Integrating Concept Mapping

and the Learning Cycle to Teach

Diffusion and Osmosis Concepts
to High School Biology Students
ARTHUR L. ODOM
Science Education, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
PAUL V. KELLY
Park Hill High School, Kansas City, MO 64110, USA
Received 27 April 1999; revised 7 August 2000; accepted 5 October 2000
ABSTRACT: This study explores the effectiveness of concept mapping, the learning
cycle, expository instruction, and a combination of concept mapping/learning cycle in
promoting conceptual understanding of diffusion and osmosis. Four high school biology
classes were taught diffusion and osmosis concepts with the aforementioned treatments.
Conceptual understanding was assessed immediately and seven weeks after instruction
with the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test (DODT). The results indicated the concept
mapping/learning cycle and concept mapping treatment groups significantly outperformed
the expository treatment group in conceptual understanding of diffusion and osmosis.
There was no significant difference among the learning cycle group and other treatments.

2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed 85:615 635, 2001.

INTRODUCTION
Improving science achievement through the use of more effective instructional strategies,
promoting the active role of the learner, and promoting the facilitative role of the teacher has
long been an aspiration of science educators. To this end, two predominant teaching methods
that have long histories of use remain widespread in the science education community:
concept mapping (e.g., Arnaudin et al., 1984; Cullen, 1990; Jones, Carter, & Rua, 2000;
Novak, 1993; Okebukola, 1992; Slotte & Lonka, 1999; Wandersee, 1990), and the learning
cycle (e.g., Bergquist, 1991; Gang, 1995; Lawson, 2000; Marek & Methven, 1991; Renner,
1986; Trifone, 1991). Concept mapping has over a 20-year history, growing from work by
Novak and his graduate students at Cornell University (Novak, 1990). The learning cycle
has over a 30-year history, with its present structure being attributed to Dr. Robert Karplus
and the persons who developed the materials of the Science Curriculum Improvement Study
(Renner & Marek, 1988).
Semblance aside, concept mapping and the learning cycle are deeply rooted in two
distinct theories of cognitive development: Ausubels theory of verbal learning and Piagets
Correspondence to: A. L. ODOM; e-mail: alodom@umkc.edu

2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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developmental theory. Both theories bring a unique epistemology to learning and have
proven to provide a better understanding of the learner and the learning process.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of concept mapping and the
learning cycle in promoting understanding of diffusion and osmosis in high school biology.
Although several studies have explored the effectiveness of concept mapping (Christianson
& Fisher, 1999; Gagged, Alaiyemola, & Okebukola, 1990; Wallace & Mintzes, 1990) and the
learning cycle (Marek & Mothven, 1991; Schneider & Renner, 1980), none have explored
the effectiveness of concept mapping and the learning cycle combined. We hypothesize
concept mapping and learning cycle lessons combined over diffusion and osmosis content
will provide a more complete framework for knowing than concept mapping, learning cycle,
or expository instruction alone because the use of a single methodology will provide only
a partial framework for knowing.
Diffusion and osmosis were selected as topics for this study because:
1. Diffusion and osmosis content can be easily modified to fit concept mapping and
learning cycle formats.
2. A diffusion and osmosis assessment instrument was readily available.
3. Diffusion and osmosis are key to understanding many important life processes.
4. Previous studies have indicated students have difficulty learning diffusion and osmosis and more effective teaching strategies are needed.
Specifically, diffusion is the primary method of short distance transport in a cell and cellular
systems. An understanding of osmosis concepts is required to understand water intake by
plants, water balance in land and aquatic creatures, turgor pressure in plants, and transport
in living organisms. In addition, diffusion and osmosis are closely related to concepts in
physics and chemistry, such as permeability, solutions, and the particulate nature of matter
(Friedler, Amir, & Tamir, 1987).
There have been several studies that have explored the difficulties students have with
learning diffusion and osmosis. These studies suggest that more effective methods are
required to teach these concepts. Johnstone and Mahmoud (1980) surveyed high school
biology students on their perceived difficulty of isolated biology topics and reported that
osmosis and water potential were regarded by students and teachers as being among the
most difficult biological concepts to understand. Odom (1995) administered the Diffusion
and Osmosis Diagnostic Test (DODT) to 116 secondary biology students, 123 college nonbiology majors, and 117 biology majors. Misconceptions were detected in five of the seven
conceptual areas measured by the test: the particulate and random nature of matter, concentration and tonicity, the influences of life forces on diffusion and osmosis, the process
of diffusion, and the process of osmosis. There was no significant difference found between secondary and nonbiology majors understanding of diffusion and osmosis concepts.
However, there was a significant difference between biology majors and secondary/nonbiology majors.
Zuckerman (1993) identified 12 accurate conceptions and 8 inaccurate conceptions about
osmosis held by high school science students. She reported that misconceptions about osmosis blocked problem solving of osmosis-related questions. Of the 12 accurate conceptions,
two were especially important in enabling problem solvers to generate correct answers (i.e.,
the rate of osmosis is constant; the concentrations of water across the membrane must be
equal at osmotic equilibrium).

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617

Theoretical Framework: Ausubels Theory of Verbal Learning

and Concept Mapping
The key to Ausubels theory of verbal learning is the emphasis on meaningful learning.
According to Ausubel (1968), meaningful learning is defined as the nonarbitrary, substantive
relating of new ideas or verbal propositions into cognitive structure. For meaningful learning
to occur, the new ideas must have potential meaning and the learner must possess relevant
concepts that can anchor new ideas. The learner must also consciously relate the new ideas
or verbal propositions to relevant aspects of their current knowledge structure in a conscious
manner.
Meaningful learning occurs by the process of subsumption when potentially meaningful propositions are subsumed under more inclusive ideas in existing cognitive structure.
The new propositional meanings are hierarchically organized with respect to the level of
abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness. The process of meaningful learning can be improved by concept mapping. During concept mapping, the learner graphically represents
concepts in a hierarchically arranged structure and begins to progressively differentiate
among concepts. Progressive differentiation refers to the learning process in which learners
differentiate between concepts as they learn more about them. During the process of integrative reconciliation, the learner recognizes relationships between concepts and does not
compartmentalize them (Novak, 1990).

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY AND THE LEARNING CYCLE

According to Lawson, Abraham, and Renner (1989), there are basically two fundamental
types of knowledge: declarative and procedural. Declarative knowledge is basically know
that, and procedural knowledge is knowing how. The acquisition of declarative knowledge is very much a constructive process that makes use of procedural knowledge. Students
can learn by memorization, but such learning will not improve procedural knowledge.
The reason we should improve procedural knowledge is that when students participate in
the constructive process, the learning of declarative knowledge becomes more meaningful
and retention more complete. This, in turn, will give students the tools to better understanding and the ability to explain the world by being able to generate and test their own
ideas.
This process of constructing knowledge usually will begin with an observation and question. For example, an interesting question may arise or can be introduced by the teacher
when observing osmosis in Elodea, Suppose you kill the plant cells, would osmosis continue? This question may lead to predictions and hypotheses. If the observations fit the
expected outcomes, then the observations are assimilated into the current mental structure.
If, however, observations do not fit the expected outcomes, disequilibrium results and accommodation is needed. As a consequence of accommodation, alternative mental structures
are selected or constructed, driven by disequilibrium, until a good match between expected
and actual outcomes occurs to restore equilibrium (Lawson, 1995). The ability to generate
declarative knowledge depends on procedural knowledge, which is dependent on the ability
to generate and test hypotheses.
The learning cycle is a methodology that provides students with experiences in generating
both declarative and procedural knowledge and is grounded in Piagets theory of cognitive
development (Lawson, 1988). The learning cycle incorporates the Piagetian approach into
a succinct methodology of learning: experiencing the phenomena or concept (Exploration
Phase), applying terminology to the concept (Concept Introduction), and application of the
concepts into additional conceptual frameworks (Application).

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During exploration, students learn through their own actions and reactions to a new
situation. Exploration allows students to begin to develop the declarative and procedural
knowledge with the development of their hypothesis creation and testing skills. They explore
new materials and new ideas with minimal guidance. The new experience can raise questions
or complexities that they cannot resolve with their accustomed ways of thinking. This can
spark debate and analysis of reasons for their ideas. The analysis leads to alternative ways
to test ideas though the generation of predictions. The gathering and analysis of ideas may
then lead to the rejection of some ideas and retention of other ideas in the cyclic pattern of
self-regulation (Lawson, 1995).
The second phase of the learning cycle is sometimes referred to as concept introduction
or term introduction. Terms and concepts are used to refer to the pattern observed during
exploration. The terms may be introduced with lectures, assigned readings, or other means.
The key is to allow students to sufficiently explore the phenomenon prior to introducing
terminology.
The last phase is referred to as concept application, where students organize the concept
just learned with other related phenomena. The previously learned concepts are extended to
new situations and new contexts. Without a variety of applications, the concepts meaning
may remain restricted to the examples used at the time it was initially defined and discussed.
Without the application phase, many students may fail either to abstract the concepts from
its concrete examples or to generalize it to other situations (Lawson, 1995).
The main idea is that the learning cycle provides opportunities for students to explore
their belief systems, which may result in argumentation, prediction, and hypothesis testing,
resulting in self-regulation and knowledge construction.
A UNION OF CONCEPT MAPPING AND THE LEARNING CYCLE
Hypotheses about diffusion and osmosis are not created in a vacuum and depend on recall
of previous knowledge, previous experience, and creativity. This would include knowledge
and experiences with the plant cells, processes of diffusion and osmosis, concentration,
permeability, and solutions. In order for learning to be meaningful, the learner must possess
concepts relevant to the new learning. However, with many new ideas, there will be a limited
number, or no relevant concepts in students cognitive structure, to serve to anchor the new
learning. In order to construct meaning of diffusion and osmosis, one must make sense
of technical concepts (e.g., solution, solute, solvent, molecular movement, net movement,
and direction of movement); many of which are difficult to detect or simulate in laboratory
situation.
We believe both the learning cycle and concept mapping provide a unique approach to
learning that can help students construct knowledge. The learning cycle can help promote
self-regulation and provide experiences to help students construct relevant declarative and
procedural knowledge that can provide the foundation to anchor learning of the complex
processes associated with diffusion and osmosis. However, with the learning cycle there is
no formal mechanism to make connections between numerous concepts and activities. The
application phase can be used to allow students to apply concepts to new situations and
contexts, but diffusion and osmosis involve many complex processes that require multiple
learning cycles. The learning cycle does not provide a mechanism to make connections
between the many lessons. It is only possible to teach one lesson at a time even in a spiral
curriculum. There is not a formal mechanism to connect the many concepts learned from
multiple learning cycle lessons.
Concept mapping provides a mechanism to assist students to make connections between
concepts. Students provided with a series of labs, lectures, or textbook readings can construct

CONCEPT MAPPING AND LEARNING CYCLE

619

concept maps related to all of these activities. Students make many connections between
multiple concepts learned from multiple lessons. Concept mapping alone does not provide opportunities for students to observe phenomena that may lead to the self-regulatory
process that results from disequilibrium. There is not an opportunity for assimilation and accommodation that results from questions, predictions, and hypothesis testing of observable
phenomena.
We believe the combination of learning cycles and concept mapping provide experiences
with observable phenomena and hierarchically organized cognitive structure, both of which
are required for meaningful learning to occur.
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Sample
A total of 108 secondary students (grades 10 11) enrolled in four different sections of
college preparatory biology, formed the sample for the study. Each of the four sections were
randomly assigned to a treatment group (concept mapping, n = 26; learning cycle, n = 28;
expository, n = 27; and concept mapping/learning cycle, n = 27). The same teacher taught
each of the four classes.
Test Administration
Pretest data was not collected about students understandings of diffusion and osmosis
to cut down on potential test boredom, redundancy, and test learnedness. The researchers
wanted to reduce the chance of students learning test items that could be recalled during instruction. They also wanted to reduce the chance of the teacher seeing the test and
potentially teaching to specific items on the test.
The test was administered immediately after instruction and 7 weeks after instruction to
assess retention. The data collected immediately after instruction provided baseline data
for comparison. None of the students received formal instruction about diffusion and osmosis by the instructor prior to the study. The researchers assumed the students had little
prior knowledge or understanding of diffusion and osmosis, as indicated in previous studies
(Odom, 1995; Zuckerman, 1993). All of the students who participated in the study were enrolled in college-bound biology courses and met the same GPA criteria for math and science.
To provide homogeneity of treatment group students, students were classified according to
their level of formal reasoning. The students were classified as preformal or formal with
the Logical Reasoning Test (LRT) and guidelines provided by Popejoy and Burney (1990).
The data was used as a covariate to correct differences among groups. Similarly, Odom and
Settlage (1994) administered the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test and the Logical
Reasoning Test (Popejoy & Burney, 1990) to 116 high school biology students. They reported that there were significant differences between levels of cognitive development and
understanding of diffusion and osmosis where formal outperformed preformal students.

Instrumentation
Conceptual understanding was measured with the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic
Test, which has previously been determined to be a good indicator of student understanding
of diffusion and osmosis (Christianson & Fisher, 1999; Odom & Barrow, 1995). Items for
the diagnostic instrument were based on the two-tier multiple-choice format. The first tier
consisted of a content question with two, three, or four choices. The second tier consisted

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of four possible reasons for the first part: three alternative reasons and one desired reason.
The alternative reasons were based on misconceptions detected during the multiple-choice
test with free response reason and the interview sessions.
The final version of the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test consisted of 12 items.
The conceptual areas covered by the test were: the particulate and random nature of matter,
concentration and tonicity, the influence of life forces on diffusion and osmosis, the process
of diffusion, and the process of osmosis (Odom & Barrow, 1995). Figure 1 offers an example
of an item that assesses understanding of the particulate and random nature of matter.
A specification grid was constructed to determine the face validity and whether the test
questions matched all of the validated content specified by the propositional knowledge
statements for the final instrument (Figure 1). Two major questions were addressed while
determining face validity: (1) Does the question assess the content as defined by the
validated propositional knowledge statements? (Figure 2), and (2) Is the question at a level

As the difference in concentration between two areas increases, the rate of diffusion
(a) Decreases
(b) Increases
Reason
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

There is less room for the particles to move.

If the concentration is high enough, the particles will spread less and the rate will be slowed.
The molecules want to spread out.
The greater likelihood of random motion into other regions.

Figure 1. Sample item on the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test that assesses the particulate and random
nature of matter.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

All particles are in constant motion.

Diffusion involves the movement of particles.
Diffusion results from the random motion and/or collisions of particles (ions or molecules).
Diffusion is the net movement of particles as a result of a concentration gradient.
Concentration is the number of particles per unit volume.
Concentration gradient is a difference in concentration of a substance across a space.
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Diffusion continues until the particles become uniformly distributed in the medium in which they are dissolved.
Diffusion rate increases as temperature increases.
Temperature increases motion and/or particle collisions.
Diffusion rate increases as the concentration gradient increases.
Increased concentration increases particle collisions.
Diffusion occures in living and nonliving systems.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.
Tonicity refers to the relative concentration of particles on either side of a semipermeable membrane.
A hypotonic solution has fewer dissolved particles/per unit volume relative to the other side of the membrane.
A hypertonic solution has more dissolved particles/per unit volume relative to the other side of the membrane.
An isotonic solution has an equal number of dissolved particles/per unit volume on both sides of the membrane.
Osmosis is the net movement of water (solvent) across a semipermeable membrane from a hypotonic solution
to a hypertonic solution.
20. Osmosis occurs in living and nonliving systems.
21. A semipermeable membrane is a membrane that selectively allows the movement of some substances across
the membrane while blocking the movement of others.
22. Cell membranes are semipermeable.
Figure 2. Propositional knowledge statements required for understanding diffusion and osmosis.

CONCEPT MAPPING AND LEARNING CYCLE

621

of sophistication appropriate for secondary biology students? If the aforementioned criteria

were not met, then the item was dropped. All 22 propositional knowledge statements were
matched to the items on the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test. All of the questions,
except one, incorporated more than one of the propositional knowledge statements. Item
number 4 matched only propositional knowledge statement number 5, which was concerned
with concentration as measured by the number of particles per unit volume. The DODT was
initially constructed to assess freshman college biology students understanding of diffusion
and osmosis. Subsequent studies have indicated the DODT to be appropriate for secondary
biology students (Odom, 1995; Odom & Settlage, 1994).
Formal reasoning was assessed with the Logical Reasoning Test (LRT), and students were
categorized as preformal or formal (Popejoy & Burney, 1990). The LRT is a pencil and paper
assessment containing 21 items. The items on the test were constructed and correlated to
five Piagetian-type tasks. The validity of the test was established by comparing test items
to Piagetian-type tasks. Correlation between the test items and Piagetian tasks were used to
determine the cut-off scores for formal and preformal students.
Defining the Content Boundaries
The propositional knowledge statements used to define the DODT were also used to
define the boundaries of diffusion and osmosis content (Figure 2). The lessons for each
of the treatment groups were derived from the propositional knowledge statements. All 22
propositional knowledge statements were addressed in each treatment group (Figure 3).

Day

Activities

CONCEPT MAPPING TREATMENT

1
*Demonstration of diffusion using open bottle of ammonia.
*Demonstration of diffusion at molecular level using beads in a glass beaker.
*Lecture on diffusion, concentration, kinetic motion, and concentration
gradient. Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and
computer presentation tools.
*Individual students constructed a concept map with the following terms:
diffusion, kinetic motion, particles, concentration, concentration gradient, and
uniform motion.
2
*Teacher lectured, worked with groups and individuals on concept maps.
Students made a group map from individual maps constructed on day 1.
Groups presented maps to the class on an overhead projector.
3
*Demonstration of temperatures effects of diffusion using hot and cold water
and dye.
*Lecture on temperatures effect on diffusion and molecular rationale.
Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer
presentation tools.
*Homework assignment from text questions.
4
*Lecture on the effect of concentration on diffusion. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Lecture on osmosis and semipermeable membranes. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overheaded projector, and computer presentation
tools.

Propositional
Knowledge
Statements
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

9, 10, 11

11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21,

22

Figure 3. Description of treatment groups by day, activities, and propositional knowledge statements addressed
during activity.
Continued

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Day

ODOM AND KELLY

Activities

*Lecture on tonicity. Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead

projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Demonstration of tonicity using Elodea and a projection microscope.
*Students revised their concepts maps from day 1 and 2 by adding the
following concepts: temperature, living systems, nonliving systems,
osmosis, water, semipermeable membrane, tonicity, hypertonic, hypotonic,
and isotonic.
6
*Teacher lectured, worked with groups and individuals on concept
maps. Groups consolidated their concept maps into one master map and
presented it to the class on an overhead. Students shared comments and
analyzed each map.
* Review of terms
LEARNING CYCLE TREATMENT
1
*Learning cycle lesson 1 entitled Diffusion of solid in a liquid.
*Demonstration of diffusion at the molecular level using glass beads in a
glass beaker.
*Discussion of diffusion, concentration, kinetic motion, and concentration
gradient. Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector,
and computer presentation tools.
2
*Learning cycle lesson 2 entitled Effect of temperature on rates on
diffusion.
*Discussion of temperatures effect on diffusion and molecular rationale.
Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overheaded projector, and
computer presentation tools.
*Learning cycle lesson 3 entitled Effect of concentration gradients on
rates of diffusion.
3
*Discussion of effect on concentration on diffusion. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation
tools.
*Learning cycle lesson 4 entitled Diffusion through membranes.
*Discussion of osmosis and semipermeable membranes. Instructional
input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer
presentation tools.
4
*Learning cycle lesson 5 entitled Osmosis.
*Learning cycle lesson 6 entitled Consequences of osmosis in closed
systems.
5
*Discussion of osmosis and tonicity. Instructional input provided by
chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Learning cycle lesson 7 entitled Turgor pressure in cells.
*Discussion of diffusion and osmosis in living cells. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation
tools.
*
6
*Learning cycle lesson 8 entitled Observations of the central vacuole in
Elodea.
*Discussion of osmosis in living cells. Instructional input provided by
chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
EXPOSITORY TREATMENT
1
*Demonstration of diffusion using open bottle of ammonia.
*Demonstration of diffusion at molecular level using beads in a glass
beaker.
Figure 3. (Continued)

Propositional
Knowledge
Statements
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

21, 22

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

9, 10, 11, 12

11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21,

22

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

21, 22

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

21, 22

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

21, 22

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

CONCEPT MAPPING AND LEARNING CYCLE

Day

Activities

*Lecture on diffusion, concentration, kinetic motion, and concentration

gradient. Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and
computer presentation tools.
*Reading assignment from text
2
*Demonstration of temperatures effects of diffusion using hot and cold water
and dye.
*Lecture on temperatures effect on diffusion and molecular rationale.
Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer
presentation tools.
*Homework assignment from text questions.
3
*Lecture on the effect of concentration on diffusion. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Lecture on osmosis and semipermeable membranes. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools
*Quiz
4
*Lecture on tonicity. Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead
projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Demonstration of tonicity using Elodea and a projection microscope.
*Homework assignment from text.
5
*Teacher lectured and reviewed homework.
*Students made drawing of various situation of tonicity, osmosis, and
diffusion.
6
*Teacher lectured and review of terms.
*Students presentation of drawings.
CONCEPT MAPPING/LEARNING CYCLE TREATMENT
1
*Learning cycle lesson 1 entitled Diffusion of solid in a liquid.
*Demonstration of diffusion at the molecular level using glass beads in a glass
beaker.
*Discussion of diffusion, concentration, kinetic motion, and concentration
gradient. Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and
computer presentation tools.
*Individual students constructed a concept map with the following terms:
diffusion, kinetic motion, particles, concentration, concentration gradient, and
uniform motion.
2
*Concept maps were graded and discussed briefly.
*Learning cycle lesson 2 entitled Effect of temperature on rates on diffusion.
*Discussion of temperatures effect on diffusion and molecular rationale.
Instructional input provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, computer
presentation tools.
*Learning cycle lesson 3 entitled Effect of concentration gradients on rate of
diffusion.
3
*Discussion of effect of concentration on diffusion. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Learning cycle lesson 4 entitled Diffusion through membranes.
*Discussion of osmosis and semipermeable membranes. Instructional input
provided by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
4
*Learning cycle lesson 5 entitled Osmosis.
*Learning cycle lesson 6 entitled Consequences of osmosis in closed
system.
5
*Discussion of osmosis and tonicity. Instructional input provided by
chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Learning cycle lesson 7 entitled Turgor pressure in cells.
Figure 3. (Continued)

623

Propositional
Knowledge
Statements

9, 10, 11

11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21,

22

15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,

21, 22

11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,

17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22
1 22

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

9, 10, 11, 12

11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 21,

22

15, 16, 17, 18, 19,

20, 21, 22
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
21, 22

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ODOM AND KELLY

Activities
*Discussion of diffusion and osmosis in living cells. Instructional input provided
by chalkboard, overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.
*Students revised their concept maps from day 1 and 2 by adding the following
concepts:temperature, living systems, nonliving systems, osmosis, water,
semipermeable membrane, tonicity, hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.
*Concept maps were graded and discussed briefly.
*Learning cycle lesson 8 entitled Observations of the central vacuole in Elodea.
*Discussion of osmosis in living cells. Instructional input provided by chalkboard,
overhead projector, and computer presentation tools.

Propositional
Knowledge
Statements

15, 16, 17, 18, 19,

20, 21, 22

Figure 3. (Continued)

Teacher Researcher: Planned vs. Enacted Intervention

Observations or video recordings were not made during the study period. It was assumed
that the teacher research enacted the same intervention that was planned. The assumption
was based on four factors: (1) educational background and leadership experience, (2) classroom observations prior to the study, (3) in- service workshops taught by the teacher, and
(4) the detailed structure of the study that was designed by the teacher and university professor. The results were used to provide distinct differences and needed similarities among
treatment groups.
The teacher completed three graduate courses in science education, which included extensive training with concept mapping and the learning cycle. He worked as a cooperating
teacher for student teachers and was chair of the science department in which he provided
in-service sessions on the learning cycle and concept mapping. The university professor
observed the teacher conduct numerous lessons using concept mapping/learning cycle. Interactions between the teacher and university professor resulted in numerous concept mapping/learning cycle lessons on diversity, genetics, biomolecules, and diffusion and osmosis.
Reasons for selecting diffusion and osmosis for this study are discussed in the purpose
section.
The diffusion and osmosis lessons were field tested prior to this study by the teacher.
The university professor participated in learning cycle/concept mapping workshops led
by the teacher and the teacher wrote a booklet based on the field-tested lessons entitled,
The union of the learning cycle and concept mapping for meaningful learning: Diffusion and osmosis. The booklet contained learning cycle lessons on diffusion and osmosis, instructions on when to introduce concepts for mapping, concept cutouts for concept
mapping, criterion map for assessment, and a materials list. The diffusion and osmosis
booklet was used to teach workshops at both the St. Louis and New Orleans National
Science Teachers Association National Conventions (Kelly & Odom, 1996, 1997). The
university professor participated in these workshops. The content covered in the booklet
was the same content that defined this study and the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test. Based on the four previous assumptions, there was no reason to conclude that
the lessons taught during the field tests, observations, workshops, or detailed plans of
each treatment group were significantly different than the lessons taught during the study.
Variations on other treatment groups were met by eliminating learning cycle lessons or
concept mapping activities. Greater detail on the treatment group is discussed in the next
section.

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625

Treatment: Concept Mapping and Expository

Concept mapping was defined as a graphical tool to aid in visually representing hierarchies of generalization and expressing propositional linkages within a system of related
concepts (Cliburn, 1986). Students in all four treatment groups were taught concept mapping
according to the guidelines provided by Novak and Gowin (1984) and had engaged in concept mapping activities for two months prior to this study. Concept mapping was an integral
part of this teachers classroom. Concept maps were routinely assessed for course credit,
using procedures similar to those suggested by Novak and Gowin (1984). The assessed concept maps were not used as a part of this study. After the concepts maps were assessed, they
were returned to students as part of the everyday class routine. Only the concept mapping
(CM) and concept mapping/learning cycle (CM/LC) treatment groups engaged in concept
mapping activities during this study. However, students in other treatment groups could
have constructed concept maps independent of the unit requirements.
Expository (EX) teaching was defined as an organized lecture supplemented by slides,
overheads, charts, and demonstrations to illustrate concepts and ideas. The teacher provided
expository lessons to the CM and EX treatments. The concept mapping and expository treatment groups received lessons on diffusion and osmosis content via expository instruction.
The lessons for each group were the same, with the exception of concept mapping activities
for the CM treatment. The timing of the presentation of the diffusion and osmosis content
varied slightly from day to day. However, both groups received 6 days of instruction over the
exact same content. Following is a general description of the CM and EX treatments. A more
detailed description of the treatments, along with the propositional knowledge statements
addressed, is reported in Figure 3.
Day OneAfter expository instruction, individual students in the CM treatment group
were asked to construct concept maps over the days lesson and were given the following
terms to include in their maps: diffusion, kinetic motion, particles, concentration, concentration gradient, and uniform motion. The EX treatment was given a diffusion and osmosis
reading assignment from the text Modern Biology (Towle, 1989).
Day TwoThe teacher lectured about the days content. Students in the CM treatment
group broke into small groups and made a group map from individual maps constructed
from Day One. The teacher assisted with groups and individuals during the construction of
the maps. The group maps were presented to the class on an overhead projector. The EX
treatment group received a lecture and were given text questions as a homework assignment.
Days Three, Four, and FiveBoth the CM and EX treatment groups received a variety
of demonstrations, lectures, and text homework assignments. In addition, on Day Five,
the CM treatment group revised their concept maps constructed from Days 1 and 2 by
adding the following concepts: temperature, living system, nonliving system, osmosis,
water, semipermeable, membrane, tonicity, hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic.
Day SixBoth the CM and EX treatment groups received a variety of demonstrations
and lectures. The CM treatment students consolidated their maps into a master group map
and presented it to the class on an overhead. The EX treatment students reviewed terms and
presented diffusion and osmosis drawings they had made.
Treatment: Learning Cycle and Concept Mapping/Learning Cycle
The characteristics of the learning cycle as used in this study are outlined in Barman (1989)
and Abraham and Renner (1986). Generally, we used the following sequence of three specific
phases: (1) exploration phase, (2) concept introduction phase, and (3) application phase.
A brief description of each days activities and a sample learning cycle lesson follows. A

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ODOM AND KELLY

more detailed description of treatments, along with the propositional knowledge statements
addressed, are reported in Figure 3.
The LC and CM/LC treatment groups received instruction with eight learning cycle
lessons. In addition to the learning cycle lessons, the CM/LC treatment group engaged in
concept mapping activities using the same terms and time line as the CM treatment group.
The learning cycle lessons for the LC and CM/LC treatment groups were exactly the
same. Following is an example of a learning cycle lesson from Day Two.
Exploration phaseGroups of students were given two beakers of water. One of the
beakers contained hot water and the other contained cold water. Green dye was added to
each of the beakers and students recorded their observations.
Concept introduction phaseThe teacher and the students discussed observations and
the relationship between rate of diffusion and temperature. In groups, students were asked
to verbalize and write statements that described the relationship between rate of diffusion
and temperature.
Application phaseAgar blocks containing phenolphthalein were placed in 1% sodium
hydroxide at 0 C and 25 C. Students measured the thickness of the pink band that resulted
from sodium hydroxide diffusing into the agar blocks. Differences in thicknesses of the
pink bands were discussed in the groups and as a class. Students were allowed to verbalize
and write statements that described their experiences and the relationship between rate
of diffusion and temperature. A whole class discussion followed group activities. All
applicable propositional knowledge statements (Figure 3) were integrated into the lesson
during concept introduction and after the completion of the lessons. Following instruction,
the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test was administered to each treatment group.
The results and content on the test were not discussed. Seven weeks after instruction
was complete the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test was administered again. The
seven-week time period was selected because this was the maximum time allowed before
the groups switched teachers and sections.

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The data for the study were analyzed using a SYSTAT statistical software package.
Two separate analyses of covariance were performed on DODT scores for the post (day
after) and post-post (seven weeks after instruction) assessments. The independent variable was instructional treatment (concept mapping, learning cycle, expository, and concept
mapping/learning cycle). Scores on the Logical Reasoning Test were the covariate. By convention, a 0.05 alpha was selected (Ferguson & Takane, 1989; Hopkins, Glass, & Hopkins,
1987). After adjustment by the logical reasoning covariate ( p < .05), DODT scores were
not statistically significant among treatment groups the day after instruction ( p > .05). The
scores were statistically significant seven weeks after instruction, as summarized in Table 1
( p < .01). The results reflected a moderate to good association between treatments and
adjusted DODT scores seven weeks after instruction, R 2 = 0.33 (Tabachnich & Fidell,
1989).
The post (day after) and post-post (seven weeks after instruction) adjusted DODT means
are displayed in Table 2. The post (day after instruction) means were 60.2%, 52.1%, 49.4%,
and 57.8% for the CM, LC, EX, and CM/LC groups, respectively. For the post-post (seven
weeks after instruction) scores, the CM/LC treatment group had the highest adjusted mean
score on the DODT (56.8%), followed by the CM treatment group (53.5%), the LC treatment
group (48.1%), and the EX treatment group (40.6%).

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627

TABLE 1
Analysis of Covariance of Instructional Treatments
Source of Variance

Adjusted SS

df

MS

34.8
209.6
512.7

3
1
103

11.6
209.1

2.3
42.1

69.7
154.9
433.5

3
1
103

23.2
154.9

5.4
35.9

(Day after instruction)

Instructional treatment
Formal reasoning
Error
(Seven week after instruction)
Instructional treatment
Formal reasoning
Error

p > .05.
p < .01.

A Tukey post-hoc comparison (Ferguson & Takane, 1989) of the seven weeks after instruction treatments indicated concept mapping/learning cycle and concept mapping treatments were significantly different from the expository treatment ( p < .01 and p < .05,
respectively). The learning cycle treatment was not significantly different from the other
treatments and concept mapping/learning cycle and concept mapping treatments were not
significantly different from each other ( p > .05). Table 3 is a summary of responses to the
DODT categorized by treatment, item number, and conceptual area. The CM/LC treatment
had the top score on 9 of 12 items, while the CM treatment had the top score on 3 of 12
items. The CM/LC treatment had the top scores on all items covering the particulate and
random nature of matter, influence of life forces on diffusion and osmosis, membranes,
process of diffusion, kinetic energy of matter, and half the items covering concentration and
tonicity. The CM treatment had the top score on the items covering the process of diffusion
and half of the items covering concentration and tonicity. Low scores were scattered among
the CM, LC, and EX treatments. EX had the largest number of low scores (7/12), followed
by LC (3/12) and CM (2/12).
DISCUSSION
There is potential bias when using one teacher for all treatment groups. The teacher in this
study was aware of this potential and took every precaution to give equal treatment to each

TABLE 2
Least-square Mean Scores on the DODT
Least Square Mean Score on the DODT
Treatment

Day After

(7) weeks After

Concept mapping
Learning cycle
Expository
Concept mapping/learning cycle

26
28
27
27

60.2
52.1
49.4
57.8

53.5
48.1
40.6
56.8

Significantly different from expository.

p < .05.

p < .01.

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ODOM AND KELLY

TABLE 3
Mean Score on the DODT (Seven) Weeks after Instruction
Treatment
Conceptual Area Assessed

Item

CM

LC

EX

CM/LC

The particulate and random

nature of matter

2
3
6
4
9
11

34.2
58.0
90.4
34.6
64.4
27.6

32.6
64.9
88.0
47.4
47.5
21.5

32.8
43.8
68.0
39.7
47.0
11.0

52.3
66.4
90.8
59.3
49.0
47.5

12
1
5
8
10
7

81.9
44.7
29.8
28.6
56.4
91.8

81.8
23.1
1.1
31.1
40.8
97.0

63.4
13.1
9.9
23.4
42.9
92.0

84.1
23.6
8.3
39.1
60.5
100

Concentration and tonicity

Influence of life forces on
diffusion and osmosis
Membrances
Process of diffusion
Process of osmosis
Kinetic energy of matter

Top score among treatment groups. CM = Concept mapping; LC = Learning cycle;

EX = Expository; CM/LC = Concept mapping/Learning cycle.

group. Four different sections of college prep high school biology classes were selected for
the study. A copy of the DODT was not available prior to teaching each treatment. The exact
field-tested laboratories used during learning cycle lessons were used as demonstrations
during CM and EX treatments. Lectures were attempted to be reproduced, verbatim, during
EX and CM treatments with scripted notes. We believe we reduced the probability of teacher
bias with all of the aforementioned precautions.
The study set out to investigate the effectiveness of concept mapping, the learning cycle, expository, and concept mapping/learning cycle instructional strategies on enhancing
achievement in diffusion and osmosis content. The results seem to suggest that both the
CM/LC and CM strategies enhance learning of diffusion and osmosis concepts more effectively than expository teaching. However, the two treatments (CM and CM/LC) were not
significantly different from the LC treatment.
The next section will focus on possible reasons for the difficulties with diffusion and osmosis, by examining each item on the Diffusion and Osmosis Diagnostic Test. According to
Gilbert (1977), if a multiple choice item has four to five distractors, understanding is considered satisfactory if more than 75% of the students answer the item correctly. With a typical
multiple-choice test having four possible selections, there is a 25% chance of guessing the
correct answer. With a two-tier item having two selections on the first tier and four selections
on the second tier, there is a 12.5% chance of guessing the correct answer combination. We
will use Gilberts criteria to discuss each treatment group and item on the DODT.
Kinetic Energy of Matter
The kinetic energy of matter concept was examined through item 7. Analysis of responses
revealed few misconceptions. Over 90% of the students in each treatment group selected
the correct content and reason answer. In the question, green dye was added to two different
beakers, one containing water at 25 C (beaker 1) and the other containing water at 35 C
(beaker 2). Students were asked to determine which beaker would become light green first.

CONCEPT MAPPING AND LEARNING CYCLE

629

Each treatment group got to see the movement of dye after it was added to hot and cold
water. The CM and EX groups viewed the activity as a demonstration. The CM/LC and
LC groups conducted the experiment. The reason each treatment group scored high may
be because the concept is directly observable and the test item was specifically addressed
with the activity.
The Particulate Nature and Random Motion of Matter
The particulate nature and random motion of matter was examined through items 2, 3, and
6 of the DODT. These items assessed students understandings of the movement of matter
at the molecular level. Students either conducted experiments or observed demonstrations
of diffusion, such as the diffusion of potassium permanganate in water and the diffusion
of sodium hydroxide as a result of both temperature and concentration gradients into agar
blocks with phenolphthalein. Molecular movement was simulated with red beads shaken
in a container of white beads.
The desired response to item 2 was during the process of diffusion, particles will generally move from high to low concentrations because particles in areas of greater concentration are more likely to bounce toward other areas. The CM/LC group had an average
score of 52.3% for this item; 20 percent points above the other groups. All of the treatment
groups scored below 75% on this item, suggesting an unsatisfactory understanding.
A common alternative response may have been due to a misunderstanding of terminology. For example, many students selected particles generally move from high to low
concentration because particles tend to move until the two areas are isotonic and then the
particles stop moving. These students may have memorized the prefix iso- which means
the same and interpreted this item to mean that particles would continue to move until
they are the same concentration throughout. It is possible that these students had a partial
understanding of diffusion, because an end result of the process of diffusion is a uniform
distribution of particles (or, the particles are the same throughout).
The second portion of the alternative response suggests that particles stop moving. Students may have interpreted stop moving as equivalent to no net movement, thereby
demonstrating a partial understanding of kinetic theory of matter. Another common alternative selection for item 2 was that there are too many particles crowded into one area
and therefore they move to an area with more room. This selection could represent an
anthropomorphic view of matter; that is, the need for molecules to move into another area.
In item 3, students were asked to determine the rate of diffusion as a result of a concentration gradient. The desired response was that as the difference in concentration between
two areas increases, the rate of diffusion increases, because of the greater likelihood of
random motion into other regions. The average score for the CM/LC group was 66.4%,
followed by 64.9% for the LC group, 58.0% for the CM group, and 43.8% for the EX group.
None of the treatment groups scored above 75.0% on this item, suggesting an unsatisfactory
understanding.
The most common alternative response for item 3 was the molecules want to spread out.
This is another anthropomorphic view of matter. Another common alternative response was
the rate of diffusion will decrease because if the concentration is high enough, the particles
will spread less and the rate will be slowed. It is reasonable that students were imagining a
cramped area, like a large number of people having difficulty moving in a crowded room. It
is equally possible that the students had no appreciation of the random motion of molecules.
In item 6, students were to determine what would happen to blue dye molecules after they
had been evenly distributed throughout a large container of clear water. The desired response
was that molecules of dye continue to move around randomly (rather than stop moving),

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because molecules are always moving. Three of the treatments, CM/LC, CM, and LM,
respectively, had an average score of 90.8%, 90.4%, and 88.0%, suggesting a satisfactory
understanding. Each group either observed or participated in an experiment where dye was
placed in water, which may explain the high scores. The EX group had an average score of
68.0%. The EX group observed the experiment but was not given the opportunity for active
knowledge construction that was provided to the other groups, possibly explaining the low
scores.
Many in the EX group selected that if dye stopped moving it would settle to the bottom of
the container. This may be because students believed that movement is necessary to oppose
gravity. Another alternative response for item 6 was that the dye and water are liquids,
therefore, their molecules would continue to move randomly; if it were solid the molecule
would stop moving. It is possible that students had an understanding of the underlying
processes and were confused by the wording of the alternative response; that is, whether
the response was referring to the macro- or micro-level. There is relatively little molecular
movement in solids compared to liquids. Furthermore, students may believe liquids have
molecular motion because the shape of liquids can be easily manipulated. Thus, the shapes
of solids are not as easily manipulated.
Concentration and Tonicity
These concepts were examined through items 4 and 9. Again, students observed or participated in activities with sodium hydroxide diffusing into agar blocks with phenolphthalein,
and the osmosis of water as a result of a concentration gradient with dialysis tubing, syrup,
and an egg in food coloring.
In item 4, the desired pair of responses was a glucose solution that can be made more
concentrated by adding more glucose, because it increases the number of dissolved
particles. The CM/LC group had the highest average on item 4, followed by the LC, EX,
and CM groups (59.3%, 47.4%, 39.7%, and 34.6%, respectively). None of the groups had
an average score above 75%, suggesting unsatisfactory understanding. The most common
alternative response for increasing the concentration of a glucose solution was adding
more glucose, because the more water there is, the more glucose it takes to saturate
the solution. While the reason is true standing alone, it is an incorrect reason for the
phenomenon described in the item.
Item 9 assessed students understanding of the concept of tonicity. A diagram on the
test showed two columns separated by a semipermeable membrane. Side 1 contained 10%
salt water and side 2 contained 15% salt water. The desired answer combination to the
item was side 1 is hypotonic to side 2 because there are fewer dissolved particles on
side 1. The CM group had the highest average score followed by the CM/LC, LC, and
EX groups (64.4%, 49.0%, 47.5%, and 47.0%, respectively). None of the groups had an
average score above 75.0%, suggesting unsatisfactory understanding. Item 9 involves the
prefixes hypo-, hyper-, and iso-. Each refers to the relative concentration of dissolved particles in solutions separated by a membrane. The most common alternative response was hypotonic because water moves from a high to a low concentration. It is
possible that students memorized the terms with little understanding of the concept. Another common alternative response was side 1 is hypertonic to side 2 because water
moves from a high to a low concentration. Water moving from high to low concentration is a possible result of two different solutions being separated by a membrane,
but it is not the reason one solution has a greater tonicity than the other. This selection
may represent at least a partial understanding of the process of osmosis (net direction of
movement).

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631

The Influence of Life Forces on Diffusion and Osmosis

Students observed or participated in diffusion and osmosis activities with both nonliving
and living systems. Nonliving system activities involved observing osmosis with dialysis
tubing. The living system involved observing osmosis in potato slices and Elodea cells. This
concept was examined through item 11. In this item, a plant cell was killed and placed in
25% salt water, then the question was asked whether diffusion and osmosis would continue.
The desired response combination was diffusion and osmosis would continue, because
the cell does not have to be alive. The CM/LC group had the highest score, followed by
the CM, LC, and EX groups (47.5%, 27.6%, 21.5% and 11.0%, respectively), suggesting
unsatisfactory understanding. The most common alternative response was diffusion and
osmosis would stop after a plant cell was killed because the cell was no longer functioning.
It is reasonable that students would compare a cell with a living organism such as a person.
When a person dies, many observable physiological functions stop, such as the heartbeat
and breathing. At the macro-level, when an organism dies it stops functioning; but at the
micro-level, processes may continue for hours or days. Activities were designed to help
students make connections between nonliving and living systems.
Membranes
The activities students participated in relation to membranes included a balloon filled
with anise seed, osmosis with dialysis tubing, and osmosis in Elodea. This concept was
examined through item 12. Students were asked about the permeability of a cell membrane.
Over 80% of the students in the CM/LC, CM, and LC groups characterized cell membranes
as semipermeable because they allow some substances to pass, suggesting a satisfactory
understanding. The EX had an unsatisfactory average score of 63.4%. Each student in the
CM/LC and LC groups was able to smell the anise seed through the balloon, which could
explain the high scores. The CM students were provided an opportunity to connect the
ideas from multiple experiences during mapping activities. Again, the EX groups contained
passive participants and were not given the opportunity to formally tie together the multiple
demonstrations.
The Process of Diffusion
The students either conducted experiments or observed demonstrations of diffusion,
such as the diffusion of potassium permanganate in water and the diffusion of sodium
hydroxide as a result of both temperature and concentration gradients into agar blocks with
phenolphthalein. Molecular movement was simulated with red beads shaken in a container
of white beads. Students also observed the movement of dye in water.
This concept was examined through items 1 and 5. In item 1, a drop of blue dye is place
in a container of clear water and over time the dye becomes evenly distributed throughout
the water. The desired response was the process responsible for blue dye becoming evenly
distributed in the water is diffusion because there is movement of particles between
regions of different concentrations. The average score for the CM group was 44.7%, followed
by 23.6% for the CM/LC group, 23.1% for the LC group, and 13.1% for the EX group.
None of the treatment groups scored above 75.0% on this item, suggesting an unsatisfactory
understanding.
The most common alternative response was that the process is diffusion because the
dye separates into small particles and mixes with water. It is reasonable that students view
dye as one large particle (e.g., drop of dye), and when a drop of dye is added to water it

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ODOM AND KELLY

breaks into small particles. Furthermore, when the dye is added to the water, students
may have been using the word dye at a macro-level (e.g., a bottle of dye) instead of at
the micro-level (e.g., dye molecules).
Another common alternative response was that the process is osmosis, because there is
movement of particles between regions of different concentrations. It is possible that these
students had an understanding of the underlying processes with little understanding of the
terms diffusion and osmosis.
In item 5, a small amount of sugar is added to a container of water and allowed to set for a
very long period of time without stirring. The desired response combination was the sugar
molecules will be evenly distributed throughout the container, because there is movement
of particles from a high to low concentration. A minority of students in each group selected
the desired answer (CM 29.3%, CM/LC 8.3%, EX 9.9%, and LC 1.1%).
The most common alternative responses were the sugar molecules will be more concentrated on the bottom of the container, because the sugar is heavier than water and will
sink, and there will be more time for settling. One interpretation of these results is that
students integrated gravity concepts into solution chemistry. Students can see sugar granules
sink to the bottom of the container. If students ignored the condition (that the sugar was
allowed to set for a very long period of time), their response would describe what happens
when sugar granules are first placed in the container.
The Process of Osmosis
Students observed or participated in osmosis experiments in many situations, including
with dialysis tubing and Elodea cells. This concept was assessed through items 8 and 10.
Analysis of responses revealed numerous alternative conceptions. In each item, students
were asked to determine the net direction of water movement through a membrane.
In item 8, a semipermeable membrane through which only water could pass separated
the two columns of water. Side 1 contained water and dye and side 2 contained water. A
minority of the students selected after two hours the water level in side 1 will be higher
than side 2, because the concentration of water molecules is less on side 1 (LC/CM
39.1%, LC 31.1%, CM 28.6%, and EX 23.4%).
The most common alternative response was the water on side 1 will be higher, because
water will move from the hypertonic to the hypotonic solution. It is likely that students
had memorized the tonicity terms with little understanding of their meaning. Students may
have recalled that there is a rule to determine the net direction of water movement. The
correct rule is water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions, thus students may have
remembered the rule incorrectly.
The terms for tonicity appear to be difficult for students to apply. The prefixes hypo-,
hyper-, and iso- refer to the relative concentrations of solute. In cases of osmosis, students need to know the relative concentration of the solvent water. This knowledge cannot
be obtained from the terms for tonicity directly. For example, the prefix hypo- means
less or under. If a solution is hypotonic, the solution has a smaller concentration
of solute than the hypertonic solution with which it is compared. Water concentration,
then, is greater in the hypotonic solution than in the hypertonic one. The tonicity terms
provide the relative concentration of the solvent that is needed to decide in which direction water will diffuse so that net movement is from greater concentration to lesser concentration.
Another alternative response for item 8 was water moves until it becomes isotonic.
Memorization of the term isotonic with little understanding of the process of osmosis
could result in this misconception. Iso- means the same, and it is possible that students

CONCEPT MAPPING AND LEARNING CYCLE

633

consider osmosis as continuing until the concentrations are the same on each side, as was
the case in item 2.
Item 10 assessed the process of osmosis in a plant cell. This item shows a picture of a
plant cell that lives in freshwater, the cell was then placed in 25% salt water and students
were asked what happened to the size of the central vacuole. The desired response was the
central vacuole would decrease in size because water will move from the vacuole to the
saltwater solution. A minority of students determined the correct direction of water flow
and the desired reason (CM/LC 60.5%, CM 56.4%, EX 42.9%, and LC 40.8%), suggesting
unsatisfactory understanding.
The most common alternative response was salt absorbs water from the central vacuole.
The meaning of absorb may be different in a science context than in a nonscientific context.
Common everyday experiences in a nonscience context are sponges absorb water and paper
towels absorb water. If absorb is viewed as the taking away of water, then students
may have believed that the saltwater solution absorbs the freshwater. In a scientific context,
absorption is capillary action caused by adhesion. Salt solutions do not cause capillary
action.
SUMMARY
We set out to investigate the effectiveness of concept mapping, the learning cycle, expository, and concept mapping/learning cycle instructional strategies at enhancing achievement
in diffusion and osmosis content. The results seem to suggest that both the CM/LC and CM
strategies enhance some aspects of learning of diffusion and osmosis concepts more effectively than expository teaching. However, the two treatments (CM and CM/LC) were not
significantly different than the LC treatment. CM/LC and CM seemed to make membranes,
kinetic energy of matter, and elements of the particulate and random nature of matter easier
to learn. The learning of concentration and tonicity, processes of diffusion and osmosis,
life forces influence on diffusion and osmosis, and elements of the particulate and random
nature of matter were difficult even with CM/LC and CM.
It appears that CM may play a larger role than the learning cycle in helping students learn
diffusion and osmosis concepts. This may be due to CM being the common factor among
the two groups that were significantly different than EX, while LC was not significantly
different from the other groups. We believe additional research is needed to determine the
role of the learning cycle at teaching diffusion and osmosis concepts. Even though we
have limited and somewhat conflicting data about the effectiveness of the learning cycle
at teaching diffusion and osmosis, concept mapping and the learning cycle combined, and
concept mapping alone appeared to be a superior method for enhancing science learning
as compared to expository instruction. We believe that the data provides some support of
our original hypothesis that concept mapping and the learning cycle provide an exceptional
combination of strategies, because each method brings a unique epistemology to learning,
although additional research is needed.
What concept mapping and the learning cycle have in common is the active role of the
student. In both, students are actively engaged in constructing knowledge. During each
phase of the learning cycle, students are actively manipulating materials, recording data,
or analyzing results. Students are encouraged to discuss findings in groups and with the
class. The teacher acts as a facilitator. Similarly, with concept mapping students are actively
making connections between concepts. During group mapping, students debate and argue
relationships between concepts and placement of concepts on the map. Combined, the
learning cycle provides concrete experiences with the concepts, while concept mapping
provides an opportunity to makes connections between concepts.

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ODOM AND KELLY

Each methodology has its strengths and has contributed significantly to improving science
achievement, the promotion of the active role of the learner, and the promotion of the facilitative role of the teacher. However, teachers use of a single methodology, either learning
cycle or concept mapping alone without the other, provides the learner with only a partial
framework of knowing. Instruction and teacher planning should reflect both Ausubels and
Piagets distinct methodologies; effective instruction and meaningful learning seemingly require both a verbal and a process-orientated approach. This study illustrates that the concept
mapping/learning cycle strategy can be useful in promoting science learning. We believe
that this is a useful tool that should be explored by other teachers and researchers.
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