

that
The

as

Brahman

falsehood

is true, and

alone
and

truth

not

are

negation or the falsehood

world-appearance is a whole

the

the

world-appearance

contrary

of falsehood
and

entities

will

such
truth.

mean

in

referringto it the
negation refers also to itself as a part of the world-appearance
and hence
not
only is the positiveworld-appearance false,but
itself is also false; when
the world-appearance is
the falsehood
itself
contradicted at the dawn
of rightknowledge, the falsehood
is also contradicted.

differs from

Brahman
luminous

(svaprakdsd)and

objectof

any

other

all other
has

no

consciousness

ideas,emotions, etc.,in

contrast

things in

form

; it cannot

that grasps
to

it

this that

are

it is self-

therefore

be the

it. All other

called

things,
drsya (objectsof

while it is the drasta (the pure consciousness

prehending
comconsciousness),
all objects).As soon
as
anything is comprehended as
it is said to have a form and
an
expressionof a mental state (vrtti),
it becomes
drsya,and this is the characteristic of all objectsof
consciousness
that they cannot
reveal themselves apart from being
manifested
as
objects of consciousness
through a mental state.
1

See Advaitastddhi, Mithydtvanirukti.

x]

Brahman

Brahman

also,so

Upanisad text,
forth
and

drasta.

form

long

is not

apart from

as

The

mode.

and

the

it is understood

as

in its true

knowledge

of any

of the pure

notion

as

nature; it is

the associations

The

Appearance

form

445

meaning of the
only when it shines
that itis svaprakasa
a

is devoid

Brahman

of any

of

carries with
drsyatva(objectivity)
of jadatva (materiality)
it also the notion
its nature
as
nonor
consciousness
(^ajhdnatva)and non-selfness
(andtmatvd) which
consists in the want
of self-luminosity
of objectsof consciousness.
The

or

of consciousness

relation

real but

regarded as
later,it

see

is not

knowledge

and

conch-shell

is not

which

its

its

itself

shows

are

not

its

associated

impositionon

the

essence

it is the
with
pure
of

illumination

shall

natural

own

bliss
of

These

in

essence.

(dnauda) shines
the illuminating
there

illusory

extraneous

forms

only in
expression and

consciousness, not
for their

forms

itself. Whenever

consciousness,it is an
consciousness.

the

so

appearance,

of

consciousness,but

the

natural

own

emancipation when supreme

ananda
is not
an
object or form

forth,the
is a form

mere

be

the relation between

possible to determine
forms.
of the
Just as the silver-appearance

consciousness

In the state

from

as

(jndna) to its objects cannot

for as we
illusoryimpositions,

different

are

that

this

they

themselves

are
depend on
this
that
but objects of consciousness, but also in
they are all
finite determinations
consciousness, the
(paricchinna),whereas
soever.
abiding essence, is everywhere present without any limit whatThe
forms of the object such as cow, jug,etc. are limited
in themselves
in what
they are, but through them all the pure
is,the jug is,
being runs
by virtue of which we say that the cow
the pot is. Apart from this pure being running through all the

consciousness

individual
cowness

or

individual

there

appearances,

is

no

class

other

(Jdti)such

as

jugness,but it is on this pure being that different

forms
are
imposed (gkatddikam sadartheillusorily

pratlyamdnatvdt).So
kalpitam,pratyekam tadanubiddhatvena
the
is essentiallydifferent from
Js world-appearance which
which
it
on
forms
the material cause
Brahman, the being which
is imposed, is false {updddnanisthdtyantdbhdvapratiyogitva
sanamithydtvasiddhih as Citsukha has it).
"

The
The

nature

of the

world-appearance,

world-appearance is
of silver in the

llusions is called

not

however

conch-shell,for

as
they
prdtibhdsika,

so

phenomena.
the

illusoryas

the latter type of

are

contradicted

ception
per-

worldly
by other

School

Sahkara

The

446

Vedanta

of

[ch.

whereas
the illusion of world-appearance is never
experiences,
contradicted in this worldly stage and is thus called vyavaharika
later

(from vyavahara, practice,i.e. that

practicalmovements). So long as
Brahman

in

an

unreal.

sometimes

asked

the

that

it be defined

can

for
a

as

truth.

realitycannot
that which

this

Judged

which

gives only
this

from
all

realityin

is associated

appearance.

are

the

not

derived

ground of
(adhisthdnd) on
different with

perceptionsof

the Vedanta

it is

Vedanta

the

from

us,

answers

the

nor

senses,

of

all

our

directlyfrom

but

is the

not

of

of

the

it will

that

not

all

reallypersistsin

its forms.
not

of the

flash

experience

guarantee

stage. What

true

itself in all its

with

present

way

the

that

self-luminous

one

experience is

forms

evident

identical

Our

appearance

experience,
certifyits truth.

cannot

it will be

through

later

some

This

being

that

genus

nor

universal
but

moment,

it is the

of all

the substratum

objectiveevents
(ekenaiva sarvdnugatena sarvatra
satpratltih).
of being
existent
because they possess the genus

all

experience. Being

which
different
the

of their

but

they are
imposed on one

supposes,

appearance

and

guarantee

be

had

being (sat)and

with

(sat)as Nyaya
but

this

is

prehends
conception of realitycomabsoluteness,and
unalterability,

in any

cannot

at

appearances

Things

of view

of

merely the individual

being,the truth which
and

of

reality(sattvd)before

To

appearance

is all

contradicted

experience is

an

experience

world-appearance
be

say that from

The

be

cannot

which

manifestations

of

notions

point

our

consciousness

the world-

of

it the

within

as

true.

world-appearance

is the content

conception of rightknowledge.
independence,

the

to

be

to

rightknowledge,
right knowledge without
any conception
and
no
reality,
conception of realitywithout a
as

of

conception

held

have

doctrine
the

see

we

be

we

view

have

cannot

we

point of

it has

of

notion

itself that

against this

how,

that

deny

can

As

world-appearance
by the accumulated

stage in which

our

of the

the

it must

such

comes

absolute

false and

such

as

manifest

to

and

ultimate

we

there

ceases

appearance

and

men,

all

is based

right knowledge

only realitydoes not dawn,

uncontradicted
orderly manner

experience of all
It is only because
the

the

the

as

on

runs

which

on

the

illusions

things but

one

so

because

identical
is thus
appear.

they

the basis

being as

said

be

to

This

selves
them-

are

the

being

have
is

been

taken

supposed

is not
Our

in all appearances.

world-appearance could
which
if the reality
reality,

basis

as

of them

x]

World-appearancenot ultimatelytrue

could

be

perceivedby

did

the senses,

point the

not

other

inference, but
ascertained

been

has

be

will

never

also

againstit.
inference.

by

hence

The

us

there

realization

any

degree

be

no

to

of

our

The

be

the

to be

so

and

at

or

examination

on

the

for all

to exist

depend
such
solutely
is ab-

depend

we

ascertained

convince

may

by

the

universal

world,

before

it is
is

us

to

also

that

us

will

the

that

only denies

time

never

Vedanta

prove

; it

with

to us

prove

stage. The

enquiry

and

proved
reality.

world-appearance will

times, and

by

practicalfruition

external

it appears

as

have

perception,but

it is that

any

and

exists

now

the

ception
per-

we

We

enquiry cannot

that

time

any

and

erroneous.

world-appearance

perceived by

contradicted

at

the

time

one

dawns

the

perceptionwhich

in

us.

The

Our

time.

disprovethe

therefore
is

to

prove

future

any

world-appearance
at

cannot

us

false,and

the

to

the
will
the

inference

Vedanta

itself

it will demonstrate

the

grasps

these

perceptionof

right knowledge
testimony of the Upanisads

when

that

us

it

when

come

the

person

world-appearance cannot
that

in the

satisfaction
at

inference

our

world-appearance will cease

experience,observation, and practicalutilityof

objects as
never

the

emancipated

exist.

manner.

small, but

which

on

in it. True

error

that

continue

the

that

be

only be
enquiry {pariksd),which

endeavours

world-appearance
cannot

validity

own

world-appearance

realitycan

or

of examination

that

by

contemporaries and by

contradicted

admits

that

and

our

beyond doubt
this sort

validate
in-

course

real,if it is contradicted

to

sun

transactions

our

prove

our

of

But

of

uncontested

or

perceptions are

Validity

is

testimony of

perceive the

for all

examination

that

perceiveis true

our

cannot

valid.
proper

tures)
(scrip-

sruti

our

is contradicted

that

{upajlvyd)indeed
dependence

and

fact that I perceivethe

I

all
case

admit

to

with

mere

We

this

in

so

undoubted

an

case

that what

prove

do

and

Perception can
its
only when

way.

can

if inference

pearance,
perceptions of the world-apthese
that
our
cannot
present perceptions
prove
contradicted
in future,and
inference
and
sruti are

for

cannot

in

the

is not

this

But

it

and

447

of Brahman

as

also contradicts

world-appearance in

its manifold

aspect.
Moreover

false,for
between

we

are

led

to

think

that

the

world-appearance

possible for us to discover any

consciousness
(drk)and the objectsof

it is not
the

(drsya).Consciousness

must

be

admitted

to

have

true

is

relation

consciousness
some

kind

of

it

neither

can

be

apart from

and

We

other.

what

but
be

of connection

kind

that

like the
an

that

say

also
objectivity
associated

the

connections

objects of
difficult

the

are

the

perceivable in

object as

objectsof

know

define.

upon

of

specialeffect
object,for such

any

way

for

thinks,

nor

can

us)

to

there

are

but

consciousness

our

no

It cannot

(ofbeing useful

Prabhakara

its

consciousness,

our

that

practicalpurpose

been

(samavdya)\

we

to

means

produced

or

any

things which

considered

is

admissible

with

the

it not

possibleto imagine
and its objects,
for

inherence

nor

consciousness

Mlmamsa

mean

of

had

irrespectiveof

it is not

it is indeed

by
objectivityof

time

any

consciousness

things are

is meant

of
jfiatata

at

kinds

two

[ch.

illumines,for

(samyogd)

contact

these

effect is not

many

between

Vedanta

of

it

objects. But

the

with

connections
any

be

could

there

so

objectswhich
any knowledge

the

with

connection

School

Sankara

The

448

not

also cannot
mean
(e.g.the sky). Objectivity
that the thing is the object of the thought-movement
{jndnakdrand) involved in knowledge, for this can only be with reference
and
to objects present to the perceiver,
cannot
apply to objects
about

of past time
not

useful

as

present how

which
it be

can

Objectivityfurther
forms
this

the

on

in the
the

inference,where
not

mould

try

to conceive

we

and

becoming objects of

seen

between
admitted

that

nothing

the

its

conceive

illusory.
though all things

Vedanta

by

on

external
such
not

to

be
the

that

and

sense-contact

even

and

does

in whatever

things existingseparately
fail. We

we

of any

the

but

are

yet for the illumination

if that

Thus

of

true

kind

have

also

of relation
hence

sisting
sub-

it has

to be

is after all

world-appearance

but

Now

even

is far away

consciousness,and

imposition of

be

cannot

form.

own

manifold

objectsand

objects,for though

perception,it

consciousness

it is difficult to

that

called

consciousness

after

way

may

of

object of

consciousness

hence

are

case

if the

thing is
an
objectof thought-movement ?
that the thingsprojecttheir own

mean

and

conscious, for

be

may

made

cannot

knowledge

apply

may

one

why

so

this

only

can

particularmental
not

assumption

world

of

sciousness
illusoryimpositions on conspecific
objectsit is admitted

without

take
states

rather

admit

of the

absolute

The

answer

place through specific

(vrtti)or modes; but

that

this

take

can

realityof the

that

the Vedanta

question is this,that the phenomenon

undergo any gradual process, for it

place

manifold

gives to

of illumination
is the

work

of

has
one

basis

in the

is not

of my

content

{vrtti),so that
"knowledge is silver"

mental

phenomena

have

such

as

cit

the

through

Without

states.

Phenomenal

forms

this

of

entity

the

through
states

begin

can

there

and

there

been

and

luminous

there

the

suffer

(upddhi). It

manifests

specifickind

of vrtti.

itself
pure

any

for it holds

admit,

mental

the

the

basis

through
as

mental

such

of

ledge,
know-

are

It is this selfforms

diverse

assume

limitations

or

the

or

which
reality,
their

as

samyoga

of all

phenomenal
that

consciousness
There
is at

is

the

once

interpreterby

only

one

basis

reflection

vrttis.

forms

reality;there
as

the

states.

objects called

various

and

any

consciousness

pure

ground

by

inner

difference,no

the
reality,

mental
or

or

no

to

reality

states, which

associations

course

and

the

well

states

phenomena

relation

to

Had

it has

self-luminous

mental

be

already

so

cease;

destruction.

seems

is of

consciousness

ultimate

also

the

objectiveworld,

phenomena
the

of

kinds

There

the

of the

in their
their

other

no

is manifested

what

eternal

one

that

between

is the essence,

appearances

to

is the

diverse

varieties

outer

The

is

ajhdna (nescience)and hence does not

it is reflected through
ajfiana,
except when

the

remove

through

there

not

would

originationand

with

the

of

all illumination

the

characteristics

in connection

of

forms

these

operation of
interpretreality,realitymust

consciousness

identical

from

does

reality,

or

tion
mind-modifica-

or

states

apart

as

temporarily removed

since

mental

the

manifest

mould

that

before

that

to

that

by

material

manifests

said

validityof knowledge

untouched

which

mental

Vedanta

This

is

cit

one

realityis nothing but pure consciousness.

realityapart from the manifesting states of

no

admitted

and

covering them
with

of

only

about

moving

this

the

itself

can
reality,

consciousness

it is necessary

is made

knowledge

world

basis

unchangeable

through

states.

pression
ex-

in the

is sometimes

pure

of

states

the

there

lightof

be

Objective

basis,whereas

are

in touch

coming

{vrtti).It
knowledge must

be

is silver."

there

the

on

basis,this

their

that

of "this

as

of

vrtti

the veil of nescience

when

by

but

realityas

form

the

is not

their

in my

mould
or
through the mental
is no
illuminatingknowledge.

creations

shadowy
but

the

manifested

as

illusion

manifested

being

[ch.

the

of them

of illumination

Vedanta

of

knowledge

state

the

that

School

Sankara

The

450

and
is

no

the

dr"ya

can

only
but

manifestations
existence

(contact)or

samavaya

as

an

termined
be denot

as

entity of

(inherence)

x]

Brahman,

between

them

truth

is

have

one

the

and

ground of Illusory
Impositions

the pure

this,that

the

drk

it.

on

It is sometimes

called the drk ; for the

(perceiver)and the drsya (perceived)

reality;the forms of phenomena are but

identical

illusorycreations

consciousness

45

objected that

in the

ordinary psychological
"this is silver,"
the knowledge of "this" as a thing
as
only of a general and indefinite nature, for it is perceived
its specialcharacteristics as a conch-shell
a thing but
not
are

illusion such
is
as

noticed,and

thus

consciousness

there

of any
illusion
"this"

the

as

the

as

characteristic
character
be

may

because

as

are

pieceof

possible.But

neither

kind, and

be. The

can

stands

the illusion is

hence

conch-shell

definite

nor

it cannot

or

pure

indefinite characteristics

be the

ground
as
perceivedindefinitely

of Vedanta

answer

in Brahman

is that when

of any
a

mere

the Brahman

ground (adhisthdna)of the world-appearance its

its special
sat or real only is manifested,whereas
as
that

said

the

the Brahman

illusion
in its true

of

never

noticed ;

or

rather

it

world-appearance is possible

and

correct

nature

is

never

vealed
re-

objectiveconsciousness;when I say "the jug is,"

the "isness,"or "being,"does not shine in its purity,but only as
of the jug-form,and this is the root of the illusion.
a characteristic
In all our
real shines
as
experiencesonly the aspect of Brahman
forth in association
with the manifold
objects,and therefore the
Brahman
the illusion is made
in its true nature
being unknown
possible. It is again objected that since the world-appearance
to us

in

infinite bliss is

and

pure

our

practicalpurposes, it must be considered as real and

not
by illusory
illusory.But the Vedanta
points out that even
to take place; the illusory
perceptionspracticaleffects are seen
all the fear that a real snake
perceptionof a snake in a rope causes

can

could
may

all

serve

do ;
be

so

in dreams

even

bad

functions and

as

organs

to

affect
of

man.

happy and sad, and dreams

incapacitatethe actual physical
So it is that the past impressions

feel

we
or

continuing from beginninglesstime are sufficient

to account
for our
duced
illusorynotions,just as the impressionsprocreations.
for the dream
in actual waking life account
has done
in
According to the good or bad deeds that a man
previous lives and according to the impressions or potencies
kind of
has a particular
{samskdrd)of his past lives each man
cannot
world-experiencefor himself and the impressionsof one
affect the formation of the illusory
experienceof the other. But
imbedded

in

us

29"2

the

experience of

the

Vedanta

[ch.

before

even

his

cognition the

able
unknowworld-appearance were
running in some
existence
(svena adhyastasya saviskarasyaviyaddd-

of

phenomena
of

state

of

world-appearance is not wholly a subjective

individual, for

for each

creation

School

Sankara

The

452

tatpratityabJidvepi
tadadhydsasyapicryadhydsajanakatvopapatteh
krtsnasydpi vyavahdrikapaddrthasya ajhdtasattvdbhyupagamdt). It is again sometimes
objected that illusion is
sattvdt

vam

malobserved

produced by

illusorynotion as
similarityis found between

and
no

such

this Vedanta

To

conch

is

the

through

that

says

of bile

this

silver,"but

is

the

and

world-

similarityis not an
illusion (e.g.
when
an
to

the defect

potenciesof past

the

rousing of past memories

dispensab
ina

of the eye

pitta).Similarityhelps the

or

by rousing up

; but

memories

Brahman

in the

influence

of illusion
or

the

production of
perceived as yellow owing

factor

sthana)
ground {adhi-

the

silver in "this

the

appearance.

white

similaritybetween

duction
pro-

impressions
as

may

well

be

of our
the unseen
by adrsta
past good or bad deeds.
power
defect is necessary
but the illusion of
In ordinary illusion some
this world-appearance is beginningless,and
hence it awaits
no
done

"

other

(defect)than

dosa

Here

the appearance.

only adhisthana
self-luminous
have

or

at

all.

of illusion is the direct but

where

Hence

association
the
As

with

veil and
soon

the

as

mental

the

not

Brahman

the Brahman,

been

illusorycreations
of the

cause

is the

direct

could

the
not

perception

indefinite
is

perceptionof the adhisthana.

hidden
by the veil of avidya, the
becomes

states

for

necessary

removing

appear.
completely realized the illusions disdisappearance of the phenomena means
nothing

the

the

is

realization

The

Ajftana

The

adhisthana

Brahman

The
than

there

and

constitutes

adhisthana.
manifesting thereby the self-luminous
the adhisthana, the ground, the reality,
the blissful

self-luminous

more

Had

adhisthana,

manifested

been

avidya (nescience)which

avidya is the only dosa

ground.

the

as

the

of the

Definition
cause

of

self-luminous

(nescience).

Ajnana

of all illusions

Brahman.

is defined

as

that

which

is

beginningless,
by knowledge {anddiyet positiveand removable
bhdvarupatvesati jndnanivartyatvani).Though it manifests itself
in all

ordinary things (veiledby

perception)which
beginning,for it

have

it before

beginning

is associated

with

the

in

they

become

time, yet
pure

objectsof

it itself has

consciousness

no

which

x]

Nature

of A j nana

is

beginningless. Again though it has

(bhdvarupa) it can
very well constitute
(abhava) too, for the
abhava

opposite of
abhava

(negation)but

sense

from

both

which

category

ordinary

well

position as

but

(anddi);

said

been

well

as

for

notion

ground

be

to

the

as

the

which
definite

the

it

beginningless yet
beginning
the

whether

of

illusion

is

that

say
as

thing

be

it is

the

it is not

It is not

through

the

is unreal

also is unreal

or

that

true

of

should

be

the

cause

being

it is

for to have
determine
for the

not

of the

the

the

solution
dis-

thing which
the

comes

which

cause

Vedantists

Some

and
constitutingillusion,

material

are

cit, the

is different

way

or

not.

is

unnatural
of it.

thing,for

that

the

what

is

this,

changes

positivecan
in the

that

necessary

in all

same

produced

regarded

(updddna)

cause

the

be

it may

of any

matter

what

being

ajfianais

illusion ; it is not

only

it is not

any

whether

matter

the

the

as

knowledge

when

persistas

effects which
and

in

not

substance

came

by knowledge,

that

ground

negative. Though

the presence

of the

notion

continue

the

have

into

such

as

dissolution

to

not

be

it

merely

ajfianatherefore

positiveentity yet

substance

for the

the

if the

here,

case

it is

it could

beginningless. The

upon

the

imagination

an

that

with

beginningless or

was

is different

of the moment

the

it does

it does

the

beginningless

defects ; for

associated

fact

ajfianaas

though

it should

Illusion

the

removed

have

thing depends

define

is necessary

and

it is

is not

only a positiveentityshould

effects.

the fact that

product

subject

is

destroyed ;

forming

that

be

positiveand

can

to

the illusion

produced
however

not

or

it ; and

cause

can

the

or

which

one

veiling everything, and

is

positivein

be

to

necessarilymean

not

it is also

with

it is

negation {abhava).

mere

it cannot

illusion,is ever-present and

of

indefinite
from

that

this

third

produced by

but

from

its difference

negation. It is sometimes
illusoryimagination of the moment

illusorycreation

moment,

the

here

mean

positiveentity,but

neither

hence

temporary

associated

ever

holds

not

negation

from

and

(dosa)

Vedanta

temporary

as

mere

imposition,does

rather

or

defect

by

caused

it is not

negative, but

nor

of

essence

merely

other

any

positive

as

vivaksitam). Ajfiana is not

is believed

objected that ajfianais a

like

positivesimply because

It is

the

notes

(abhdva-vilaksanatvarndtram

called

described

been

positivity
(bhdvatva) does

positiveentity(bhdva)

453

time

of

persistin
process.

ajfianawhich

The Sahkara

454

Ajnana

established

School

Vedanta

of

by Perception

and

[ch.

Inference.

nor
Ajnana denned as the indefinitewhich is neither positive
also
in
is
such
directly
experiencedby us
negative
perceptions
know
I
do
do
not
I
not
as
know, or
myself or anybody else,"
know
what
do
I
not
or
particularlyI had
you say,"or more
did not know anything."Such
been sleeping
so longhappilyand
pointto an objectwhich has no definite characteristics,
perceptions
and which cannot
or negative.
properlybe said to be either positive
is not
It may
be objectedthat the perception I do not know"
the ajnana,but merely the negathe perception
of the indefinite,
tion
of knowledge. To this Vedanta
had
been
that
it
the
says
perceptionof a negationmerely,then the negationmust have
been
associated with the specific
object to which it applied.
A negation must
imply the thing negatived; in fact negation
generallyappears as a substantive with the objectof negation
of the negation.
the nature
character specifying
as
a qualifying
I had no knowledge" does
But the perception
"I do not know
or
not involve the negation of any
particular
knowledge of any
specific
object,but the knowledge of an indefinite objectless
in the sense
that
ignorance.Such an indefinite ajnanais positive
itis certainlynot
this positive
indefiniteis not positive
negative,but
in the same
in which other definite entities are called positive,
sense
for it is merely the characterless,
passiveindefinite showing itself
in our
experience.If negationmeant
only a generalnegation,
and if the perceptionof negationmeant
in each case
the perception
of a generalnegation,
then even
where there is a jug on
the ground,one
should perceivethe negationof the jug on the
ground,for the generalnegationin relation to other thingsis there.
Thus
the generalnotion of the
negationof a thingcannot mean
of
all
out
a generalnegationwithnegation
specific
things; similarly
which
it
objectto
might apply cannot manifest
any specific
itself to consciousness ; the notion of a generalnegationof knowledge
is thus opposed to any and every knowledge,so that if the
latter is present the former cannot
be, but the perception I do
not know
can
even
though many individual objectsbe
persist,
known to us. Thus instead of sayingthat the perception
of "I do
is the perceptionof a specialkind of negation,
not know
it is
rather better to say that it is the perception
of a different category
the ajfiana.
It is our common
namely the indefinite,
experience
u

"

"

"

"

"

"

x]

Ajnana

that

after

experiencing the

launch

we

forth

admitted

that the

perception of
its diverse
in
Of

forms

when

far

as

states

it

(knowledge)

of

themselves
as

to

unknown.

comprehend
but

merely

can

with

reference

negation

of

of

absence

to

of the

ajnana

in

as

ordinary

regard

it is

to

or

of

states

as

knowledge

ignorance,but it is unable to
negation {abhava) is not a perception,

ajnana

negation,for
know

not

our

for the

indefinite

as

the

I do

of

the

things. It is thus often said that all things show

the perceiving consciousness
either as known
or
Thus
the perceivingconsciousness
comprehends all

I say

is different from

character

or

perception{anupalabdhi).Thus

this,I perceivethe

indefinite

that

thing,and this is
thing. An objection is

not

when

in consciousness

perceptionof

the

raised

sometimes

of

Nyaya point of view that since without the knowledge

(visesana)the qualifiedthing {visista)cannot
qualification
be present in
known, the indefinite about an object cannot
the

without

before
well

the

the

objectbeing

maxim

qualifiedthing

perceive the thing

out

of

but

is

that

the

is known

first and

known

first

To

its

be
sciousness
con-

known
can

It
qualification.

place here to say that negation is not

of the manifestation
only a peculiarmode

this Vedanta

be
must
qualification
is groundless,for we
then

from

the

repliesthat

be

to

vrttijnanais opposed to the ajnana.

own
perceivingconsciousness
{saksi-caitanya)
comprehend both the ajfianaand the jnana

specifickinds

as

the indefinite

a
vrttijnana about
thing
in,the ajnana with
objects comes

positiveseither
or

it has

it. So

remove

the

our

is conceived

specific
type

perceiving
both
the root ajnana as well
reference
to particular
objectsas represented
{vrttijnana),are comprehended by it.

with

temporarily removed,
so

455

{ajnana) of

to

negation. The
{sdksi)is such that

perceptions of
But

indefinite

perceptionof

mental

course

Negation

endeavours

our

mere

consciousness
as

in

not

as

is not

separate entity,
of the

positive.

that in the expression there

naiyayikas would
agree
be accepted,
is no negation of a jug here,"no separate negation can
for the jug is already present before us.
As there are distinctions
and
differences in positive entities by illusoryimpositions,so
negations are also distinguishedby similar illusoryimpositions
Even

and

"

the

appear

as

the

negation

of

jug,negation

of

cloth,etc.

so

all

and
it may
be
negations are unnecessary,
accepted that negation like positionis one which appears as many
and
the
of illusory distinctions
account
impositions. Thus
on

distinctions

between

School

Sahkara

The

456

Vedanta

of

[ch.

negation being itself positive,there is

know
I do not
object that such perceptions as
perceptionof an indefinite ajfianain consciousness.
of

content

perception

I do

"

first what

"

impossibleto
So

also

know

say
the

anything

man

invariable
the

he

the

could

of the

form

the

by

of the

and
indefinite,

remembers

one

perceiveanything
consciousness

is

of

the

had

is

the

the
no

active

indefinite

The

is

no

of

state

mental

mediately
imstate

it is

state

that

of

state

I did

"

not

(ajh"na) perceived in
than

general

and

mental

says

an

activity
object of

in the

awakened

and

only

for there

is

aforesaid

state

fundamental

more

that

he

since

the

to

pleasant and

the

state

during

that

long."

so

from

that

say

long"

so

not

perception

appears

During sleep there

state.

it is

did

and

objects of knowledge

impression {samskdra)

ajfianathat

what

anything;
the pleasant and

of

absence

know

then

so

some

as

know

not

between

preceding

true

anything

that

perception

the

to
referring

as

awakened

and

the

you

It is not

in the

senses

also

should

hearer

if this is

possibleto infer

concomitance
and

was

the

So

say."
sleeping long

know

sleep state

then,

senses

what

the

refer to

the

is not

say

perception,but

no

is not

in the

knowledge

"

I did not

as

of the

ceased

had

know

to be admitted

is
"

state

not

during sleep.

inference; for, it
active

I do

has

during sleep there

awakened

the

you

require that
speaker, and

cognition
"

indefinite

of the

by

said

was

what

this would

negation,for

of

know

not

"

to

reason

no
"

"

negation of knowledge (jndndbhava) and the two

that though the latter may
not be felt,
yet it can

are

the

mere

connected

so

inferred from

be

the

perceptionof the indefinite. The indefinite though not definite

is thus a positive
different from negation and is perceivedas
content
such

in direct and

state

as

well

The

this

which
say

"

was

I did

which
the

removing

known

not

know

the
See

inferred
in

place in bringing a thing into

not

or

it

the

first streak

in the awakened

sleeping state.

rather

of

involves
and

light in

darkness1.

known

before,but

thing thus
veilingit before

was

both

ajfianamay also be
knowledge of objectsis revealed

takes

always

consciousness

of this

presence

knowledge of
as

in the

as

in which

manner
as

immediate

consciousness

it now."

removal

the

consciousness,

indefinite before

as

I know
the

from

of

My
an

we

present

indefinite

positingit in consciousness, just

itself by
manifests
utter darkness

Apart

from

such

an

Paficapadikdvivarancii
Tattvadipana, and

inference
Advaitasiddhi.

its exist-

but

such

by causing

seems

School

that

appearance
we

the

think

to

seem

Vedanta

of

[ch.

self-luminous

that

prakdsate iti vyavahdrah)

{ndsti na

shine

an

that

behave

to

so

not

Sankara

The

45 8

it is not

it does

or

rather

or

cit

there

is

no

of its

is
shining or luminosity. To say that Brahman
hidden
than
this,that it is
nothing more
by the ajflanameans
such (tadyogyata)that the ajflanacan
relate itself with it that
so
appearance

it appears
of

states

opposed

which

by

the

to

also

of

regard to its
with
regard to

do

of

essence

is only

Brahman

its

pure

may

be

as

that

said

the

as

dispel

once

the

dissolved

of the

cit is not

consciousness
infinite

indefinite

experience
as
obstructingthe
presence
full infinite bliss
; and

as

aspects

modes,

or

ajflanahas

with

our

cit

pure

constitutingthe
there

phenomenal

our

but it seems

states

many

bliss;
in

result of that

of the bliss in

ajflanais one,

reality

is not

and

pure
the

is obstructed

cit in various

at

limitless

pure

cit. It

pure

lightof

obstruction

This

the

experiencesof pleasure.The

these

the

on

the

the obstruction

incomplete manifestation

an

the

thus

not

the fact that

by

object in

its character

though we
pleasurablefeelings,
yet
is indicated

and

character

it is that

so

deep sleep and other

experience. Ajflana is thus

consciousness, for

ajflanais
us, so long as

for

of

state

its locus

of consciousness.

states

with

both

states

it obstructs

only

in the

as

of this

action

the

but

have

to

it. The

hidden

in
ajflana-consciousness

considered
is

be

to

to obstruct

regard to

which

it

constitutingthe

as

experiences of the indefinite with reference to the

of ajflana
diverse individual objectsof experience. These
states
are
technicallycalled tulajflanaor avasthajflana.Any state of
individual

consciousness
as

removes
(vrttijflana)

and
tulajflana
The

4"ure

of

in the notion
is

union

creatingan

as

of

the ego

the

associations,such

the

self-luminous

it is the

in the

notion

or

knowledge

the
of

this

ahamkara.

This

body, the continued

of the

limitations,
characters,and

ego

as

of

an

ajflana
object.

is demonstrated

notion

of ahamkara
and

consciousness

pure

characterless

of the

ajflanaas obstructingthe

illusoryphenomenon

self,the

true
as

as

action

important

most

cit,and

itself

reveals

manifestation

past experiences,etc.;

Brahman
the

associations.

other

that

is found

structed
ob-

repositoryof a thousand
creation of
This illusory

beginninglesstime, each set

of previous false impositions determining the succeeding set of
associations
This blending of the unreal
impositionsand so on.
the

held

notion

up

of

in the

the

ego

mind

runs

on

from

{ajitahkarana)with

the

real,the

false with

x]

Mtmamsa

and

the true, that is at the root

the self-luminous

as

of the ego.
there
here
of

into

two

self

I say

"

the

ball and

part

"

perceive

consciousness

as

The

one.

of

and

there
the

mind

(red hot) burns,

into one,

with

materiality,

sorrow,

changefulnessrepresents the antahkarana, whereas

the unchangeable perceivingconsciousness
as
appears
the

of ego

notion

contains

two

so

fused

antahkarana

or

and

Thus

notion

distinct elements

two

are

taken

the

as

fire fused

the

aspect associated

or

cit

say that the iron ball

we

entities

also when

the

when

459

It is the antahkarana

of illusion.

self that reflects itself in the

Just as

are

Nyaya Objections

that which
is the self.
the other

real and

parts, one

unreal.
remember

We

sought

that

self-luminous, and

held

that
thought (triputi),
object of knowledge,

analogy

of the

fire

the

and

never

and
iron

two

is like

illuminates

lightwhich

it does

that

be

well

held

indeed

{anubhavd)
quality of

the

atomic

in

self1.
not

between

the

medium

if it

were

would

According to Nyaya
but

it would

size

result

it is not

of suitable

iron

ball

and

the

the

self

the atman

consciousness
collocations.

objectand

the

of

self,and

the

else for the

anything

self and

the

Nyaya

affect itselfas

size, it

the

hold, for

and

manifest

it would

depend
is conscious

on

this

like other
If it were

illumination.

small

illuminate

as

knowledge
thought

Prabhakara

movement

only

ments,^
move-

substance

portion of
everything,
own

only through association with

self-luminosity
(svaprakdfa)
says (p.432)
sacetana"cita yogattadyogena vinajadah
narthavabhasadanyaddhi caitanyavi nama

sciousness,
con-

with
only
refutingthe doctrine of

is associated

Nyayamaiijari in

as

parts for its

its

{cit).Consciousness
Thus

self may

the

thinks

Kumarila

same.

movement,
But

the

the
revealing itself,

as

thing, if all-pervasivethen

if of

as

be

to

could
and

and

one

that

Vedanta

self-luminous;

be

to

said

objectsto this saying

supposition it is impossible to
the self and
the knowledge. If

the

regarded

be

can

both

Prabhakara's

to

the

knowledge,

further

not

assistance

But

relation

any

knowledge
are

its purpose.

according

discover

require the

not

of
fulfilling

did

of

nature

can
separately experienced, and we
are
reallydifferent and only have an
seeming unity. Perception (anubhavd)

of

like

the

He

self to be

the

threefold

reveals

self.

ball

illusoryappearance
a

is the

once

the

consider

not

such

it at

never

these

that

did

Prabhakara

which

separately experienced, but

are

say

that
distinctly

that

red-hot

are

antahkarana

is

Prabhakara

repudiate.

to

this

manmahc.

it

and

constitution
of the

self

that

is the

[ch.

of the

also it has

then

lamp,

the

produced by

was

Thus

it is to

self-luminous

the

Vedanta

of

regarded

whether

knowledge,

self is thus

which

it

School

the self. If it is

produced

self,the atman,
of his

on

lightis

the

as

it be

else could

The

not

supposed

be

to

Sahkara

The

460

same

self,for

be

who

sees

the
vijfiana,

as

quality
necessarily
a

from

admitted

entity. No

it is he

as

what

that
doubts

one

any
else.

anybody

or

the

consciousness,

pure

of itself self-luminous1.

is

always
Again, though consciousness
waking or sleeping,yet ahamkara

is

continuous

all

in

stages,

is absent

during deep sleep.

I slept
feels
on
waking
deep sleep one
happily and did not know
anything : yet what happens is this,
that during deep sleep the antahkarana
and
the ahamkara
are
altogether submerged in the ajfiana,and there are only the
It is true

that

from

"

"

ajfiana and
antahkarna
of
"

I did

not

{vrtti)of

of
state
as
a
waking, this ahamkara
then
the peris again generated, and
it associates
ception
the ajfianain the sleep and originatesthe perception
know
which
is a mode
anything." This ahamkara
the

the

manifested

self; on

antahkarana

be

agent

the

active

be

may

be

antahkarana.

have

we

and

then

even

regarded

ahamkara

the

only

as

is

active

illusorily

to

ahamkara

mode

vrtti

the
the

as

is

kriyas'akti

the self appears

of

antahkarana

same

and

willing. The

already seen,

such

as

The

result of that

knowing

in

and

as

associated; but

ahamkara,
the

self,and

regarded, as

antahkarana,

now

by avidya,and

jfianasakti(power of knowledge)
of the ahamkara
work). This kriyas'akti
the

itself is

constituted

as

(power of
imposed upon
an

is thus

or

vrtti of

past period can

of

side

is called

antahkarana,
aspect of

or

in its

manas

capacityas doubt, buddhi in its capacityas achievingcertaintyofthe

knowledge, and citta in its capacityas remembering2. When
cit shines

pure
called
is not

it cannot

a
a

jlva. It
mere

stand

directlyby the
the phenomena
See

is clear

See

from

own

pure

nature

the

is the

alone, without
as

the
the

indefinite

pp. 130-140,

this

with
above

account

principleof the

consciousness

remain

Nyayamakaranda^
PP- 53-582

in association

nothing,but

it (dsraya); its

forth

that

the

it is

ajfiana

phenomena.

But

principleof the real to support

ajfianaor indefinite is perceived
as
originating
; its movements
in themselves,the real as under-

Citsukha

Vedanta-paribhafd,
p. 88, Bombay

antahkarana,

edition.

and

Vivaranaprameyasamgraha%

x]

IndefinableCharade?'

lying these phenomenal

through these which hide
and

antahkarana,

the

these

The

states.

is itself

movements

the

antahkarana

associations

and

merit, demerit, instincts,etc.

individual

jlva or

soul

already

have

in direct

experienced
only

are

Brahman,

has

for its
the

which

different

only
be

known

as

indefinite.

all these

the

else

as

the

Dialectic.

indefinite

ajnana

according to
of

category

from
the

our

been

But

could

Vedanta

the

be

there

real, the

this indefinite

dawns.

Nothing

of this indefinite

phenomena

of

selflatter

which

is

however

can

except its character

the

If it is indefinite

world, the fixed

pure

reason.

objectiveworld

are

with
would
that

all

come

out

all

can

of it?

It is

to have

only a temporary existence

infinite reality.To take such a principle
indeed
the mind, matter, and
everything
would
self-luminous
Brahman,
hardly
of world-order
If this system
were
only

it

proved

nescience, how

of world-existence

forms

seeming appearance,
being,then it
pure
It has

containing

infinite

permanent

derive

to

the

Brahman

and
only relatively,

except

appeal

moment,

and
variety of world-forms
names,
this
is
indeed
or
avidya,ajnana
originatedby
maya

are

the

to

positiveand the negative,has

will ultimately vanish, when
the

and

all the

events, the

said to exist

and

is

of the

nature

That

well-defined

beside

Vedanta

world.

category

hardly comprehensible.
these

through

the category of the indefinite. The

of the

about

of

order

forth

career.

the

that

existence

knowledge

true

his

manifold

the

the

from
relative

arise in

ground the world-appearance,and is the principleby

is falsely
manifested
in all
one
unchangeable Brahman

diversityof

the

ahamkara

states

ajnana-phenomena

perception and

and

shines

real

itself

impressions of past phenomena

from
when
a beginninglesstime

categories. The

two

luminous

of

and

seen

the

of which

began

Anirvacyavada
We

corresponding

light of

46

manifest

only

can

it,when

beginninglesssystem

it the

within

of World-appearance

no

be

other

indefensible

whatever

of truth

element

in the

notions

and
self-contradictory,

we

in it except

lightof
have

reason.

about

the

thus

groundlessand
indefinite they must

proceeded from the

show
this character
when
exposed to discerning criticism. All
and to
to be so hopelesslyconfused
categorieshave to be shown
that though apparent before
be without
notion
any conceivable
soon
as
as
into indefiniteness
they are
us
yet they crumble

false.

If

they

have

all

examined, and
that

they are

make

cannot

one

that

or

they

notions

6rlharsa and

his commentator

of

account

I shall

the

their

possibleof

the

of

our

by

notions

complete
of reality.

example.

one

of

the

notion

Four

difference

of

explanations are

(1) the difference

difference:

of

notion

as

It is impossible

give

to

various

examination

the

Citsukha.

chapter

our

them

undertaken

were

Khandanakhandakhddya.

from

(bhedd)

of

about

negative criticisms

follower

this

[ch.

assertion

world-order

of

criticisms

take

us

Such

and

limits

give here only

Let

the

Vedanta

of
such

any

not.

are

about

fundamental

within

School

Sahkara

The

462

be

may

in our
characteristics
perience
experceived as appearing in its own
thinks ; (2)the difference
{svarupa-bheda)as Prabhakara
between
two
things is nothing but the absence of one in the other
ference
Naiyayikas and Bhattas think ; (3) dif(anyonydbhdvd),as some
means

Vaisesikas

divergence of characteristics
speak of it ; (4) difference may

in itself like the

alternative,we

it is said

that

see

difference

cloth

of
into
in

the

form

the

cloth

the

of

as

be

each

the

is

thing

as

which

something else, it
jug, etc. from which
perceived directly in

is

can

be

existence

their

from

directlyperceived by
difference

that

else

something

is

perception

perceived
of

the

two
perception of difference between
things has
identical perception,then
the
together in the same

apparent.

Difference

as

perceive in the cloth, for difference

something else, and if that thing from
we

perceived is not perceived,then

entitybe perceived? If it is said
its difference from
then

from

we

the

may

the

jug, and

cloth

be

itselfis also involved

the

very

in the

that

that

is the nature

ask, what

how

nature
nature

an

which

can

the

the

cloth

of

jug ?

the

of the

if

penetrated
what

not

from

difference is

difference

as

an

itself represents

by

the

jug,

If the difference

jug, then
jug. If it is

the

But

difference

this is indicated
of the

also

diction
self-contra-

entityis

means

such

must

cloth.

the

becomes

perceive
the jug?

we

naturally mean

difference

the

cloth

could

how

difference

expected

the

must

the

would

the

and

by perceiving the
teristic
jug as the charachave
penetrated

the

also

jug

jug

first

the

Taking

if

from

the

as

separate quality

and

But

otherwise

difference

as

the

form

very

its difference

cloth,

the

that

other.

its characteristics

then

senses,

from

from

cloth, then

i.e. if difference
the

by their

perceive only

we

be

prthaktva quality of Nyaya.

represent in themselves
mutual

(vaidharmya)

the
said

cloth
that

x]

Categoryof Difference
jug only indicates

the

is intended
how

for

be

to
can

and

is yet

it is

of

term

the

the

jug

also be

is

for

also in

cloth

which

itself;and

the

the

if the

of

be

term

from

the

the

cloth

of its relation

old

would

difficulty

involve

in the

the
of

nature

the

manner

hence

If

If its difference

is involved

cloth, and

things,

of difference?

also the

same

pendent
is inde-

other

independent

cloth

by

impossible,

which

notion

the

difference

becomes

jug, then

from

quality,then

character

the

is

which

it is differentiated.

qualityof

also

its difference

establishes

its difference

its

as

of

from

term

difference,it cannot

cloth

in,

comes

which

things from

to other

from

association

term

it is

conveyed, then that

imagine that there

we

of any

that

463

jug

would

difference but

not

identityresults. Moreover, if a cloth is perceived as a character

will appear
of the jug, the two
the other,
to be hanging one
over
but this is never
so
experienced by us. Moreover, it is difficult to
ascertain

if

qualitieshave

not, then

absence
be

might
relation

to

relate

to

other

viewed
But

jug, etc.

things,they

appear

that

reference
be

cannot

that

of both

there

that the
as

the

jug
and

jug

are

notion

of

the

jug

the

cloth, I

same

as

does

merely

shows

that

that

not

jug

the

or

from

notion

difference cannot

of cloth
be

the
is
I

what

an
mean

has

its limits

has

the

is

entirely
also

from

thing
thing

reference

notions

difference

jug

one

reference

characteristic

are

difference.

jug cannot

I say

when

cloth;

the

they

different

with

requirethe

the

when

another

Thus

viewed

that

mean

difference of the cloth

not

be

reference

It should

It is

quite

the cloth.

Moreover,

never

the

but

is also

cloth, and

it may

for its manifestation.

from

without

seen

cloth.

the

is different from

jug

difference,though

The

and

on.

so

as
they appear
perception as jug

of difference

notion

again
Again, it

etc.

the

thing
every-

relation

would

that

perception of difference.

the

the

for

so,

are

is

have

require another

and

jug, etc.,

as

cloth,

to

If there

would

another,

they

everywhere

relation,and

that

the

relation

different from

that

itself with

if

things;

same

relation

when

this

notions

that

then

that

with

noted

the

and

said

be

being

with

quality of everything.

two,

requireanother
may

of relation
the

these

between

relation

any

be
the

to

say

to

say

appear
to

of other

cloth.

things

is different

jug

entitywhich
is that

is
the

jug, and
jug. This

in the
to

nature

of the

thing perceived.
Again,

in

the

second

alternative

where

difference

of

two

Sankara

The

464
things is

defined

the

as

find that if difference

in

cloth

the

of

the

that

jug

difference
cloth

and

cloth

cloth

is not

is its difference
absence

also

resides

of

is not

also

explained. If

their difference

the

the
the

in

as

or

cloth

is rather
mutual

the

the

also

would

require

this would

the

same

negation of

then

the absence

is not

jug

also

jug,

cloth, and
that

other, we

that the

jug, then

from

jug
the

in

thing in

means

in

[ch.

that the absence

I say

the

Vedanta

of

of each

identity.If it is said
a
separate thing,but

to

then
itself,

jug

for when

arises ;
difficulty
jug in the cloth

residence

absence

in

that

or

School

reduce

jug

in the

identical

cloth

of

exclusion

be

cannot

this mutual

negation (anyonyabhava) is explained

absence
the mere
of jugness in the cloth and of clothness
in
as
the jug,then also a difficulty
arises;for there is no such quality
be mutually excluded;
that they may
in jugness or clothness
that they can
and there is no such qualityin them
be treated as
it is said that there is no jugness in cloth
identical,and so when
we

might

and

clothness
of

well

as

jugness in

say

jugness

that
are

there
and

one

the cloth would

is

no

clothness

the same,

amount

to

and

in
hence

the absence

cloth, for
absence

of clothness

Taking again the third

self-contradictory.
teristics
alternative we
that if difference means
see
divergence of characthe
(vaidharmya), then the question arises whether
vaidharmya or divergenceas existingin jug has such a divergence
as
can
distinguishit from the divergenceexistingin the cloth ; if
is in the affirmative then we
the answer
requirea series of endless
is in the
vaidharmyas progressingad infinitum. If the answer
the two
gences
divernegative then there being no divergence between
istics
and hence divergenceof characteridentical,
they become
cloth

in the

as

such

which

is

ceases

to

exist.

If it is said that the natural

difference in themselves, for each

things are
other, then

apart from

the

differences

"

the

of them
natural

forms

excludes
forms

of
the

"

the

If natural forms
thingsare reduced to formlessness {nifisvarupata).
then as the
specialnatural forms {svarupa-visesd)
{svarupd)mean
specialnatural forms or characteristics only represent difference,
the specialones
of the things as apart from
the natural
forms
be proved that there
would
to be identical. So also it may
appear
which
is no such qualityas prthaktva (separateness)
can
explain

questionswould arise as
separateness exists in different things or similar ones
it
separateness is identical with the thing in which

differences of
to
or

whether
whether

exists

or

things,for

not, and

so

there

forth.

also

the

and

it. Certain

effects,but
the

fact

is

cause

truth

and

of

was

only a more
complex form
ground, the root, out of which
such

of

the

of

present
forth
and

find

being, we

into

unable

are

antecedent

an

to

that

what

the

of

the

which

the

at

of

cause

effect

the

is the
If

forth?

come

pictorial
representation
collocations
variably
being in-

some

the

into

penetrate

was

point of time, the

are
just where we

we

and

appears

effect has

an

at

what

it

enquiry

manifestation, what

the

enquiry we take
phenomena in which

causal

than

in

fundamental

more

know

to

was

apart from

simpler form

had

production

inexplicable. Our

thing

wished

we

sought

we

and

causation

enquiry after

an

when

jug, what

the

of

of the

moment

present

cannot

quite undefinable

form

primary

be

concept

something
the

explain how the previous set of

regarded as producing the succeeding set.

this

could

phenomena

after

[ch.

produced the effect,are considered

the Vedanta
had before
to explain the problem which
collocations
invariablyand unconditionallypreceded

insufficient

In

Vedanta

of

its transformations

by

certain

School

Sahkara

The

466

logic of

effect

springs
before,

were

affair. The

the

and
in a
effect may
be of use
to
us
Nyaya definition of cause
generalway in associatingcertain groups of things of a particular
other
kind with certain
phenomena happening at a succeeding
moment

other

also

more

than

of

being relevant pairs of which one being present the

has a probabilityof being present, but can
do nothing

as

this. It does

Antecedence

cause.

condition
is

continuous

one

again

involve

of the

and

dependent

question as to
is regarded in this view

answer

in time
cause.

entity;

succession

and

succession

antecedence

and

each

But

of

time

then

antecedence,

of

the notions

antecedent

an

house,
such

must

an

water

Asses

be

the

as

the

being

to

from

the

to the

understand

tim"

mutualh

of these

can

condition

Asses

are

is

invariable
as

washerman's
If it

happening of
anything about

in India.

these

invariably present

of the smoke1.

cause

carryingsoiled linen
washing in the laundry.

used in

is boiled for

as

is

rising

contributes

again difficult
are

which

ass

smoke

regarded

antecedence

it becomes
1

to

an

ceived
con-

of

of succession
of time

consequence

be

and

phenomena,

other

even

pensable
indis-

an

only

can

(anyonydsrayd) neither
be conceived
independently. Another
important
But what
If it means
does that mean?
invariability.
upon

as

nature

time, according to Nyaya,

consequence

; thus

the

our

for the

antecedence

as

not

the

means

effect,

its contri-

always present when

x]

Theory of Causation
the

buting to
and

effect,for

the

dence
only intelligible
thing is the anteceIf invariability
the existence
of
means

nothing more.

that at the presence

of which

for there may

it fails,

be the seed but

will not

of the seed
is said

that

with
the

cause

into

shoot,for

no

being,then

the

factors,then

also

cause

from

so

specialkind

of effect

kind

etc.

presence

shoot.

If it

it is

ciated
asso-

questionremains
not
understood
what
is meant
by cause.
effect is often seen
to be produced by

with
of

its

cause

own

(cf.Vatsyayana

as

which

fails. It cannot
each

particular

of effect that

fail get

special

Nydyamahjari\ for out of the

forth namely the jug,the plate,
the collocation

of

factors,then

by this collocation ; does

it mean
the factors themselves
them?
On
or something else above
the former
suppositionthe scattered factors being always present
in the universe
there should
always be the effect; if it means
then that something always
factors,
something else above the specific
tion
collocathere should always be the effect. Nor can
existing,
question arises

as

to what

and

without

can

that

as

kind
particular

we

clay different effects come

is defined
Again if cause

same

the

associated

also

the

the same
Again when
be defined
cannot
pluralityof causes, the cause
the effect
happening the effect happens and failing
also be said that in spiteof the plurality
of causes,
is

mere

the
produce the effect,
produce an effect only when

can

have

we

the effect comes

suffice to

its accessory
for

same,

467

is meant

(sdmagri) be defined as
immediately succeeding which
relation

of movement

with

Moreover
the
to

its effect is

series of

Thus

in whatsoever
the

way

themselves

or

carved

of the

is

may

we

in relation

may
to

indefinite

seek
the

to

find out

interminable

the characteristics

ajfianaof maya,
try to conceive these phenomena in
all
for they are
another
we
fail,
one
and
and
and
are
illusory,
illogical
and

The
day will vanish for ever.
being,the realitywhich is unshakable
some

we

way

causal

indescribable

are

in whatever

out

the

of

principlefrom
fail. All
cause-effect phenomena we
of

nature

of the effects
and

as

being,for

incomprehensible.
that which
produces
which
was
required

cause
collocating

very

inconceivable.
real

into

causes

necessityinvolved
is that which
must
produce
conception that a cause
and
also equally undefinable,inexplicable,
logically

in the causal

the

the effect comes

is defined

if movement

of the

last movement

conception of causation
proved is taken for granted. The idea

the
effect,
be

the

the

indefinable

true

in

cause

is thus

the pure

the ground
itself,
30"2

upon

true

the

is thus

cause

all experience,and

effect-phenomena are

the

it of

avidya.

is

the

ajfianaor
regarded as
All

the

It is thus
of

cause

modes

various

Vedanta

of

[ch.

being imposed they appear as real. The

unchangeable being which persists
through

all appearances

which

School

Sankara

The

468

but

impositionsupon

the

clay,the permanent, that

clay-phenomena as jug, plates,

all

in which

the

clay appears
and
so
unreal, indefinable,
illusory.The
appearances,
is the
clay. So in all world-phenomena the one
etc.

the

being,

imposed
of the
and

it

on

is called

the

satkdryavdda
that

which

them,
is

alone
the

being, as
the

in

unreal

in

which

of the
different
when

as

kind

is true

that

imposed

all

are

This

the

effect is

being

on

regarded

from

the

cause

kind

one

is called

sdmkhyayogaparindthe

as

real
the

it is called

parindma

vivarttah

ment
develop-

effect has
vivartta

of

being as the cause

(kdranasvalaksandnyathdbhdvah parindmah
same

the

cause

is what

When

potentialstate.

is what

ever

the

phenomena
the

being

are

existing,
There
is only this
the realityor being

of

distinguishedfrom

is

satkdranavdda

and

false.

appearance
of

many

the effect has the

sano

alone

truth

truth

This

names.

mere

one

that

properly the

more

cause

in its

of

or

and

are

the

cause

phenomena

themselves

true.

vivarttavdda

mavdday

the

in

phenomena
truth

all the

illusoryforms

but

are

Vedanta,

much

and

Brahman,

are

but

it is called
tadvilak-

vastunastatsamattdkdnyathdbhdvahparindmah

or

vivarttah). Vedanta

tadvisamasattdkah

has

much

as

object

to

against the Nyaya as against the parinama theory of causation

of the Samkhya;
for movement,
development, form, potentiality,
indefinable
and actuality all these are
and inconceivable
in the
"

lightof reason
explain
; they cannot
things and phenomena as they appear
however

though phenomena

they

never

can

bhedam

vinaiva

This

be

defined

being the
of the

cause

in the

in terms

except

relation

of

followers

and

cause

of

of

only

world.

In

with

the

or

the

restate

reality
cause,

(Tadakdryyam vivarttah).

effect

Sankara

world-appearance

but

identical

tadvyatirekenadurvacam

world, the different

the

not

are

causation

Brahman

Vedanta

sometimes

cause

lay

in

and

the

explaining

stress

on

the

the Brahman, and

times
someon
avidya, sometimes
them
Thus
both.
on
Sarvajfiatmamuni, the writer
Sahksepa-sdrirakaand his followers think that the pure Brahman

maya,

should

ajfianaor

be

regarded as the
world-appearance, whereas

causal

substance

Prakasatman

{updddna)

Akhandananda,

of

of the
and

x]
hold

Madhava

that

Brahman

maya-reflected form
the

as

is

and

Maya

of

cause

evolution

an

whereas

illusion

in

the

individual

be

the

with

jlva

hold

{upadana). Others
both

and

Isvara

rather

think

to

with

association
in the

since
and

the

the

individual

that

world

since

these

his

avidya

find in

we

regarded as
matter, upadana

the

cause,

and

maya

Brahman
the

as

the

world-

yet the

causal

individual

whom

to

of the

however

and

the

maya

jlva in

in

that

being
to

are

causal

permanent

entityevolving

better

hold

aspect pure

one

the

matter

manifested, it is

Brahman
as

entity

same

maya

the

as

factor

produced by

are

are

materialityetc., both

be

the

the

ajflana.Others

or

world-appearance

in another

by

Others

cosmical

all manifestations

are

in Isvara,

though

it is the

-appearance

that

of

that

individual

regarded

matter.

the

as

produced

the

or

causal

hold

be

located

as

maya

i.e. the

maya,

world-appearance

manifestation

be

to

The

maya

vivartta

the

as

said

associated

with

of the

jlva. They

or

may

etc.

avidya

world-appearance.

avidya

with

Isvara should

as

distinction between

and

appearance

Brahman

parinama
(God) is the

469

in association

or

make

of

mind

the

IsVara

however

of

Avidya

parinama.

is the permanent
of
cause
Vacaspati Misra thinks that Brahman
with
associated
the world-appearance through maya
as
jlva.
sahakari
instrument
it
is
thus
which
or
as
only a
by
Maya
were,
the

Brahman

one

world

Muktavali
even

of

matter

the

phenomenal
product of

as

of the

may

the

Brahman,
used

wonderful

is both

which

principalVedanta

was

holds

however

and

illusoryappearance,

the

temporary

jlva as
and

is not

the

manifold

in his Sidaffected
absolutelyun-

even

the

causal

world-appearance. Everything that we see in

field of world-appearance, is
world, the whole

(causalmatter)

of the

itself is pure

Brahman

that

maya,

of view

eye

Prakasananda

of appearance.

dhdnta

in the

appears

whatever

the

upadana

these

gences
diver-

all
as

indefinable

text

Rg-Veda
the

But

and

the

they do not in any way affect

is
that the only unchangeable cause
else,the effect-phenomena,have only

be, it is clear

existence

skill,and

instrumental

world-illusion.

whereas

in the

the

the

in the
idea

of

that

sense
an

illusion.

The

word

maya

supernaturalpower and
inherent
mystery underlying
of

Veda, and it began

gradually emphasized in the Atharva
of magic or illusion. In the Brhadaranyaka,
to be used in the sense
magic. It
Upanisads the word means
Prasna, and Svetasvatara
that in the older Upanisads
is not out of place here to mention
it

was

the word

Vedanta

of

in the

only once
In early

occurs

maya

School

Sahkara

The

470

[ch.
and

Brhadaranyaka

once

Pali Buddhist
writings it occurs
only in the Prasna.
of deception or deceitful conduct.
Buddhaghosa
only in the sense
of magical power.
In Nagarjuna and the Lahit in the sense
uses
of illusion. In 6arikara the
it has acquired the sense
kdvatdra
word

is used

maya

of creation

as

the

pay

after

as

the

truth.

the

in the

seen

of

being

unreal.
the

world-appearance or
truth. Gaudapada asserts

seen

The

atman

follows

that

this

doctrine

and

the

followers
maya

the

in his

but

to

however

examined

and

jects
ob-

capable
false and

are

cognizer and
through maya.

illusory.Sankara

seems

that

it necessarily
illusion,

commentaries
he

compared

they are

atman

dualityan

own

the

once

in the

also

elaborate

is at

for it is

into its

held

which

reality.

not

who

and

dream,

making explicitthe doctrine

on
me

to

have

of maya.

thought

over

expounded

the

Upanisads
done

Some
the

little
of his

concept

of

and

able
brought out in bold relief its character as the indefinthereby substantially
contributing to the development of
Vedanta
philosophy.

Vedanta
Pramana
memory
1

all

experience is

Brahma-sutra,

than

more

all

in

subsists

is real and

alone

atman

world

and

Gaudapada

unreal,because

Gaudapada

says

thinkers, that

removed,

appearances,

waking world are

like objects seen

cognized, the

As

theory
is the

means

is intended

to

of

Perception
that

be

leads

excluded

and
to

from

Inference1.

right knowledge.
the

definition

If

then

Dharmarajadhvarindraand his son Ramakrsna

worked
out
a
complete scheme
of
Vedantic
and inference. This is in completeagreement with
theory
perception
general Vedanta
interested in
metaphysics. The early Vedantists were
more

of the
the

dream

world-appearancewith

not

the

is not

again. 1 1 was

do

They

world-illusion is dissolved

the

with

permeated

absolute

explaining

thing,but the whole

airynothing never to recur
not

the

as

of

are

is realized maya

highest truth

and

cause,

enquiringinto its relations with absolute

Hindu
clearlyand probably for the first time among
that it is maya,
the world does not exist in reality,
When

principle

world-appearance.
that Gaudapada
the teacher
out a system with the help

Upanisads

towards

attention

any

illusion

worked

The

both
illusion,
accessory

here

enquiry

earnest

an

or

the

as
itself,

doctrine.

maya

spiritof

(power)

Govinda

teacher

of

sense

mentioned

be

also

of Sankara's
of

sakti

creation

phenomenal
It may

in the

x]

Theory of Perception
is to

pramana

knowledge
(pramd) in
been

be

defined

has

as

leads

such

right
acquired. Right knowledge
knowledge of an objectwhich has not
as

is the

contradicted

found

that

means

to

already been

not

Vedanta

the

47

{abddhitdrthavisayajndnatvd).
Except

when

speciallyexpressed otherwise,
pram a is generallyconsidered
of memory
and
being excludent
quired
appliesto previouslyunac-

as

{anadhigata) and
raised

sometimes

are

few

minutes, the

in the

that

mental

perception of

series of

the

ever

considered

So

long

reason

to

So

there

states.

the

preceding moments,

remained
is of

later

of time
of the

content

remains

mental

the

When

representing the
be

can

book

book

is not

such

no

for

so

there

same

change
so

in the

long

same

it can

is

no

as

of

reason

mental

is

state

ledge
know-

the

ledge
knowmental

any

considered
of

moments.

which

is

for

of the

mental

change

my

the

senses

mental

state

and

hence

second,

mental

state

has

that there
state

in the time

elements

remains
been

remains

thus

changed, but though

is not

fresh

having separate mental

repetitionof the previous

supposing

The

undisturbed.

remain

every

am

as

percept of

same

seconds,
I

the

perceivedby

may

changed

state.

the

as

be

been

prior and later,though

the object is concerned

as

for two

the content

note

to

as

perceive

has

to

series

the

element

general content

the

long as

far

suppositionthat
each

in succession

between

mental

same

the

is to

the

through

so

time

of the

content

see

state

This

long

so

being perceived as

unchanged.

though

for

but

following in succession,that

moment

are

there

arise,

not

to

no

object it

its
all

that

question as
being referred

this difference

course
a

is

moments

thing for
unchanged

one

any

continue

we

Vedanta

momentary

as

as

the

does

state

suppose

of

elements

the

to

thing acquired

reply is that

be

succeeding

previous and

same

this the

the

There

the

no

of the

image

different mental

same.

is

there

the

of

having

states

as

is not

mental

has

state

one,

To

long

so

state

remaining
one
thing

there

when

previous moments.

considers

the

that

knowledge. Objections
we
are
looking at a thing for a
the thing in all the successive

after the first refers to

moments

any

uncontradicted

as

any
the

it remains

extraneous

demonstrating the illusorynature of the world of appearance, and did not work out a
that in the theory of inference as
logicaltheory. It may be incidentallymentioned
school
worked
largelyindebted to the Mimamsa
out by Dharmarajadhvarindra he was
of

thought.

In

recognizingarthapatti,
upamana
the

Mimamsa

accepted
followed
also tacitly

had

view.
the

sabda
The

Mimamsa

and

anupalabdhialso

rajadhvarlndra
Dharma-

jadhvarlndra,
Vedantins, previous to Dharmarain these

matters.

47

Sankara

The

addition.

All

uncontradicted

our

should

external

world

absolute

is realized.

be

objectsthrough

it

into

were

their

into

has

the

assumed

shape

or

form

of

ledge,
its know-

object of

ignorance (ajndna) with reference to that

removed, and thereupon the steady lightof the pure
the

object

which

was

perception of
of the cit through a vrtti
the self-shining
is thus
resembling an object of knowledge. This therefore
consciousness
pure
poses that by the action of ajflana,
The

ignorance.

is

in

the

cit

but

the

diverse

kinds

all this

of

by modifications

sustained

but

are

objects of the world

is
principleof ajflana which

is the

an

of

form

pre-sup-

being

or

spite of

In

diversified

diversified
the

modifications.

by
object

is
objective world which
transformation
of ignorance (ajflana),
the former
cannot
itself by itself,
for the creations
being of ignorance

underlying

manifest

they

of

state

ness
conscious-

the

or

appearance

is

object

hidden

long

so

has

rana
antahka-

the

as

the

(cit)shows

as

antahkarana

soon

the

the

with

transformed

the

that

the

until the

contact

becomes

As
{vrtti)1.

state

and

senses

objectsof

of the

in

comes

it is said

forms,

transformed

been

the

[ch.

right knowledge

as

(mind)

external

Vedanta

of

knowledge

regarded

antahkarana

the

When

School

of

nature

ajflana that

of

but

are

it veils

transformations
real

neither
its

The

ignorance.
unreal.

nor

creations.

own

of
It

Thus

objects created by the ajflanaby its creating

{viksepd)capacitythere is a veil by its veiling(avarand) capacity.
antahkarana
with
when
in direct touch
But
any object comes
each

on

the

of

through

the

form

of

the

the

senses

the

antahkarana

object,and

becomes

this leads

the

to

transformed
removal

into

of the veil

the object, and

the selfas
particularajflana form
shining cit is shining through the particularajflana state, we
have what
is called the perception of the thing. Though there is
that

on

in

"

realityno

ajflanahas
and

the
1

world

external

Vedanta

In

does

As

producingmemory

(vrtti)of

regard

not

its functions

is called buddhi.
as

such

created

accordingto
citta.

distinction

such

doubt

the

inner

and

illusorydistinctions

the

(mind) as

manas

sense

functions, is called

it is called manas,

the same
entity (which
ajflanaas antahkarana).

of

time, space,

(indriya).The

manas,

souls

same

karana,
antah-

buddhi, ahamkara,

and

definite cognitionsit
originating

notion of an ego in consciousness ahamkara, and

four represent the different modifications or states
of
in itself is but a specialkind of modification

presentingthe
citta. These

as

yet the

outer

individual

as

objectsthe distinctions

of

its diverse
as

as

Sankara

The

474

School

Vedanta

of

[ch.

in absence). Vedanta
kevalavyatireki(by universal agreement
three
advocates
premisses, viz. (i)pratijna (the hill is fiery);
(as in the
(2) lietu (because it has smoke) and (3) drstdnta

Since

of

case

we

for

sufficient

being
one

of

case

one

making

that

mabhinnam

Brahman

is

silver in the

premiss (drstdnta)whatever

times

many

(svayamprakdsd).

defines it

as

which

that

is yet immediate

is

what

But

be,ng
its

in

This

an

with

be

may

makes

it

present

dependent

that

manifest

another, and

then
had

even
seen

is

Vedanta

would

and

nigamana,

and

nigamana.
9

and

have
not

but

act

all other

of

in any
is

anything

ting
constitu-

as

be

not

absent

such

capacity

without

may

and

dependent

never

at

present
another.

entitywhich
differs from

anything
objectssuch as
on

can

all its
else

for

the

jug,

should

itself at the time

knowing

(anubhuti) manifests
1

or

may

consciousness

it. It is thus

known

or

the

its character

other

some

it. Pure

Vedanta

knowing

means

time

one

manifests

seeing or

on

on

self-

ness
requireanother consciousit,then that might again requireanother, and
ad infinitum(anavasthd). If consciousness
on
so

manifest

did not

at

If consciousness

cloth, etc.
to

of consciousness

acts

our

knowability is a quality,which

manifestation, but

the

the

as

(avedyatvesati aparoksavya-

us

object of consciousness,

produce it or manifest
objectsin this that it
its

so

this mean?

does

Whenever
object^of_consciousness.

an

as

it, or

is

so

from

realityas

or

object of

the

never

direct

and

present in all

described

excepting

Drstisrstivada.

truth

vakdrayogyatvam). Self-luminositythus

way

is

and

of

spoken

luminous

ever

else

all is different

premiss (hetu)since

Jiva, Isvara, EkajTvavada

have

being

tadevam

yedevam

conch2.

Atman,
We

seeing the

that

premiss (pratijna)all

First

false;second

third

Brahman;

Brahmabhinnatvdt

mithyd

yathd suktirupyam).

it holds

conch-shell)to be false,
things (except Brahman) are false (Brah-

all

sarvam

inference

an

(silver in the

appearance

infer

can

propositionsthat Nyaya maintained1.

concomitance
is regarded by Vedanta
as

of the five

kitchen)instead

either

of the

thing

hetu
pratijfta,

Nyaya,

one

might

be admitted

to

itself and

all the five of

object-manifestation,

and
viz.

thereby
udaharana,

that

ness
conscious-

maintains
or

if he

doubt

the

ap-

udaharana, upanaya

pratijfta,
hetu, udaharana,

upanaya

of upamana,
sabda and anupalabdhi,
notions of the pramana
arthapatti,
view, do not requireto be treated here separately
being similar to the mimamsa
Vedantic

x]

Atman
of all

pearance

world

our

and

Jwa

475

This

experience.

directlyagainst

goes

the

mediate
imthat consciousness
not
was
jnatata theory of Kumarila
but was
only inferable from the manifesting quality
in consciousness.
(jnatata)of objectswhen they are known

Vedanta

Now
is the
of

same

says
the

as

self itself

itself the

never

under

identical

the

This

with

individual
of

soul,

highest atman
Vedantists

draw

own

all states

the

of

knowledge,

the
the

through

passes

be

must

We

distinction

have

between

it
The

knowledge.

(ego).

is not

atman

present in

ever

of

objects

object

self,because

manifesting unity of

Brahman)
a

about

ahamkara

Qlsvaraalso

or

and

his

the

is not

of

pure

which

life.

worldly

which

immediate

all

the.term

self called

real

of

consciousness

pure

knowledge, for what

object of knowledge is

as

comprehended

only self

with

along

object
self

of

perceiving

doubts

revealer

is the

it is

is yet

one

itself manifested

this self-luminous

For

and

No

consciousness.
is of

self.

knowledge

any

that

is

but

the

as

appears
but

association

The

real self is

consciousness.(

all

same

diverse

ilva

the

as

or

experiences

distinguishedfrom

this

that many
already seen
and avidya. Maya
maya

only the best attributes

is^hat_asrject of ajfianaby which
are
projected,whereas
impure
avidya is that aspect by which
qualitiesare projected. In the former aspect the functions are
of

more

creative, generative(viksepa)
type, whereas

in the

prominent.
veiling(dvarana) characteristics are most
of the cit or pure intelligence,
the highest self,with

latter

The

tion
rela-

maya

and

to explain the
avidya (alsocalled ajnana) was believed respectively
phenomenal Isvara and the phenomenal jivaor individual. This
in two ways, namely as upadhi or pratibimba,
relation is conceived
avaccheda.
The
and
conception of pratibimba or reflection is
where
the image,
of the sun
in the water
like the reflection
the
brilliance
as
yet undergoes
though it has the same
sun,

effect of the

the

remains

sun

the

the

ever

impurities from
be

impurity

it

the
may

its

image

and

have
of the
or

of

all the

relation
akasa

in

of

appearance

is that

the

when

room.

we

The

purity
in

The

water.

by

untouched

suffers.

sun

reflected

be

yield different kinds

and
characteristics
changes which

water

of the

movements

in

same

which
but

same

and

The

different

sun

the
may

kinds

of

possessing different
nally
though unreal yet phenomereality.The other conception
of

images

speak
akasa

of akasa
in

(space)in

realitydoes

not

the

jug

suffer

the

within

jug

jug

the

limited

within
the

it will remain

think

avidya the individual

distinguishbetween
we

the

have

we

"

individual

Jlva or

cit is reflected

pure

when

individual

jlva or

thinks
as

not

that
cause,

product

"

soul.

self in association

the

means

in the antahkarana

in the

does

in its total aspect

avidya

reflected

when

get Isvara, and

avidya

the

aka"a

the

jlva. Sarvajnatma however

and
the avidya, and
maya

or

the cit is reflected in the

of the

the

that when

Isvara is phenomenally produced, and

maya,

when

jug remains,

separate from

as

limited

being

lowers
accept the reflection analogy the fol-

who

of Nrsimha"rama
in the

(avachinna)

as

the

as

In

room.

room.

Vedantists

the

long

the

limited

is yet conceived
So

room.

[ch.

within

jug or

is neither

but

room,

the

by

within

Of

the

or

or

limited

aka"a

the

being within
all-pervasiveand

is

reality it

School of Vedanta

in

modification

any

by

Sankara

The

476

with

the ego

personal experiences,i.e. phenomenal self,which feels,

is affected
suffers and
by world-experiences. In jlva also three
karana
during deep sleep the antahstages are distinguished; thus when
is submerged, the self perceivesmerely the ajflanaand the
jlva in this state is called prajftaor anandamaya. In the dreamand

other

self is

^ajate the
v"*"'^

and

subtle
state

awakened

the

taijasa. In

Isvara,when

with

associated

controllingthem,

it is called

elements

ruler

as

the

or

self

So

visva.

when

Brahman,

subtieJaody and

the

state

is called

body

gross

is called

with
in_association

the

associated

as

hiranyagarbha ;

of matter
with

when

as

the gross

it is called

them

of

it is called

maya

fine subtle element

controller

with

also the self in its pure

with

associated

is called

virat

purusa.
The

jlva in

itself

as

when
paramarthika (real),
the ego in the waking states
as

in the dream

when

Praka^atma
there
but

cannot

be

states

by

limited

as

its

avidya

and
through the sense
as
vyavaharika (phenomenal), and
dream-self,pratibhasika(illusory).
think

his followers

two

separate reflections
admit

spoken of

manifested

and

it is better to

is often

that

jlva is

that

the

such

ajflanais

since
as

image

jlva and
of

IsVara

one

Isvara;
in th

is
in association
with maya
totalityof Brahma-cit
Isvara, and this when
again reflected through the ajflanagives
manifestation
the jlva. The
of the jlva is in the antahkarana
us
of knowledge. The
states
as
jlva thus in realityis IsVara and
apart from jlvaand IsVara there is no other separate existence of

ajflana. The

x]

Ekajwa

Doctrine

Brahma-caitanya. Jlva being

but

him,

on

by rightknowledge,
Those

who

avaccheda
of

when
the

thingswhich

limitations

much

Vedanta

relation

therefore

phenomenal

being;

point of
the

Vedantists
that

all the

that

world
These

continue

long

so

individuals,run
salvation

is

which

yond
is be-

for the

these

of

diversity

discussions

philosophy in
and

better, purer,

are

mining
deter-

jlva. In

importance, for
and

the

he is but

much

more

much

as

jivas

jivas in
the

and

it

dream

super-jlvacontinues
world-appearance and all
and

course

salvation

is

world

us

much

as

will

undergo his
imaginary

to

of

his

merely

are

that

as

our

(avac-

is that

of Isvara

all the

as

dream

the

experiences;

view

little

be

he

well

as

imaginings.

that

limited

phenomenal as any of
the self,the reality,
the Brahman, and
are_bu"Jlkis"r-y
im^ositions-onJt. Some
there
is but one
jlva and one
body, and

L"axa

hold

but

as

accounts

relation

may

powerful than we, but yet

The
us.
highest truth is

bothjlva and

always was.
being of the

jlvais cit

(mind). Isvara

has

he

it

(pratibimba)is only possible

the

IsVara

system

removed

reflection

antahkarana

comprehending

or

jlva are

pendent
de-

the

colour,and

fruit from

of

is thus

conceive

diversityof antahkaranas
jivas. It is easy however to see

of

not

Isvara

Brahman

same

it ; the
of the

of

image

jlva is the

that

have

the

chinna) by

the

prefer to

type hold

the

477

imaginary

world-experience is an imaginary experience of

imaginary jivas. The cosmic jlva is alone the awakened
jlva

the

as

all the

and

doctrine

of

The

has

that
no

creates

for

datum

which
of all
and

but

his

are

of

there

are

himself

his

forms

the

the

for all

illusion

ground

common

when

illusion

ten

of

held

theory
the

and

there
for the
see

persons
snake

as

by

the

some

ance
world-appear-

people,but

illusion,and

own

people ; justas

is the

individuals

many

permanent

having

doctrine

this

is known

This

imaginings.
ekajlva(one-soul).
rest

opposite

Vedantists

rope

our

is

each
no

person

objective

illusoryperception
in the

there, run

darkness
away,

and

perceptions that they have all seen

illusion and
the same
snake, though each really had his own
the illusory
there was
snake
at all. According to this view
no
perception of each happens for him subjectivelyand has no
agree

in

their

individual

corresponding objective phenomena

be distinguished from
the normal
that

objectivelyphenomena

are

also

as

its

Vedanta

This

ground.
view

happening,

which
but

that

must

holds
these

are

and

School

Sahkara

The

478

Vedanta

of

[ch.

that they wilLpotJast permanently

illusoryonly in the sense
and
relative-existence in_
thus only a temporary
have
parison
comis ever
the same
constant
.wilkthe_truth or realitywhich

unchangeable entity in
According to
appearance.
and

but

objectivelyexistent
the

jug

had

see

occurred

to

before.

As

there

and

was

other

no

jug;

there

I had

as

soon

before

the

was

I said that

me

perceptionsand in all worldthe other

view
phenomena are not
only subjectivelyimagined ; so that
our

existence

no

there

perception that

are

all

as

happened

soon

the

was

the

the

as

jug,but

perception there

realityapart

from

have

to

illusion

jug

it did

the illusion.

exist

not

the

was

the

illusion,

fore
It is there-

theory of drstisrstivada,i.e. the theory that the

subjectiveperception is the creatingof the objectsand that there
other
are
no
objective phenomena apart from subjectiveperceptions.
the objects of
Vedanta
view
however
In the normal
called

the

the

world

phenomena

as

by

in themselves

phenomena

but still these

of

are

phenomena

there

ajftanaare

with

sense-contact

objective

The

but modifications

course

of the

the

created.

subjective perceptions are

the

which

existent

are

as

of

the

ajftana,

common

tive
ground for the experience of all. This therefore has an objecthe drstisrstivada
has
no
epistemology whereas
proper
of
each
determined
are
epistemology, for the experiences
person
fications
subjectiveavidya and previousimpressions as modiby his own
of
nearest

to

does

Buddhism
admits

Vedanta

The

avidya.

drstisrstivada

only

Vijftanavada Buddhism,

the

while

that

the

the

of

admit

not

the

Brahman,

truth, whereas

the

comprehend
most

our

become
the

reason

illusoryand

is

forms

from

indeed

difficult

ajftana,
though its presence
perceived,and though by dialectic

well-founded

real,the

its full

It

momentary

alike in this,that

are

notions

and

names

self-luminous.

beginningless time
complete light is ever

can

only
Our

hidden

be

in

in
from

to

sciousness
con-

criticism

away

and

Vedanta

explains

fact

all these

that

modes

experienced as

innate

consists

vanish

to

seem

and
indefinable.
self-contradictory
due
of this difficulty
the
to
as

indefinable
of the

ajftana.

being

unchangeable

permanent

the

of

nature

be

can

all

of

modifications

are

this difference

permanent

any

realityas the only

perceptionsare but impositionson it.
mental
and
The
physical phenomena
both

theory approaches
with

error

which

this,that
us, and

the
the

we

tinue
con-

real

in

glimpse

x]

Nature
Indefinable

that

get of it is always through

we

and

of A j nana

these

phenomenal forms
unknowable
incomprehensible, and
names;

certain

conditions

and

the

at

they are
they are

time

which

and

in

by

the

appears

the

imposed

of the

being

diverse

the

on

but

under

self-luminous

they

This

forms

undefinable,

themselves,

manifested

real which

of

are

have

to

seem

real,
a

positivebeing is only
the being of those forms

as

lump of clay may be moulded

plate-form or the cup-form has no

the

apart from
is

names

names.

cup, but

and

is undeniable.

positivebeing
the highestbeing,the

manifestations

manifested
so

479

clay;

it is the

forms

which

into

existence

being

also

of

then

plate or a
or
being

the

clay that
have

to

seem

Our illusion thus consists in mutually misbeing in themselves.

the modes
of
attributingthe characteristics of the unreal forms
ajfianaand the real being. As this illusion is the mode of all our
"

and

experience
of

conceive

its very
Brahman

the

is the

such

Moreover

only by
Brahman
Brahman.

The

nothing

of

nature

Being

at man.

or

apart from

as

of

ajfianastates

of pure

are

negation (abhava\
that

is the

this

illumination

false identification

of

the

if

they

to

are

be

known

mutual

misattribution.

cannot

be

states

for

in themselves

it is

apart from
kind

altogetherit
entity then it would

in the

that

sense

they are
non-being,

illuminates

nothing

associated

than

more

The

forms

with

pure

of

ajfiana

ness,
conscious-

and
illusion,
superimposition,

when

is known
could

to

pure

try

we

the atman

cease

never

in every

way;

and

at

to

between
it is

tattvdnyatvdbhydm anirvdcya
either

as

real

or

If

us.
come

never

mysterious category midway

called

but

consciousness

these

consciousness

alone

to
we

the

know
fall in

ajfiana

dilemma,

means

of its existence

indefinable

self-luminous

illusorysuperimposition or illusion,and
Thus
not
knowledge they evidentlycannot be known.
its being a factor in our
illusoryexperience no other

knowledge

when

knowable

are

not

for it is pure

apart from

ajfiana.

is the

apart from

Thus
as

the

of

to

us

highest truth, the

of
non-being in the sense

an

known,

or

is self-luminous.

that

means

But

manifested

with

means

be

must

this association

and

they

non-being.

with

being

modes

that

self-luminous

being. Being
ajfiana,and

not

them

such

as

difficult for

the

ajnanas

identification

false

it is indeed

essence,

unreal.

on
or

been

ajfianahad
all,if

it

were

entity
non-

positive

ajfiana thus
being and non-being

be;

the

account

of this that

undefinable

It is real in the

and
sense

is

and
it is

minable
undeterthat

it is

Sankara

The

480

postulateof

necessary

in its

School

incomprehensible and undefinable.

are

manifested

consciousness
their

to

as

comprehensible only
apart from

but
formed.

Thus

(for no

it is

of

and

avidya and
be

Vedanta

think

that

field of

have

an

experience.

The

the

be

atman,

the

one

limited

by

its

the

imagine
of

Vedanta

conceived

in

but

atman,

the

is

atman

the influence

ground

sake

of

of

assent

of

the

as

scheme

ing
explainwe

may

common

things and
be

metaphysics.
three forms:
as
firstly

the

our

secondly
highest reality,
psychosis,when

in

experience may

phenomenon
the

ajftana
asserted

(pratikarmavyavasatha)
a

lightof

the

general

us

be

can

manifested

as

under

the

has

also

the

subject can

this

before

can

them

objectivecommon

no

comprehen
in-

in consciousness,

Drstisrstivadins

objectiveworld

We

which

far

so

still for the

in itself,

view

sense

we

that

though

is irrefutable

operations by
interpretedin

from

But

common

say

inexplicablyproduced

beyond

admitted.
and

our

that

they

relation,and

conception of
anything about

this the

on

while

even

manifested

possible)save

depending

experience was

our

could

impossible to

consciousness

mutual

or

are

rational

no

of it is

knowledge

consciousness
that

these

they

unreal

and
self-contradictory

are

as

with

Its forms

real nature

far

so

[ch.

experience and

its connection

it is

in

Vedanta

phenomenal

our

nature, for apart from

own

of

the

jlva or
psychosis is not
as

identical

regarded as

atman

as

differentiated
with

the

chosis
psy-

livingand knowing bemg,"sjivasdksi or

perceivingconsciousness, or the aspect in which the jlva comprehends,
thus

appearing as

knows,
mind

or

which

is

just

as

experiences; thirdlythe

antahkarana

bundle

an

inner

centre

or

the

outer

world

objects

avidya phenomena or objectiveentities.

only the avidya capable of supplying all
but

it also

contains

all the

of

the

antahkarana

The
forms

to

is not

present
modes

and

tendencies
or

our

of

centres

periences,
ex-

of
The

in past lives.

is

also

are

into

immediately manifested,made

experience. These

called its vrttis

ajflanasis this
upon

tions,
manifesta-

of it into
always turning the various avidya modes
and
jlvasaksi(jlvain its aspect as illuminatingmental states),

these

are

avidya
exterior

are

past impressions of experience in this life

antahkarana

psychosisor

pure

that

or

states.

only

and

have

their

and

formed
trans-

avidya states of the antahkarana

The
of the vrttispecific
peculiarity

in these

consciousness, and

known,

forms

thus

be

they

can

be

interpretedas

indefiniteness

or

cover

superimposed
states

removed.

of

sciousness
con-

The

Sankara

The

482
translucent

it were

as

School

its

by

Vedanta

of

[ch.

translucence,removes

own

the

ajfiana

cit and
reveals the
veilingthe external self-luminous
by the very union of the cit as reflected
object phenomena
through it and the cit as underlying the object phenomena. The
which

was

rightknowledge by perception is the cit,the

consciousness, reflected through the vrtti and identical with
cit as the background of the objectphenomena
revealed
by

pratyaksa-prama
pure
the

the

it. From

or

relative

consciousnesses:

or

point of

view

we

(1) consciousness

when

antahkarana;

Prama

or

of such

these

three

right knowledge
new
knowledge

is very

Thus

contradicted.

it is not
true

now,

by right knowledge of
knowledge of the world
absolutely. The
which
truth

is
of

it will be

whether

be

That

not.

regarded

contradicted
The

when

inner

by
pleasure
the

pain

or

with

the
I

"

perceptions,

for

or

as

same

by
knowledge.
up

hill that

the

I see, the

fire;so

in

the

long

the
same

with

an

antahkarana

that

experience
experience is to
whole

also

will be

is not

of any

is fire
the

is fire in it is
be in touch
be

two

tinuous
con-

objecl

form

perception,for

may

rated
gene-

last in th"

new

there

a"

In

an

as

acquirement

there

rated
gene-

are

sorry."
time

other

there

are

which

vrtti is said to

any

of

am

certain

vrtti cannot

experience

The

transformations
of

I infer that

object

it,but

"

or

or

as

true

by findingout

pain

virtue

for the
when

cases

hill is

one

inference,for

so

state

antahkarana

In such

vrtti is

mental

while

all the

way

taken

of

the

pleasure,etc.

not

is realized.

happy,"

perception of anything

the

time.

any

as

of antahkarana

self,by

am

it

consciousness

pure

by
knowledge

pleasure and

false identification

but

now,

later

Brahma-knowledge
of

reality.Thus

tested

contradicted

experiences

though

stage of world

at any

true, for all world

as

of

this is contradicted

one

be

by

only so long

true

experience at
to

ment
acquire-

definition

appearance

is the

is thus

vrtti

contradicted

to be

the

truth

the

absolute

is true

in any

is not

been

false,when

contradicted

which

Vedanta

world

as

in the

perception is effected.

said

appearance

world-knowledge

our

no

Brahman

contradicted

never

thus

the

absolute

only

not

be

be rendered

may

reflected

in

has

as

distinguishthree

background of objective
of
the
background
jlva

unite

means

is
experience (abadhitd). There
A knowledge acquired can
truth.

or

the

as

the
as
phenomena, (2) consciousness
pramata, the individual,(3) consciousness

of the

as

thus

may

on

new

the

karana
antahmatter

with

modes

the

of

x]

Perception

mental

modification, as

inference

when

perception,

as

sandal

odoriferous

perception in seeing the hill,and

inferringthe fire in

in

seeing

on

wood,

the

hill. In

sandal

wood

it is pure

is concerned, it is inference

or

to be

odoriferous.

not

Vedanta

I think
far

admit

it is

the sandal

as

far

so

memory

does

I assert

as

the existence

class called

inference

are

inference,and

but

different

modes

antahkarana

the cit
reflecting
perceptionis thus nothing but
vrtti transformed

holds

that

of the

in the

both

transformations

an

the

of the

corresponding vrttis.
of

and

perceptionand

the cit manifestation

into the form

it

of the

(inherence)or jdti (classnotion);

distinguishperceptionas a class as distinct from

not

as

acquired
that

called samavaya

relation

other

does

of

cases

perceptionso

wood

so

483

The

in the antahkarana

objectwith

which

it is

in contact.
the
the

Perception in its objectiveaspect is the identityof

cit underlying the objectwith the subject,
and perceptionin
subjectiveaspect is regarded as the identityof the subjective

cit with

the

This

identityof course
realitysubsistingin

objectivecit.

that

means

the object and

through the vrtti the same
the subject is realized,whereas
in inference the thing to be inferred,
with antahkarana, has apparently
being away from contact
from that manifested
in the states of consciousness.
a different reality
Thus
perceptionis regarded as the mental state representing
identical realityin the object and the subjectby
the same
antahkarana
contact, and it is held that the knowledge produced
Devadatta) referringidentically
by words (e.g.this is the same
I see
Devadatta
is seen
to the
same
(e.g.when
thing which
before

another

me

man

this is

says

Devadatta,

and

the

ledge
know-

"

though a verbal {sdbda)

produced by this is Devadatta
knowledge is to be regarded as perception,for the antahkarana
vrtti is the same) is to be regarded as perception or pratyaksa.
The
of these words
content
(thisis Devadatta) being the same
and there being no new
as the perception,
knowledge as
relationing
involvingthe
representedin the proposition this is Devadatta
with a copula, but
Devadatta
and
this
unity of two terms
"

"

"

"

"

only

the indication

of

one

"

"

whole

as

under

Devadatta

visual

ception
perfrom

"

this

is

already experienced,the knowledge proceeding

is regarded as
Devadatta
an
example of nirvikalpa

knowledge.
when

"

So
the

on

the occasion

preceptor

knowledge proceeding

from

ness
of the rise of Brahma-conscious-

instructs
*the

"thou

sentence

art

is not

Brahman"

the

savikalpa,for
31"2

School

Sankara

The

484

Vedanta

of

[ch.

and
ideas
a
copula, yet
though grammatically there are two
of intrinsic significance
the point of view
from
{tdtparya)one
does not distinguish
identical realityonly is indicated. Vedanta
nirvikalpaand savikalpa in visual perception,but only in sabda
in

perception as
should

sentence

in

be

whole

one

savikalpa perception

ideas

agacchati). Here
It is not

all the

But

conveyed by

as

goaded

connection

Kumarila

as

of error,
does

with

however

vitiated

defect

as

think

like

of

etc.)are
does

it divest

Mlmamsists,

adopts a

middle

condition
this is
be

for

is

it

compromise,

admitted, the

but Vedanta
for the
holds

that

and

if it

of

the

holds

of

dosa,

the

depended

an

cannot

absence

But

external

it wants

only
1

See

have

svatah-

dosa

(cause

of

course

be

presence

not

of

Sikhdmani.

sary
neces-

as

has

to

self-valid,

negative condition
apply to it,and it

negative condition,

Ved"ntaparibha"a and

is

It

It is clear that

regarded
a

the

such.

as

condition

proving the validity of knowledge

would
have
only its theory of self-validity
since

another

of dosa

for

then

adds

is self-valid

requiresonly
objectiondoes
the

action,

qualificationslike

it

on

be

to

to

like).Vedanta

all

that

for whenever

as

the

the definition

of any

of knowledge.
self-validity

that

such

respondence,
positive conditions
(e.g.corfor the validityof knowledge,

knowledge

knowledge

says

absence

that

all

the

found

was

reference

no

presence

or

knowledge

course

for the

senses

necessary

whom

Vedanta

meant

prama

which

there

the

by

Nyaya

(svatah-

in

meaning

siders
con-

practicalaction and as
practicalexperience showed

accordance

is not

such

not

nor

and

is self-valid

same

that

to

until

In Vedanta

of

remember

we

one

prama,
in

the

this

in

knowledge

not

different concepts1.

three

or

means

pramanya

different

of

only uncontradicted
cognition.To
of self-validity
Vedanta
as
given by Mlmamsa
that such
objective qualification,
knowledge can
but prama

the

whereas
reality,

combination

pramanas

all

There

of action

contradicted.

six

has

prama

knowledge which
all knowledge was
course

identical

mention

to

that

Mlmamsa.

in

one

of two

place

Mlmamsa

pramdnd).
as

of

out

like

notion

the

cases

is coming" {rdjapurasa
king'sman
identical
but what
is
reality is signified,

no

admits

Vedanta

all such

the

have

we

combination

the

is
signified

or

In

sentence, "the

in the

as

above.

to

that

nirvikalpa is

for

condition

referred

cases

dition
positivecon-

any
like

the

been
no

blame

Nyaya,
damaged.
can

be

x]

Theory of Illusion

attributed
follow

its

to

this

theory

Vedanta
self-validity.

slipperymiddle

cit reflected

pure

of

in

485

for it could

course,

consciousness

be

could

regarded
from

; thus

present

avidya-dosa,and
valid

in

which

Mlmamsa

there

valid

only

dosa.

no

capacity that

in accordance

practicalaction
to

valid ;

facts and

with
of

want

dosa

being guaranteed there

of knowledge1.
correctness

all

have

drthdh

there

world-

that

ledge
know-

was

dosa

no

with

Vedanta

nothing

which

with
to

us

it meant

The

absence

can

vitiate

of
the

of Illusion.

the Mlmamsists

simply

true

was

Validity (pramanya)
knowledge has to goad

contradiction.

is

that

already seen

knowledge

when

it,but

Theory

Vedanta

We

it held

so

the

then

absolute

was

the

meant

correctness

the

as

the

ledge
point of view all world-knowand
had
no
the
validity,because there was
in the ordinarysphere also that knowledge was

false

was

be

to

come

that

say

require anything else

it say that all phenomenal

could
nor
establishingits validity,
forms
of knowledge were
also all valid, for
would

not

to

could

for

appearance

bound

was

because

it

had

asserted

that

knowledge (yath-

was

vivddaspadibhutdh pratyaydh pratyayatvdt).Even

illusions were
explained by them as being non-perception of the
and
distinction
the thingperceived(e.g.
the conch-shell),
between
sarve

thing remembered

the
and

asks

how

there

(e.g.silver).But
can

be

Vedanta

non-distinction

between

objects to this,
a thing which

If it is
clearlyperceived and a thing which is remembered?
said that it is merely a non-perceptionof the non-association
(i.e.
with silver),
non-perception of the fact that this is not connected
is

be, for

also it cannot

then

then

it is

on

either

side

negation,

mere

of the
is nothing but the bare presence
negationwith Mlmamsa
locus of negation(e.g.
negation of jug on the ground is nothing but
of the ground), or in other words
the bare presence
tion
non-percepof "silver" and "this" means
association
of the nonbarely
and

and

merely
sake

the
that

"silver"

and

is not

perceived,yet merely

could

be
down

manya.

See

to

up

move
a

such

from

forward

piece

Vedantaparibhdsd, Sikhdmani,

of

admitting for argument's

two
things or two ideas
negative aspect no one
action
(such as stooping

Even

between

distinction

the

tempted
to
pick

"this."

to

illusorysilver).It

Maniprabhd

and

Citsukha

is
on

positive
svatahpra-

Sahkara

The

486
conviction

School

perception that

or

of

lead

can

Vedanta
actual

to

man

[ch.
practical
imperfect

again it is said that it is the general and

perceptionof a thing (which has not been properly differentiated
of silver
and
comprehended) before me, which
by the memory
If

movement.

to

appears

like true

be
for

movement

silver before

picking it up,

then

this generates

and

me

this also is

the

objectionable. For

of the

lead us
similaritywith real silver cannot
with the thing before me
if it were
real silver. Thus
to behave
as
I may
perceivethat gavaya (wildox) is similar to cow, but despite
this similarityI am
not
as
tempted to behave with the gavaya
the

appearance

if it

were

in whatever

of

illusion

the

there

as

difference

in the

generated by

(The process

of

First

by

mental

state

dosa

defect

or

form

the

of

contact

"thisness"

then

in the

of that

the

thing as

"this"

the

this

be described

thing before

in the

mental

by

the

along

with

dosas

by

cit is disturbed

disturbance

and

may

Then

of the

dosa,

and

the

dosas.
specific

the

to

illusion

such

cit is reflected.

with

the

vitiated

senses

"this"

is

objects;

etc.,whereas

senses

reference

with

(nescience)associated
silver

of the

external

this,that

in

objectsare not due to

illusoryperception in Vedanta

as

generated;

of the

consists

cases

illusion

actuallya phenomenon

of external

ohenomena

thus.

the

two

is

position

the

that

of actual

phenomena

are

Mlmamsa

thinks

there

that

the

way

it fails1. Vedanta

but
merely subjective,

not

is

Thus

cow.

defined

be

may

is

the

the
the

a
me

state

avidya

presence

impression of

into the
through similarityis transformed
silver. There
is thus an
objectiveillusorysilver

remembered

appearance

of
as

appearance,

generated by

well

as

its contact

the silver
silver state,are
illusory
There
(sdksicaitanya).
one

in the

phenomenon,

and

transformation

similar

with

state

the

are

avidya

thus

states

another

illusorysilver.

of the mind

manifested

of the mental

by
here

the
two

and

These

two

state
formations,
trans-

phenomenal

external

perceivingconsciousness
tions,
phenomenal transforma-

objectivesilver
forming the illusory

in the

antahkarana-vrtti

or

mind

state.

spiteof there being two distinct and separate phenomena,

their objectbeing the same
have
the "this" in perception,we
as
The
one
knowledge of illusionj
specialfeature of this theory of
illusion is that an
indefinable
{anirvacanlya-khydti)
illusorysilver
is created
where
in every
an
case
illusoryperception of silver
There
three orders of realityin Vedanta, namely the
are
occurs.
But

in

See

Vivarana-prameya-samgrahaand Nyayamakaranda

on

akhyati refutation.

x]

Nature

paramarthika
absolute

the

dosa.

to

is that

the

the

other

difference

removed

until

first
false

are

in many

occurs

impressions

due

pratibhasika
is neither

perception

salvation,whereas

represents

one

and

vyavaharika

vyavaharika

pratibhasikarealitywhich
of

two

between

of the

dosa

nor

practical ordinary

or

pratibhasika,illusory.The

truth;

The

487

absolute, vyavahdrika

or

experience,and

of Illusion

the

of

dosa
forms

extraneous

covered
disthe

(such

sleep,etc.) is perceived in the world of

our
ordinary experience,and thus the pratibhasika experience
shorter
lasts for a much
period than the vyavaharika. But just
as

defect

as

the

the

senses,

tions
vyavaharika world is regarded as phenomenal modificaof the ajnana, as apart from
our
subjectiveexperience and
of silver in the conch-shell)
before it,so the illusion (e.g.
is
regarded as a modification of avidya,an undefinable creation

even

also

object of illusion,by

of the

is created
the

called

by

the

the

in

dosa
of

creation

Here
but

the

cit

the

Thus

in the

is

sion.
silver of illuthe

remains

modifications

suffers

silver

which

senses,

(anirvacamya)
conch-shell

the

of antahkarana

avidya

with

association

underlying

dosa.

conch-shell,indefinable

indefinable

an

of the

agency

of silver in the

illusion

of the

case

the

same

{parinama)

gives rise to the illusorycreation.

The
illusorysilver is thus vivartta (appearance) from the point
of view
of the cit and
parinama from the point of view of
vivartta and parinama is,that
avidya, for the difference between
of

account

on

in

former

the

the

the

thus

and

in the

have

transformations

(citis different

cause

while

dosa,

latter

from

appearance
have

transformations

the

case

the

different

realityfrom

imposed

on

the

reality

same

it),

transforming entity (appearance of silver has the same

it is). But
stuff as
the avidya whose
transformations
now
arises that if the illusoryperception of silver is due
difficulty
the

as

to

fied
vrtti as modiunderlying the antahkaranaby dosa and the object cit as underlying the "this" before
the
then I ought to have
me
(in the illusion of "this is silver"),
silver" like "I am
happy" and not that
experience that "I am
"this is silver"; the answer
is,that as the coalescingtakes place
a

coalescingof

the

cit

"

in connection
the
"

with

knowledge
am
happy,"
with

of the

two

also
the

my

is "this
notion

previous
"cits"

previous
of

vrtti of

is the

same

is

notion

as

"this,"the

silver,"whereas

happiness
"I."

Thus

in both

in

the

form

of

notion

tion
place in connecthough the coalescing

takes

cases,

yet in

one

case

the

knowledge

takes

School

Sahkara

The

488

form

the

of "I

and

am,"

previous impression is
perceptionsare the same

the

according as
also the dream

conch-shell.

of silver in the

There

[ch.

Vedanta

of

in another

"I"

or

"this is"

as

"this."

In dreams

the

illusoryperception
creations
are
illusory

as

the

generated through the defects of sleep,and these creations are

imposed upon the cit. The dream experiencescannot be regarded
is in the
merely as memory-products, for the perception in dream
that

form
"

that

"I

that

see

I remember

the whole

but

chariots."

the

inactive,and

are

I ride in the

therefore

is

imposed

chariots,etc."

on

In the dream
is

and

all the

state

not

senses

separate objectivecit there,

no

experience with

dream

time, objects,etc.

there

air

objection that

cit. The

the

upon

of space,

all characteristics

imposition is on the pure cit the impositionought to

last even
in waking stages, and that the dream
experiencesought
does not hold ; for in the waking
in waking life,
to continue
even
ferent
is being constantlytransformed
into difstages the antahkarana
the

since

states

the defects

expiry of

the

on

of

sleep,etc.,which were
called nivrtti (negation)

causing the dream

cognitions. This is
The
as
distinguishedfrom bddha (cessation).

illusorycreation

dream

pure

cannot

sleep the

antahkarana

accordance
called

with

or

will not

and

not

silver,the
not

was

is

in

an

and
it. Here

we

when

as

the conch-shell

the

that

the

the

upon

that

it is

of

illusion

it,by

to

is the

which

reality.This

a
as

advocated

things (e.g.red

the

is

no

creation

flower

and

of

the other

conch-shell

doubt

by Nyaya.

imposed
different

two

feel at the

we

perceived

feelingof reality
silver was
an
objective
sukti (conch-shell)
is transferred

and
(anirvacaniya-rajatotpatti)

realitybelonging

silver,this
is

illusion of silver

in it. One

conch-shell

this

illusion of silver has

comprehended

imposed

two

feel that this is not

we

realityin
belonging to the

as

see

of the

form

and

illusorycreation

of the

real nature

but
reality,
illusorycreation, though the

silver

silver

the

silver. When

silver is felt

felt

illusion

occurs

is

experience

I cannot
the

when

is what

This

us.

illusion is there

the

cessation

be

creation; for
illusory

of

of

findingout

on

these

cit,but

longer,for there being no dosa

active and
sufferingmodifications

illusion of silver ceases,

was
as

when

as

ceases,

the

on

objectspresented before

the

badha

there

any

for though
nivrtti,

it,whereas
the

still be

experiences may
be experienced

of

to

time

the

Vedanta

crystal)are

upon
kinds
finable
inde-

an

is the attribution
the
of

illusory
the

sion
illu-

anyathdkhyati
admits
both

that

present

and

all

(a) having

knowledge {dama\
of such

these

that

power

right knowledge, (d)

Upanisads; (5) strong desire to

the above
qualitiesshould
the

true

his

them,

the

again

be

Yoga

attainment

of

for

alone

is the

Vedas

do

not

goal,but

supreme
with
the

the

is meant

of

of

the

of

all persons

that

earlier

But

Vedas

from

should
the

is

Mimamsa

as

Vedanta
Brahman
that the
to

be

the

in accordance

act

attainment

holds

Vedanta

of

standing
under-

asserts

Brahman

one

truth

ground

the

covers

to

(called

realize the

self1. Mimamsa

own

knowledge

evil.

to

with
prakrti,
right knowledge that

injunctions for

Vedic

removal
of

purport

holds

by

includes

and

purusa

dawn

the

declare

sessing
pos-

correctly

(meditation)which

emancipation proceeds

his
reality,

true

and

man

Upanisads

the

ethics

in

between

the

by

comes

in

concentration, try

Yoga

the difference
salvation

stated

as

therefore

while

; but

Yoga

understand

to

tainment
at-

instructor

salvation.

try

by nididhydsana

Vedanta

one.

the

in

the

(called sravana), and

of the
Upanisads
purport

the

of

processes

faith

attain

right

Upanisads

conviction

then

and

manand)

the

favour

in

strengthen
all the

of

purport

arguments

and

of

(b)power of
worldly enjoyments (uparati),
of mind
towards
heat, cold, etc., (c) employment
of

as

restrained

are

wards
tempted tobearing extremes

not

may

these

for

ledge,
rightknow-

attainment

restrained

senses

of

means

the

aids

of this

distaste

death, (3) extreme

which

that

but

everything

[ch.

enjoyments

to

enjoyments, and anxiety for attainingthe

the senses
by which
(4) control over

from

of

life after

heavenly

of the

life and

Vedanta

of

disinclination

(2)

is transient,

what

School

Sahkara

The

490

good

of

that

though

the

has

it,yet

this

for the elect the

ordinary people, whereas
ment
goal is clearlyas the Upanisads indicate it,namely the attainof the highest knowledge. The
performance of Vedic
but
duties
is intended
only for ordinary men,
yet it was
believed
by many
(e.g.Vacaspati Misra and his followers)that
due
duties
to
performance of Vedic
helped a man
acquire a
for the attainment
of right knowledge; others
great keenness

believed

(e.g.Praka"atma

bring about
etc.

and

to

easier
In

for

only

the

suitable
remove

for

person

acquirement
See

his

it served

followers)that

to

opportunitiesby securing good preceptors,

obstacles

many
a

and

the

way

so

that

it became

right knowledge.
ordinary knowledge the ajflanasre-

to attain

of

from

Vedantasara

and

the

desired

Advaitabrahmasiddhi.

x]

Emancipation

moved

only smaller
Brahma-knowledge dawns
Brahma-knowledge

the

at

is
the

only

wood

the

would

would

knowledge
last

wood,

same

very

destroy even

The

mukti

the

identity of

shines

forth in its

last state

the

of

mind

piece

burn

Brahma-

the

illusoryworld-appearance

and

final state1.

that

stage is

Brahman

just as fire ridingon

city and after that would

whole

destroy all

fication)
ajnana modibeing destroyed,

itself

state

which

is itself

state

when

knowledge

that

in the

so

is removed.

whole

of

state

unlimited

the

the

when

specialstrength that

the

The

it is said

burn

its

being

it.

infinite and

light. Thus

true

own

destroyed by

pure

whereas

stage of its first rise is itself also

first reflects it (and which

of

ajnana,
ajnana as a

knowledge, but such is

knowledge once
dawns, even

this

at

the

of

of

state

at

states

are

49

in which

one

the

Brahman

lightof

pure

intelligence,
being and complete bliss
shines
forth
in its unique glory, and
all the rest vanishes
as
illusorynothing. As all being of the world-appearance is but

as

limited

manifestations

but

are

limited

of

which

of

Brahman

of

however
the sattd

bliss is

pure

bliss and

is not

mukti

question,how

the

appearance.

It is best

avidya

and

destruction.

true

knowledge

while,
Thus

if the

the

Vedanta
has

there

will

enjoyed
be

perfectknowledge

even

attained,the body

may

is

emancipated

soon

as

any

other
up

beginninglessprevious lives,and
1

birth

the
the

the

Siddhdntaleia.

no

to

it.
like

behave
no

longer
his

ripe
and

loses his

body

the

dawn

of

budding karmas
longer subjectto

of

for him,

is

the

last for

can

fruits due

sage

for him
he

and

and

when

demand

karmas

about

walk

exhausted,
burnt

the

worldof

category

that

and

has

the

believes

may

As

karma.

new

never

yet he

but

stayed during the

previously ripened
person

as

answer

regards its origin,manifestation

as

been

to

one

that

however

individual's

emancipated

acquire any
are

once

Being (sat)is pure

of the avidya during

for

remember

is indefinite

consciousness

pure

becomes

forth and

to

naiyayika, but

the

itself.

with

difficult

as

avidya came

ordinary sage,

karmas

is

being

all existent

from

as

taste

The

sleep.

notion) of

What

bliss,a

supreme

in its aspect

always identical

(emancipation)

indefinite

that

abstraction

an

class

(being as

consciousness.

pure

of

pleasures also

all

being, so

one

get in deep dreamless

can

concrete, the real,which

and

an

that

manifestations

all

we

beings as
the

pure

all

for

any

School

Sahkara

The

492

of

Vedanta

[ch.

could
make
subjectiveor objective which
Such
a
man
knowledge, action, or feelingpossible for him.
called jivanmuktay i.e. emancipated while
living. For him

of the

illusions

world-appearance has ceased.

where
in himself
everything

He

is the

else has

vanished

for

is
all

alone

lightburning

one

any

from

ever

the

stage1.
Indian

other

and

Vedanta

Systems.

of
distinctlyantagonistic to Nyaya, and most
powerful dialectic criticism is generally directed against it.

Vedanta
its

is

inconsistencies

in

it

begun

of the

many

far

this admitted

as

with

it

by the labours of Srlharsa,

so
opposed to Mlmamsa

Nyayaregards the

and

to

ordinary men,

whereas

perform but
knowledge, and

to

only

so

long

as

of

men

that

he

was

not

it differed from

entered

into

of the Vedas

them

should

man

had

and

self-

Mlmamsa
elaborate

many

referred

only to

Vedic

duties

no

the

attain
the

perform

fit for

great supporter

and
self-validity

higher order

rise above

to

were

of the

But

that the duties

prove

found

It also

its doctrine

manifesting power of knowledge.

in the field of practicalduties and
discussions

but agreed
categories,
of anumana,
upamiti,

pramanas

anupalabdhi.

with

in Mlmamsa

was

Vaisesika

the

generallyas

sabda,
arthapatti,

It

etc.

sama-

carried it to still

followers

greater lengthsas is fullydemonstrated

Citsukha, Madhusudana,

the

as

the relation of

the atom,
His

and

conceptions,such

Nyaya

conception of
conception of jati,etc.2

the

contradictions

by showing

of causation,

theory
vaya,

had

himself

Sankara

Vedanta

highest
duties

Vedic

instruction

and

studies.
With

and

Samkhya

be very

close.

all the

special means

advocated

were

and

Samkhya

have

We

Yoga the relation

that
already seen
of

by Yoga.
was

of

Vedanta

seems

had

Vedanta

to

accepted

meditation, etc., that

self-purification,
The

this that

difference

main

Samkhya

believed

Vedanta

between
that

the

stuff of;

realityside by side with the|

Vedanta
had
In later times
compromised so far withJ
purusas.
described
as
being made
Samkhya that it also sometimes
maya
also held that according
Vedanta
and tamas.
up of sattva, rajas,
which

to

these

the

world

three

consisted

characteristics

was

were

formed

diverse

See

See "ankara's refutation of Nyaya, Sahkara-bhdsya^

modifications

Paficadaii.
II.

ii.

Vedanta

x]
of the

maya.

is believed

to

But

sattva,

rajas

tamas

in the

held

Moreover,

believed

to

what

in

spite of
through as the

pass

and

it

appeared.

strable

Prakrti

regards its

as

but

also

essential

own

then

even

it

its nature

had

its

which

it with

be

it could

defined.

of souls,while
personal individuality
soul

one

self,which

or

There

transformations.
as

well

to

was

in Vedanta

as

; but

as

in the

between

of characters

however
all

by

virtue

the

Though

there

were

so

the

only

of the

maya

Samkhya
was

purusa

or

due
mere

in Vedanta

was

in

illusion

prakrti and

differences,it

many

was

was

illusion in

former

unde-

it

there

all transformation

Vedanta

reals

was

forms;

only misattribution, but a false and

with Samkhya
Causation
meant
creation.
with

the

as

for Vedanta

or

of

qualities
belonged

there

finable
altogetherinde-

not

but

combination

long

identities,but

or

its manifestation,

believed

many

long

so

undemon-

Samkhya

adhyasa

an

non-distinction

mere

misattribution
was

appeared

in

from

stantial
unsub-

an

rather

so

Maya

indefinite.

separate category of the

was

being only

be

to

indefinable

monstrable, indefinite,and

It

or

undefinable
because
positivereals. It was
composing it did not combine, no demonstrable
to

was

different

apart from

nature

believed

was

maya

world-appearance,it

indefinable

was

that

negative.

nothing,a magic entitywhich

as

reals

as

of pure

accepted in
as
Samkhya

were

not

in

mind

possess

stuff of the

positiveor

as

493

all modifications

indefinite,and

and

understand

we

and

of tendencies

sense

indefinable

was

Systems

Isvara

Vedanta
it.

other

Thus

alone.

sattva

and

real transformation,
mere

appearance.

is however

to

easy

probably at the time of the originof the two systems

during the Upanisad period each was built up from very similar
that gradually manifested
differed only in tendencies
ideas which
two
the present divergences of the
into
themselves
systems.
the
that
hard
Sankara
laboured
to
Samkhya
Though
prove
see

view

that

could

be

not

convinced

by

his

he

the

more

argues,

thought

had

followers

borrowed

the
of

Nagarjuna.

being
Sankara to

pure

and
the

interpretationsand
we

much

are

led

is

pure

suspect that

to

of their dialectic form

difficult

was

as

self-luminosityof

the

to

the

more

Samkhya
his

and

of criticism
like

be

hardly
The

Sankara

much

very

indeed

non-being

can

we

arguments.

Upanisads.

the

Brahman

His
It

Upanisads,

in the

origin in

its

Buddhists.

found

the

from
sunya

distinguish between

category.

The

Vijnanavada

debts
Buddhism

of

The

494

can

in
others

think

the

he

that

Sarikara's

that

of

was

and
the

permanence

of

There

hidden

Vedanta

by

Buddhist

philosophy

of

self

be

is

largely

superadded.

much

with

and
led

am

compound
the

truth

Bhiksu

Vijfiana
himself.

Buddhism

Sunyavada

[ch.

to

seems

Sahkara

against

accusations

Vijilanavada
notion

overestimated.

be

hardly

School

Sahkara

Upanisad

to

of

INDEX1
abddhitcty 482
abddhitavisayatva,

adhvan,

abadhitarthavisayajndnatva,
abhautika,
abhdva,

228

138,
355.

335"

47

n.

2847Z., 298, 304,

141,

356, 359'

312

n.,

455

453"

abkava-vilaksanatvamdtram,

453

abhdvendriyasannikarso, 359 n.
abhdvo
pindriyagrahanayogyah,
Abhidhamma,
82, 83, 166

adrsta, 72, 205,

'

gon.,gz,

115,

117,

Abhidharma

literature, 120
Abhidharmakoiaidstra,
114

abhimdna,

120

abhinivefa,

220

93".,

237,

".,

anyonyahetuke,
abhinndnena,
98
abhisandahana,
98
abhrdnta,

267
145

agraydna,

96

abhisankharonti,
408

abrahma,

vaicitra

"

niro-

285, 457
ahamkdra,
213,

295

403,

The

technical

195

Ajitakesakambali, 80

30

292,

names

of

supposed

458,

219,

221

220,

432

".

451,

34

450,

452

sannd,

450,

terms

marks
Vedic
revealed

arranged

are

and
words
come

works

words
and
after
are

character.

are

in the

in

other

Roman

of the

order

italics ;

small

in

are

names

ordinary
in

453,

454,

457"

461

ajndna-phenomena,
words

452,

458, 460, 461, 465, 467.

468, 469, 472, 481, 487, 491
458
ajndna-consciousness,
455.

446, 449,
96

33,

ajiva, 188, 195

ajndna, 103, 449,

295

".

capital. English
diacritical

Samkitd,

Ajatasatru,
ajdtih, 423

".,

aa/fo, 199
1

457,

100

404

adhikaranasiddhdnta,

adhivacdnd

226, 248,

a/a, 427

adharmdstikdya,

adhisthdna,

236, 270

Aitareya, 28"., 30, 39, 57,

36
Aitareya-Aranyaka,
Aitareya school, 30
aitihya, 298, 304, 333 ".

T75

56, 197, 198, 281, 285

adhikdrt)

262, 276, 301,

200,

ahirika,

adhikdribheda,

216, 225,

214,

253,

Ahipati, 231
Ahirbudhnya

ahimsd,

acintyam, 425
Actual, 275
323,

388

460, 461

306
acintya, 428

316,

250,

249,

Acchoka,

adharma,

w.

aham,

193

Absolutism,

263

424

agrd/iyam, 425
agrhitagrdhitvam,

-parikalpa vdsand
dha, 146
abhutasya, 423
abhyanujiid, 302
abhydsay 234, 271
abhyudaya, 285
abhyupagamasiddhdnta,
abhicta

".

420

Aggregate, 93, 94, 123, 327

Aggregates, 89, 144, 252
Aggregation, 245, 247, 251,
Agni, 12, 16, 17, 37
Agnostics, 106

250

abhinnalaksane

".

456

".,

Affliction, 301
Afflictions, 259

250

abhimdna-dravya,

;2(

292

Advaitasiddhi, 67, 420, 444

Advaitasiddhisiddhdntasdra,
advaya, 426
advayamajdtim,
423
advaya td, 426
28 n.
Advayatdraka,

92*1.

Abhidharmakosavydkhyd,
119W.,
263 ".
Abhidhdnappadipikd,
abhihitdnvayavdda, 396, 397
abAildpa, 153, 408

282, 283, 284,

advaita, 422, 424, 425, 426, 439

Advaitabrahmasiddhi,
420,
490

w.

120,

119/z.,

on

413

324, 22Z" 383. 4*57452

adrstakaranafta, 291

94

paticcasamuppdda,
120
Abhidharmakosabhdsya,
128;

121,

w.

323,

adrstakdritam,

Abhidhammatthasangaha,
Abhidharmakosa,

T~p2T

n.

359

96

Pitaka,

Abhidhamtna

311

adhyavasdya, 409 "., 410

adhydsa, 481, 493
adhydtma, 28 n.
adhydtmavidyd, 277, 278
Adhydyas, 70, 433
Aditi, 23

344

ones.

with

But
a

English alphabet.
names

Roman

of

books

with

throughout
capital,as a

the
mark

are

Sanskrit

and

capital. Letters
body of the book
of

Pali

in italics with

respect for

with
the
their

Index

496

anirvdcyavada, 461
anitya, 119 "., 145
anityatd,201
46
annamaya,

ajndnas, 490
ajiidnaiva,445
ajndna-vrtti,481

ajndtasaitvdbhyupagamdt,
452
Akhandananda,

"., 303,

akiticanatd,

202

aklista, 269
Aksamdld, 28

hosa, 60

annamaya

419

261
akhydti,

384, 385, 386,486

n.

28

Annapurnd,

anrta,

^4"r*, 28 n.
alaksana, 425
alaksanam, 215 ".
alaukika, 341
alaukika
sannikarsa, 341
aldtaidnti, 424, 426

antahkarana,

Alberuni,

233,

antardya,

Alchemy,

235

48'7

235, 237

234,

Amalananda, 86".,
Amaradasa, 419

418, 419

ii4".,

193

antardya-karma, 191
antarvydpti, 157, 186, 346
Antarvydptisamarthana, 156, 346
antarydmin, 48
Antecedent, 465, 466
"z"",

lion.

Amitayurdhydnasutra,

193

Antakrtadaids, 171
antardbhava, ngn.

249

97, 459

anubhdga, 194
anubhuti, 416
anubrata, 200
anudbhuta, 252

anadhigata, 471
anadhigatddhigantr, 410,
anadhyavasdya, 332 ".

anudbhutaricpavativa,290

413

anumdna,

155, 302

anaikdntika-hetu, 344

383. 389. 39ow-"

anantadariana, 189, 207, 238

492

371

176

vastu,

anantajndna, 189, 207, 238

anantasukha, 189, 238
anantavirya, 171, 189, 207, 238
anapadeia, 289
Anatomical,

200

103

160

anavasthd,

438

".,

anavasthd

a""a#, 453

anddibhdvarupatve sati jndnanivartyatvam,

anupalabdhi,
471,

452

magga,

andsrava,

133

333

an

at via,

171

angulitva, 165
Anguttara Nikdya, 83, m
189, 301, 314, 323
"*"",
anuparimdna, 314 w., 316
anupreksd, 195

anustubh,
220

24

218

".

anirodhamanutpddam,

220

n.

Anuttaraupapdtikadas'ds,171

n.

anuvyavasdya,

343

Anuyogadvdra,
426

".

animitta, 300

aniruddham

".

350

nirdeia,

anuttamdmbhas,

445

212,

455,

sati, 102
anusthiti, 163 ft.

anekdnta, 175
anekdntavdda, 175
anekarthamandndrtham,

Aniruddha,

398, 399,

anus

145

andhatdmisra,

397,

".,

anupalambhah, 359
anupasamhdrin, 361
a"g"z, 236

anusmrti

100

andtha, 145
andtmatva,

4",

492

anddikdla-prapanca-vdsandhetukanca,n" anusandhdna,
andgdmi

393. 397, 409"-"

348
anumiti, 346, 355
anumitikarana,
346

aw^-aj,

(aprdmanikt),319 ".
(prdmdnikt),319 ".

anavasthd

w.

308, 343, 346, 353,

".,

anumeya,

anantadharmdtmakam

anarthadanda,

".

196

anubkava,

\i$n.

amosadharma,
139
28 #., 228
Amrtandda,
anabhibhava, 290 ".

Anantadeva,

283

299, 457, 458, 460, 46 1,

482, 483, 487, 488
472, 481',
antahkarana
vrtti, 481, 482, 483, 486,

a/oka, 198

ambhas,

135,

Anquetil Duperron, 39

n.

Aksapada, 63, 71, 279, 306, 309

alinga" 217,

".

Annihilation, 108, 109, 114,

anottapa, 100

425

".

222

anutpannam,

142

anirvacaniya, 487

anirvacaniyakhydti,
486, 489
anirvacauiyaraiatopatti,
488

anvaya,

171

353

anvaya-vyatireka, 347
anvayavyatireki 353
anvayavydpti, 158, 346
anvitdbhidhdnavdda, 396
anyalhdkhydti, 261, 384, 385, 488, 489
anyathdsiddhi, 322 w.
anyathdsiddh iiu nyasya, 320
,

Index

498
aticara,

201

281
atisamksiptacirantanoktibhih,

atithisamvibhdgabrata,201
atindriya,252, 322, 335, 339

Atom, 492
Atomic, 213, 253, 254, 323, 401, 416;
combination, 326, 327; doctrine, 280;
306 "., 314 n. ; size, 292 ;
measure,
structure, 305,

313

Atoms,

115,

i2i,

252,

253,

255,

305,

306/2., 311,

319,

320,

165,
256,

^23,

196,

175,
291,

292,

204,

297,

315, 316, 318,

326, 327,

314,

325,

324,

3"8, 329, 362, 377, 380,

400

Atri, 213
attd, 109
attha

katha, 83
Atthasdlini, 82, 84

".,

98/2.,108 n.
Attributes,165
atyantdbhava, 360
audayika, 192
Aufrecht, 230
Auliikya darJana, 305
Aung, 85/2., 86/2., 90

85

89,

".,

94,

dkdrdpabandha, 256
43, 46, 48, 51, 109, 114, 124, 143,
149, 175, 197, 198, 199, 203, 213, 253,
287, 288, 292, 295, 310, 314, 316, 321,
326, 333, 335, 426; atom, 252, 253

92 ".,

w.,

112

".,

a"a.fa tanmdtra,

252

dkdtestikdya,195, 198
dkrti, 298
dlayavijndna, 86/2., 131, 132, 136, 137,
146, 167
dlocana, 378
dlocana-jndna,336
dnanda, 75, 109, 238, 271, 366, 424, 445
Anandabodha
Bhattarakacarya,420
Anandagiri,418, 433
46
dnandamaya at man,

302
n.

avadkt, 191 n., 207

Avadhuta, 28 n.

avaktavya, 180
avastMjndna, 458
avast hdparindma, 256
avast utva, 428

Anandairama,
dnaya, 396

128

Avatamsaka,

ddhydtmika, 148, 269/2.

Aditya, 43
dgama, 285, 424
dhdre patikulasannd, 1 o 2
Ajlvaka, 79, 8o"., 173 ".

aMfa,

157

Aupapdtika, 171
aupaJamika, 192
Aurangzeb, 28 n.

Acdrdngasutra, 236
dcdrya, 433
ddhibhautika, 269/2.
ddhidaivika, 269/2.

dkdra, 415

97".,

aupamya,

avyakta, 214, 216

avyapadeSya, 425
avyavahdryam, 425
Awakening of Faith
129/2.
ayattgapadya,303
ayutasiddka,246, 319
ayutasiddhdvayava, 380 ".
ayuiasiddhdvayavabheddnugatah, 232
Acdra, 171

423/2.

164, 280, 294, 353, 380

avayavavayaviy 379
Avayavinirdkarana, 165"., 297/2.,313/2.,
380/2.
avayavT, 164, 297 "., 380

"z/ta,294
dptavacana, 355

avdks'dkha, 234

drambhaka-samyoga, 328

avayava,

avidyd, 86
I3J"

90,91,

".,

132,

i33"

134,

93 ".,
i37"

lit,

138, I39"

dsavas,

99 ;

as

".

96*

122,

drammana,

J43"

drammana-vibkdvanatthdne,
89
Aranyakas, 6, 12, 14, 27, 28, 29, 33, 35,
43; character of, 14; compositionof,
tion
14; fanciful unifications in, 36; relaof, to Upanisads, 14

145, 148, 220/2.,

237, 249, 250, 260,
261, 266, 267, 290, 293, 319//., 332 /2.,
442, 452, 457, 460, 468, 469, 481, 486,

487, 491
avidyddosa, 485
avidydkarma, 132
avijjd,86, 92/2., 93,

dtidpdnasati,103
dnviksikl, 277, 278, 279
Apastamba, 276

ardrendhana, 347
driya sacca, 10 1, 11
105,

III]

and

beginningless,
99

avi/jdsava,99, 100
avijnapti,124
avijnaptikarma, 124
avijnaptirupa,123, 124
avikalpika,337, 338
avindbhdvaniyama, 156,352
avipdka, 195

the

drya, 294

"., 304

Aryadeva,122/*.,
_

120/2.
Aryamulasarvastivada,

".

Aryasammitiya,
114
120/2.
Aryasarvastivada,
4/3/a satya, 107

Arya, 219
"fr?"i 332/2.

avitikkama,

dsamjndnirodtet,

128, 166; his doctrine,

"9

avirati, 193
aviiesa, 246, 253
avivddah aviruddhalca, 423
10

Aruni, 33, 34
Arunika, 28 n.

Aryasariga,409/2.
150

Index
dsana, 236, 271
dsava, 99, 100, 105; meaning of, 99
dsrava, ggn., 134, 192, 193
dsraz'abhdvand, 202

Bengali,40
Besarh, 173
Bhadanta, 120
Bhadrabahu, 170, 181

n.

dstika,67
astika-mata, six classes of, 68
Astika systems, karma
doctrine of, 72
Asuri,216, 218, 221
dtahkd, 186 n.

Bhandarkar,

423

Bhartrhari, 231
Bhartrmitra, 370

65, 68, 75,

215, 217, 276,
311, 316, 353,
52,

481;

470,

as

breath, 26

dtodya,296 w.
Atreya-samhitd,213
Atreya-samhitd (Caraka),299
Ajreyatantra,213
Aturapratydkhydna, 171 n.

bhavacakra, 86
Bhavadasa, 370
bhavdsava, 99,
n.

418, 421

I43".,

Bhasarvajna, 305
bhdsd, 195, 199

n.

n.,

339

309

8gn.,gon., 306, 369,418,

n.,

419, 432,

433

bhdsyakdra,433
Bhdsyasukti,306
Bhdsya vdrttika,63
Bhattas, 462
bhdva, 142, 146,287, 312

127, 149

dyatanadvdraih,85 ".
dyuhana, 93
dyu-karma, 194

bhdvabandha,
bhdva- karma,

".,

bhdvand, 28
BadarikasVama, 432
bahiravabhdsanam, 337

bahirvydpti,157, 186

".,

tantram,

n.,

201,

316

bhdvanirjard, 195
bhdvapdratantrydt,312
bhdvariipa,453

346

bhdvasamvara,

221

w.

194, 195

bahujana, 131
Bahu^rutlyas,112

bhavasvabhavaiunyatdy 149

Bahvrca, 28

bhdvdbhdvasamdnatd,

bhdvatva, 453

n.

147

Baladeva, 70, 306

Bhavagane3a,

band/ia, 207

bhdvdsrava, 193, 194

bheda, 462
Bhedadhikkdra, 420

Baudhayana, 70
Badarayana, 70,
43""

223,

279, 422,

423,

429,

Bhiksu, 224, 271

Bhiksuka, 28 n.

tatta, 488

bddhita,361
Bahva, 45
bdhya, 409 ".
Balaki Gargya, 33,

".

".

"., 415

200
bhogopabhogamdna,

34'

Bhoja, 212,

".

bhuta, 328
bhutas, 214,

181 "., 432

Bengal,40, 256, 306, 308

Asiatic

Journal,
Society's

230,

233 ".,

235,

236

bhrama, 337
Bhurisrsti,306

bdlopacdrika,
150
Benares, 39,

243

bhoga, 224, 259, 268, 273

bhogdrtham, 424

1 50
bdhyabhdvdbhdvopalaksanatd,

Bengal

212,

bhedakalpand, 340

433

Behar, 308

357

193
191

bhdva-lefyd,191

191

129

n.

322 n.,

""

bhdsya,86

472, 481
253
Avasyaka, 171
dvirbhiita,257

n.

n.

Bhdsdpariccheda, 280, 281, 307,

dvarandbhdva,

95, 121,

100

434

Bhdmati, 114W.,
Bharuci, 433

dvarana,

".,

bhaulika, 216, 299 n.

bhava, 85, 87, 89, 90^., 92; meaning of,
85 n. ; meaning of,discussed,90 n.

Bhagavata,
bhdgya, 220

Atman, 28 n., 31 n.
Atmatattvaviveka, 307
dtmavdda, 401 n.

bahudhdkrtam

n.

bhatta-mata,69

"y/w.r, 268
dyu ska- karma,

28

Bhattacintdmani, 371, 417

n.

dtmakhydti 384, 385

dtman, 23, 26, 27, 32, 45,
138, 147, 214,
93, in,
292, 295, 298, 300, 303,
360, 429, 459 "., 460,

dyatana, 85, 88

436

Bharadvdja-vrttiy
306

n.

dtmaikatva, 433

vital

422,

bhakti, 77

Bhasmajdbdla,
28

421,

Bhaktdparijnd,I'jin.

dJrta, 312

Atmabodha,

i86"., 309

".,

Bhadrayanikas, 112
Bhagavadgitd, 8, 64, 227,
Bhagavati, 171

dssdsa, 103

diankd-pratisedha,186
diraya, 312, 460
diraydstddha,361

499

310

bhiitatathatd,130, 134
32"2

Index

5oo
bkutddi, 249, 251, 253

dtman

bhuyodariana, 347, 348

Bi-bhautik,329

character

of,

creation

and

Indica, 337 n., 346 n.

Birth, 84, 89 ; determined by last

as

Bibliotheca

in, 25

thought,

90

Blessedness, 61
Bodas, 276, 279
bodka, 412

Bruno, 40

hi, 173
bodhibhdvand, 202
bodhtsattva, 127, 150, 151

Bodhisattvas,136,137
Bombay, in., 28 w., 317
brakmabhuta, 215 n.
28

Brahmahood,

n.

n.

226, 227

200,

236,

n.y

si, 23, 28/*., 32, 34,

301 ".,

211,

430,

215,
431,

35,

58, 60, 80, in,

144,
228, 234, 235, 239,

436, 437, 438,

434,

445, 446, 447, 451,

440,443,444,

452,

458, 461, 468, 469, 481, 482,

483, 489, 491; as highestbliss,48;
and
immanent
as
transcendent, 50;
457.

as

ordainer,49

silence,45

as

in Satapatha,
principle

the

of

cause

all,48 ;

ultimate

as

as

preme
su-

20;

as

cause,

dualistic conception of, 48; equivalent

to dtman,
identified with
45;
natural objects,
44 ; instruction of Praja53;

pation, 46; meanings of, 20; negative

method
of knowing, 44; positivedefinition
of, impossible, 44;

of

powers

of
gods depended on,
37 ; powers
natural objectsdepended on, 37 ; priest,

quest after, 42;

i3".;

inadequate,
43
of, 37

; transition

substitutes of,
of the meaning

three currents

of

thought

regarding, 50; universe created

of, 44
40 ; unknowability
Branmanaspati, 23, 32, 43
Brahma
Samaj, 40
Brahma-sutra, 45 "., 86"., 91 ".,
430,

432,

out

of,

n"

143 ".,

470

Vaisnava

commentaries

Brahma-sutrabhdsya, 3 1 9
Brahmavidyd, 28 n.
brahmavidyd, 34 n.
brahmavihdra, 103, 144

Brahmayana,

126

30.

31,

of, 8

n.

33-

rebirth in, 87

226,

mn.,

n.

Brhati, 370

86"., 93, 94, 102, 107, 109, no,

112,
118, 119, 125, 127, 133, 142, 144, 147,
169, 173, 174, 227, 263 n.\ his life,81

Buddhacaritakdvya,
Buddhadeva,

94, 96, 99,

".,

of

161, 470; his view

form, 88; his view of
105,

and

name

viftndna, 89;

on
theory of perception,97
Buddhahood, 84, 136, 137

Buddhapalita,128
Buddhas, 136,

137, 424

Buddhavamsa,

83
Buddhayana, 125 n.

buddhi, 213,
240

n.,

214,

242,

216, 218

249,

251,

n.y

224,

225,

258, 259, 260,

261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 267, 271, 273,

276, 281, 295, 299, 311, 316,

275,

332 "-, 368, 399, 415, 416,

33i,
460
buddhi-nirtndna,i$6n.t 311
buddhinihaya, 409 n.
Buddhism,
1, 9, 74, 75, 78, 83, 95, 108,
no,
in,
129, 138, 155, 161, 165, 168,
33""

209,

212,

219,

237 ".,

238, 274, 312, 322 n.y 417, 465; attion

makhydti theoryof illusion,
385; causaas
tdddtmya and tadutpatti,
345;
criticism of momentariness
by Nyaya,
criticism of the nirvikalpa per274;
ception
of
of Nyaya, 339 ff.; currents
thought prior to, 80; denial of the
of negation, 357 ff ; denial
existence
of wholes, 380 ". ; Dharmakirtti's
tribution
conthe
tance,
to
theory of concomiof
Dihnaga's doctrine
351 ;
universal
inference,
proposition and
n.\

Dihnaga's view

of

the

new

knowledge acquiredby inference,388".;

31, 35
i^n.,

n.

129

116

Buddhaghosa, 82, 83, 92

350

35,

115,

n.

Brahma, ii6n., 324

Brahmins, 10, 11, 12,
Brahmanas, 6, 12, 13,
*9"

49"., 50, 55,

56, 57, 61, 88"., lion.,

263 n., 432 n., 469,470;
Brhadratha, 227

169, 175, 208,

Brahmasutras,
62, 64, 70, 121 "., 223,
279, 418, 420, 421, 422, 429, 431, 433,
439

31, 33, 34 ".,

39, 42 n., 45".,

14,

Brhatkalpa, 1 7 1 n.
Brhatsamhitd, 327 n.
Buddha, 7, 64, 65, 67, 79, 80, 84, 86,

236

n.y

52, 54. 55.

168, 202,

28 ".,

Brhajjdbdla,28

Brahma-knowledge, 491
36" 43"

n.

35. 37"m

55

20,

into

Brhaspati, 79

Brahmajdlasutta, 65
Brahman,

development of,

169

Brhadaranyaka,

n.

brahmacarya, 199,
270, 283

British,11, 371

bod

Brahmabindu,

13; composition of, 13;

evolution
bined
theory com-

Upanisads, 31; karma doctrine of, 72;

meaning of, 1 3 n.
Brahmana
thought, transition of, into
Aranyaka thought, 35
Brahmanism,
Breath, 272

bodhdbodhasvabhava,)412
Bodhayana, 433
Bodhdyana bkdsya, 433

in, 27 ;

essence

supreme

25, 27, 28,

208, 404,

429;

doctrine

of

matter,

95;

of

doctrine

momentariness, 158; doctrine

of

non-

Index
self,161 ff.; doctrine of momentariness
and

doctrine

of

doctrine

of

the

i63ff.
;

causal

efficiency,

pancakdrant
determining cause-effect relation,

as
futed
re-

by Vacaspati, 352; doctrine of

tdddtmya and tadutpattias grounds of
inference refuted
by Vacaspati, 352 ;
epistemologyof the Sautrantikas,
408 ff.;

501
339,

340,

352,

357,

345.

34i"

34"5,
347, 348, 350,

362, 363, 380

".,

385, 411,

4i3#
buddhitattva,249,
Bulletin

250
V Academic

de

des Sciences

de

Russie, ngn.
Burgess, J., 170 n.
Buhler, 170 n., 276

evolution of thoughtin, 166; heretical

schools prior to, 79; identityand recognition, caitasikakarma,
123
162 ; influence on Mimamsa
caitta, 121

logic,388,
103;

of existence,
in, 93; onto-

nature

390;

no-soul

doctrine

logical problems, 1646*".

; relation of
substance
and quality,164; relation of
universals and particulars,
164; relation
of the whole
and the part, 164; relation
of cause
and
effect, 164; relation of
inherence, 165; relation of power
to
the power-possessor,
165; relation to
Upanisads, 80; schools, rise of, 112;
sense-data

and

sensations

in, 95

; state

of

philosophypriorto, 78 ; the khandhaschools, 112;

doctrine,93 ; Theravada
views on
sdmdnya, 318 n.; vydpti by
negative instances, 389 n. ; Yogacara
epistemology, 41 iff.
Buddhism
avijjd in, 99; causal
(early),
connection, 84; definition of samadhi,
101
truths, 101 ; importance
; four noble
tion
classificaof feeling,
97 ; kamma,
the doctrine
of, 108; kamma,
of,
and
106; karma
desire, 108; khandhas
"I," 98; kilesas in, 100;
as
meditation
tion
in, stages of, 105 ; meditaof

human

meditation
etc., 103;

niwana,
contrasted

impure,

as

103 ;

pity
friendship,

nivvdna
and heresy in, 109;
theoryof,108; no-selfdoctrine,
with Upanisad self-doctrine,

objectsof

no;

pessimism

in,

concentration,
102

n.

breath, 103;

in, 97;

sila

and

science

theory

sense-contact

samadhi

104;

preparatory

for meditation, 102;

measures

of

body

of universal

in,

100;

theory of cognitionin, 96 ; Upanisads,

relation with, 109; volition in, 98
Buddhism
in Translations, 88 n., 897*.,
gon.,

99".,

Buddhismus,

107 n., 108 n.,

218

win.

n.

caittadharma,

12

caittasamskrta

dharmas,

124

112
caittikas,

268
cakradhramivaddhrtas'arirah,

Cakradatta, 231
cakraka, 205

Cakrapani, 213 "., 231, 235, 236

Cakrapanidatta, 230
cakravarttt,gin.
CakravarttI, Mr, 308 n.
Calcutta,165 "., 168
Calcutta

University,
121,

Cambridge,

155

208 ".,

213

".

Candrakanta

Tarkalamkara, 279
Candraklrti,85^., 86n., 87, gon., 109,
138, 140, 166; his
125 n., 128, 129,
of nama,
88 n.
interpretation

Candraprajnapti,
171
Candrikd,

n.

212

Canddvija,171

n.

Capacity, 159, 160

Caraka, 91
219,

n.y

212,

224, 231,
; his view

304 n.
of Samkhya

213,

216, 217, 218,

280, 281, 287

of soul, 91 n.

n.y
;

302,

system

in, 214
kdrikd, 280
Caraka
samhild, 302
Caraka, s'drtra,280 n.
Caraka

Carake
carv,

Patafijalih,
235
79

Carydpitaka, 83

Categories,
281,

283, 287,

461, 492
Category,317, 378

312,

313,

365,

413,

"., 398, 442,443,

catudhdtuvavatthdnabhdvand, 102

catuhsictri,70
catuhfarana, 1 7 1
catuMataka, 129
caturanuka, 326

493

n.

Buddhist, 130^.,

161, 163,169,177, 178,

cauryya,
193
Causal activity,165; collocations, 341;
278, 299, 300, 378,
163, 168; movement,
389 n., 390, 394, 406, 423, 429, 434,
efficiency,
320
Causation, 466, 468 ; as real change,
works, 82; council,
437, 465; canonical
129; doctrines,281; literature,78, 82,
53
sionaries,Cause, 326
155,
92; logic, 120,
157, 309; misCause-collocation,
274, 275
301 n. ; philosophy, 3, 7, 84,
cdgdnussati,102
psychology, 96, 96 n.
145, 164, 210;
Buddhistic, 81, 427 ".; doctrines, 82,
cdmara,
172
237,

230*

233,

100;

texts, 109

Buddhists, 7, 68, 68 n., 75, 112, 129, 147,

167, 173* J74" 182, 185, 186, 187, 196,
203,
229, 240 "., 257, 274, 279, 296,
301, 307, 309, 310, 318, 325, 331, 332,

cdritra, 195, 199

Carvaka, 68, 71, 87, 302
Carvakas, 78, 79, 325, 332, 345, 362, 394;
philosophy of, 79
Central India, 172

Index

502
cest"y 264
karma

cetana

96, 97, 98,

cetana,
228

123

108, 213,

101,

214,

n.

416, 417, 428,

448, 449' 45",
456, 457, 458, 460,
455'
454,
451,
481,
482,
485,
491
472,
399,

400,

412,

415,

438,

444,

445,

447,

cetasy i\l

Consciousness-stuff, 250

cetasika, 101
cetati,124
cctovimutti, 106

Copemican,

296, 302, 360, 362

Channagarikas,112

Cosmos,
Cowell,

University,3
Cosmology, 221, 276

"r^/a, 294,

Chdndogya, 28
39, 46"., 47
88".,
226

iu".,

263 w.,

54".,

173. i74"-"

i33".,
n.,

432

Chdydvydkhydy

53,

49 "., 51M.,

w.,

36,

35 ".,

n.t 30, 33, 34 w.,

now.,

".,

w.,

128, 138 ".

487, 488
citra, 313
".,

462, 465, 485

445,

".,

n.

dabbasambhdrasadisd,
Daksa, 23
daksind, 36
DaksindmHrlti, 28 n.
dama, 490
dandaniti, 277

96

citta, 76, 89, 91

96, 106, 113, 121,

124, 129, 140, 146, 258, 260, 261, 262,
262 n.y 263, 264, 265, 266, 268, 269,
272, 426, 427, 428, 460
".,

cittabhumi, 268

cittadharmay 121
cittasamprayuktasamskdra, 86
cittavimukta, 151

121

cittavrttinirodha,235
codandlaksanah

arthah, 427

".

DafaJrutaskandha,
171
Daiavaikdlika, 171

n.

Collocation, 255,
332,

256, 257,
342,

their method

412,

274,

320,

413,

of treatment,

66

Compendiums, 2
Compound concepts,
Concentration,103,

94 ;

104,

feelings,
94

105, 227, 234

272, 342,

437, 490
157, 159, 160, 308, 322,
3*5, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 351,
35*,
353, 354, 356, 358, 364, 388,

38o"., 390, 393,456

Conformations, 86
161, 214, 239,
366, 368, 378, 379,

412,
n.

45".,
439

416,

413,

261, 262, 337,

424;

perception,
331,
26

Deussen,

w.,

49 w.,

cognition,

334,

378

29, 32 "., 38, 39 ".,

438 ".,
52, 58/*., 423,

""

118, 176, 290, 391, 392,

Devadatta,

117,

393,411,

483
120

Devananda, 170, 173

Deva

Suri, 172, 309

devaydna,

34, 54,

Devendrastava,
Devi, 28 n.

dhamma,
84

Conglomeration,163
Consciousness, 94,

379,

Devaksema,
".,

Concomitance,

353,

4"

detdvakdHkabrata, 200
deiita,423
Determinate,
185, 225,
343

Commentary, 70, 306, 309, 433

Commentators, 64, 65 ; elaborations made
by, 66
Compendium, 85/*.,86 n.

268, 271,

".,

Dattdtreya, 28 n.
daurmanasya, 86 n.
ddna, 283
ddnapdramitd, 127

325,

416, 467
Collocations,160, 363, 367, 374, 466
Commentaries,
63, 67, 285 "., 308, 422,
;

280

".,

3""9

detepabandha, 256

Co-effects, 321
33""" 33i"

n.

ddnasamiti, 199 n.
Darashiko, 28^., 39
Death, 50, 58, 59, 84, 103, 201
Debate, 406, 407
Deccan, 432
Delhi, 39
Demerit, 264, 281, 317, 324, 325, 342
Desire, 108, 225,228, 295, 299, 300, 311,

n.

121
cittaviprayukta,
cittaviprayuktasamskdra,86 n.
cittaviprayuktasamskdradharma%
cittaviiuddhiprakarana,129

of, 68

dartandvaraniya, 190, 193, 196

dariandvaranlya karma, 194
Dasgupta, S. N., 397 n.

Dcdavaikdlikaniryukti, 186

492

*43,

107

Creation, 206, 324, 326

Creator, 326, 364

darjana,
189, 190; meaning

260, 299, 416,

"'" 75. 238, 240,
241,
450, 453" 457" 458" 472" 481, 482, 486,

470

Craving,

212

ajndnam, 457

Citsukha, 238

325
2

Cullavagga, 108

433

Chedasutras, 171
Childers, 99^., 263 ".
China, 278
Chinese, 4, 119, 122 "., 125
Chinese translations,120
Christian, 21
cinmdtrdiritam

31

Cornell

82,

dhammadesand,
240,

Dhammapada,

380,

dhammas,

104,

58,

171
102

84
83
166

125

n.

n.

different meanings of,

".

Index
82, 83, 94, 95

Dhammasangani,
100

".,

99,

n.

82

dhammavisesatthena,
82
dhammdtireka,

Dhanapala, 172
56, 122, 131, 136,137, 145, 161,
195, 197, 198, 202, 256, 257, 281, 282,
285, 286 "., 291, 292, 316,3i6"., 317 n.,
322, 323, 383, 403, 404, 405, 423, 424,
427 n., 428; meaning of, 84 n.

dharma,

dharmadhdtu,

130,

131,

151,

dravatva, 280, 285

w.

151*
256
dharmapanndma,
Dharmarajadhvarindra,

of perception,

dhar?naskandha,

67, 419,

420,

86 "., 94
120

dhartnasvdkhydtatdbhdvand, 202
dharmas'dstras, 278
Dharmatrata,

115,

dharmastikdya,

120

195

Dharmottara, 151, i52".,

163 "., 168, 181, 309

Dharmottariyas,

i53"., 154, 155,

112

Dhar, 230, 308

dhdrand, 272
anas' dstra, 229

dhruva, 175
122
d/fc?Yz,
Dhurtta
Carvakas, 78, 79, 362

dravyaleiyd,191
dravyanaya, 177
dravyanirjard, 195
dravyaparamdnu, 121
Dravyasamgraha, 171,
Dravyasamgrahavrtti,
197^., 198 "., 199 w.
dravyasamvara, 194
dravyatva, 287, 312
dravydsrava, 194

w.

194

".,

".

447, 450, 451

203,

".,

294, 295, 302, 350,

drstisrstivdda,420
duhk'ha,86 n., 106, 133,

".

vivekinah, 365
duhkhaskandha, 86 w.
duhkham

106 n.,

dustarakunibandhapankamagndndm,
dutiyam jhdnam, 105
288

dvandva,

dvddasdnga,

Digambaras, 170, 172

Digambara Jain Iconography,
Dignaga, 350 ".
digvirati,200
200
digviratibrata,
dfcfe,
311, 316, 322

""W0,

322

heyah, 265

samsarak

duhkhabahulah

".

120,

276, 316, 342,

426

Btiddha, g2n.,

the

68 w.
OTjf**,

Difference, 462, 463, 464

Differentiation,225

35i"

192 ".,

drstdntdbhdsa, 390
202,

Dialectic, 407, 435, 492

Dialectical,421

35o "-,

193 "., 203

389

236, 272
Dhydnabindu, 28 "., 228
dhydnapdramitd, 127
dhydndgnidagdhakarma, 201
Dhydyitamusti sutra, 125 w.

307,

w.

191

""#"" 349
drstdnta, 185, 186

Dinnaga, 63,

198,231,232,285,286,
317, 318,

drs'yatva,
445

dhvamsdbhdva,
293 "., 359
dhydna, 81, 102 "., 145, 150,

Dinakari,

453,

n.

dravyabandha, 193
dravyakalpand, 340

dr/, 68 w.
dWya, 444,

120

Dialogues of

365,452,

Dream, 425, 442, 451, 470, 488

Drdhddhyas'ayasancodands'utra,
125
**, 447, 450

n.

dhdtu, 121, 127, 149, 213

Dhdtukatha, 83

10

301,

n.

3o6"., 312,313,
334" 34". 380 "., 428
304,

dravya karma,

Dharmasamgraha,

107

287, 294,
320,

470 n., 471

dhutangas,

afoa, 100, 294, 300,

484, 486, 487
dosas, 228 ft., 295

Dravidacarya, 433
340 ".,
ference,dravya,
; theory of in175, 197,

i55flf.
; theory

Dhdtukdya,

100

Divergence, 464
Digha, 8on., 81 "., 91 "., 108
Dlgha Nikdya, 83, 106
Dlpavamsa, 83 n., 112 "., 119
dirgha, 314 "., 315
dlrghaparimdna, 316

155, 168, 309,

351, 362, 409 n., 410

Dhdr

ditthi,6$n.,

Doubt, 225, 262, 294, 295

drastd,444, 445

137

Dharmaguptikas, 112
dharmakdya, 132, 137
Dharmaklrti,

503

70

".

".
02

306

Dvaraka,
1

307

93 ?2., 143" 144,

dvipaddm

varam,

220

".,

267, 316

423

dvitva, 314

dvipas,235
dvyanuka, 314, 323,
Dyads, 314, 31 5

324,

326, 327

".

155 "., 167, 307, 309,

355 "", 362, 388

n.

Earth, 23
Earth
ball, 104, 106

Disputes, 66

Eastern

Dissolution, 324
ditthdsava, 99, 100

East

Rajputana, 172

India, i20".
Effect, 164, 165, 325, 326, 331, 332, 345,

Index

504
347" 348, 349"

3^4.

359 """

4"*", 4*7.

Effect-collocation,274, 275
116
Efficiency,
Eggeling, i3".,
Ego, in,
133,
Egoism, 301
Egyptians, 4

24

20".,

134.

225,

ekatvab Havana,

28

Garuda,

ekatvdnyatva, 148

n.

Gaudabrahmdnandi,

113

Gaudapada, 212,
418, 422, 423,

Ekdksara, 28 ".
ekdnta, 193
Ekanti, 421, 422
101
ekdrammana,

gavaya,

ckdtmapratyayasdra, 425

Gaga Bhatta,

236,

225,
441,

445,

Embryo,

490;

59,

289

306

n.,

354,

243 n.,

426, 427, 429,

127,

201,

362, 366, 419,

as
optimism,76

203,

436,

n.

112

n.

156, 285, 286, 287, 313, 317,

378, 379. 389
Germany, 40

Genus,

Geschichte

57

391, 486
371, 417

der

indischen

".

Energy, 255, 251, 253, 254, 321

Energy-stuff,242, 244
English, 40
Epigraphica Indica, 170 n.
Epistemological,2, 3, 406, 408,

345,

Litteratur, 35

Geschichte des Buddhismus,

Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,

26 ".,
36 "., 80 "., 108 "., 119 ".,
169 "., 170;*., 172 "., 173 "., 190 w.,

186 "., 279,

396,397

Geiger,
107,

Empiricalinduction,348

211

242 ".,

425,

424,

63, 65, 71, 81,

Gautama,

gam,

101,

273,

420

222, 223,

435" 437

eklbhdva, 409 w.
ekodibhdvam, 105

Emancipation,

33*"-,
""

Garbe, 33, 34, 218

Garbha, 28 n., 31 n.

114

112,

55

gandha tanmdtra, 252

Ganges, 136
Ganganatha Jha, Dr, 384 n.
Gahgesa, 63, 308, 309, 322 ".,
334"-".338, 34^ """ 343 n~" 347
Ganapati, T"n.
Ganivija, 171 n.

202

Ekavyavaharikas,
ekaydna, 125 ".
ekdgra, 268

423

Gandharvas,

w.

458

*"*, 18
ekacittasmim, 97

ekaggatd, 105, 106

ekaprthaktva,293
ekasdmagryadhinah,

gaganopamam,

gamaka, 388, 389

388, 389
gamya,
gandha, 313

439. 465" 466, 467. 468

n.

i2$n.

196
ghanapratarabhedena,
ghatatva, 412
Ghoshal, S. C, 193
Ghosa, 115, 116
Ghosaka, 120

n,t

n.

203

Gift,'
36
Gnostics, 14
go, 39 x"

396

Epistemology,299, 415, 419, 431

Equilibrium,245, 246, 248, 255, 258, 259

God, 10, 17, 49, 204, 205, 206, 233, 234,

288, 325, 326, 394, 396/*.,
399, 403, 404
Goldstiicker, 227 ", 279

Eschatological,304
identity,345

v8n.
Gopdlapurvatdpini,
28
Gopdlottartdpini, n.

410

Essential
esana,

gotra, 193

195

gotra-karma, 191, 194

Eternal, 290, 292

Europe, 1, 6, 40, 62

European,

f,

6, 9,

gotva, 317
121,

I30".,

169;

philosophy,62
evambhuta-naya, 178 n.
Evolution, 225, 245, 246, 247, 259, 311
Evolutionary course, 256; process, 259
Existence, 164, 168; Buddhist definition
of, 160
Faizabad, 39
Fallacies, 312, 390

gotvajdti,317
Gough, 2
Govardhana,
329, 330 n.
Govinda, 418, 423, 432
Govindananda,
85 "., 86
9i".,

Greek

literature,40

Greek

philosophy, 42

Greeks, 4
Guhadeva,

Flame, 162

Gujarat, \20t1.,

Forces

of Nature

adored, 1 7

Gacchas, 170
Gadadhara
Bhattacarya,308
Gaganaganja, 125 n.

89

".,

90 w.,

grahya, 409
Greek gods, 16

substances,243
Feeling-

Fallacy,301

".,

419

433

172

196, 217,

gttna, 84,

221,

222,

223,

224,

228, 244, 245, 246, 258, 259, 273,

273 "., 280, 281, 285, 286, 287, 304,

3o6".,
3""

312,

334,

313,

339" 4*3

316, 317, 318,

320,

Index

506

languages, 121; logic, 172,

School,
350, 388 n. ; Medieval

ideas, 9;
309,

309 ".; mind, 31

Indian
62,
philosophy,

67, 113, 197, 232,

tion
465 ; associa36o"
385"
38o"
4"7,
355.
conflict of systems in, 6 ;
difficulties,
3 ; historical records, 5 ;
history of, 3, 5 ; later stages, 5, 6 ;
of treatment
method
different,62 ; not
and

popularised,1 ;
optimism of, 76 ;

of systems

order

of,

published, 1

9 ; texts

Indians,

translatable,

not

74, 160 n.,

1, 3,

169

40
Indian

systems, 75, 180, 185, 394,418;

of, 71;
theory, generalaccount
pessimisticattitude of, 75; points of
between, 71, 77
agreement
Individual, 117, 118, 119, 122
karma

Indra, 18,

228

".,

160

n.

cause,

274

61
Intelligence,
Intelligence-stuff,
241, 244, 248
Invariability,
320
Invariable,321, 322, 352, 465, 466
Isomaric, 328
isana, 199

doctrine
1906*".
;

195 ff.;doctrine

of nayas,

of

matter,

trine
176; doc-

186 ".; doctrine

of ten propositions,
of
of senses,
i84".; doctrine
syddvdda, 1 79 ; doctrine of universals,

196,197; ethics of, 199 ff.;its ontology,

in,
1736".;literature of, 171; monks
of knowledge, 181 ff.;
nature
172;
of

substance, 174; non-perceptual

knowledge, 185; origin of,
tivity
169; relative pluralism,i75ff.; relaof judgments, 1796*".
of,
; sects
170; soul-theory,i88ff. ; standpoints
of judgment, 177;
theory of being,
of
illusion,
theory
183, 183 ".;
187;
theory of perception,1836".; validity
of knowledge, 188; yoga, 199
Jains, 7, 73, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175,
176, 177, 180, 184, 185, 186, 197,
198, 209, 212, 240, 309, 325, 330, 350,
characteristics of, 172
363, 364; some
jalpa, 294, 296, 302, 360
nature

n.

jard, 86 n.
j'ardmarana, 86, 80, 92
Jayanta, 67, 79, 160 "., 307,

n-

28 "., 31, 39, 50,

m,
Isana, 50
fsvara, 68, 145, 203,
".,

191;
of livingbeings, 189; doctrine
of
doctrine
emancipation, 207;

Japanese,303

Itsing,120?/.

248

192,

in, 203 ff.;

Janaka, 34
janma, 294
Japan, 278

itaretarcdunyatd,149

195, 199

434;

n.

Jambudvipaprajflaptiy
171

n.

iti,230
Itivuttaka, 83
irya,

394, 401,

208, 209, 212;

classification of
vision
cosmography, 199; di-

3, 9, 175,

karma,

Infinitude,61
Inherence, 165, 285, 312, 319, 336, 349,
381, 382, 403, 450, 483
Injunction,396, 397, 403, 404, 405, 430,
436, 437, 49"
Inorganic,51
Instrumental

186 "., 188 n., 197

Jainism,

of

308, 331, 332, 333, 343, 344, 345, 346,

347. 348, 35o, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355,
356, 360, 363, 364, 376, 384, 387, 388,
389, 39"" 393" 4"4, 412, 414, 447, 454,
ditions
470, 482, 483; (Buddhist), con450,
of concomitance, 156
Infiniteness,
58

".,

prakrit, 171;
religion, 169;
210;
186
scriptures,
fainatarkavdrtika, 171, 1 83 ". , 184 ".,

472

Inference, 155, 156, 159, 160, 185, 269,

280, 285, 287, 289, 293, 297, 298, 303,

280

literature,169; logic, 309; logicians,

186 n.\
Maharastri, 171; philosophy,

karma,

indriya, 123, 184 "., 193,

indriydrtha,214, 288
Inertia, 246

Infinite regress,

Jaina, 65, 68, 74,

atheism

10

272

21,

429

Jaimini sutra, 430

Jain,79, 258, 309

Indian, scholars, 41; system, 64, 144;

thinkers, 3 ; thought, 22 ; wisdom,

Indo-European,

Jdbdla, 28 n.t 31 "., 35 n.

Jdbdladars'ana,28 n.
Jdbdli, 28 n.
Jacobi, Prof.,169 "., 170W., 172, 173W.,
i90"., 277, 278, 279, 307, 421
jadatva, 445
Jagadisa Bhattacarya,306, 308
jagatprapaiica,443
Jaigisavya,229 n.
Jaimini, 69, 281, 282, 369, 370, 427,

in

432

".,

330
220,

223,

255,258, 259, 267, 271,

284, 300, 304,

307, 311,

325, 3*6, 327, 355,

n.

322,

234 ".,
282 ".,

323,

324,

363, 365,438, 469,

493
.

Isvarakrsna,212, 218, 219,

iJvara-pranidkdna, 270
fsvardnumdna,308 "., 326

222

".,

365 n.

".,

337"355"",

321,

326 ".,

362

Jayaditya,231
Janakinatha Bhattacarya,308
jdta, 423
Jdtaka,83
jdti,84, 89, 92, 294, 296, 298, 301, 302,
304 """ 3!7" 3J8, 3*9" 339, 3"", 2,61,
378, 379, 38o, 381, 382, 403, 424, 445,
483, 49*

Index
jdtikalpand, 340 n
Jdtirindriyagocard,382
338
jdtyddisvariipdvagdhi,
Jhalkikar,Bhlmacarya, in.

Jha Ganganatha, Dr,

397

n.,

jhdna,

405

Kantian, 4097/.

Kanada, 65, 68"., 71, 282, 284, 286,

287, 288, 289 "., 291 "., 305, 316 ".,
372,

370,

378

n.t

n.

103,

102,

104,

105,

106;

paratory
pre-

425,

457,

for, 102

measures

jhdna-samddhi,102
jijndsd,302
jina, 144, 199
jiva, 75, 188, 189, 198, 238,
461, 469, 482
iivanmukta,

414,

kaivalya,28 n., 266

Kaiyyata, 231
kalala, 328
Vydkarana,

Kalisantarana,

28

282

".

kalpand, 129, 153, 408, 409

kalpanapodha, 408, 409 ".

".

kalpandpodhamabhrdntam, 153
kalpas,138
kalpasutra,171
Kalpataru, 418
Kalpataruparimala, 418
Kalpdvatamsikd, \*j\n.
kalpitasamvrti, 428
".

73, ggn.,

Yoga- view

239;

74;

karmakdnda,
karmas,

190,
and

marga,

29;

191,

192,

Jaina-view
vargand,

430,

436

210

259, 325, 491

201,

karmasdmarthyam, 316
karmatva, 287
karmavijndna, 133, 135

n.

karmdsrava, 193
karmds'aya, 267
Karmins, 436
karund, 103, 104, 136, 203, 236, 270

Karundptindarlka,125
Kashmere, 39,
kasinam, 104

20".,

i20".,

Kassapa, 106
kasdya, 191, 193, 201,
Kathdvatthu, 83, 108
120

n.,

n.

256

313
".,

112,

113,

119,

157, 158 "., 465

18
Kathenotheism,
Katha, 28 n., 39*,
59, 60 n., 106,
45^.,
226n.,
211
227, 432/2. ; school, 31
n.,
Katharudra, 28 n.
katu, 313
kaumudi, 245 n.

Kausitaki,

n.

106
kamma,
101,
kammabhava,
87, 90
Kaniska, 129W.
Kant, 42

matter,

kausidya, 144

n.

kalala-budbuddvasthd, gin.

Kaldpa

73;

karmaphala,

fndtadharmakathds,171

16, 17^., i8"., i9".,

148, 192, 193, 194, 195,

133,

203,

192

jndtatd, 416, 448

jneydvarana, 132
Journal ofthe Bengal Asiatic Society,278,
276"., 279
Society,
/ournal of the Royal Asiatic
281 "., 303 "., 308 "., 310 ".
jyotisdm jyotih,54
15,

131,

compared,

jndndvarantya, 190, 193, 196

jndndvarantya karma, 194
jndnin, 68 n.
Jfianottama Mi"ra, 419
Jfiataclan, 173

".

123,

193,

Jndnaprasthdna Jdstrd,1 20
jndnaJakti,402, 460
/ndnasa?navdyanibandhanam,363
jndndbhdva, 456

24

Rahasy a, 306
kapardin, 433
Kapila, 68, 216, 218, 220, 221, 222, 233
Kapilavastu,81
karanadosajndna, 375
"WW10, 54, 55, 56, 57, 72, 74, 75, 80,
86 "., 87,90,90/2., 91, 107, 108, m,
206, 207, 210, 214, 215,
228 n., 233, 248, 266, 267, 268, 285,
286, 287, 291, 294, 300, 301, 304,
306 n., 312, 313, 316 n., 317, 318,
319, 320, 324, 327, 330, 363, 366, 440;
different kinds
of, 73; Jaina view of,

492

fivdbhigama, 1 7 1 ".
jivdstikdya,189
y"owa, 189 "., 190, 199, 367, 413,
416, 417, 437, 445. 455
jndna- karma-samuccaydbhdvah ,437
jndnakdnda, 436
jndna-kdrana, 448
jndnalaksana, 341, 342
jndna-mdrga, 29, 436

382

35"" 35i,

349'
Kanada-

202,

jivanmukti,268
Jivanmuktiviveka,419

Kaegi,

507

28 n.,

30,

39".,

50,

57 n.,

263 n.; school, 30

Kautilya, 227, 277, 278, 279
kdla, 175, 195, 198, 310, 311, 316, 322
Kdldgnirudra, 28 n.
kdldpabandha, 256
hdldtita, 360
kdldtyaydpadista,344
Kalidasa, 277 n.
kdma, 57, 88, 144
kdmacchanda,

kdmaloka, 134
kdmdsava, 99,

105
100

kdmya-karma, 489
Kafici, 418
Kapila Samkhya, 68
Kapya Patamchala, 230
kdrakavydpdra, 257

Index

5o8
idrana, 258
kdrana-dkdfa,

"rate, 88

319, 322, 427

".,

"ry/a, 340
kriydkalpand, 340
kriydtakti,460
kriddrtham, 424

253

kdrana-buddhi, 250
kdrana-sdmagri, 322

kdranasvalaksandnyathdbfidvah,468
kdranawruddhakdryyopalabdhi, 358
kdranaviruddhopalabdhi, 358
kdrandnupalabdhi, 358
"mia, 67, 224, 273 "., 342 "., 423

krodha, 201
krsna, 28 "., 73, 74, 266

yajurveda, 227
Krsnayajvan, 371
Kritikd,
387
Krsna

kdrmcUarira,73

ksana, i$jn.,

kdrmanaiartra, 192
"jrya, 257, 258 "., 286

".,

ksanikdh, 114

Ksattriya,34, 35, 173,

ksanti,

ksdntipdramitd, 127
ksdyika, 192
ksdyopaiamika, 192
ksetra, 214,

ksetrajna,214
ksipla,268

31

Kavya, 172
kdyagupti, 199
kdyendriya, 123
kdyika, 108
kdyikakarma, 124
karma,
kdyikavijtiapti
".

Kukkulikas, ri2, 113

Kumarajiva, 122 "., 128, 166
Kumdrasambhava,
277 ".
Kumarila, 67, 69, 129, 145, 151 "., 167,
209 "., 284, 355, 359, 369, 370, 371,
372, 378, 379" 38o, 382, 384, 386, 387,
388, 389, 39i" 392, 395. 396, 397, 399,
400, 401, 402, 403, 405, 416, 417, 432,
459* 484
Kundika, 28 ".
Kusumdnjali, 307, 326 "., 365 ".
kuialamula, 136

124

Keith, Prof., 36"., 351

".

28"., 30, 37, 39, 432

Mi"ra, 307

".

kevala, 173, 266

kevalajndna, 191 "., 207
kevalavyatireki,
353
kevaldnvayiy353, 354
kevalin, 207
khandha, 89, 93, 95, 104, 106, 161
Khandha
Yamaka, 94, 95 ".
khantisamvara, 101
Khanabhanga siddhi, 68 ".

Khandanakhandakhddya,

318

A7/fl^

462

1 2

".

150,

151 ".,

280, 423, 426 w., 429,

47o

170

Ay/a, 426
layayoga, 229
Le

Gentil, 39

Leipsig, 203 ".

/"r/jfl,
73, 191
Liberation, 273, 317
Life-functions, 262

/*"^a, 152,

306

Pdtanjal, 233

416
Knowledge as movement,
Knowledge -moments,
412;
411,
240

Laksandvali, 3

Lankdvatdra, 84 "., 125 "., 126 "., 128,

130 "., 138, 145 "., 146 "., 147, 148 ".,
149,

"/"p/a,142, 267, 301, 365

kleidvarana, 132
"/i"/"z,
269

kramabhdva, 186

laksanaparindma, 256
laksanatunyatd, 149

"., 419,

khinasava, 105
Khttddaka
nikdya, 83
Khuddaka
pdtha, 83
khydti vijiidna,
145
kilesas, 100
Kinetic, 246
Kirandvali, 306
Kirandvalibhdskara,

217

"r#*, 51, 252, 255, 310, 313, 314, 328

Ksurikd, 28 n.

103
kdyagatdsati,

khanikaitd, 104
Kharatara
Gacchas,
M*, 427

208

202

Kdthaka,

Kesava

".

ksanikatvavydpta,
159

Katyayana,230, 279

40

10

ksanika, 161

Katyayaniputtra, 120

Kemp,

".

409

Ksanabhangastddhi, 163 ".

ksanasamtdna, 409 ".
ksanasya prdpayitumaiakyatvdt, 4

319, 427

kdryakdrana-bkdva, 320
kdryakdranabhdvddvdy 352 ".
kdryatva-prayojaka,322
358
kdryaviruddhopalabdhi)
kdrydkdia, 253
kdrydnupalabdhi,358
Kdiikd, 263 "., 371
Kasyapa, 349
Kaiyapiyas, 112

Kena,

".

343,

344,

".

156, 157, 249, 293 "., 331,

345, 348, 35i, 356, 359,

412

linga-pardmarta, 351
/ftrigui,
345
/*7a,324
Lildvatl, 306
-stuff, /0M0, 100, 201

Logic, 172, 277

/i"a, 197, 198, 199

Index
lokabhdvand,

509

Mahayanists, 126

202

Lokaprakds'a,190W.

Mahisasakas,

Mas, 235
lokakdia, 189, 197, 199

Mahommedan,
39
Maitrdyani, 28"., 31, 39"., 211, 227,
236
Maitreyi, 28 n.
Maitreyi, 35 n., 61
maitri, 93 n., 136, 203, 226 n., 236, 270
Majjhima Nikdya, 83, 93 w., 99"., 100,

Lokayata, 7"".,227, 277

Lokottaravadins, 112
Lumbini
Grove, 81
Macdonell,
26

25".,

12,

137*.,

18, i9".,

22,

23,

n.

in

Makkhali

492

Sarasvati, 67, 420

70, 168

madhya, 199
madhyamaka, its meaning, 144
philosophy, 138
Madhyamaka
189
madhyama-parimdna,
Magadha, 120 n.
Magic, 127, 142, 424, 426, 428, 435,
469
force, 37; verses,
Magical, 80, 229;
36
mahat, 45, 213, 225, 226, 248, 249, 254,
3I5. 43i
255. 276, 290, 3i4"-"
mahatparimdna, 315
mahat-tattva, 249
Mahd, 28 n.
Mahdbhdrata,
79, 216, 217,
224,

307

Gosala, 79

Malabar, 432
Malebranche, 40 n.
Mallinatha, 277/*., 308, 362
man,

68

Man,

as

universe, 23

manahparydya, 191
manahiuddhi, 201

230,

231,

490

manana,

Mahamaya,

81

mahdmoha,
mahdn, 292

220

215, 225,

214,

295" 298, 300,

378, 402,
manaskdra,

218, 219,

Mahdniddna

MahdniHtha,

232,

233,

manovijndna,

".

doctrine, 127

Mahayanism,

124

86

125

".

marut,

255, 310

252,

Mass-stuff, 242,
z"tfto,68
Material

244

".

cause,

274, 286, 322,

323,

376,

453

377. 445,

Bhattacarya,308

Mathura

mati, 207

matijndna, 191

n.

Matter, 196
his life,

Maudgalyana, 120
Maulikya Samkhya, 217,
Max

its

125,

405

229

maranabhava,
91
marandnussati, 102

ence
differ-

166, 424;
Hinayana, 126; literature,
125 ".; meaning of, 125
Mahdydnasamparigrahas'dstra, 128
Mahay dnasutrdlamkdra, 125, 128, I46".,
147 "., 151 ".
sutras,

10

28 n., 228
Mandalabrdhmana,
Mandana
Mi"ra, 371, 418, 432
Maniprabhd, 318 "., 419, 485 n.

from

Mahayana

408

36, 69, 71, 283, 404,

manvate,
n.

n.

125,

134,

211

mantrayoga,

173

Mahayana,

46

124,

mantradrastd,

31,

Mahdvyutpatti,120

n.

60
dtman,

mantras,

Mahdparinibbdnasuttanta, 81 ".
Mahdpratydkhydna, ijm.
Mahasangha, 112
Mahasahghikas, 112, 113, 125
Mahdsatipatthdna Sutta, 107
Mahdvdkya, 28 ".
mahdvdkya, 439
Mahdvibhdsd, 120
Mahavira, 79, 169, 170, 171;

316, 365, 377,

311,

134

manomaya,

marana,

39 ".
suttanta, 92
171 ".

303,

460, 472

413,

89, 96, 124

manogupti, iggn.

n.

Mahdndrayana,

26, 43, 133, 146, 189, 213,

261, 262, 289, 291, 292,

25,

manas,

mantra,

mahdbhiita, 94, 95, 122

112
Mahdbodhivamsa,
mahdbrata, 200
mahdkarund,
138
MahdlamkdraJdstra,
129

"., 207

mano,

279
219,

n.

Mallisena, 171

manomaya

Mahdbhdsya,
235. 465

their

351

Makaranda,

Madhusudana

Madhva,

n.

Major,

mada, 144
madaJakti, 79
Madhusudana,

119

112,

128, 279, 421;

Miiller,'
10,

40".,

45

i$n.,

218

18, 38, 39

".,

n.

Mayukhamdlika,

371

68"., 79, 305

Madhava,
418, 419, 457, 469
Madhava
Deva, 308

n.,

371, 405 ".,

Madhavacarya, ii4".
mddhyamika, 127, 138, 429
Mddhyamika kdrikd, 125 n., 138, 426
Madhyamikas, 113

n.

Index

5""

91

i44".,

425*.

Mddhyamikaidstra,
mddhyaslha, 203
100,

400

108

mdnasika,

39, 418, 424,

28 ft., $m.,

Mdndukya,
".

Mdndiikya kdrikd, 418, 422

Manikya Nandl, 309
Mdradamanasutra

mdrdava,

"

213
142,

141,

144,

146, 149,
424, 426,
461, 4""5"

258, 273 ".,

43*i 435. 437" 438" 44*" 443"
467, 468, 469, 470, 492, 493
mdydhasti, 428
tndydkdra, 94
Chemical
Mechanical,
Physical and
Hindus, 213
Theories of the Ancient
Meditation, 103, 104, 105, 115, 161, 173,
151,

201,

241,

227, 234,

202,

201,

235, 317

megha, 220 n.
Memory, 185, 269,316 n., 340;

n.

of,

causes

perception,
400

Mercury, 287 n.
Merit, 264, 281, 312, 317, 324, 325, 342
406
Metaphysical,
Metaphysics, 161, 166, 403, 414, 415

Metempsychosis,25,

objections against the self-validityof

knowledge, 372 ff.; perception, senseorgans and sense-contact, 375 ff.;Prabhakara's
doctrine of perception contrasted
with

that

Prabhakara's

Sabda

459 ;

399 ff.; self

234

Mimdmsd

siitras,280, 281, 282, 285, 370,

372,"394
Mlmamsist, 359
mleccha, 294 n., 304

Molar,

143,

n.
220

".,

276, 300

170,

173, 190, 192, 195, 198,

216, 217, 283, 305, 3i7".

321

motion, 321
Molecules, 327
Momentariness, 158, 161, 164, 168, 209,
Molecular

281,
"".

37i,

284,

303,

346,

357"

372,

320,

212

Momentary,

".,

323,

363. 3^7,
375. 376, 382,

383. 385. 386, 390, 391, 394, 396,400,

403, 404, 406, 412, 417, 429, 430, 433,
435" 440. 448, 47i" 484. 485. 486, 400,
492 ; agreement

with

Nyaya Vai^esika,

akhydti theory of illusion,386;

anvitdbhidhdnavdda

yavdda, 395

122,

moksavdda, 401 n.
216
mokse
nivrttirnihs'esd,

mithyddrsti,145
mithydj'ndna,294, 365
mithydsatydbhiniveJa,148
mithydtva, 193
mithydtvanirukti,444 n.
Mimdmsd,
7, 9, 68, 129, 188, 189, 209

403;

100,

n.

199, 207, 215,

Mithila, 308

370,

220

moksa, 115,

103

n.

344

371

mohaniya, 191, 193

mohaniya karma, 194

India, i20".
Milinda, 83
Milindapanha, 83, 88, 89, 107, 163 n.

"".

self,

371

Mtmdmsa-nydya-prakdia,
Mimdmsdparibhdsd, 371

moha,

Middle

276/ 280,

394 ff.;

/ndnaJakti, 402 ; selfof

revealing character
knowledge,
382 ff.; self-validityof knowledge,
and arthdpatti,
3916".;
3 7 3 ff.; upamdna
vidhis, 404 ff; view of negation, 355 ff.
Mimdmsabdlaprakds'a, 371

Moggallana, 108, 263

Mindfulness, 101,
Mind
stuff,240 n.
Minor, 351, 362
Mirok, 278, 303

Nyaya, 343 ".;

self-luminosity,

pramana,

modamdna,

369.

of

as

mettdbhdvand, 104
Middle, 351, 362

343

of

view

mettd, 103

Misery, 295

hakara,
Prab-

of

sphota,
doctrine of samavdya,
381;
397 n.\
epistemology of Kumarila,
416 ff.;
epistemologyof Prabhakara, 415 ff.;
of, 69; indeterminate
general account
and
determinate
perception, 378 ff.;
inference,387 ff; influence of Buddhist
Mimamsa
logic on
logic, 388, 390 ;
Kumarila
and
Prabhakara,
372 ;
of
Kumarila's
view
self-luminosity,

Mimdmsdnukramani,

2i6n.
Mental

and

denial

legal value of, 69; literature,

369 ff.;non-perception,
397 ff.;Nyaya

127,

50,

ff.;

459;

144

Mdtharabhdsya,
woyJ,

1 2

202

mdtsaryya,

attained, Kumarila
400

201

144,

systems, 367 ff.; conceptions of jdti

avayavin, 379 ff.; conception of
of self,
Jahti, 402 n. ; consciousness
and

how

ittn.

356
mdnasa-pratyahsa, 343,

432

88".,
i43w""

142*.,

".,

141

".,

90".,

mdna,
mdnam,

86".,

vrtti, 85*.,

Mddhyamika

and

abhihitdnva-

comparison

with

other

104, 114,

165, 174, 187, 274,

33^" 339" 408, 471
Monk, 172, 173

141,

152,

299,

159, 160,

316

n.,

325,

Monotheism,
17
Monotheistic, 33

Mudgala,

28

n.

muditd, 103, 220 "., 236, 270

Muir, 20 n., 23 "., 32**., 33 n.
muhta, 73

mukta-jiva, 189
Muktdvali, 307, 322 n.
mukti, 58, 202, 248, 261, 269,273, 305
324,

366,

424,

440,

491 ; general

".,
ac-

Index
of, 74;
general agreement
systems in, 74

count

Indian

of

Muktika, 28 n., 263 n.

mumuksutva,
437
28 n., 39, 49, 56, 432
Mundaka,
Mula
Sarvastivada, 120
Miilasutras, 171

nidars'andbhdsa,351
nididhydsana, 490
nidrd, 193, 269

nigamana, 185, 296, 350, 353

Nigantha, 169
niggama, 157
nigodas, 190
nigrahasthdna, 294, 296, 301,
362
Nihilism, 138, 143

asti, 67
Naciketas, 59, 60
na-ekdnta, 175
na

naigamana, 186 n.
naigamanaya, 177
naimittika-karma, 489

nairdtmya, 147, 149

Naiskarmyasiddhi, 419
Naiyayika, 197, 203, 305, 332 n.,
347. 355, 362, 365* 381, 462, 49i
Nandivardhana,

333,

432

Philosophyofthe

Ancient

Hindus,

Nature, 43

Navadvlpa, 306, 308

Navya-Nyaya, 308, 353
176, 179, 187
naya,
Nayanaprasddini, 419
naydbhdsa, 178, 181
28 n., 228

ethics of, 144;

his

doctrine that
Nirvana
in, 142;

nothing exists,140;
pratityasamutpdda in, 139,
Nagesa, 212, 231, 235
namakalpand,
ndma-

143

340

karma,

191, 194

88, 89, 90,

122,

174, 439

89

171

Ndradaparivrdjaka,
N dray ana

28

n.

Narayanatirtha, 212, 242 n.

ndsti na prakds'ate,
458
ndstika, 67, 68, 208
Mahavira, 169
Nataputta Varddhamana
Negation, 147, 293, 304, 316, 318, 335,
336, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 398"
455, 456, 464,
444,
454,
399'
453,
485, 488

Negative, 461
Nemicandra,

Nepal,

171,

nirmmitapratimohi,145
nirnaya, 294, 296, 360
28 w.
Nirnaya-Sagara,
nirodka, 149, 268, 272
nirodha
samddhi, 271
Nirvana, 28"., 75, 81, 100, 119^., 126,
127, 128, 133, 135, 136, 139, 142, 143,
151,

169, 190,

215

n.,

423

n.

nirvicdra, 271

ndmarupa-padatthdnam,
ndmayati, 91
Ndndi,

n.

NirlsVara Samkhya, 259

nirjard,192, 195

145, 149,

n.

85, 86n.,

ndmarupa,

nimitta, 274, 323

nimitta-kdrana, 254, 438
nimittatthiti,93

Nirvanapariksd, 425

86n., 91, 193, 340

ndma,

Nihilistic,80; doctrine, 140

nihsvabhdva, 142, 146
nihsvabhdvaivam, 141

Nirdlamba, 28
nirdis'ati,124

Nagasena, 107
Nagarjuna, 109, 125 n.} 126, 128, 129 n.,
138, 144, 155 n., 166, 215 n., 233, 235,
279, 421, 423, 425 n., 427, 429, 465,
470, 493 ; essencelessness of all things,
141;

360,

nimittdpabandha, 256
nirabkilapyas'unyatd,
149
niratiiaydhcetandh, 228 n.
niravayava, 380 n.
Niraydvali, 1 7 1 n.

213

Nddabindu,

302,

nthsvarupatd,464
nihJreyasa,282, 285, 294, 305
Nikaya, 83

173

nirodho
na
na
cotpattih,
425
Narasimhacarya, 419 n.
Natural

New
York, 3 n.
ni, 38
Nibandhakara,
370
nidarJana, 350, 351

Niddesa, 83

Mystic, 229

Narbuda,

5ii

193, 194

n.

81

nescience, 449, 450, 452, 461

neti tieti,
44, 45, 61, 65, 110

nirvikalpa,334, 337, 378, 408, 412, 416,

483, 484
nirvikalpa-dvitva-guna,
314
426
nirvikalpahprapancopaJamah,
nirvikalpajndna,153 n., 182
nirvikalpaka,339
nirvikalpapratyaksa, 261
nirvikalpikd,337
nirvitarka, 271
nissatta nijjiva,
84
nissdya,94
nitcaya,409 ".

Nitttha, 1 7 1 w.
nisedha, 29
nisiddha-karma, 489
Niskantaka, 308, 362
nitya, 290, 316

".

nitya-karma, 489
nitydnitya,148
436
nitydnityavastuviveka,
nivrtti, 488

Index

5i2

Nydyasiddhdntamanjari,308

103, 104, 106, 108, 109

niyama, 155, 235, 270, 317 n., 345
niyama-vidhi, 404
niyatapurvavarttitd)
320

niwana,

Nydya suet, 278

Nydyasudhd, 371
Nydya sutra, 228

ni, 277

300

nilabodha, 410

Non-perception, 261, 356,358, 359, 397,

485
Province, 172

Nrsimhapurvatdpint,

28 ".,

".

32

Muni, 419, 420

291, 292, 305, 306 w., 315

Nyaya, 7, 9, 63, 68, 75, 87**., i57" '59"
161, 168, 177, 219, 269W.,274, 276, 277,
278, 279, 280, 294, 296,297, 299, 303,
3""4" 305" 3"7" 308, 3"9' 3io" 312 ".,

Number,

320,

325,

321,

326, 327, 328,

331,

332,

33", 339" 34", 343.

337"
346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 353,
354. 356, 36"" 36l" 362" 363* 364* 367"
368, 369* 372, 373" 376, 377. 378 """
380, 381, 382, 385, 391, 394, 396 n.,
397, 403, 406, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416,
417, 431, 434, 440, 446, 455, 459, 462,
465, 466, 484, 488, 492; nature of the
self,459 n.\ notion of time, 466
Nydyadtndu, 151, 152 n., 154 n., 155 ".,
168, 181, 309, 358 n., 4io".
Nydyabindutikd, 152^.,
155 ".,
i54".,
156"-, 359 n-" 4IOWNydyabindutikdtippani, 1 5 1 n ., 1 5 2 n. ,
333"

344

154

335"

""

NydyabodhinT, 330 n.
Nydyakandaliy 306,310
3i4".,

316 n., 317*,

328

".,

337 ".,

359

""

338

"., 311W.,

w.,

3i2".,

3H

"""

3*6 ".,

351

".,

355 ".,

Nydyakanikd, 371
Nydyakos'a,2 w.
Nydyalildvatiy3 1 7 fit,
Nydyamakaranda, 420, 486
Nydyamanjari, 67, 79, i6o"., 161, 162 ".,
276, 307, 311 w., 320,
i63"., 2i2w.,
322

336,

337

of

the

".,

326, 327

"., 330

"""

340 "",

345 *""

"., 332

347.

".,

353*

Vattesika
order

of causation
345

tdddtmya

""

doctrine

and

pati'sanswer,

339 ff.;Caraka

Nydyasutras,

302

300;

causation

and
of

causes
as

the

lection,
recol-

invariable

cular
moleas
antecedence, 321 ; causation
as
motion, 32 1 ; causation
tive
operaconditions, 322 ; classification of
inference, 353 ff.;classification of negation,
359 ; conception of wholes, 380 n. ;
cism
criticism of momentariness, 274; criti-

of the Samkhya

and

the Buddhist

ff.;criticism of
Samkhya
satkdryavdda, etc., 275 ff.;
criticism of the theory of causation
by
Vedanta, 466; debating devices and
the
fallacies, 360 ff.; discussion on
of
discussion
meaning
upamdna, 355 n.\
solution,
the sutras, 276 ff.;doctrine of dison
of

view

pramana,

331

doctrine of inference,
323;
trine
doctrine
of illusion,337; doc343 ff.;
trine
of paratahprdmdnya, 372 ff.;docdoctrine
of
of perception, 333;
of substance
soul, 362 ff.; doctrine
(dravya),310 ff.;doctrine of upamdna
and
Jabda, 3546".; doctrine of vydpti,
345 ff.;epistemology,412 ff.;erroneous
perception,336; fallacies of hetu, 344;
formation

Nydyasdra, 308, 309

Nydyasiddhdntadlpa, 308

ff.; argument

280

tadutpatti,
dhist
ff.; atomic combination, 326 ; Budcriticism of nirvikalpaand Vacasas

five premisses of

358 w., 359 """ 36*"362^,363,

366 "., 373 "., 380 "., 414 n.t
417 "., 459 "., 467
Nydyamanjarisdra,308
Nydyamd/dvistara, 371, 405 m.
Nydyanibandhaprakdia,63, 307
Nyayanirnaya, 307, 418
Ny"yapradipa, 308
NydyapraveJa, 309
Nydyaratnamdld, 371, 417 ".
Nydyaratndkara, 370, 378;*.,388, 389 w.,

',

and

arguments againstthe Buddhist

365

".,

sutras

arrangement, in
favour of the existence of God, 363 ff.;
from

355 """

390

362,

".,

186 ".
Nydya sictrabhasya,
Nydya sutras, 71, 120, 276,278, 279, 294,
301, 303* 3p5 327"-" 360
Nydyasutravivarana, 307
Nydyasutroddkdra, 278
Nydyatdtparyamandana, 63, 307
63
Nydyatdtparyatikdpari"uddhi,
Nyaya-Vai^esika, 167, 178, 256 "., 281,
284, 294 "., 305, 310, 311, 312, 313,
318, 319, 320, 323, 326, 330, 335, 341,
355. 366, 367".
37 x" 4"3" 49* 5 antiquity

".,

321,

342

"

nodanavis'esa,291
Non-existence, 356, 357

Nrsimha^rama

277, 297;*.,

".,

307,

430

".

nilatvajdti,
317
niriipakhya,124
Noble path, 124

North-western

"., 229

306,

302,

".,

of

Praiastapada, 350;

radicles,329;

four

kinds

nition
GangesVs defiperception,334 "., 342 n.;
as
general epistemologicalsituation
minate
compared with Mimamsa, 367 ; indeterof

pramanas,

332 ff.;

of

and
determinate
perception,
effects to causes,
inference from
inference of a creator, 325 ff.;
297;
literature,307 ff.; merits and demerits
of
teleologicalcauses
operating as
334;

atomic combination, 323 ff.;Mimamsa

lous,
doctrine of negation, 3556".;miracuintuitive and mental
perception,

Index

5H

pdtanjalamahdbhdsyacarakapratisamskr-

parihdra, 302
parikalpa, 148
parikatnma, 102 n.
parikarma, 270
parimandala, 292
parimandala parimdna, 314
parimdna, 315, 316, 323
parimiti, 314
parindma, 53, 193, 196,468, 487
parindmakramaniyama,
256
parindmavdda, 258
parisankhyd-vidhi,404
parispanda, 320, 321, 329
pariiesamdna, 353
Parih'staparvan, 17 r
parisahajaya, 195
pariksaka, 295
pariksd, 447
182
Pariksdmukhasutra,
Pariksdmukhasutravrtti,

".,

309
171,

taih, 235

PatanjalaSamkhya, 68, 221

Patanjalaschool, 229
Pdtanjalatantra,231, 235
Patanjala Ftf^asiltras,68
Patimokkhasamvara,
Pathak, 423
Payasi, 106, 107

Mis'ra,371, 378

Perfuming,
power,

181 ".,

219,

232,

no,
127, 128, 133,
139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147,
150, 151, 166, 167, 168, 217, 276, 282,

".

233,

222,

227,

Philosophic literatures, 66;

234,

236,

classes of,67 ; growth of, 65

Philosophy ofthe Upanishads,yw.,

238, 268, 279, 317 "., 365, 465; his

and
identification,
230 ff.; his

date

relation with yoga,

226 ff.

Patna, 173

pathavi, 106
paticcasamuppanna, 94
paticcasamuppdda, 84, 166;
sorrow,

as

tion
manifesta-

three lives,92

patighasaniid,96
patiloma, 158

Patisambhidamagga,83, 93

108, rn,
literature,161

Panini,

226, 227"., 230, 232,

\2n.,
279 "., 465
papa, 195, 264, 266
pdpand,

157

pdpopadc"a, 200
pdramdrthika, 439, 487
pdramitd, 127, 138
ParsVa, 129, 169, 173
Pdiupatabrahma, 28 ".
Pdiupatadariana, 235 ".

Patanjala,
233, 235
Pdtanjalamahdbhdsya,

38

".,

n.

125

n.

pitrydna, 34, 54, 56, 58,

pitta,452
pitakas,68 n., 263 n.
pitharapdka, 327
piti,105, 106

125

n.

Poly-bhautik, 329
Polytheism, 17

7"",333. 433

pdka, 329
pdkajotpatti,
327
Pali, 3, 82, 84, 87, 92".,
I39i 263 "., 470;
pdni, 333

58

54".,

Plato, 42
Pluralism, 175

".

Pattdvali, 171

/*".

49".,

different

Pitrs, 55

extending over

92;

45".,

Physical characters, 328

Physics,403
pilupdka, 305, 306 "., 327
Pindaniryukti, 171
Pitdputrasamdgamasutra,

Patanjalicarita,
230
pathamam jhdnam, 105

of

Petrograd, 409/2.
phala, 413, 427
phalajndna, 373
phassa, 85, 95, 96
phassakdya, 85 n.
phassdyatana, 85 n.
Phenomena,
84, 89,

45", 45r" 452"

292" 332" 368, 373' 4".
460, 465,466, 467,468, 481, 482, 486
Phenomenal, 435, 450, 458, 461, 484

212,

203,
230,

135;

Pessimism, 76
Pessimistic, 237
Petavatthu, 83

paJutva, 317
228, 229,

influence, 134,

137;

131

Persian,233

parydya, 187, 198

parydyanaya,
177, 178
passdsa, 103
68,
Patanjali,

Perception,269, 297, 298, 318, 332, 333,

334, 335, 336, 340, 34i, 342, 344. etc.

183 "., 186 ".

Parmenides, 42
paroksa, 183, 185
Part, 165
Parthasarathi

10

Positive
114,

213,

Sciences

of

246;*.,251

the

n.,

Ancient

322".,

Hindus,

326, 328

n.

posadhabrata, 200
Potencies,272, 273

26$n.,

Potential, 254, 255, 258 "., 275, 468

Potentials, 252
Poussin, De la Valine, 85 "., 90, 91
108, 119 n.
Prabahana

Jaibali,33,

n.,

34

Prabhd, 308
Prabhacandra, 171, 309
Prabhakara, 69, 189, 209

389, 39o,

n., 369, 370,

376, 379' 38o, 382, 384" 386,
39'. 392" 395, 396"397, 398,

399, 400,

401,

37i,

231

372,

448, 459

402,

403,

415,

416, 417,

Index
Prabhdkaramimdmsd,

378

384

".,

n.,

""

397 """ 405

Prabhasa, 306
pracchanna Baudd/ia, 437
pradarsakatva,416
pradefa, 194
pradhdna, 217
Prajapati,19, 20, 26, 32, 36, 43, 46, 47,
prajnapti, 427

Prajnaptifdstra,120
Prajnaptivddins,112,
/"y"fl,

55,

113

145,

131,

271,

272,

273,

424

Prajndpand, 171 ".

Prajnapanopdngasutra.)196
Prajndpdramitd, 127, 128, 421
Prakaranapancikd, 370, 378 ".,
386 ".;39ow-" 392W-" 397 wPrakaranapdda, 120
prakaranasama, 344, 360
prakdfa, 243, 307, 326 ".
Praka^ananda, 420, 469
Praka"Ltman, 419, 490
PrakaSatman
Akhandananda,
Prakirnas, 171

prakrti,145,
219,

223,

249, 250, 251,

253,

238,

468
216, 217, 218,

194, 213, 214,

22o".,

379/2.,

245,

254,

255,

246, 247,
258, 259,

261, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270, 272, 273,

276, 325" 367* 415. 43 r, 433. 44i" 49""
493
,

prakrtifcdstadhdtuki, 21 4 ".
pralaya, 214, 223, 247, 248, 261,

323,

515

prasiddhipicrvakatvat,
289, 303
Praiastapada,
305, 306, 312 w., 3i4".,
3i6"., 3i7"., 328, 332"., 337, 348,
349, 35o, 35i, 355 """ 359 """ 362
67, 306
Praiastapdda-bhdsya,
PraJna, 28

n.,

470

31 "., 39, 432,

PraJnavydkarana, 171
pratibandha, 155
pratibhdnajndna, 343
pratijnd,185, 186 w., 296, 302, 350, 353,
389
pratijiidbhdsa,
390
pratijndmdtram, 114
Pratijndsutra,370
186 n.
pratijndvibhakti,
pratipaksabhdvand,270, 365
pratisamkhydnirodha, 121, 124
pratisancara,247
pratisthdpand,302
pratitantrasiddhdnta,
295
pratiyogi,357
,
pratika,43
pratitya, 93, 138, 139
ratityasamutpdda,86 n., 92, 122, 138,
139, r43, 147, 421; meaning of, 93
pratyabhijndnirdsa,16271.
Pratyagriipa,
419
pratyaksa, 153, 183, 294, 308, 332, 333,
342, 343, 344, 383, 384, 409 ""! 417 ""
pratyaksabalotpanna,410 ".
pratyaksa-pramd, 482
Pratyaksasutra,378 "., 382
pratyaksatodrstasambandhat389
pratyaksavisayatva,409
pratyayas, 124

324. 403

336, 406, 415, 416, 471, 482, 484

pramdda, 193
pramdddcarana, 200
pramdna,
154, 268, 277, 294, 296, 298,
pramd,

304. 33",

33i"

332,

333,

343, 354, 355,

pratyayopanibandha, 143
pratydhdra, 236
pratydmndya,

350

pratyekabuddha, 137,

150,

Pratyekabuddhayana,
125

151
".

356. 365, 39", 391, 394, 397, 398, 399,

404, 406, 40972., 410, 412, 413, 4147;.,
415, 416, 417^-, 444, 470, 484, 492
pramdnabhedah, 333 w.
pramdnairarthapartksanam, 277

praudhivdda, 220
Pravacanabhdsya, 212, 245 "., 259 ".
pravicayabuddhi,148
pravrtti, gon., 228 "., 243, 294, 295,

Pramdna-Mimdmsd,

pravrttivijndna,134,

184

n.

Pramdnanayataitvdlokdlamkdra172,
,

181 n.,

182 ".,

183

n.,

309

pramdnaphala, j 54, 409, 410, 413

Pramdnasamuccaya, 120, 153 "., 155 ".,
167, 307, 309
pramdnavdda, 407
Pramdnavdrttikakarikd, 309
pramdtd, 406, 482
prameya, 277, 294, 365, 406
185,
Prameyakamalamdrtanda,
171,
188 "., 189 "., 197 w., 309
prameyatva, 344, 354, 384
pramoda, 203, 220 ".
pramudha, 268

3"1,

365, 375
140

prayatna, 280, 281, 295, 330

prayoga nirdeta, 124

prayojana, 278 "., 294, 295,

prddurbhdva, 93
prdgabhdva, 293 w., 359

302

Prakrit, 171, 172

182, 188, 406, 485
prdmdnya,

prdmdnyavdda, 332

".

Prana, 20, 36, 43, 55, 25"" 424

dtman, 46
prdnamaya
kosa, 60
prdnamaya
prdnavdyu, 262

Prdndgnihotra, 28

n.

prapanca, 425

227, 236, 272

prdndydma,
prdpana, 332

prapancapravriti,142
prapancopatama, 425
prasiddhipurvakatva,304, 349

343
prdtibha-pratyaksa,
prdtibhdsika,
445, 487

prdpyakdritva,378 w.

33"2

Index

5i6
Prdtimoksa,

Ratnakiitasutra, I25".,

145

Preceptor,66

RatnardHsutra,
125 n.
Ratndkarasutra, 125 n.
Ratnakarasanti, 156, 168, 346 n.
Ray, Dr P. C, 251 "., 254 ".,

Premisses, 280, 293, 295

preraka,197
Presumption, 392, 393
priti,144
Probandum,

157

322 ".,

Propositions,156 n.

Rahu,
451;

222

195,

119 ".,

n.

pudgalanairdtmya,

150

214,

Ramarudri,

gods of the, 16

16, 172, 223;

20, 21,

32, 33,

216, 219,

223,

52,

43,

225,

224,

75, 213,
228 ".,

"., 241,
242, 244, 247, 248, 249,
258. 259, 260, 262, 265, 266, 267, 272,
273. 276, 330, 331, 368, 415, 441, 490,

234

493

purusdrtha, 269 n., 408

purusarthata, 258
Purusa-siikta,

21

n.,

307

Rastavara, 130W.
rati, 215
147

Reals, 223, 258, 259, 368

7, 68, 429
".,

303,

353

Rebirth, 55, 56, 58, 59, 71, 75, 86, 106,

107, 108, 140, 201, 215, 263,265, 283,
286 "., 292, 366, 422; Buddhistic compared
with Upanisadic, 87
Recognition, 185
Relative

ft.

Rhys
Radical, 291

251,

249, 250,

pluralism,
175

Davids,

108 n.,

Raghunatha
Siromani,
365 "., 419
rajas,214, 215, 224, 242,

ramyaka,

326

308,
244,

245,

n.,

246,

492, 493

n.

Mrs,
i20".,

28
Rudrdksajdbdla,

rasdyana, 235
raiandm, 404

Ratnacuddpariprcchdsiltra,
125 n.
Ratnakirti,68 "'.,
155 w., 158, 159, 160,
161, 163 "., 164, 168

99 n.,

471

n.

rasa,

252

96,

158 n.

Rishi, 24
Rohinl, 387
ropana, 158

Rucidatta, 307
Rudrahrdaya, 28

313,403
tanmdtra,

92 n.,

Right knowledge,296, 297,

Roth, 20
Rber, 45

244
220

112,

418
Rahgarajadhvarindra,
Ranarahgamalla,231
rasa

n.

Ramatirtha, 419
Ramanuja, 50, 70, 71, 168, 433
Ramanuja-mata, 429
Ramayatas, 70
Ramottaratapini, 28 n.

Ravana,

Purvas, 171
piirvavat, 269 "., 281, 294, 302

rajo-guna,

249

Rdvana-bhdsya, 306
Reality, III, 418, 428, 442, 443, 446,
448, 449, 458, 462, 465, 467,468, 470,
486, 487, 488, 489, 490

32

120

Purva-Mimamsa,

Quest, 270

n.

Rdstrapdlapariprcchdsutra,
125 n.

purusdvasthamavyaktam ,216
Puspaculikd, 17 in.
Puspikd, 1 7 1 n.
Purna,

218

Rdmapiirvatdpini, 28
Rdmarahasya, 28 n.

Punyayasas, 129
purusa,

300

Diksita, 230
Ramakrsna,
371, 470 n.
Ramakrsnadhvarin,
4 19

266

1,

267,

Ramabhadra

Puggalapaniiatti,83
Punjab, 172
punya, 195, 264, 266

Purana,

40

Rajagaha, 81
processes,
Rajamrganka, 231
RdjapraJniya, 171
rdjasikaahamkdra,
Rdjavdrttika,219
198;
Rajayoga, 229
Raja, 212
Rajgir,81

pudgaldstikdya,
195

punya-pdpa,

".,

rdgadvesa, 201

Ptolemaic, 31

Buddhist, 195

321

n.

rdga, 143, 144, 193, 220;/.,

97

pubbahgama, 89
pudgala, 114, 117,

327

Ray Rammohan,
Radha, 306

prthakprasthdna,
277, 278
prthaktva,316, 382, 464
prthivl,51, 143, 295
prthivimdtra,51
Psychological,
273, 338, 406,
Psychosis,88,

140

Ratnameghasiitra, 125 n.
Ratnaprabhd, 89**.,907*., 306, 418

prdtitika-sattd,442

n.
n.

rtipa, 85"., 88"., 91, 94, 95, 96,

121,

313,

403

rupadharmas, 121
rupa-khandha, 95 ; meaning of, 94
rupaloka, 134
rupasamskdra, 290

110,

Index
riipa tanmdtra, 252
rupatva, 313, 334

Rg-Veda,

12,

Samayapradlpa,

16, 17, 19,

14,

517

20,

21,

samddhdnam,
samddhi, 82,

23,

26, 32, 36, 45, 52, 226, 469

24,

271,

rjusutra,178

Rjuvimald, 370

100,

136, 166,

103,

125

w.

samdkhydsambandhapratipattih 355
samdnaprasavdtmikd jdtih,298, 304
,

304

n.,

(order),22, 26; Law

of

from, 26

their
Sabbatthivadins, 119, 120,
121;
doctrine, 121 ; their doctrine of matter,

".
".

samdna-rupatd, 196
sambhava, 298, 304

sambhuyakdri,
sabbasahgahikavasena,98

sambuddha,
samiti, 195

121

423

Sammitiyas, 112,

121

their doctrines,

119;

ii9".

Sacrifice,81, 208, 316 ".,

due to, 22; eternal, 22;

giftsof gods,
minute

2 1

397;

creation

fruits of, not

has

magical

22;

mystical potency,
of,

character

details of, 21;

ritualistic

2t

not

22
propitiatory,

Sacrifices,71, 264, 276, 369, 372, 489;

and

karma

law,

meditations, 37
Sacrificial,209, 211,
sad, 38
saddmudita,
Sadananda
Sadananda

220

replaced by

22;

369,370, 436

mdyopamdh,

sadasantah

Vyasa,

420

Yati, 420
125 "., 128

105,

186

sdmagrt, 90, 330, 413, 467

abhedonllataddhi-

yoh, 411
Saimhaguhya, 129
100

sakaddgdmibhdva,

3*6.

305.

440,

487, 490

saldyatana,85

126, 234

w.,

235, 300,

363. 399.

3*7 """

4"2"

an,

36

Samaveda,

12,

30,

36

Sdmannaphala-sutta, 80 ".
sdmarthya, 159, 317 ".
sdmayikabrata, 200
sdmdnya, 164, 196, 203, 281, 285, 286,
306 "., 312, 313, 317, 318, 3*9. 3^o.

Sdmdnyalaksana, 341
sdmdnyatodrsta, v6gn., 287, 289, 294,
302 "., 303, 349" 35". 353. 363
389
sdmdnyatodrstasambandha,

sdmdnyavUesasam uddyo

3 80

sdmdnyavUesdtmaka,231

12

samabkiriidha-naya,178 ".
Samardicca-kahd,

172

samatd,

137,

130,

samatva,

135,
202,

201,

samavdya,
".,

143,
304,

334.

138

203

165, 171, 263*2., 285,

306 "., 312, 313, 319,

335.

38l"

403"

samavdyi, 286
samavdyi-kdrana,
samavela-samavdya,

198

4J3"

448"

sdmdnydbhdva, 293
sdmydvasthd, 246
samghdtaparamdnu,
samgraha, 122
samgrahanaya, 177

133
samjndkarma, 288

322,

376

335

".

r 2 1

samhdreccho, 323
Samhita, 12, 13, 30*.,

samjnd,

450, 483, 492

samaya,

sam

318 ".
Sdmdnyadusanadikprasdritd,

88

".,

345,

4i3

100

salila,220 n.
salt,61
Salvation, 77, 115,
30L

344,

".

107

sahopalambhaniyamdt

322"

343,

sdgaras, 235

sahakdri, 250, 274, 323, 324, 336, 469

sahakdri-iakti, 254

290

303,

sdksdtkdritvam, 33411.
sdksi, 438, 455, 457
sdksicaitanya, 455, 486

sahabkdva,

Saint, 101
Sainthood,

siddhi, 152
sddhana, 77, 489
sddhdrana, 361
sddhdrana- kdrana, 322

sdksdtkdrijndnam, 410

sadvilaksana, 444

Sage,

Sammitlyas'dstra,119
samprajndta, 271
samprayukta hetu, 122
samutpdda, 93
samyagbadha, 217
samyagjndna, 151, 181, 408
samyagjndnapurvikd
sarvapurusdrtha"

sddhya, 156 "., 157,

346, 353- 393
sddkyasama, 360
sddrJya,318 w.

147

n.

SaddharmapundarTka,
sadrupa, 397
sadrsa-paritidma,248

sam,

101,

272

Samddhisutra,

169

7-ta, 36, 37, 72;

derived
Karma

as

samddhirdjasittra,\i$n.
Samadhi
school, 236

?7tt/a,202
Rsabha,
77/, 294

120

10

127,

samjndmdtram,

samjnin,190
samkalpa,

225

114

43,

72

Index

5i8
samkhydbhava, 284

Sahghabhadra, 120
Sangitiparyydya, 120

n.

samkleia, 427

SamksepaSankarajaya,
305 n.
Satnksepaiariraka,
419, 468
28

Samnydsa,
samsdra,
201,

n.

130,

109,

135,

131,

140,

141,

248, 258, 261, 269, 273,

237,

428

456

samskdras, 127, 139, 143, 266, 272

samskrta, 121, 142, 151
samskrtadharmasy 121
samsrstavivekay 247
Sams

Sankrantikas, 112
94, 95, 96, 97, 98 ; different stages
of, 96
sanndkkkandhay 95, 100
sapaksasattdy344
sapaksasattva,i$6n. 349
saptabhangiy 180, 181 ".
SaptadaJabAumisutra, 128
Saptapaddrthiy 308
SarasvatI,301 ".
Sarasvatlrahasyay28 w.
Sarvadarianasamgrahay
68"., 79,
2,

sannd,

samsdra-dukkha, 99 n.
samsaritty 189
samskaroti, 263*1.
samskdra, 86"., 91, 122, 263, 264, 273,
281, 285 n., 290 "., 303, 316, 323, 340,
45i"

sankhdra, 86, 90, 92^., 93, 94, 96, 263 ".;

discussion of the meaning of, 86 ". ;
meaning of, 96
sankhdrakkhandka,
86"., 95, 100

tar a,

171

samsthdna,

114 w.,

n.

332

".,

360

10

".,

1, 202

samvdda, 188, 373

samvddakatvay 408

sarvaloka, 137

samvddi, 416, 417

samvedana, 383
samvedyatva, 384
samvzd, 383

Sarvasdra, 28 ".
sarvatantrasiddhdnta, 295

samvrtamdtramy

sarvasamskdrahy

Sarvastivada, i20".
Sarvastivadins, 112,

114

120,

122,

senses,

202

124;

83, 224,316,319,3345 380, 403,

415, 448, 450
samyukta-samavdyay 334
samyu"ta-samaveta-samavdya, 335
samyuktavihsanay 335
SamyuktabhidharmaJastra, 120
Samyutta Nikdya, 83, 84, 91 ". 94, 95, 96,
Ill
".
98 "., 108 "., now.,
,

Sanaka, 222
Sananda, 222
Sanandana, 418
222

a,

114

samyoga,

Sana tan

w.

ivrttam
sarvavikalpalaksanavin
147
SarvahammanI
Hiranyagarbha, 32 ".

samvrtiy 428
samvrtisatya,144
samvrtisatyatd,146
samyama,

322

sarvajna,426
Sarvajfiatmamuni,419, 468
sarvakalpandvirahitam, 151

409

samvara,

235"."305

68 ".
Sarvadars'anavdcyd'rthahy

123

samiaya, 193, 277, 294,

samtdna,

sandkdna,

89
sandigdha, 289, 349
sanmdtra-visayam pratyaksamy 382

113, 115, 117, 119,

128, 167; their theory of the
123; their doctrine of karma,

their doctrine of mind,

124

j"z/, 75, 163, 175, 183 "., 257,

258 ".,
317, 381, 443, 444, 446, 449, 491
SOtly

10

Satipatthdna sutta,

227

satisamvara, 101
satkdranavdda, 258

"., 468
satkdryavdday 257, 258, 468
satkhydliy183 "., 384
356
satparicchedakaniy
satpratipaksa,361
jo//", 287, 317, 381, 491
sattva, 158, 160, 163 "., 224, 241, 242,
244, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 259, 415,
446, 492, 493

sattva-guna, 244

sannidhdndsannidhdndbhydtnjndnaprati- satya, 236, 270

Satyakama, 35 ".
Satyasiddhischool, 1 24
Sanbhdgyalaksml, 28 w.

bhdsabhedahy 410 ".

sannidhiy 224
sanniveia-viHstatdy 364
Sanskrit, 66, 86 "., 119,

121,
125, 128,
171. 172, 309. 406,
407 ; language, 38, 39 ; literature,40,

153 "".

302
Sanskrit

I55"

170,

Philosophy,technical

and

struse,
ab-

Sanskrit
33

Texts,

20

23

".,

".,

32

".,

Sautranta-vijftanavada,
409 w.
Sautrantika, 116,
188, 302,

sarip/ia,102

3i3"-,

Sautrantikas,

112,

from
"

120,

151,

4"8"

their

savana,

36

168,

ff.;

theory

dis167; tinguished
113,
115,
the Vaibhasikas, 1 14 ;

philosophy according

ratna, 114

161,

4"9w-"
4"i
of time
in,

notion
Buddhists, 105;
1 16 ; theory of inference, 155
of perception,151

""

Sant"ndntarasiddhiy 1 5 1
santosa, 236

".

to

Guna-

Index
savicdra, 271

378, 416,

savitarka, 271

savyabhicara,360
Samkhya, 7, 9, 51, 53, 68, 71, 75, 78,
80, 95, 116, 165, 167, 168, 178, 188,
216, 217, 218, 219, 220,
228, 229, 233,
227,
223,

212,

221,

261 ff.;pessimism of, 264 ff.;

doctrine, 238 ff.; obstructions
of perception, 273 n.\
relation
with
Buddhism
and Jainism, 208 ff.;samskdra and vdsand, 263 n. ; self and mind,
259 ff.;self compared with Nyaya and
Mimamsa, 368; states and tendencies
of citta (mind) 268 ff.;theory of causation,
257; Vatsayana's distinction of,
process,

savikalpa, 334, 337" 338, 34",

483, 484
savikalpajndna, 153 n.
savikalpapratyaksa,261, 334
savipdka, 195

211,

519

213,

222,

purusa

view

228 ".;

Nyaya, 330

of motion

wisdom

contrasted

and

emancipation,

273

236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 243,

258, 259, 261, 262, 264,
265, 268 n., 273, 274, 275, 276, 277,

sdmkhyayogaparindmavdda, 468

281, 284

sdrlhd, 280

235 """

257,

244,

299, 302, 311, 312, 314,

330.
33i. 363" 367" 368,

".,

325"

321,

369. 382, 385*

416, 417, 422,
468, 492, 493;

403.

4i2"

414,

432,

434,

435,

earlyschool,

an

415,
440,
213 ff.;

axiom, 320 ; discussion of the different

schools
on
of, 218 ff. ; discussions
Samkhya karikd, Samkhya sutra, Vacaspatiand Bhiksu, 222 ff.;distinguished
from

Upanisads,

; theoryof

211

etc.,

220

Samkhya
221,

relation

68 ;

yoga,

with

the

viparyyaya,

Sdnka, 233
120
Sariputtra,

sdrupyam,

154
sdsnd, 349
sdsvata, 109
sdttvika

ahamkdra,

Sayana, 20, 36
Schiefner,i29".
Schools

of

karikd, 67,
223,

266

212,

218

219,

n.,

n.

Schroeder, 39 n.
Scotus Erigena, 40
Seal, B.

Sdmkhyasdra, 212
Samkhya sutra, 212, 222
Sdmkhyatattvavivecana,

Secret

212

Samkhya- Yoga, 196,232, 254, 256 "., 260,

266 "., 273, 286 n., 3i7"., 329, 378".,
394; analysis of knowledge, 239 ff.;
as

theism, 258 ff.;causation

conservation

causation

40

of

254

energy,
with

contrasted

n.

246, 251 n.,

321, 322 n., 326, 327 n., 328 n.

Sdmkhyatattvaydtharthyadipana
,212

and

63
philosophy,

Schopenhauer, 39,

Sdmkhyapravacanabhdsya,223

atheism

250

sdvayava, 203
Savitri, 28 n.

Schrader, 109

n.

222,

with

ff.;

Vedanta,

N.,

213,

253 n.,

doctrine, 38
Seers, 68 n.
Self,33, 34, 55, 58, 60, 61, 76, no,
in,
161, 162, 187, 215, 217, 218, 239, 240,
260, 261, 285, 290, 295, 298, 300, 303,
312,

317 n., 330,

335,

343 n.,

365* 366, 368, 383. 399"

362, 363,

400, 401,

402,

416, 417, 424, 425, 433, 434,

435" 437" 438, 458, 460, 465, 482, 490,
494; and death, 55; as a compound of
413,

414,

conception of time, 256 n.\

the khandhas, 94; as found in dreams,
matter,
conception of thought and
of
ff.
of
wholes
47 ; as in deep sleep, 47 ; doctrine
(avayavz),
241
; conception
sheaths of, 46
380 ".; criticism of satkdryavdda etc.,
Self-conscious,368, 369
275 ff.;development of infra-atoms and
Self-consciousness,363, 417
atoms, 251 ff.;dissolution and creation,
of
of
ledge
knowdoctrine
Self-knowledge, 59
ff.;
validity
247
and
inference, 268 ".;
episte- Self-luminosity,
493
Self-luminous, 444, 446, 450, 452, 458,
gories,
mology, 414 ff.;evolution of the catestances,
248 ff.;feelingsas ultimate sub459, 460, 461, 482, 487
Self-modification,173
242 ff.; fruits of karma, 267;
101
situation
Self-restraint,
as
general epistemological
ff.
discernible
inwith
Self-revealing,
369,416
367
Mimamsa,
compared
;
Self-valid, 384, 386, 387, 403
of gunas,
nature
273 n.;
of up372, 373, 374, 389, 396,483,
meaning of guna,
rooting Self-validity,
243 ; means
484
sorrow
in, 265 ff.; meditation,
Sensation, 165, 312, 318, 41 1
of discipline,270;
271 ff.; methods
of
Sense-affections,94
modes
of ignorance, 267 ; mode
258

".;

sense-contact

of

as

Nyaya, 378 n.
change,

contrasted
;

nature

255

ff.;

with
of

that
tionary
evolu-

nature

of

illusion, 2 60 n. ; nature oiprakrti,2 45 ff.;

of subconscious
nature
mind, 263 ff.;
of the gunas,
nature
perceptual
244;

Sense-contact,

336, 342

Sense-data, 94, 239, 240

Sense-functions, 262
Sense-materials, 225
Senses, 94
Sensus

communis^

96

n.

n.,

262

n.

Index

520

Specimens of Jaina sculpturesfrom

Separateness,293
Samkhya, 259

Sesvara

thura, 170W.
sphota,238 "., 397

Sex-desire, 57
Shah

siddha, 68 n.
Siddhasena, 183 ".
Siddhasena
Divakara, 171, 309

323"
fff"t

n.,

342

n.,

Siddhivydkhya, 420
Similarity(Nyaya),318

Buddhist
Tracts, 68
Nyaya
163 "., 165 "., 168, 297 w., 313
318 "., 346 "., 371 w., 380 w.

n.,
n.,

212

24

Skanda, 28 n,
skandha, 89, 93, 149, 196; in Chandogya,
".

skandhas, 85/*.,88
127,

122,

n.,

114,

121,

119 n.,

146, 148, 161,

143,

142,

263 n.
smrti, 69, 130,

316

"""

131,

37o" 37i"

134,

263 "., 269,

37*

283
^/w,
148, 281, 285, 316
snigdha, 287
Sogen Yamakami, 121, 122

124

n.

366" 4*6" 4595

as

ulti"

truth, 75
100

Soul, 25, 26, 74, 75, 93, 114, 115, 117,

166, 168, 184, 188, 191, 192, 193, 194,
201,
207, 234, 276, 281, 285, 288, 289,

3*6,3i7. 3^3.

*9*. 299" 300. 3""7, 311.

367. 376, 377. 378. 399. 400, 413. 4H.
4*5"
439" 457. 46lJ general account

of, 75

Souls, 197, 238, 244,

South

226;?.,

Suffering,207, 237,

285, 287;*.,

324

Suhrllekha, 144
sukha, 105, 106, 276, 305

n.,

316,

342,

414
sukha

duhkha, 144
sukham, 426
sukhasddhanatvasmrti,

336

supara, 220 n.
SuresVara, 67, 418, 419
199, 200,

202

Surya, 18, 20, 28 n.

Suryaprajiiapti,i"]in.
Suslksita Carvakas, 78, 79, 362
susupti,424

80
Sophistical,

sotdpannabhdva,

213,

307

Sub-conscious, 124, 263 n.

Subhuti, 127
Subodhini, 371, 420
Substance, 165, 174, 175,
288, 319, 367, 368
Substances, 223, 367, 378
Sucarita Mis"a, 371
81
Suddhodana,

sunrta,

Sorcery, 81
Sorrow, 75, 76, 107, 108, no, in,
140,
166, 191, 201, 210, 237, 264, 265, 266,
324"

n.,

Sun, 23
".,

Soma, 36
Somadeva,
172
Somanatha, 371
Somasarma,
306
Somesvara, 371

mate

112

Sukhdvativyuha, 125 n.
Sumatigalavildsinl,
92 n.

sndna,

*95'30x'

ngn.,

n.

Sub-Commentary,

Six

93

sthaviravdda, 83,
Sthavirdvali, 171
Sthdna, 171
sthiti,194

Subdla, 28
n.

i20".

Skambha,

114,117??.,

".

sthiti-sthdpaka,
316
Study of Patanjali, 208
238 n., 397 n.
Study of Sanskrit, 40

Siddhdntatattva, 420
Siddhartha, 173
siddhi, 163 n., 220
siddhis, 234

Simananda,
Sita, 28 n.

351, 409

121,

469

Sindh,

403

Stcherbatsky, Prof.,

294, 295

Siddhdntacandrikd, 390 n.
Siddhdntaleia, 420, 491 n.
Siddhdntamuktdvali, 339, 339

n.

sphotavdda, 232
Spider, 49
Spinoza, 40 n.

Jahan, 39
Shuja-uddaulah, 39

siddhdnta,

Ma-

India, now.,
India, 172

323,

316

324, 472, 493

n.

Southern

spandita,428
sparta,90, 92, 143, 314
a tanmdtra,
spars'
252
Species, 156, 285, 287, 317, 345, 389

sutdra,
siitra,

220

n.

280, 281, 284

n.,

285, 292

294,

n.,

296
Sutrakrta, 171

Sutrakrtdnganiryukti, 18 m.
Sutrakrtdngasutra,237
sutras',
62, 64, 67, 69, 70, 71, 79, 233,
236, 278, 279, 293 n., 294, 297 "., 306,
430,

433

as

lecture-hints, 62

veloped
de-

64 ; how
by commentators,
written, 65 ; traditionally
they were
explained,63
Sutrasthdna,
Sutta, 82

280

Nipdta, 83
Suttapitaka,120 n.
suttas, 82, 83, 166
Suvarnaprabhdsa sutra,
Sutta

125

".,

Suzuki, 128, 129 n., 130 "., 138

Svabhdva, 78, 424

301
".,

n.

161

Index

522
Sivaditya,308

Talavakaras, 30

and
Ji/a, 144, 166, (stla)
104;
100, 102,
it consists of,
what
sainthood, 100;

Talavakdra

Upanisad,

tamos,

224,

215,

30

246, 249,

244,

242,

252,

264, 269, 492, 493

101

illabratapardmaria^
145

Slokavdrttika,
67,

tamisrdy

151 /*., 218

220/2.

".,

355 n.,

tamo,

371* 378 """ 380, 382,

".,
397 """ 401 """ 41 7 w390
""", 86 n.

386 "-,

tamo-guna,

370,

iraddhd, 58, 199, 271, 317 n.

Jdstra, 128, 138
Sradd/iotpdda
iravana, 490
Iravaka, 125 "., 137, 150, 151

/*.,

220

/2.

244

226, 251,

214, 216, 225,

253, "54, "7i" 273" 276
tantra, 71, 229, 235
Tantraratna, 371
Tantra thought, 8

tanmdtra,

161

51,

Tantravdrttika, 371

Sravakayana, 125/2.
Sridhara, 306, 312, 313, 316/2.,317
337, 338, 359 "". 379 ""
Sriharsa, 419, 462, 465, 492

Tandulavaiydlt, 1 7 1
".,

tott'"z,
85, 87, 88,

".

107

tanhd-jatd,100

to/oj, 54, 58, 201, 202,

/ar/^a,294, 296, 360

Srikantha, 70

"rilabtia,
90

226, 270

Srimadbhagavadgitd,
421

Tarkabhdsd, 307
Tarkapdda, 371

128
Srimdldsimhandda,

Tarkarahasyadipikd,79,

306
Srivatsacarya,

162/2.,163/2.,203/2., 217/2., 218 /2.

Tarkasamgraha, 307, 322, 330/2.
Tarkavagi^a, K., 332 /2.
tathatd, 127, 128, 135, 136, 138, 147,
philosophy,129*1.
150, 166, 167, 421;

/r", 11
"ruta" 207
/r"/z, 11, 12, 19111., 447
iubha, 202

pratyaksam, 409 /2.

hiddhdkcdpand, 40972.
Sukarahasyay 28 ".
/""/"*,73, 74, 266
iukla-krsna.)
73, 266
/"M, 4^88,
489
/""ya, 131, 141, 167, 257, 465, 493
iunyatd, 130, 131, 147, 149
Sunyavada, 126, 127, 129, 140, 166, 167,
pared
com279, 418, 421, 429, 465, 494;
with Vijfianavada,127
Sunyavadin, 113, 127, 128, 129, 140, 145,
htddham

Svetaketu, 33, 34, 49, 439

Svetambaras, 170, 172, 173
Svetdtvatara, 28/2., 31, 32
422,

52,

78/*., 211,

227,

150

Tathagatayana,126/2.
tatprakdrakdnubhava, 337
tattva, 216

Tattvabindu, 397
Tattvacintdmani,

".

308,

332

339 w-" 342 "., 343 """ 347

Tattvadipana,
419, 456/2.

".,

337 ".,

""

Tattvadipikd,419, 465
212,

239/2.,

243/2.,

239/2.,

245/2.,

257 /2., 262 "., 264/2.

Tattvapradipikd,238/2.
/*.,

39/2., 49,

281, 282

".,

469

Tattvasamdsa, 212
Tattvavaiidradi,

212,

256/2., 257/2., 259/2., 263/2.,

264/2.,266/2., 267/2.
Tattvaydthdrthyadipana, 243 /2.
254/2.,

saddyatana, 90, 92,

143

saddarianay 08

Saddarianasamuccaya,

2,

170/2., 172/*., 175 ".,

206/2., 217, 222

Sastitantra, 220, 221

Sastitantraidstra, 219,

Sastitantroddhdra,220,

68/2., 114,
176/2., 186 ".,

222
222

tadutpatti,345, 351
tadyogyald,458
taijasaahamkdra, 249
taijasadtmd, 424
tairthika, 68**., 138
28/2.,31, 39, 46/2.,51, 226/2.,
Taittiriya,
43*

115 ".,

Tathdgata, 126/2., 150, 166

Talhdgatagarbha, 131, 137, 147, 149
Tathdgataguhyasutra, 125 n.

Tattvakaumudi,

301

50,

tathatdlambana,

114,

378

/".

tattvdntaraparindma, 247
tattvdnyatvdbhydm anirvacaniya, 442
1 75
Tattvdrthddhigamasutra, 171,
176/2.,184/2., 195 "., 237, 309
tdddtmya, 156,345, 351, 352
tdmasika

ahamkdra,

Tandins,

30

/ara,

".

249

220/2.

Taranatha, 129/2.
Tdrasdra, 28/2.
tdratdra,

220/2.

Tdrkikaraksd, 362 "., 308

tdtparya, 484

".
.

TaittiriyaAranyaka, 26
TaittiriyaBrdhmana, 23, 26, 226
Taittiriya
school, 30
Takakusu, 119, 120/2., 128/2., 218

tattvdntara,

w.

Tdtparyattkd, 63/2.,161, 218/2., 229/2.,

269/2.,'
338"-, 347"-"
330/2.,
337"-"
353 *-f 388 ""
352W-"

Tdtparyatikdpariiuddhi,
307

Index
Teachers, traditional transmission

from,

2,

523

trtiya-linga-pardmarsa,
346
tuccha, 443

Technical, 66, 77, 304, 308, 309

Technical

terms, different in meaning,

invented, 2 ; elastic in Pali Buddhism,

tejas,51,

252,

255,

295,

310,

313,

314,

329. 377
te/as-atom,253
323"

Tejobindu, 28 n.
Telang, 421, 423 n.
Teleology, 247, 248, 254, 258, 267, 269,

tuldjndna,458
Turtydtlta,28
tusti,220
Tvastr, 21
tydgdnvaya,
Tahka, 433

n.

ngn.

thdpand, 157
thiti,93

Tuptfkd,
371

325

Testimony, 332, 333

The Early History of Indian
277
The

ubhaydnubhaya, 148
Philosophy,

n.

History of Navya Nydya

Bengal,

in

n.

310

Theism, 33, 50, 258

Theistic, 220, 221, 223

Theragdthd, 83
83,

112,

113,

119, 120,

125,

150

Theravadins,
The

125

Rigveda,

18, 19^.,

15 n.,

20

n.,

Therzgdthd, 83
Thilly, Frank,

Causes, 90

3"5"

n.

thina, 100
thtnamiddham,
105
Thomas, E. J., 84^., 155
Thomas, F. W., i2gn.

Thought -stuff,241,

172

upamana,

341 ; power

335

323

tray i, 277

tryanuka,
trsnd,

314,

315,

324,

215

trsnd-vaipulya,90

n.

400

n.

145,

492

148,

174,

i25".,

in,

326
143,

333,

upanaya, 185, 296, 350, 353

upanayana, 157
Upanisad,418, 422, 433, 434, 436, 441,
causation in, 173; meaning
445, 494;
of the word, 38

212,

n.

85"., 87, 90, 92,

308,

Upamitabhavaprapaiicakathd,
172

223,

227,

175,

234,

208, 210,

239,

263

211,

i*j6,

437, 438,

423,

429,

430,

431,

442,

447, 47o,

49""

493" etc- J accident

cause,

432,

n.,

421,
as

28

304,

4*2

Upanisads, i, 7, 8, 12, 14, 27, 28, 29, 30,

64, 65, 70, 72, 79. 80, 87, 88, 107, no,

n.

28

103

297, 302,

Jabda, 47

upamiti,

of Aitareya Aranyaka, 36 n.
Translation
of the Upanisads, 38 n.
Transmigration, 26, 27, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58

Tripddvibhutimahdndrdyana,
Tripurd, 28 n.
Tripurdtdpini,28 n.
triputi,459
triputipratyaksa,
343 n., 384,

294,

upamana

influence, 331

Trisala, 170, 173

Tri"khibrahmana,

"""

""

275

354. 355"39r"

Translation

trikdndaka, 92

".,

305

Unmanifested,

tiryag-gamana, 329
tiryaksdmdnya, 196
Traditionaryexplanations,65

trasarenu,

269 "., 298

328" 330

35i, 353 "". 355

".,

upacdrasamddhi, 102,
Upadeia, 128
upadhdranam, 101
upajivya,447
upalabdhihetu, 330 ".
upalambha, 302

Time, 311
tirohita,257
Tirthahkara, 169, 170, 173

Transcendent

"""

Unconditionality,320
Universals, 165

242

contact,

327

Umasvati, 171, 237, 309

Unconditional, 321, 322, 465

n.

Tibetan, 121, 128, 144, 218

tikta,313
Tilak, Bal Gahgadhar, 10

Transcendental

228 n.,

309"

342

Uktha, 36
Uluka, 71,

Thought-photograph,241

Tilakamanjari,

3"7"

337 """

303

100

Udyotakara, 63,

des Douze

326 "., 329,

n.

udbhutariipavattva,290 ".,
udbhutavrtti,254
uddhaccakukkuccam, 105
Udgitha, 36
udhacca,

i\n.
Thiorie

Udayana, 63,306, 307, 312*.,

365 n.
uddharana, 157, 296, 353
Udana, 83, 108
uddsina, 197
udbhava, 290 n.

Theistic systems, 8

Theravada,

uccheda, 428
ucchedavdda, 143

78; age of the, 39; Atharva-

veda, 31 ; atheistic creeds referred to

in, 78 ; circles of philosophyoutside of,
65 ; compositionof, 38 ; creation in,
of re-birth, 56 ;
cause
as
5 1 ; desire
doctrine of
classes of, 39;
different

Index

524

interpretorof,
tions
emancipationin, 58 ff.; interpreta-

duty of

53;
42 ;

of,
influence
cause,

modern

karma-doctrine

41

31;
matter

not

produced by

nature

51;

pared
com-

ksattriya

matter-combinations

on,

78;

as

urdhvasdmdnya,

78;

cause,

to

literature,28; revival of, 39;

self as aggregationof categories,56 ;
ledge,
self as highest truth, 60 ; self as know60
self
; self
unchangeable,
58 ;
and
as
unity of moral, psychological
physicalelements, 50 ; subtler elements
in Vedic

theory

in, 51 ; superior reason,

41 ;
of karma, 55 ; three kinds of birth, 57 ;
theories of
time
78; two
as
cause,
and
ing
causation, 53 ; vidyd
avidyd, meanto

becomes
man,
Brahwise man
of, in;
58 ; world as field of karma, 56 ;
world in, 51 ; world-soul,52
upapatti,91
upapadukasattva, 91 n.
uparati,490
282

286 ".,

288 ".,

283, 284

".,

197

Vaibhasika, 116, 117, 161, 168; literature,

of time in, 1 r6
1 20
; notion
Vaibhasikas, 113, 114, 115, 119, 120,

167; their philosophy according

to

Gunaratna, 114
Vaibhasika
Sarvastivadins,their difference
from other Buddhists, 122

vaidharmya, 462, 464

vaikdrika

ahamkdra,
vaindsika, 257

249,

250

Vaipulyasutrasy125
vaird^ya, 271
Vaisali, 173
Vaisesika, 7, 9, 68, 177, 280, 281, 283,
285, 289, 290, 302 n., 303, 304, 305,
314

327, 328, 332, 337, 338, 339,

35o, 35L
354, 355, 359" 361,

n.,

340,

379 """ 385, 394, 403, 434, 440, 462

sutras, 68 "., 71, 276, 279, 280,

Vatiesika

281, 282,284, 285, 291, 301, 303,305,

upasamdnussati,102
Upaskdra,

//.

173

Uha, 213
urdhva, 199
urdhvaloka, 199
iirdhvamfila, 234

pounding,
com-

subjects,31;
48 ; place
systematicphilosophy,
of, according

names

in,

Buddhistic, 107;

with

as

transmigration, Uvdsagadasdo,

of

doctrine

self, no;

290 n.,

".,

291 n.,

293 """ 306" 314 nupastha, 333

upasiambha% 329
upastambhaka, 291
Upavarsa, 370
updddna, 85, 87, 90, 92, 274,

285

".,

292 n.y

306, 312 n., 327 ".,

vaihjdnara
agni, 34
vaiivdnara

dtmd,

332 ".,

355, 359

424

vaisamya, 246
Vaisnava, 8, 21, 28

n.,

70,

77, 221,

420,

422

vaitathya,424
453,

468,

112
Vajjiputtakas,

Vajracchedikdsutra,125 n.
28 n.
Vajrasiicikd,
updddnanisthdtyantdbhdvapratiyogitva- Validity,268 n.
Vallabha, 70, 317 n.
laksanamithydtvasiddhih,445
Vailabha-mata, 429
updddrupam^ 94
Vanavdda, 380
upadhi, 181, 347, 348, 35"" 39"' 45"
Varadaraja,308, 362 n.
Updngas, 171
Vardha, 28"., 228
Updsakadaids, 171
Varddhamana, 63, 173, 307
updJrayas, 173
Varddhamdna-purdna, 193 n.,
updydsa, 86 n.
Varddhamdnendu,
63, 307
upekkhd, 103, 106
Varuna, 18
upekkhako, 105
vas, 263 n.
upeksd,236, 270, 271

469

updddna-kdrana, 438

n.

194

Uruvela, 81
Usas, 14

Vassilief,112, 2i8".

Utpala, 327 n.
utpatti,374
utpdda, 138, 175
utpddasthitibhangavarjjam^1 46
1 50
utpddasthitibhangavivarjjanatd,
u/prekfa, 182
utsargasamitiy199 n.

vastunastatsamattdkd'nyathdbhdvahpari-

uttamdmbkas,

vastu,

220

n.

Uttarddhyayana, 171
Uttarddhyayanasiitra,169,236
Uttara

Mimamsa,
Uttarasailas, 112
Uttara

7, 70, 429

Samkhya, 217

Uttanapada,23

176

ndmah

vivarttah,

tadvisamasatldkah

468
vastuprativikalpavijndna
,145
vas/uvddt, 424

Vasubandhu, 114, 117, 120, 124, 128,

soul167, 218 "., 233,
423;
421,
doctrine criticised by, 117
Vasubhadra, I20".
Vasumitra, 112, 115, 116, 120
Vaskali, 45
Vacaspati,63, 86n., 143 n.f 161, 212,
2i8".,
229,

219,

233,

221,

222,

223,

224,

260, 261, 262, 209;*.,

225,

271/*.,

Index
278, 307,

277,

351,

341,

330 ".,

352, 355

n.,

418, 421 n., 433, 457,

differences with Bhiksu,

338,

337,

371,

340,

397 n., 415,

469,

490;
223 ff.

his

vdcika, 108
'vdcikakarma, 124

and

dtman

opposed

self-

to

ajnana, 457;

ness
conscious-

finition
Nyaya doctrine of causation,466 ; deof ajiidna,452 ff.;definition of
perception, 473;
dialectic, 419, 420,
ferent
461; dialectical arguments, 465; difkinds of illusion,
487 ; discussions

31

vdk, 333

with

vdkovdkya, 276
vdkyadosa, 302
vdkyapraJamsd, 302
Vdkydrthamdtrkdvrtti,397

nature

".

231

vdrttd, 277

Vdrttika, 67, 230, 307, 309, 327

418, 419
Varttikakara, 372

"., 353*.,

Varttikakarapada,
370
Vdrttika-tdtparyatlkd,
63
vcesand, 73, 128, I30".,

Kumarila

and

Prabhakara

on

the

of

of knowledge,
self-luminosity
459 ; doctrine of duties, 489 ; doctrine
of inference,
473; doctrine of jivasdksi,
480; dualistic interpretations
of, 70;
ekajiva doctrine, 477; epistemology of
Kumarila,
416 ff.; epistemology of
Prabhakara
Mimamsa,
mology
415 ff; episte-

vdnaprastka, 283

150,

151,

167,

263,411

of the Sautrantika
Buddhists,
of the category of
408 ff.; examination
of the
difference, 462 ff.; existence
jiidna
objectiveworld, 480; function oi vrttiin perception, 481; generai
count
acof, 70 ; historyof the doctrine of

469-470; indefinable character

able
world-appearance,461 ; indefinof ajnana, 479; literature,
nature
418 ff.; locus and objects of ajiidna,
and
avidya, 469, 475,
457 ff.; mdyd
of controversy,
476; methods
407;
of ahamkdra,
nature
458, 460; nature
of antahkarana, 460 ; nature
of emancipation,
of
ftvara,
nature
476;
491;
of perception, 483;
of
nature
nature
482; necessary
qualifications,
pramd,
489 ; nirvikalpa perception, 483 ;
Nyaya epistemology,412 ff.;objections
againstthe view that world-appearance
mdyd,

of the

Vasavadatta, 230
Vdsudeva, 28 n.
Vata, 17

Vatslputtriya,112, 117, 119 ".; doctrine

of soul of, 117
Vatsyayana, 63, 120, 167, 186 "., 229 w.,
269 "., 277, 278, 280, 294 "., 295 n.,
296 *., 298 "., 301 ".,
307,
304,
327 n., 350, 351, 353 n., 355 "., 467;
his distinction of Sarnkhya and
Yoga,
228".

Vdtsydyana bhdsya, 63, 297

"., 306, 309

37, 43, 50, 213, 262, 287, 289,
29". 295, 321, 323" 324, 328, 329
vdyu-aXom,
253
20,

Vayu picrdna, 306

vayu

as

illumination, 449; controversy

of the schools, 406;
of an
creation
illusoryobject, 487; criticism of the

vdggupti, 199 n.
vdgvikalpa,148
Vajapyayana, 232

vayu,

; dtman

as

vdcyatva, 354
"vrt"/a,
294, 296, 360

Vamana,

jlva, 475

the adhiluminous, 460; Brahman

as
sthdna
of illusion, 451;
cessation of
illusion
bddha
and
as
nivrtti, 488 ; tit
not

vdcikavijiiaptikarma,124

Vajasaneyischool,

525

tanmdtra,

252

Veda, 397, 422, 436; literature,429

vedand, 85, 90, 92, 94, 95, 97, 127
vedandkkhandha,
100

relation

"

not

negation,

455;

anirvdcyavdda, 461 ff.;antahka-

rana

and

its vrttis,472;

dtman,

474;

; drstisrsti

doctrine,478

with

other

systems, 492

ff.;

with Vedic

khya
duties,490 ; Sarnepistemology,414!?.;self-validity
of knowledge, 484; Sankara, the Brahand the Upanisads, 429 ff.;
ma-sutras
not essential for illusion, 452 ;
similarity
theory of causation, 465 ff.;theory of
illusion,486 ff.; theory of perception,
470 ff.;three functions of the subject,
480; three stages of jiva, 476; views
on
samavdya,
^ign.; vivartia and pari468; vrtti and consciousness,
ndma,
sub449, 450 ; world-appearance not a
iective creation, 452;
mology.
Yogacara episte-

relation

vedaniya, 191, 193

vedaniya karma, J94
Vedanta, 1, 7, 20, 29, 30, 41, 42, 48, 50,
52, 62, 68, 71, 75, 138, 161, 168, 177,
178, 211, 215 "., 235, 237, 238, 239,
371, 402,
241, 258, 319**., 341, 343,
407, 408, 419, 420, 429, 430, 431, 432,
436, 439" 447. 448" 45". 45 i" 452, 453,
454, 455, 459" 461, 466, 468, 470, 471,
472 "., 482, 483, 486, 488, 489, 492;
of illusion,
ajiidnaas the material cause
and
ajiidna
vrttijiidna,481 ;
453
by perception and
ajiidna established
inference, 454 ff.;ajiidna

is illusion,
451

perception of ajiidna in the sleeping

state, 456; philosophy,70; pratibimba,
and upddhi, 475 ; refutation
avaccheda
of the Mimamsa
theory of illusion,485 ;

Veddntakalpataru,86 n., w^n.

Veddntaparibhdsd,67, 3i8"., 419, 460
484, 485 n.

".,

Index

526
Veddntasdra, 420, 490 n.
Veddntasiddhdntamuktdvali,
Veddnia

sutras, 70, 71;

as

vibhu, 189, 363

vibhiiti,272, 424

420

interpretationsVibratory, 327

of

Upanisad texts, 70
Veddntatattvadlpikd,
420
305

Prof., 28

Vanamall,

Vedantatirtha

".,

""

Vedantic, 433, 465

Vedantins, 257
Vedantism, 175, 229, 371, 418

Veddrthasamgraha,
Vedas,

vidhi-vdkya,405
vidhiviveka, 371

433

'6,II,

1,

13,

14,

20,

25,

24,

67, 69, 1 86, 208, 209 ".,

277, 278, 282, 284, 285, 291,

234,

40,

297,
403,

489

3*6, 333

304"

"",

355,

294,

394,

4"i,

426, 430, 431, 435,

405,
philosophy
allegianceof Hindu

404,
;

the, 26 ; authorship
of, 10 ; bearing of, to Hindu
law, 1 1 ;
classification of, 12 ; doctrine of karma,
of
earliest record, 10;
idea
210;
later
influence of, on
morality, 210;
in

to, It; dtman

thought,

10;

monotheistic
not

6, 10,
396, 404, 436

Vedic,
25;

by hearing,10;
migration
tendency in, 19 ; translearnt

developedin, 53

belief in

264, 265, 292,

belief in another world,
II,

1,

14,

punishment of evildoers,
do

25 ; commandments

depend

not

conceptionof

vicdra, 105, 144, 213, 271

vicikicchd,100, 105
vicikitsd,145
Vicious infinite,160, 319 n.
vidhi, 29, 404, 405

on

vidhlyate,146
Vidvanmanoranjini, 420
vidyd, in, 277, 278, 293, 332 n.
I28"., 172, 279,
Vidyabhiisana,DrS.C,
309 w-" 350 w-" 388"-, 42 r
Vidyaranya, 419
vihdras, 173

vijdnana, 89
vijnapti,94, 124
vijndna, 86 n., 90, 91 "., 123, 124, 132,
143, 146, 409W., 428, 460; determining
ndmariipa, 91 ; in relation to skandhas,
91 ; meaning of,in Sanskrit works, 86 n.
VijftanaBhiksu, 212, 220, 221, 222, 223,
225, 226, 229, 257 "., 260, 262, 494;

Vacaspati,2236".

his differences with

Vijhdnakdya, 120
vijhdnamaya, 60
vijndnamaya dtman,

46

i, 128
Vijndnamdtrasiddh
seat of thought, 26 ; conception of the
vijiidnaskandha,
124
86"., 127, 128, 145, 166,
origin of the world, 25 ; cosmogony
Vijfianavada,
167,
(mythological),23 ; cosmogony
sophical),
(philo302, 417, 421, 429, 465, 493, 494;
reason,

29 ;

creation

23;

manas

as

hymn,

24;

doctrine of dtman,
25 ; doctrine that
soul could
be separated, 25 ; duties,
different from
Upanisads, 29 ; eschatology, 25; law of karma, 21; moral

obligatory ceremonies, 11;

sacrifices and
rituals, 1 1 ; teaching as
karma-mdrga, 29
Vedic
duties, 371, 437, 489, 490, 492;
idea, 25;

for inferior persons, 30

gods, 1 6 ; contrasted with
gods, 16 ; contrasted with Purana

Vedic

16; have

no

Greek

gods,

ments
fixed leader, 18; instru-

of sacrifice,22

nothingness, 149; Bodhidoctrine,1 50 ; categoriesof the

understanding,148; consciousness, two
functions of, 145 ; doctrine of dhydna,

aspects of
sattva

150; doctrine of essencelessness, 147;

doctrine of illusion (may a), 147; nirof naiz/awa-doctrine, 151; doctrine

tathdgatagarbha, 149 ;
pratityasamutpdda, 148 ;
that
all things are
doctrine
mental
creations, 146; its literature,128
rdtmya

and

doctrine

of

Vijfianavadin,
113,
184, 233,

301,

Vijndndmrta

127,

332,

128, 147,

409

bhdsya,

".,

220,

223,

'

Vedic hymns, 18, 22, 31 ; two tendencies,

6 ; different from the Upanisads,3 1
Vedic literature,41, til, 268
Vedic mythology, i8"., I9"., 22 "., 23 ".,
25".,

26

n.

sacrifices,
271
Vedic texts, 68, 69, 276, 372, 399
vega, 286, 316
vegasamskdra, 291
Verikata,222
VenkatesVara, 423

Vibhajjavadins,112,
115;

115;

their notion of time,

Vibhahga,83, 90
Vibhdfd, i20".

n.

schools
1

15

kdbuddhi, 148
vikalpapratyaya,410

n.

n.

Vikramaditya, 370
viksepa,472
viksipta,268

112

of,

".,

151, 261, 269

vikalpalaksanagrahdbhiniveiapratisthdpi-

vikalpa, 129,

vikathd, 193
vikdra, 232
vikdritvam, 203

vibhdga, 316

239

n.

vikaipita,
409

Vedic

Vesali,

243

167,

415

Vimalaklrti, 128
Vimalakirtinirdeiasiitra,125
Vimdnavatthu, 83

Vinaya, 82
vinaya, 193

n.

Index

Vrsnidaids,1 7 1 ".
146, 268, 269, 378 "., 444, 448,
481, 482,
449' 45o. 457" 460, 472,
483
vrttijndna,455, 458, 481
vyakti, 298

Vindhyavasin, 218
Vinltadeva, 152 n., 163 "., 168
vinndna, 85, 86, 94, 96, 109
vitindnakkhandha, 100

vipaksa,186

w#i,

344

".,

527

186 ".
vipaksa-pratisedha,
vipaksa-vyavrtti,
344

vyatireka, 353

vipaksdsattva,156W., 349
vipartta,193
viparltakhydti,
337, 384, 385
viparyaya,220, 269, 332 "., 337
viparyydsa, 140
Vipdka, 171
viriyasamvara, 101
Virocana, 46

346
vyattrekavydpti,

virodha, 357
viruddha, 360

Vyadi, 232
vydghdta, 347
vydpaka, 388
vydpakaviruddhopalabdhi,358
vydpakdnupalabdhi, 358
vydpddo, 105

viruddhakdryopalabdhi,358
358
viruddhavydptopalabdhi,
visadrJaparindma, 247
Visibility,
292
Visuddhimagga, 83, 88, 99".,
102

103 ".,

".,

104 ".,

148, 171 "., 446

vyavahdramdtram, 114
vyavahdranaya, ijj, 178
vyavahdrika, 148 "., 439, 446, 487

vyavahdra,

vyavasdya,
eptpo,

".,

101

105, 106

".,

in,

161

vitesa, 246, 253,

306

312,

".,

313,

285, 286, 287, 304,

318, 319, 320, 382

visesana, 331, 455

vitesanajndna,412
visesanatdvacchedaka^ 339

vitesanatdvacchedakaprakdram, 339
i 338
viiesanaviiesyabhdvdvagdh
,
Vihsdvas'yakabkdsya,171, 176^., 178

w.,

179W.

vis'esyavis'esanai
359
viiista,455
viHstabuddhi, 412

".

175

vydpdra, 330

w.

zy/J/zV,160, 186 "., 303, 304, 346, 347,

348, 354" 389 ""
vydptigraha,346, 347
vydpti-niyama, 353
vydpya, 388, 389
vydpyatvdsiddha, 361
Vyasa, 212, 222, 231, 234 ".
Vydsabhdsya, 225, 229, 231, 232, 233 ".,
235. 236" 237 "., 239 w., 254 "., 256 ".,
263 "., 266 "., 267 "., 269,
257 ".,
".
380
273 ".,
380 w.
vydsajyavrtti,
255

252,

vyoman,

Vi^uddhadvaitavada,
70
vis"va,424
Visvakarma, 19, 20, 32, 43, 52
Vi"vanatha, 281, 307, 339
Vitvandtha-vrtti, 307
135,

343

Vyoma^ekharacarya, 306
VyomavatT, 306
vyuhana, 122

viHstavaitistyajndnam,339

wwaya,

302,

vyavasthdpyavyavasthdpakabhdvena,
154

88"., 89M., 90"., 99

Warren,
108 ".,

Weber,
W"?/Y a/j

457

".,

107 ".,

inn.

13 "., 230
J-PiV/I?
w"a?

Vorstellung,40

vis dda, 243

Wenzel, 144
West, 3
Western, 4, 5

Visnu, 18, 39

Visnupurdna.) 433
vitakka, 105
vitandd, 294, 296, 302,
vitarka, 271

Western

360, 407

Whole,
Windisch, 203 w.
Winternitz, 34, 35 "., 39
Prof., 231, 233
Woods,

Vitthales'opddhydyi,
420
Vivaranabhdvaprakds'ikd,419
Vivaranaprameya, 457

Vivaranaprameyasamgraha,
486

".

vivartta, 468, 487

vivarttavdda, 258, 468
Vlrastava, 171 ".
virya,

271

viryapdramitdy 127
Vodhu, 222
Void, 127
Voidness, 126, 147, 166
Vows, 74

Vrjin, 112

Rajputana, 172
165

419,

457,

World-appearance,
447, 449,
489" 491

451,

,.

World-soul,

its

442,

441,

452,

".

446,

443,

461, 468, 469, 470,

,

mythicalcharacter, 52

yajna, 283
Yajfiadatta,176, 290
Yajur-Veda, 12, 30
106, 235, 236, 270, 317
yamaka, 83, 157
Yantrikd, 28 ".
Yaiastilaka, 172

;fl"fl, 59"

n.

Index

528
Yaioda, 173
Ya^omitra, 114,
yatna, 316

120,

167

yatharthahpratyayaky485
Yadavacarya,308
28 w., 34**., 35".,
Yajfiavalkya,

44" 54

ydna, 54, 125 "., 126

Yoga, 7, 9, 28"., 39, 68, 74, 75, 78,80,
93"., 192 "., 193, 199, 201, 203, 208,
222,
221,
223, 226,
215, 217, 220,
228, 229, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237,
248 "., 255, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264,
265 "., 266, 268, 273, 277, 278, 292,
"93" 3"i" 3""3" 3*7 *"" 3*5" 3^5' 434"
490, 492 ; compilationof the
sutras, 229 ff.; different types of,228;
its earlyorigin,
227; its meaning, 226;
its relation with Buddhism, 236 ff.;
pessimismin,76 ; the school mentioned
by Alberuni, 233 ff.
128
Yogacarydbhumiidstray
440,

Yoga compilation,
230
Yogacuddmani, 28 n.
Yoga discipline,
235, 237
Yoga editor,231, 233
Yoga ethics,269
yogaja,341
Yogakundali,28 "., 228
Yoga meditation,270, 271
in relationto other Indian
Yoga philosophy
', 203 n., 21 1"., 213,
systems of thought

Yudhisthira, 79

yugmapradesa, 196
226

yugya,

yuj, 226
yuj samddhaUy 226, 227
yujiryoge, 226, 227
Yuktisnehapuraniy390 w.
Yuktisnehapurani siddhdnta
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yutasiddha,246, 319
yutasiddhyabhdvdty
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Zend-Avesta, 39

238n.
Yoga Psychology
', 270

Yoga sutra, 219, 230, 233, 234, 235,

263 "., 268
Yoga sutras, 212, 236,237, 238, 266 n.
Yoga system, 77
YogaJdstra,172, 203 "., 237
YogaJikhd,28 n.
28 "., 228
Yogatattvay
228
Yoga Upanisads,
Yogavdrttika,212,^23,
239 "., 243 ".,
245 w-" 254 "., 256 "., 257 "., 259 ".,
261 "., 262 "., 263 "., 264 ".
Yogacara, 113, 128, 145, 411, 421
yogdnus'dsanat/iy
232
jy^'w, 76, 215, 227, 234 "., 256, 266,
270, 271, 272, 273, 293, 342, 426
yogyatd, 182, 224, 260, 358, 415
aggimd so so dhumavdy 157
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