JOURNAL OF OPTIMIZATIONTHEORYAND APPLICATIONS:Vol. 12, No.

6, 1973

Continuous and Discontinuous Solutions

for Optimum Thrust Nozzles of Given Length
K. G. GUDERLEY,1 D. TABAK,e M. C. BREITER,~ AND O. P. BHUTANI4

A b s t r a c t . In its first sections, the paper deals with optimum

thrust nozzles of given length and exit radius for flows with swirl.
The computation is based on a modification of methods familiar for
flows without swirl. Rather extensive numerical results show that
the swirl does not impair the specific impulse attainable at a given
nozzle length. The analysis suggests that the assumption of isentropic
continuous flows, on which this approach is based, may sometimes
be too restrictive. A survey of plane nozzles shows, on the other
hand, that discontinuities need to be admitted only if, besides the
length, a rather large radius of the nozzle is prescribed. Discontinuous
solutions have been thoroughly investigated by Shmyglevskiy. At
least in principle, we use the same line of thought, but considerable
simplifications are possible if one starts with the variational formulation of Rao. In its numerical discussion and also in some analytical
details, the present paper goes beyond Shmyglevskiy's results.
The problem is conveniently discussed in a state plane, which has the
local state of the flow (flow direction and speed or Mach number)
as independent variables. By taking into account second variations,
one can determine the boundary of the region for which continuous
solutions give the (local) maximum. This boundary coincides with
the locus of points at which the solution in the physical plane would
fold back into itself. Another limitation of the original approach
emerges if one asks under which conditions the thrust can be
increased by admitting along the control surface values of the

1 Senior Scientist, Applied Mathematics Research Laboratory, .Aerospace Research

Laboratories (AFSC), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
Visiting Scientist, Applied Mathematics Research Laboratory, Aerospace Research
Laboratories (AFSC), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
3 Mathematician, Applied Mathematics Research Laboratory, Aerospace Research
Laboratories (AFSC), \Vright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
4 NRC-Resident Research Associate, Applied Mathematics Research Laboratory.,
Aerospace Research Laboratories (AFSC), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.
588
1973PlenumPublishingCorporation,227 W'est17thStreet, NewYork,N.Y. 100t1.

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

589

entropy that are higher than those of the oncoming flow. The
conditions for isentropic and nonisentropic jumps are formulated
and evaluated next, and a survey of the discontinuities which
satisfy conditions for isentropic and also for selected nonisentropic
jumps is given. Up to this point, the analysis is concerned only with
the state distribution along the control surface. Jumps of the state
in the interior require the occurrence of centered compression
waves. Sample computations show that, in most cases, flow fields of
this character can be generated by the choice of the nozzle shape.
In some cases, no nozzle contours exist which generate the optimizing state distribution along the control surface as determined
by the present analysis. It would then be necessary- to include from
the very beginning conditions for the realizability of the flow field.

I. I n t r o d u c t i o n
This paper presents in its first sections the theory and some numerical results about the optimization of thrust nozzles of prescribed length
in a flow with swirl. More details can be found in internal reports of
the authors (Refs. 1-2). The remainder of the report is devoted to a
special question which arises in this context. Initially, it is assumed that
the state distribution along a certain control surface is continuous.
However, the character of the equations shows that one may encounter
optimum flow fields for which this assumption is not satisfied. It is
true that this difficulty will not appear if only the length of the nozzle
is prescribed, but it may arise if length and exit radius are given and
if the opening angle of the nozzle is rather large. At least from a theoretical
point of view, one would like to know what kind of flow patterns to
expect under these circumstances. The answer may be of use for problems where constraints other than length and exit radius are prescribed
This problem has been explored rather thoroughly by Shmyglevskiy.
Nevertheless, the reader may find the presentation given here worthwhile.
It is simpler, mainly because we use a simpler form of the variational
formulation but also because of a more natural choice of the dependent
variables. Moreover, a considerable amount of numerical details has
been provided. The analysis is not quite complete; there exist nozzle
configurations where the whole flow pattern, rather than merely the
flow at the control surface, must be included in the analysis, even if only
the length and the exit radius are prescribed. The nozzle shapes where this
would happen are rather unrealistic and a discussion of such cases would
hardly be justified unless it is required for a specific practical purpose.

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2. B a s i c E q u a t i o n s
Considered are axisymmetric flows; let the x-axis coincide with the
axis of symmetry, and let y be the distance of a point of the flow field
from this axis. In a meridian plane, the velocity components in the
x- and y-directions are denoted, respectively, by u and v. Because of the
presence of swirl, a velocity component normal to the meridian plane is
admitted; it is denoted by v t . Let p be the pressure, p the density, T the
temperature, i the enthalpy, and s the entropy. T h e outside pressure is
denoted by p , . We define
(dp/dp)s=cons t ~

a s.

Furthermore, we introduce
q~ = u Z + v ~,

0 = a r c t a n (v/u),

(1)

or

u=qcos0,

v=qsin0.

(2)

Notice that the velocity component v t does not contribute to q. L e t

sin ~ = aI~

(3)

T h e equation of continuity reads

(a/ax)(ypu) ~- (~/ay)(ypv) -- O.

(4)

Equation (4) can be integrated by introducing a stream function

~/~,

== ypu,

O4~i~x= --ypv.

(5)

~b, defined in this manner, represents the mass flow through an axisymmetric surface whose intersection with a meridian plane extends from
the axis to a point x, y and which is bounded by the intersection with
two meridian planes which form a dihedral angle 1. This definition
avoids the occurrence of factors 2~r in some of the formulas.
T h e streamlines have the form of rather steep helices with varying
diameter. A surface ~b ---- const in the three-dimensional space is naturally
axisymmetric, a streamline that has one point in c o m m o n with such a
surface lies completely within it. All streamlines of one surface 4~ = const
can be brought into coincidence by rotation around the axis of symmetry.
Since all streamlines lying in a surface 4s = const are equivalent, one
has, for an inviscid flow,
s -----s(~b).
(6)

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For short, we shall also call streamlines curves arising by the intersection
of a surface = const with a meridian plane. Applying the law of
moment of momentum with respect to the axis of symmetry to a particle,
one fmds
yv, = ~ ( ) .
For later convenience, we set
(7)

(yvt)~ = (~1())~ = ga().

In an inviscid steady flow, Bernoulli's equation is valid with a constant

that may differ from strearnline to streamline. Under the present conditions, all streamlines lying in a surface ~ - const are equivalent;
therefore, one has
i + (u2 + v e) q- vt~ = g2(),
(8)
or

i + q? + [gl()/y ~] - g~() = 0.

(9)

Equation (7) is an integrated form of Euler's equation for the direction

normal to the meridian plane. Within the meridian plane, the Euter's
equations have the form
(1/p)(~p/~x) + u(ou/~x) + v(~u/~y)

= o,

(lo)

(1/p)(~p/~y) + u(Ov/~x) + v(~v/ey) -- v,Z/y = 0.

(1t)

Aside from these equations, one will have relations describing the
thermodynamic properties of the medium. The system of differential
equations is hyperbolic for q > a.
3. O p t i m i z a t i o n P r o c e d m ' e
At first glance, it seems as if the solution of the variational problem
must the computation of the flow field; one would then be confronted
with a two-dimensional variational problem. But, for nozzles for which
either the length or the position of the endpoint is prescribed, the
number of independent variables is reduced to one if one chooses the
characteristic surface that runs through the endpoint of the nozzle as
control surface for thrust and mass flow. The flow equations are then
compressed into the compatibility condition for this characteristic, and
the endpoint of the controI surface is directly given by the formulation
of the variational problem. This observation was made independently by
Guderley and Hantsch (Ref. 3) and Nikol'skij (Ref. 4). This approach has

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J O T A : V O L . 12, NO. 6, 1973

been thoroughly discussed in the literature. A variant, due to Rao

(Ref. 5), does not stipulate explicitly that the control surface be a
characteristic; instead, the postulate is imposed that variations of the
shape of the control surface do not affect the thrust. Rao's formulation
leads to great simplifications of the numerical work; in the case of
isentropic isoenergetic flows, for instance, the solution appears in a
closed form. The equivalence of the two formulations has been shown
analytically in Rao's first publication. The underlying reason for the
equivalence is shown in Ref. 6. It is based on the following observations.
In either formulation, the control surface wilt have the characteristic
direction. This is a consequence of the fact that quantities with special
physical properties, namely mass flow and the momentum, are subject
to variations (see, for instance, Ref. 7). A second condition is needed to
ensure that the control curve can be embedded in a flow field with finite
velocity gradients. In the theory of characteristics, this requirement leads
directly to the compatibility conditions. The same is accomplished by
Rao's postulate in an indirect manner. We consider a flow field in which
the first variation of the thrust caused by a variation of the flow conditions
vanishes while the mass flow is kept constant. In such a field, the thrust
is insensitive against a variation of the shape of the control surface iff
the embedding mentioned above can be carried out. The first part of this
statement is trivial.
In the present paper, we shall use Rao's formulation without further
discussion. Figure 1 shows schematically the flow field within a thrust
nozzle. The variations of the contour are restricted to the portion IF;
therefore, the flow field in region I is not influenced by the variations.
We are concerned with the control surface as determined by the
characteristic KF. Let 9(y) be the angle of the tangent to the control
surface -with the x-axis. The contribution of the control curve K F to the
thrust is given by
M =

(12)

fldy,
K
F

~RtSTICS
AB
Fig. 1.

T h r u s t nozzle.

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593

f l = y[P -- P~ q- pqe sin(~0 -- 0) cos 0/sin ~o].

(t3)

with

In the definition of A//, as formerly in the definition of ~b, we have

restricted ourselves to the wedge-shaped portion of the flow field which
is bounded by two meridian planes with dihedral angle 1. From (5), one
finds a differential equation for the stream function along the control
curve. It is written in the form
g(, , q, 0, y) = -- ypq sin(5o -- O)/sin %

(14)

where derivatives along the control curve with respect to y are denoted
by a dot. Equation (14) is considered as one of the constraints of the
problem. Point F lies on the same streamline as the throat contour; this
determines the value of ~ at point F. At the boundary of the region I
and II, that is, at point K, ~b is continuous. The contribution of the
control curve to the length of the nozzle is written as
L = |

1"VF

.f~@,

(15)

~K

with
f~ = cot %

(16)

If L is prescribed, then (15) constitutes a constraint on the choice of ~.

In Rao's formulation, one has the task of maximizing (1.2) under
observation of the constraints (14)-(15). Independent are the variations
of q, 0, % We have additional equations which will be taken into account
directly, namely,
s = s(),

g, = g~(),

g~ = g~(,/,).

(17)

According to the second law of thermodynamics, one has

di = Tds -4- (l/p) alp.

Inserting this equation into the differentiated form of (9), one obtains
(l/p) dp -4- qdq q- (gl'/2y ~ -- ga' q- Ts') de -- [gl()/y ~1 dy ~= 0.

(18)

Here, the derivatives of the functions g l , g2, s with respect to their

argument ~b are denoted by a prime. In carrying out the variations, we
consider p as a function of q, ~b, y. Then, from the last equation,

@t~q =

-pq,

@ l e e = p ( - - T s ' + g2' -- g~'/2y2),

@/~y == pg~/y.a.

(19)

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p is considered as a function of p and s. Then,

dp = dt,/a + (ap/o,)

(20)

We introduce a function h(y) as Lagrange multiplier for the constraint

(14) and a constant multiplier A for (15). According to Rao's formulation,
one must now postulate that
8

fyF
UK

[fl + h(y)g + ,~f2] dy = 0,

(21)

where the variations of q, 0, ~b, ~0 are considered as independent. Varying

0, one is led directly to
h = q cos(9 -- 20)/cos(q~ -- 0).

(22)

In varying q, one expresses the variations o f p and p by means of (19)-(20);

furthermore, we set a = q sin a. After some manipulations involving
h, one finds that the variation of q vanishes if
~o - -

0 =

~.

(23)

Now, h is rewritten as

h = q cos(0 --

)/cos

(24)

T h e vanishing of the variation of q~ leads to the condition

h = --ypq= sin = 0 tan a.

(25)

The variation 3~b must vanish at the points K and F. One is led to the
equation
dh/dy ----y[(Op/~) cot(0 + c0 tan ~ -- s'(Op/&)q~ sin 0 sin 2 a/sin (0 q- a) cos ~].
(26)
Inserting (23) into (14), one obtains
&b/dy = ypq sin a/sin(0 + a).

(27)

Equations (24)-(27), together with (3), (9), (17), are the equations
governing the problem. The essential variables are h, q, 0, ~b. If the
position of point K is considered as known, then q, 0, ~, h [because of
(24)] are kno~,a at this point, i.e., one has initial conditions at point K.
T h e integration is terminated at the value y, to be denoted by Ye, for
which ~ assumes a value which is given by the mass flow through the
throat. As one computes the flow conditions along the control curve,

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595

one also computes its x-coordinates. The value of x for y = y e gives

the length of the nozzle. The control curve determined in this manner
satisfies all the conditions of the optimization problem, provided that
the coordinates of point F obtained from the computation are the
preassigned values xF and y ~ . In a survey of nozzle shapes, the values of
xF and YF for which the examples are drawn do not matter. Therefore,
it is sufficient if one simply carries out the integrations for different
choices of the initial point K and considers the values of xF and YF as
preassigned, although they arise only in the course of the computations.
By varying the position of K in the x y - p l a n e , one obtains a two-dimensional family of control curves. Along these control curves, the flow
conditions are known. For each of these control curves, one can find
the nozzle contour which wouId generate along it the desired flow
conditions.
If only the length is prescribed, then Y e is free to vary. Naturally,
the condition that ~v has an assigned value must still be maintained.
This leads to the following additional condition:
[sin(20)] p -- [cot o~(p - - p,)/~pq~] F.

(28)

For a derivation, we refer to the literature, for instance ReL I, Eq. (4.18).
The problem can be brought into a form which is more suitable for
numerical work. A starting point is given by the observation that the
equations valid for the control surface imply that the compatibility
condition for a left-going characteristic is satisfied. This can be demonstrated by elimination of h from the system. The compatibility
conditions can be taken as a substitute for (26); and the only equation
in which h is still present, namely (24), can be disregarded for h is
merely an auxiliary quantity. The resulting equation contains the
derivatives of q and 0. One of these derivatives can be eliminated by using
the differentiated form of (25). Finally, we consider ~ rather than y as
independent variable. For details of these manipulations, see Ref. 1.
One finally arrives at the following system:
(d log

q/d~)

sin(2c~ - - 0)/sin ~ ~ s i n 0

+ (1/sin ~ cos

c~)(dc~/d~) +

[sin(0 - - a)/sin

~](1/pqy2)(1 + gl/y ~ q2 sin S ~)

q- (1/q2)(gz ' - - gl'/2y 2 - - Ts')(sin 0 -- 2sin e~cos c~cos 0)/sin 2 o~sin 0

+ O!p)(aplas)s' =

(29)

o,

ypq2 sin 2 0 tan ~ = --3. = const,

8o9/~z,/6-5

(30)

dy/d$ = cos(0 + oO/ypq sin %

(31)

dx/d~ = sin(0 + @/ypq sin ~.

(32)

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

Later, we shall refer to an alternate form of (29). It arises from (6.7)

of Ref. 1, if one uses c~ in the form
= ~(q, y, s, g l , &)is a function of q and the thermodynamic state, say s and i. By (9),
i is expressed by q, y , g l , g2 Then, one obtains, instead of (29),
(d log q/d)(1/sin ~ sin 0)[sin(2c~ -- 0)/sin a 4- (sin 0/cos a)(a~/a log q)]
+ (1/sin = cos c~)[(Oo~/~y)(dy/d) + ( ~ / 0 , ) , ' + (Oo@gt)g 1' + (~4Og2)gz']
+ [sin(0 -- ~)/sin ,](t/y2pg)(1 4-g~/y2q2 sin 2 ~)
4- (1/q2)(g~ ' - - g~'/2y ~ - - Ts')(sin 0 -- 2sin a cos c~cos 0)/sin ~ a sin 0
+ (1/9)(ep/&)s' = 0.

(33)

4. E q u a t i o n s U s e d in t h e N u m e r i c a l E v a l u a t i o n
In the computations, the problem has been specialized to an ideal
gas with a constant ratio of the specific heats. A reference state is characterized by a subscript zero. Let
H .... exp[--(s -- So)/R].

(34)

One has
p/p - RT,
y = c~/c~ = const,

(35)
i = c~T = [7/(~' - - 1)] R T ,
~2 =

~,(p/p) =

(7 -

1)i.

Let
P ---- po Hp,:~,

(36)

with
p. = ( r/To)'/(,-'~

= (i/io).I,-~>.

a S is expressed in terms of i by the last equation of (35), and i is expressed

in terms of q and by Bernoulli's equation (9). T h e flow equations
appear in the form of characteristic conditions [see Eqs. (A.9) and (A. 10)
of Ref. 1]. T h e y will be used in the following form. Let d l j , j = t or 2,
be respectively the line element of left-going or right-going characteristics. In the following formulas, the upper sign is always connected
with j = 1, and the lower with j = 2.

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

597

T h e slope of t h e characteristic lines is

dy/dx = tan(0 c0.

(37)

T h e l e n g t h of a line l e m e n t is

dl, = dx/cos(O i a) .~ dy/sin(O a).

(38)

T o avoid division b y small n u m b e r s , we always use the f o r m u l a w h i c h

has t h e larger d e n o m i n a t o r . M o r e o v e r ,

d/dlj == IOoY Hpi~q sin ~.

(39)

T h e t h r u s t M can b e e x p r e s s e d as a line integral carried out along the

characteristics. O n e has

aM/d~ = q cos 0 - - (1/r)a sin(0 ce).

(40)

T h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e characteristic lines r e a d
cot a(1/q)(dq/dlj) dO/dt~ (sin 0 sin ~/y)(1 47 ga/y2a 2)

(~ot

(I/y2)(dgl/d) 47 d&/d](d/dl,)

O. ( 4 l )

T h e m e t h o d of characteristics is carried out in the usual f o r m , i.e., by

r e p l a c i n g the derivatives b y finite differences a n d b y i n t r o d u c i n g on t h e
r i g h t averages over the line e l e m e n t in q u e s t i o n with one iteration step
to i m p r o v e the averages.
T h e s y s t e m of differential e q u a t i o n s f r o m w h i c h the flow conditions
along K F are c o m p u t e d n o w a s s u m e s the f o r m

dy/d = sin(0 + c~)/pe~pisy q sin a,

(42)

dx/d = cos(0 47 oO/poHpi,y q sin a,

(43)

dM/d = q cos 0 q- (1/y)a sin(0 + e~) - -

Pa

sin(0 47 a)/poHp,,q sin a, (44)

(1/q)(dq/d){2 sin a cos a ~ cos 0 - - sin 0(sin 4 a 47 cos 4 a) -- [(y - - 1)/2] sin 0}
47 (sin ~ sin O/poHp~sqy2)
{sin(0 - - ~) cos a ~(1 47 gl/y2a ~) 47 [(y - - 1)/2](gx/yZa ~) sin(0 47 ~)}
47 (1/q2)[d&/a4, -- (dg,/a)(1/2y=)]
{cos ~ ~(sin 0 -- 2 sin ~ cos ~ cos 0) 47 [(7 - - 1)/2] sin 0}

q- (1/H)(dH/d~b) sin s ~ cos 2 a[sin 0 -- (2/9,) sin ~ cos a cos 0] = 0,

y H p i d "~sin 2 0 tan a = --2t/p o = const.

(45)
(46)

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

The flow field in region I of Fig. 1 is not affected by the variational

procedure; for the computation of the state along KF, it can be considered
as known. At the present, we assume that there is a continuous transition
from the flow conditions in region I to the flow conditions in region II.
Therefore, the flow- conditions at point K are available, once its position
has been chosen. The constant A is then determined by substituting the
data valid for point K into (46). The differential equations for y and
q [Eqs. (42) and (45)] and the algebraic equation (46) are coupled with
each other. The thermodynamic state is determined by two quantities,
that i s , / / a n d the enthalpy i. H, as well as gl and g2, is given as a function
of the independent variable ~b; i is expressed in terms of q, g t , g~ by
Bernoulli's equation (9), a is found from (35), and a is defined in (3);
finally, 0 can be computed from (46). The x-coordinate is needed for the
construction of the flow field. M serves for the computation of the thrust.
Point F is the point of the characteristic K F for which ~b assumes the
value which corresponds to the throat contour.
For each choice of the point K, one can determine the state along
the curve KF. But, of course, not every curve so obtained corresponds
to a nozzle which has maximum thrust for a given length. Nevertheless,
the curves are of interest as the solution of a different variational problem,
namely the problem of maximizing the thrust if not only the x-coordinate
of point F is fixed (as in the problem of nozzles of given length) but
also the y-coordinate. The nozzle which is best if only the length is
prescribed is, of course, contained in this family. It is characterized by
the conditions (28). For outside pressure zero, this simplifies to the
condition
[sin(20)]F = (1/y)[sin(2~)]e.
(47)
5. N u m e r i c a l E v a l u a t i o n
The determination of the flow field in the region I requires in
principle the computation of the entire subsonic flow field. Actually, the
influence of the subsonic portion of the nozzle contour on the supersonic
part of the flow field is only weak; therefore, it should be sufficient if
only an approximation to the flow in the throat area is sued. We have
used for this purpose the results shown in Ref. 8. They yield the state of
the flow along a noncharacteristic curve of the supersonic part of the
nozzle. The flow in region I is now computed with the method of
characteristics. The line IB is one of the characteristics of this flow
field, but its position is not specified in advance. The field in region I is
computed fairly far out, and then a number of its right-going charae-

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

599

teristics is chosen to take the place of IK. Along the axis of the nozzle,
a quotient sin 0/3, is encountered in the characteristic conditions which
must be evaluated by some suitable interpolation. The method which
we have used is described in Ref. 2.
The flow field in region II can be computed from the flow conditions
along the characteristic I K taken from region I and the conditions along
the characteristic KF, which are to be determined by the optimization
process. So far, we do not know which position K will assume if a
certain value for the length of the nozzle is assigned. We choose some
point of field I as point K, and then solve the system of optimization
equations (42)-(46). The computation terminates at the value of ~b
which corresponds to the wall streamline in the nozzle throat. The
results will satisfy- all the necessary conditions of the problem, except
(47). Solutions in which (47) is disregarded can be interpreted as solutions
for nozzles for which the length and the exit radius of the nozzle are
prescribed. The integration of (44) immediately gives the thrust. This
value of the thrust can be compared with the maximum thrust that can
be obtained for a nozzle of infinite length and infinite diameter (assuming
that the outer pressure is zero). At the exit surface of such a nozzle, one
would have i = 0 and for most of the outflowing mass y = Go. Then,
from Bernoulli's equation (9),
q = [2g2(~b)]~,
and hence,
M = f [2&()]~ de.
Let us call nozzle effectiveness the ratio between the actual thrust and the
maximum attainable thrust. The result for arbitrarily chosen positions
of K can be used to determine charts showing the nozzle effectiveness in
dependence of the position point F. For a family of points K which lie
on the same left-going characteristic, the corresponding points F will also
lie on a smooth curve. Along curves of this kind, one can interpolate for
different values of the nozzle effectiveness. From curves of constant
nozzle effectiveness, one can determine the endpoints of the nozzles for
which the thrust is a maximum if only the length is prescribed; they are
given by the point where these curves have a vertical tangent. Actually,
this fact is used merely as a check; a direct characterization of these
optimal nozzles is given by (47). For the tentative curves KF described
above, we have computed the difference of the left- and right-hand sides
in (47). Then, it is possible to interpolate for those positions of point
K where the criterion (47) is satisfied. For these position of K, the
state along K F has also been computed.

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J O T A : V O L . 12, NO. 6, 1973

These data are used to compute the flow field in region II. Of
technical interest is the shape of the streamline IF. To find it, one
determines points of the flow"field for which ~ assumes the value pertaining to the throat contour. This is done by interpolation along the
characteristic lines.
6. Results
The evaluation of nozzle shapes has been carried out for flows in
which the functions g l , g 2 , / / a r e given by
g~ = 452~b~,

& = (y + 1)/(y -- 1),

//=

1.

We have here y = 1.25 and/92 = 0,0.5573, 0.8063. The Mach number

of the swirl motion at the intersection of the sonic line with the throat
contour is given by M, = 0, 0.6781, 0.7822, and the values of ~b at the
throat contour are given by 0.49525, 0.44317, 0.42237, respectively.
The initial conditions for these flow fields are taken from Ref. 8,
From the data generated during the computation, it is easy to
compute charts which give the maximum nozzle effectiveness for different points of the flow field. T h e y are shown in Fig. 2; best nozzles

L
2=0
2, CORRESPOND TO ~ =.55734
3.

=.80627

THE CORRESPONDING ~ALUES d/ ARE .495

.445
.422

84%
82%

il \

78 ',~

%2"~---I

{~ \

~"="5

--T-

THROAT
RADIUS

I.

2.

3~

4.

5.

6.

7.

e,

9,

Fig. 2.

Curves o f constant nozzle effectiveness.

.X .................

io.

601

J O T A : V O L . 12, N O , 6, 1973

1
J

I ........................... ~ ......

I ....

I.

2.

5,

5.

4,

Fig, 3.

--1

I
6.

8.

9.

I0,

Nozzle shapes for/32 = 0,

i ...... I............ I'

~"

,I,,

I.

2.

5.

4,

5.

6.

7.

Fig, 4,

Nozzle s h a p e s for/32 = 0.55734.

8.

9.

I0,

602

ii

JOTA:

VOL.

12, N O .

6, 1973

I.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Fig. 5.

9.

I0.

N o z z l e s h a p e s for f12 = 0 . 8 0 6 2 7 .

of a given length are obtained for the points of curves of constant nozzle
effectiveness which have a vertical tangent. The nozzle effectiveness
increases slightly if swirl is present, at least for the initial conditions
shown here. A similar observation, although in a different setting, was
made by Shmyglevsky and Naumova (Ref. 9). Because of the reduction
of the mass flow through the nozzle in the presence of swirl, the total
thrust obtained is somewhat lower for nozzles with swirl than for nozzles
without swirl. Thus, the presence of swirl is only advantageous with
respect to fuel consumption, but not with respect to nozzle weight.
The actual shapes for nozzles whose outer radius is allowed to vary
are shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5. The nozzles are very similar for different
values of the swirl. If we had superimposed these three figures, the
nozzle shapes would practically coincide.
7. Further D i s c u s s i o n of the Solutions
The factor of dq/d~b in (45) can vanish, and then this derivative
will be infinite. Of course, one may defer the discussion of such a
singularity until it occurs in a problem of practical importance. But
the phenomenon shows that the class of flow fields admitted so far is too

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, I973

603

limited to give a solution under all circumstances; for this reason, a

further discussion appears justified. Similar phenomena can be expected
if constraints other than given length are prescribed. This question has
been thoroughly discussed by Shmyglevski (Ref. i0). The present
treatment is somewhat simpter, partially because it is based on Rao's
optimization procedure.
At the moment, we are primariIy interested in basic phenomena.
The derivative dq/d~ can become infinite even in an axisymmetric
potential flow. Then, h is constant, as one recognizes from (26) and the
definition (19) for ?p/~b, and the solution can be found from algebraic
equations. The constant A is rather unimportant; it merley determines
the geometric scale of the flow field. With h given, one can compute 0 as
a function of q or ~. Figure 6 shows some curves of this kind, calculated
for an ideal gas with V = 1.25. The field of curves has a singular point S.
At this point, cos ~ ~ = (V -k 1)/4 and 0 = ~. This point can be found
in the following manner. From the expression for h [Eq. (24)], one
determines d~/dO (assuming h to be constant). This gives a directional
field in the n0-piane. Then, point S is a point where d,~/dOis undetermined. The curves h = const running through this point divide the
c~0-plane into four different regions, which are shown more distinctly
E

_z

Fig. 6.

Curves of 0 versus c~ for the

state along the control characteristic in axisymmetric
isentropic flows without
swM.

604

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

B3

0
>Y6

\,

,g

Fig. 7.

Y='0D

Subdivision of Fig. 6 into different regions. The curves B 1

and Ba are the loci of points
for which the solutions in
the yq-plane have a vertical
tangent (see Fig. 8).

in Fig. 7. T h e curve V P S U of Fig. 6 is the locus of points where the

coefficient of dq/&b in (23) vanishes. We shall denote this curve as B 1 .
F o r each of the curves in Fig. 6, 2~is const [see (25)]. Choosing ;~ in some
fashion, one can c o m p u t e curves of q versus y. T h e value of A may differ
from curve to curve; to obtain a figure in which the curves are arranged
systematically, it is desirable to choose ;~ as a smooth function of h. Some
curves of q versus y are shown in Fig. 8. T h e four regions shown in Fig. 7
can also be found in Fig. 8. For a general orientation, we remark that
q = 1 corresponds to ~ = w/2. T h e curves of region c start at a -- 7r/2
and end at ~ = rr/2; those of region b start at rr/2 and end at the line
0 = 0 at some value of ~ different from ~r/2. According to (25), the
lines 0 ~- 0 and c~ = 0 correspond to y = oo. A closer discussion of the
curves of q versus y shows that they have a vertical tangent along the
curve B , and along the line 0 + c~ = rr of Fig. 6. F o r 0 + a = rr, the
control characteristic has a horizontal tangent. Of course, those parts
of the control surface have no technical interest, for 0 exceeds rr/2; but
we mention this property, because it explains the character of the curves
in the regions c and d. Fig. 8 also includes the map of the curve B 1 .
In the actual computation, we usually choose a point K in the region
I (Fig. 1) and determine f r o m its values of q and 0 the values of h and ;~
which characterize the integral curves; u n d e r the present assumptions,
h and A are constants. With these data, one can then c o m p u t e the state

605

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

..#"

o
Fig. 8.

a~

j/
Curves of q versus y tbr the state along
the control characteristic in axisymmetric isentropic flows without swirl.

along the control characteristic. It is in the nature of this construction

that one follows these curves in the direction of increasing values of y.
This leads to a surprising consequence: depending upon whether the
state at point K gives a point in the qy-plane which lies above or below
the locus of the points for which the curves of q versus y have a vertical
tangent, the solutions will be given either by the upper or the lower
branches of these curves. This may happen even if the initial points K
lie close together. It is rather unlikely that a slight shift of K in the
physical plane will result in a radical change of the solution of the
variational problem. A jump of the flow conditions at point K, which
leads from one side of the locus mentioned above to the other side,
would lead out of this dilemma. The occurrence of such a discontinuity
is also suggested by the vertical tangent of the curve of q versus y. The

606

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

j u m p conditions will be studied in the next section. At the moment, we

show that only certain portions of the solution curves in the a0-plane
can be regarded as solutions of the variational problem.
With the simplification mentioned above, only the total mass flow
(not the values of ~b at the individual points of the control curve) are
needed. We denote by f3 the second term on the right-hand side of (14),
namely,

= yoq

sii~(~ - O)/sin ~.

(48)

Then, the augmented integral corresponding to (21) assumes the form

ej~e (fl - h A + ),f2) dy.

(49)

YK

Assume that we have determined a solution which satisfies the necessary

condition of the problem, i.e., that the first variations of the last expression caused by variations of 8q, 80, 8~0 vanish. We consider now a second
flow in the neighborhood of this flow. In the neighboring flow, we
choose as control curve a line which has again the characteristic direction.
Furthermore, we assume that the control surface in the neighboring
flow begins and ends at the same points as the control surface of the
original flow. We consider as variations the differences of q, 0, ~ between
the control surfaces in the original and the neighboring flows taken for
the same value of y. Because of this choice of the control surface, one
has 3cp = 8a q- 80. In a physically existing neighboring flow the variations
must also be such that the compatibility conditions for a characteristic
are satisfied. At the moment, this condition is disregarded; the class
of variations admitted here is wider than in reality; the results will then
be less restrictive. First variations vanish because of the conditions which
govern the basic flow. The decision of whether one has a maximum or
only a stationary value of the thrust is given by second variation considerations. Denoting the integrand of (49) by F [see Eq. (86)], one must
compute
28F -- FqqSq2 q-FooSO 2 q-F~,~3q~2 q- 2Fqo6q60 + 2Fq~3qSqo
q- 2Fo~806q),

6q~ == 3o~ 4- 80.

The manipulations are carried out in Appendix A. One finds that

3F<0
for
tan 0o < sin 2%/[cos 2% -- tan %(dc~/d log q)].

(50)

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

607

That is, a maximum of the thrust is guaranteed (in an isentropic flow)

if the state ties underneath of the curve B 1 . If this condition is not
satisfied, then the sign of SF is undetermined. One might ask whether
the compatibility condition for a characteristic line in the neighboring
flow is sufficiently restrictive to guarantee that a maximum of the thrust
is obtained even if the condition (50). is not satisfied This is not the case,
as can be shown by the following example. In plane flow, one has along
a left-going characteristic
cot o~(3qfq) = 30.

(5t)

But, for variations of this kind, F has actually a minimum, as shown in

Appendix A.
Next, we ask whether the thrust could be increased if one allows the
entropy to increase. This could perhaps be done by a suitable system of
shock waves introduced upstream of the control surface. Assuming an
ideal gas, we write, in analog), to (36),
p = poHp.,

(52)

with
p. =

(iiio)~l<~-~>.

(53)

Then,

c~F/~H = y{p~s + [sin(p -- 0)/sin ~o]pq0 If cos 0 -- e0 cos(00 -- %)/cos ~d}F can be increased if dF/dor < 0. For an ideal gas, one finds that
tan 0 > sin(2~)/[2y -- 1 -- cos(2c0].

(54)

This is the curve VPWQU in Fig. 6. We shall call it the curve B~.
A true maximum of the thrust requires that the solution lie below the
curve B~ and below the curve B1 .
According to these discussions, the solutions obtained so far are
useful only if they lie below the curve B 1 of Fig. 6. If point K in Fig. 1
should lie outside this region, then it is likely that the assumption of
continuity of the data along the control characteristic is no longer tenable,
and thus one is led to explore whether the conditions for an optimum
nozzle can be satisfied by a control curve along which the flow conditions
are discontinuous. But, before we carry out such a discussion, it appears
desirable to define the limits of the previous approach, at least approximately. For this purpose, a problem has been studied where the solution
can be obtained with a minimum of work, namely best nozzles in twodimensional isentropic flow. For nozzles with fixed endpoint, the
solutions are simply given by nozzles which would ultimately produce a
parallel supersonic jet, but chopped to whichever length is desirable

608

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

(Ref. 3). These nozzles form a one-parameter family; in contrast, the

solution of the axisymmetric problem requires a two-parameter family
of nozzle shapes. For the initial conditions in the nozzle throat, the
simple assumption has been made that one has a parallel sonic jet. The
expansion part of the nozzle is formed by the flow around a corner. The
flow field has been determined numerically by the method of characteristics using the special simplifications which are possible in plane
isentropic flows. Figure 9 shows computer-drawn nozzle shapes. By

D
o

J
@
I

c~
>~-

~.oo
Fig. 9.

,1;o

~:oo

~'oo

i~.~0
x

~.oo

:~.oo

~0

~oo

2~.~o

Optimum nozzle shapes for plane isentropic flows. The curves cut off at any
point give optimum shapes for nozzles terminating at the cutoff point. Curve C:
is the locus of nozzle endpoints which, for outside pressure zero, have maximum
thrust if only the length (not the exit diameter) is assigned, Curve B1 is the left
boundary of the region which has no discontinuities along the control characteristic.

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

609

interpolation within this field, we have determined the points for which
the nozzles are best if only the length is assigned. For such points, the
condition (28) is satisfied. This is the curve C 1 . Moreover, we have
drawn a curve which corresponds to the curve B 1 of Fig. 6, again denoted
by B I . This is the curve which bounds the region where the solutions
correspond to a m a x i m u m of the thrust (provided that we do not admit
changes of entropy), at least in the small. A n y point of the portion of the
xy-plane that is covered by these curves and ties to the right of B 1 can
be taken as the endpoint of the nozzle, and the curve running through
it gives the best nozzle which has this assigned endpoint. For a nozzle
endpoint lying to the left of the curve B1, the continuous solution is not
a m a x i m u m of the thrust, even in the small, and the previous procedure
must be modified. For points to the right of this curve, the procedure
holds, even if the nozzle contour intersects the curve B 1 .
One comes to the conclusion that optimum nozzles for which the
flow conditions along the control characteristics are discontinuous
correspond to cases where the opening angle of the nozzle exceeds by far
the angle which would be desirable for m a x i m u m thrust at the available
length. Thus, the practical importance of the following discussions is
limited. Nevertheless, it may be welcome if we clarify some of the basic
questions.
8. l u m p C o n d i t i o n s
We assume now that, at some point K of the control curve A K F , a
discontinuity occurs (see Fig. 10). T h e control curve of the unvaried
flow is a characteristic. T h e portion A K in Fig. 10 lies in region I;
the portion K F lies in region II. We assume that the flow fields I and II
are defined in a neighborhood of the control curve, but we postpone
the question of how a j u m p of a certain kind can be physically established.
F

.i K!

Fig. 10. Control surface in the original flow and

in the varied flow for a nozzle in which a
discontinuous change of state is admitted
at point K.

610

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

We shall write K~ or KH in order to differentiate between the state

in regions I or II. I f a variation is carried out, point K will move to
point K'. Let

x,v" -- XK = 3X

and

YK" - - Y K == ~Y"

T h e control curve is then chosen as A K ~ K ' K n F . We assume that the

portion AKI which lies in the flow field I is not subject to variations. For
the portion KHF of the control surface, the conditions for a continuous
solution (that is, the equations derived previously) are applicable.
At the m o m e n t , we do not assume that the e n t r o p y is continuous at point
K, but in later discussions this assumption will be made. T h e functions
gl and g2 are assumed to be continuous; for, within the nozzle, one has
no practical means to control them. T h e m o m e n t u m in the x-direction is

M =

foK~Ady @

f~dy
YKH

+- ~Y[(P -k oq z cos ~ O)K, -- (p -t- pq z COS2 0)X,,]

-

8x[(pq ~ cos 0 sin O)K~-- (pq~ cos 0 sin O)Kr~].

One has now

~ K l l = ~Y[(oq

COS

O)KI - - (Dq

cos

O)Kll] - -

~x[(~q

sin 0)K, - - (pq sin O)KII],

T h e a u g m e n t e d integral now contains additional terms due to Sx and

Sy, namely,

[fl + h(y)g ~- h.f2] dy + Sy[(p + pq2 cos 20)g~ -- (p ~, pq2 COS~ 0)g~l]
YKI1
-

~X[(pq 2 COS0 sin 0)/i -- (pq~ cos 0 sin 0)~iI].

I f 3x and 3y are taken to be zero, the procedure is the same as before.

T h e integration by parts which is encountered in the treatment of the
constraint (t4) gives a nonvanishing contribution at point K I I , namely
a t e r m --3~b~Hh(y%). T h e n , the r e q u i r e m e n t that contributions due to
3x and ~y vanish independently gives the following j u m p conditions:

(p + pq2 cosa 0)K~ _ (p + pp2 cos2 0)zix -- h[(pq cos 0)Kx -- (Pq cos 0)/u] =-- 0,

(55)
(pq~ cos 0 sin 0)~c~-- (#qZ cos 0 sin 0)KH -- h[(pq sin 0)gI -- (pq sin 0)Kix] = 0.

(56)

J O T A : V O L . 12, N O . 6, 1973

611

According to this derivation, h is determined by evaluating (24) in

region II, that is,
h = [q cos(0 -- ~)/cos ~]K,.
These relations have been evaluated for a number of cases, in order
to obtain an overview of the results. The evaluation is easier if one
assumes the state at Kn to be known and computes the state K~ from
which Kn can be reached by a discontinuity. From now on, subscripts
I and II, rather than K x and K l I , will be used. Rearranging (55)-(56)
and substituting h, one obtains
COS Oipiqt(qi COS 01 - - h) =

- - [ ( P l - - _DII) @- c cos 011],

sin 0iplqi(qt cos 01 -- h) = --c sin 0iz,

(57)

(58)

where

c = PIIq~ sin 011tan ~xI.

tience,
t a n 0i = c s i n Oxi/(pi - - Pli -:i-"c cos 01x).

(59)

Now 0x is substituted into (58). With

A = [(/t -- pif) 2 + 2(pi -- pi1)c cos 01~ + c2]~,

(60)

one obtains the following condition:

B = Piqt{qt[(Pi - - PII) + c c o s 0i, 1 - - h A } q - A 2 = 0.

(61)

If one considers the state II as known, then, for isentropic discontinuities,

this expression depends solely upon q~ ; therefore, one has the task of
determining the zeros of the last expression. Discontinuities can be
physically generated either by shock waves or by coalescence of compression waves; therefore, only cases where qx > qll are of physical
interest. For nonisentropic discontinuities, one chooses the value of H
in addition to the state II. Then, the expression (61) is again only a
function of ql After having found the value of q~ which gives the zero
of (61), 01 is determined from (59). To obtain, a general survey about
the location of the zeros of (61) and how they change with qH and
011, we first plotted B [Eq. (61)] versus qt for a number of values
q H, 011. These curves depend continuously upon the parameters q~t
and 011; therefore, they show dearly whether and how the number
and the positions of the zeros wilt change. The details are somewhat
involved, but one finds that all points below the c u r v e B I of Fig. 6 can
be reached by" isentropic discontinuities. A survey of the results is shown
in Fig. 11. In the region below the curve B1, a grid consisting of dashed
809[t2:6-6

612

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

0

5"0V

tlaLl

*~

~iii,~i!lli

/:li;ll!rj

2"0t

l/ !lwr~

IL IJ';ll

//! '!Ill tr

7N
],O n

4:.

al'-~!

,fl~I, i

Fig. 11.

/,

:2

, i , ! !~

i l

L.
2

i i

q
5

Survey of states which are connected by

jump conditions. Dashed curves above Bt
are mapped by isentropic jumps into dashed
lines below B~, solid curves are mapped into
solid lines. Points of the right part of B 1 are
mapped into themselves.

vertical lines and solid horizontal lines has been imposed. This grid
is mapped by the jump conditions into another grid of the q0-plane.
In Fig. 11, dashed or solid lines are mapped into dashed or solid lines,
respectively. We refer to the portion of the curve B 1 which lies to the
right of its maximum as its right part. Points of the right part of B 1 are
mapped into themselves. In this manner, one can identify the dashed
and solid curves with their maps. The lower points of the left part of B 1
map into rather distant points of the q0-plane. They can be identified
by the symbols used for these points. In its upper portion, the left part
of B 1 is mapped into itself. For details of this kind, the plotting of the
curves (61) is very helpful. Figure 11 extends up to 0x = ~r; actually,
0, = =/2 is the outside limit for values that are of practical interest; the
wider range has been included to give a survey of the whole field of
curves. The dashed line of Fig. 14 in the field below the curve B 1 gives
approximately the locus of the points that arise from a state I for 0i = ~r/2.
For nonisentropic discontinuities, we have chosen the state q , ,
011 along the portion of the curve B~ which lies underneath of B 1 . If the
jump would lead to points that lie below this curve, then the thrust could
be improved if a smaller value of the entropy change would have been

6t3

J O T A : VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

chosen; if the points lie above this curve, a larger entropy change could
be advantageous. There may arise specific technical problems where
other possibilities should be admitted; but, for a first survey, the choice
made here is probably sufficient. Plotting the expression (61) versus ql

.2 1 I

/
0

Fig. 12.

[
1.5

2.5

Survey for nonisentropic jumps for which state II lies

at the point 1 through 10 of curve B2. Each point
gives rise to two curves, depending upon the entropy
change (here, characterized by H). One of these family
of curves (numbered from 1 to I0, in correspondence
with the points 1 to 10 along B~) is shown in detail.
Also shown are curves H-const. C5 and C4 are the
curves of the other family for which the jumps lead
respectively to points t and 10. Tick marks along these
curves give the values of H.

614

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

one recognizes that, for a given entropy change, each state qH, 0u
chosen along B 2 can be reached from two different states q~, O,.
Figure 12 gives a survey of the results. By varying 17, one obtains,
for each point qii, 0tl, two curves for the state q~, Ox from which this
point can be reached. By varying the position of the point along B 2 ,
two families of curves are generated. Only one of them is shown in
detail, because the curves of the other family overlap rather strongly.
The cross-hatched region in Fig. 12 shows one of the regions from
which suitable nonisentropic jumps lead to the curve B 2 . The boundary
of the region for isentropic jumps is given by the curve B1. The
cross-hatched region lies entirely within the region of isentropic jumps.
For a given state qi, 0~, one can therefore find one solution for an
optimum nozzle without entropy change and a second one with an
entropy change. Of course, the endpoints of these nozzles will be
different, but it is conceivable that, even for the same nozzle endpoint,
two different solutions of the optimization problem (in the small) may
exist. Challenging as such speculations may be, it seems to be best to
defer a discussion until the problem arises in a more realistic technical
setting.

9. D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in t h e F l o w F i e l d
So far, our discussion has been restricted to the state along the
control surface. The question arises of now state distributions which
have jumps along the control surface can be generated in an actual flow
field. Flow fields with discontinuities can exist only if qx > qH ; for, in
the interior of a flow, sudden expansions are impossible. A sudden
isentropic compression is brought about by centered compression waves.
We ask whether such a configuration will generate the discontinuities
required here, namely, a transition from a state qt, 0i to the state qu,
OH that belongs to it. Our discussion is restricted to the immediate
vicinity of the discontinuity; therefore, the results are the same for plane
and axisymmetric flows and even for flows with swirl. The oncoming
flow has the state I. A family of centered right-going compression waves
coalesce at point K (Fig. 13) and form a shock downstream of K. The
streamline that runs through K separates the streamlines that do not
pass through the shock from those that pass through the shock and,
therefore, experience an increase in entropy. The velocity direction
and the pressure in the parts of the flow field adjacent to this separating
streamline are the same (the velocity has a jump). From K, some leftgoing Mach waves (or a left-going shock) will emerge. The discontinuity

615

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

left golng
pertu~ion

centered e o m p r e s s i o n ~

K~
velocity vector in
the oncom~i.
ng ~
*I~

velocity vector do.stream

of compression waves

do~stre~
~

X ~ I

of the shock

shock

5/
Fig. 13.

Sketch of the flow field in the vicinity of point K.

required by the j u m p conditions can be realized if the state II is present

in the field of left-going characteristics that start at K. Our computations
have been carried out under the assumption that the left-going characteristics starting at K are expansion waves. For the subscripts used to
differentiate between different states in the vicinity of K, see Fig. 13.
Let/~ be the angle of the streamlines upstream of the shock with the
shock. For a left-going shock, one has ~z ~< --/~ ~< ~r/2. The equations
will be derived for this case. The right-going shock, which we have in
our application, is obtained by choosing either ~i ~< fi ~< 7r/2 or
~; ~ ~" --/~ ~ 7r/2. The final results are the same. We shall vary ]~ in
order to obtain the desired discontinuity. Let subscripts 1 and 2
characterize, respectively, the states upstream and downstream of the
shock; let w~ denote the normal components of the velocity; let a, p, p , s
denote the velocity of sound, the density, the pressure, and the entropy;
and let H = exp[(s 2 - - S l ) / R ]. We specialize the shock condition immediately for ideal gases with a constant ratio of the specific heats. The
computations are carried out for y = 1.25. One has
w ~ l = qr

sin/~.

(62)

Let
~2
~,~
= [2/(r + O]{(a? + [(r -

Then, from the Prandtl relation w ~ l w ~

U/2]wgO}.

(63)

= as ,

zv,2 = [2/(y + 1)](1/w,~i){al 2 + [(y -- 1)/2]w~l)}.

(64)

T h e equation of conservation of mass gives

Pl/P2 = W n 2 / W n l "

(65)

a2z = at 2 -1- [(y -- 1)/21(w~1 -- wn~).2

(66)

Bernoulli's equation gives

616

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

For an ideal gas with constant ratio of the specific heats, one has
P2/Pl' = H(a2~/a12) 1/(~'-1)

Therefore,
17 = (w,aiw,~2)(a12ta~2) la~-1).

(67)

0a = 0a -- 01.

(68)

Let

F r o m the shock relations just derived and the further condition that the
vdocity component tangential to the shock remains unchanged, one
obtains
qd = q? cs~ fi + w,,2,

(69)

tan 0 z = (qi sin/~ cos fi - - wn2 cos fi)/(qx cos2/~ q- wn2 sin/~),
0a = 0, q- 0a.

(70)
(71)

These formulae allow us to compute the state 3, if state I and/~ are given.
State 4 is connected to state 3 by the equations
G = 04,

pa " - p ~ .

T h e second condition leads to

a42 = H(y -- 1)/yaa2.

(72)

Then, using Bernoulli's equation, we have

a42 = (y q- 1)/2 - - [(y - - 1)/21q42 = H ~'-1)t" {[(y 1)/2] - - [0' - - 1)/2]qa2},
(73)
and hence,
qa = {[(~' + 1 ) / ( y - 1)][1 --F/(,-1)/,] q-H(~-~)/,qa2}L

(74)

State 2 and 4 lie on the same right-going characteristic. The characteristic conditions are
J(q) q= 0 = const,
(75)
where the upper sign applies to left-going and the lower sign to rightgoing characteristics, and
J(q) =

cot c~(q)(dq/q).

(76)

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

617

For an ideal gas with constant ratio of the specific heats, one has

J(q) = [(7 + 1)/(v - 1)]=*arctan{[(y - 1)/(7 q- 1)]'~v} - arctan v,

(77)

where
v =

cot ~ =

[(q* -

~)/{1 -

[(r -

1)/(r +

1)lq~}P.

(78)

Specifically, for y = 1.25,

v = [(qZ -- 1)/(1 -- q~/9)]}

(79)

and
J = 3 arctan(v/3) -- arctan v.

(80)

T h e fact that states II and 4 lie on the same right-going characteristic is

t h e n expressed by
F = J(q~) + 0~ - y(q,~) - 0H,

F = 0.

(81)

F can be evaluated as a function of/~, and one must seek the value of fi
for which F vanishes.
State 5 and state I lie on the same left-going characteristic, and
state 5 and state II lie on the same right-going characteristic; hence,

J(qs) - oa = J(qr) - 0,,

J(qs) "@ 05 = J(qiI) -}- Oil"

Hence,
1
05 = ~[J(qzx)
- J(ql) + 0ii ~-I or].

(82)

Of course, one can also determine J(qs) and qs. I n order for the perturbance which propagates f r o m K to the left to be an expansion fan,
one must have
05 -

o4 > o .

(83)

I n order for state II to lie within this expansion fan, one must have
05 -- 01, >~ 0,

(84)

e,, -

(85)

o4 > 0 .

T h e j u m p discontinuity can be realized by centered compression waves

if the last two conditions are satisfied.
T h e s e computations have been carried out for the points q~,, 0,z
marked in Fig. 14. T h e y lie in the region b o u n d e d by B 1 and the locus
of the points for which one would obtain 0, = rr/2 (Fig. t4 complements
Fig. 11). For practical orientation, we have included the curve for the

618

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

Fig. 14.

Realizability of isentropic jumps: ~ can be realized

by adiabatic jumps; ~ cannot be realized by
adiabatic jumps; x --= can be nearly realized by
adiabatic jumps.

flow conditions q, 0 which arise from a sonic parallel stream by a fan of

right-going expansion waves (curve C8). All states which occur in the
upper half of a Laval nozzle will lie to the right of C a . The point K of
the control characteristic lies in this region. As long as K lies below
B~, the solutions will be continuous along the control characteristics.
If point K lies above this curve, then discontinuities will appear, and
the flow" conditions at such a point give the state qt, 0i- The states
qi1,01t which are reached from the upper part of C~ by isentropic jumps
lie on the curve C 4 . In the usual LavaI nozzles, only the points qi1, 0lt
lying to the right of C~ are of interest. At the points marked by the
empty circles, the desired isentropic jumps can be generated by centered
compression waves; that is, for these points, the conditions (83)-(85)
are satisfied. Close to the curve for which 01 = 7r/2, the states I and iI
which should be connected by a jump are so far remote from each
other that there is no value of/~ for which the condition (81) can be
satisfied. These are the points marked by B. A physical insight is
obtained if one considers the states I and II as two separate parallel
supersonic jets which impinge upon each other. The point where the
boundaries meet is K. Downstream of K, the jets have a common
boundary. They adjust to each other by a shock which propagates in
region I and a rather weak disturbance which propagates in region II.
It is easy to imagine that the jets impinge on each other with an angle
which is so large that the deflection necessary to allow for a common
boundary cannot be brought about by a shock alone. In this case, one

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

has a subsonic region downstream of the shock. The shock itself arises
upstream of the ideal point of impingement, and part of the necessary
turning of the streamlines is brought about in the subsonic field.
For points marked by m, a value of/~ can be found, but the conditions (84)-(89) are violated. In some of these cases, the left-going
perturbation which starts at point K is a (weak) shock, and therefore no
characteristic in which one encounters the state II exists. In other cases,
there is a left-going fan of expansion waves, but it does not contain
state II. But these states can occur only in flow fields of a rather uncommon character. In principle, phenomena of this character indicate
that the variational problem can no longer be solved by studying the state
distribution along the control characteristic alone; the flow conditions
the control characteristic are now limited by the requirement that a flow
field generating these conditions must exist. Nevertheless, one would
expect in many cases that the actual flow field is still rather well approximated by the configurations considered so far, and that the modifications which must be admitted are only minor. For instance, the
right-going compression waves which are responsible for the jump might

2
I

o
Fig. 15.

Computed example of a plane nozzle with discontinuity at point K.

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

not be completely centered; then, one would find, instead of the weak
shock in the region II, a sequence of left-going compression waves,
which do not coalesce within the flow field, and one of these compression
waves might be suited as the control characteristic. Again, the authors
believe that detailed discussions should be postponed until they occur
in examples of actual technical interest.
An example for a nozzle with an isentropic discontinuity is shown
in Fig. 15. The basic problem is the same as in Fig. 9. The line I F is one
of the characteristics of the expansion fan that starts at point I; it represents the boundary of region I. The nozzle contour between I and H
has been constructed in such a manner that it generates compression
waves centered at point K. The state at KI is given by q~ = 2.108,
0~ = 0.6632. The state at KH is then computed using the formulas of
Section 8; one finds qH = 2.0266, 0ix = 0.5645. For these values, the
states 3, 4, 5 have been determined using the procedure of Section 9.
Only the state 5 is important for nozzle shape. The left-going perturbation that starts at K is extremely weak, but the state at KII corresponds
indeed to one of the expansion waves of this perturbation. The flow
conditions are the same all along KF, since we have the special case of
an isentropic plane flow. The nozzle shape has been found graphically
by means of the method of characteristics, taking as starting points the
state along the chosen characteristic IK, previously computed in connection with Fig. 9. If one would transfer this particular nozzle shape
into Fig. 9, one would find that it ends at a point F slightly to the right
of the curve B~, that is, in a region for which solutions which are
continuous along the control characteristics are also possible. Thus, there
are two candidates for the best nozzle. Of course, it is not difficult to
decide, in a specific case, which of the two solutions gives the larger
values of the thrust, but the example shows the difficulties which one
would encounter in a general theory.

10. Appendix A: Second-Order Variations

We substitute h and A into (49). Under the assumptions made here,
these quantities are constant; nevertheless, it is preferable to express
them in terms of data along the solution curve of the variational problem.
These data are characterized by a subscript 0. One then obtains
F --= p + (1/sin ~o){pq2 sin(~o -- 0) cos 0 -- qo[COS(00-- %)/cos %]pq sin(~o -- 0)}
-- cot ~opoqo2 sin 2 00 tan ~o-

(86)

jOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

62t

Since
sin(50 - - 0)/sin 50 = cos 0 - - sin 0 cot 50,
one finds the following alternate expression:

F = p + pq2 cos ~ 0 - - qo[cos(Oi -- %)/cos %] pq cos 0 + cot ~o A(q, 0),

(87)

where
A = ~ (pq2 __ 00%2) sin 0 cos 0 + %[cos(0 o - - %)/cos o:d(pq -- 0o%) sin 0
+ poqo2[--sin 0(cos 0 - - cos 0o) + sin0 o tan %(sin 0 - - sin 0o)].
The

(88)

f o r m o f A s h o w s i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t A ~ 0 f o r q = q o , 0 = 0o ,

50 = 500 O n e h a s
F~ == - - ( 1 / s i n 2 50)A,

(89)

and hence immediately

F,,(qo, O0 , % ) -= 0,

F ~ ( q o , 0 o , % ) = 0.

(90)

I n c o m p u t i n g F~o , w e set q -~ q o , P = Po

F~o = --poqo 2 sin 0/sin(0 o + %) cos % .

(91)

Moreover,
/Tq = _ (1/sin 2 50)Aq = - - ( 1 / s i n s 50)

{--2pq sin 0 cos 0 + qo[cos(0 o - - %)/cos %]p sin 0

-{- (pq/sin 2 c~) sin 0 cos 0 - - qo[cos(0 o - - %)/cos %](p/sin 2 s) sin 0}, (92-1)
F~q(qo, 0o, % ) -~ Po% sin 0o/sin(0o + %) sin % .

(92-2)

D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g (86), o n e o b t a i n s
Fo = (1/sin ~)(--pq~ cos(~o - - 20) + pq qo[cos(0 o - - so)/cos %] cos(9 - - 0)}.
T h i s e x p r e s s i o n v a n i s h e s f o r q = q o , 0 = 0 o , 50 = 500, as o n e r e c o g n i z e s
immediately. Hence,

Foo(qo, 0o, 500) = (Ooqo2/sin%)[2 sin(0o - - %) + cos(0o - - %) t a n %].

(93)

F o r t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f F q o , w e s e t i m m e d i a t e l y 0 = 0 o , 50 -----500 T h e n ,

[Fo]o=oo -~ (pq/sin 50)[--q cos(0 o - - %) + qo cos(0o ~ %)].

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

Hence,

Fqo(q o , 00 , %) = -- (p0qo/sin %) cos(0 o -- %).

I n f o r m i n g derivatives w i t h r e s p e c t to q, we set i m m e d i a t e l y 0 =
Fq can u l t i m a t e l y be b r o u g h t into t h e f o r m

(94)
0o .

[Fq]o=oo = (1/sin %)[(pq sin 0o/COSn o sin ~ ~)(sin 2 % -- sin z ~)

q~=qo0

"t- p(% -- q) cos(0o - - %) tan % cot 2 ~].

I t is t h e n o b v i o u s t h a t Fq = 0 f o r q =

qo, 0 =

0 o , 9 = 9o H e n c e ,

Fqq(qo, 0o, %) = (p0/sin %)[--2(sin 0o/sin % ) ( & / d log q) -- cot % cos(00 -- %)].
(95)
Next, we c o m p u t e

26F = F~q(3q) 2 + Foo(30) 2 + F~(3~) "~+ Fqo3q30 --r 2F~o6p30 + 2F~&p3q, (96)
with

89 = 6o~ + 60 = (do~/d log q)(~q/q) + 60.

(97)

U s i n g the derivatives c o m p u t e d above, one finds

26F = a(3q) ~ -j- 2b6q60 4:- c(60) ~
= - - c o t % cos(0 o -- %)(6q/qo) 2
+ [2 cot % sin(0 o -- %) - - 2(sin 0o/COS%)(dc~/d log q)] (3q/qo) 60
-

tan % cos(0o - - %)(30) z.

(98)

a a n d b are negative. T h e r e f o r e , one will have a m a x i m u m of F if

ac -- b 2 > O,
or, m o r e specifically,
cos2(0o - - %) -- [cot % sin(0 o - - %) -- (sin 00/cos %)(d~/d log q)]2 > 0.

(99)

T h i s expression can be split into t w o factors. O n e of t h e factors is

given b y
cos(0 o - - %) + cot % sin(0o -- %) - - (sin 0o/COSao)(dc~/d log q)
= sin00[1/sin ~ -- (1/cos o~)(dcz/d log q)] > 0,

(100)

f o r d a / d log q is negative. O n e has, for an ideal gas a n d potential flow,

sin2~ = [(~, + 1)/2](q*/q) ~ -- (~, -- 1)/2,

do(d log q = [cos(2~) -- 9,]/sin(2~).

(101)
(102)

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, t973

The sign of (99) is therefore decided by the second factor, namely,

cos(0o -- %) -- cot % sin(00 -- %) + (sin 0o/cos %)(da/d tog q).
The first two terms in this expression can be combined, and we obtain
as condition for 8F < 0
sin(2% -- 00)/sin % + (sin 00/cos ao)(do~/dlog q) > 0,

(103)

tan 00 < sin(2%)/[cos(2%) -- tan ao(do~/dlog q)].

(104)

or

After substituting the relation (102) for an ideal gas, one obtains
tan 0o < sin(2%)[1 + cos(2%)]/[7 + cos2(2%)].

(105)

If (104) is not satisfied, then ~F may be positive or negative, depending

upon the choice of 8q and 80. In the main text, the question was raised
of whether the compatibility conditions, which are also satisfied along
the varied control surface, would impose a constraint, which caused SF
to be negative even if (104) is not satisfied. Here, we offer the following
comments. The relations obtained here are correct also for the plane
problem. Then, )t does not depend upon y, and the state is constant along
the entire control surface. For plane potential flow, the compatibility
condition gives
cot o~(Sq/q) = 30.
Hence, by substitution into (98),

23F = --2 tan %[sin(2% -- 00)/sin % + (sin 00/cos %)(do~/dlog q)](80)2.

The term in the bracket agrees exactly with the left-hand side of (103).
It follows that, for the special variation considered here, 3F will be
positive outside of the region where (103) or (104) are satisfied.
A comparison with (33) shows that the boundary of the region of the
~0-plane in which (103) holds coincides exactly with the curve for
which dq/d~b is infinite. The critical terms are
(d log q/d~) sin(2~ -- 0)/sin 2 ~ sin 0 + (1/sin ~ cos ~)(d~/d~b)
=

(1/sin ~ sin 0)[sin(2~ - 0)/sin ~ + (sin 0/cos o~)(da/dlog q)](d Iog q/d~b).

11. A p p e n d i x B: S p e c i a l P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e C o n d i t i o n s f o r
Isentropic Discontinuities
First, we collect some results from the variational treatment of
continuous solutions. The equations which we shall use are direct
8o9/I2/6-7

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

consequences of the variational procedure; the specific form of the

functions f t plays only a limited role. In this manner, it will become
obvious that the properties of the j u m p condition derived here are a
consequence of the conditions imposed by the variational procedure.
In f l , we set immediately Pa = 0, for only pressure differences are of
importance. Accordingly, from (13),
f~(q, O, % y, ~)
= y { p + pq2[sin(9 -- 0)/sin 9] cos 0), p = p(q, Y, ),

P = p(q, Y, ~).
(106)

T h e second term on the right-hand side of (14) is now written as

fa(q, 0, 9, Y, ~b) = ypq sin(9 -- 0)/sin ~o.

(107)

T h e dependence of p and p on ~b and y occurs because of BernoulIi's

equation and because of the dependence of entropy on ~b. In this section,
we consider isentropic discontinuities; therefore, the H-dependence
does not play a role. T h e variational procedure has led us to conditions
f:tq - - hfs~ = O,

flo - - hf~o = 0.

(I08)

T h e y are satisfied if
h(q, O, y, ) = q cos(O -- cO/cos c~,

9 = 0 + ~.

(109)

All partial derivatives refer to the functions as they are written

here. In particular, we do not assume that ~ in (108) has been replaced
by 0 q- c~. We have, as a further consequence of the variational procedure,
fl~ -- h f2~ - - )t/sin~ 9 = 0.

(110)

f~q, - - hf2q, = --(y/sin e ~o)A.

(111)

f4(q, O, y, ~b) = pq~ sin s 0 tan e.

(112)

We introduce
Here,

In (25), we found
--Yf4(q, O,y, ~b) = h = const.

(113)

Now, we derive a characterization of the curve B I . This curve gives

the boundary of the region in which solutions satisfying the necessary
conditions of the problem give a m a x i m u m of the thrust, provided that

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, i973

625

entropy changes are not admitted. At the same time, B 1 is the curve for
which dy/dq = dy/dO = 0. For a solution of the variational equations,
one obtains, from (26), (109), (113),

(ah/aq) dq + (Oh/aO)dO [ah/~y (ah/a40(d4,/dy)] dy = O,

(afJoq) dq + (af~laO) dO -p- [afgay + @f4ta~)(d$!dy)] dy = O.
For the curve B1, dy = 0. Therefore, if the rank of this system is 2,

l eh/aq ah/ao

~A/Oq of~/ao[

= o.

(114)

This is the desired characterization. Incidentally, if one considers

dq or dO as first-order terms and if dy is of second order, then the changes

of g l , & , / 7 are of second order, too. Curves of 0 versus q (or 0 versus
a) for solutions in which g l , g~, o r / 7 are not necessarily taken to be
constant are therefore tangent along B 1 to the corresponding curves for
potential flow. In more geometric form, the curve B 1 can be described in
the following manner. L e t d~/dO be the slope of a curve h = const at its
intersection with the curve B 1 ; dq~/dO is determined by the equation

(ahlae)(d41do) + ahlaO = o.

(115)

Then, the following condition is satisfied, too:

(~f, Jeq)(d~/dO) + Of4/O0 = O.

(116)

I n preparation for the discussion of the j u m p conditions, we now form

the derivatives of Eqs. (108) in the direction of a curve h = const for a
point of B~. One finds, from the first equation,

Ea~f~feq~

h(o~I.l&)](d4fao) + Ea~kfeeeO - h(a~Lleqeo)]

+ [a~fllOqe~ - h(a%/e~)](di~/dO) = O,

where d~/dO is the derivative of ~ along such a curve. T h e definition of

f4 yields

O~fl/~q&p -- h(O~f3lOqgq)) = --(y/sin S~o)(gf41Oq) (Oh!~q)(Ofsl&p)

(117)

Then, the last equation can be rewritten in the following form:

[02fl/ ~q~ -- h( a~fd eq2)J(d4/dO) [e~fl/ oqaO -- h( a2f,/ ~q~O)]

+ [(y/sin2 cp)(ef4/Oq) -l- (eh/eq)(ef~/&p)](d~/dO) .= O.

(118)

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JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

Similarly,
[8~fl/Oq80 - h(8~f~/~qSO)](d~/dO) -t- [(~fl/80 2 -- h(8~fa/802)]

+ [(y/sinz 50)(Of4/(;qO) -~- (8h/80)(Ofs/O50)](dc~/30) = O.

One observes that
ft + sin 50 cos 50(Sfl/(%p) =: y ( p + pq2 cos e 0),
fz q- sin 50 cos q~(Sf3/850) -~ ypq cos 0.
T h e j u m p conditions, as derived in Section 8, can therefore be written in
terms of the integrands occurring in the variational problem as follows:
[f~ -c sin 50 c o s

50(Cgfl/~50])Kt I --

[fl + sin 50 cos 50(Sfx/850)]K ~

-- hxH{[fa + sin 50 cos 50(Ofa/84,)]x~ ,

-- [f, + sin 50 cos 50(Sf,/~)]K,} = 0,
(8A/e50)Kix -- (SA/O50)r., -- h x u [ ( e f a / 8 5 0 ) x u -

(119-1)

(Ofa/e50)x,] = 0. (119-2)

Actually, these conditions are independent of 50: in the first equation,

the terms containing 50 cancel; in the second one, 50 occurs only in a
common factor. Multiplying the second equation by sin 50 cos 50 and
subtracting the result from the first equation, one obtains
(f~)x,, - - (A)x, - - hxn[(f3)Kn - - (f3)K,] -- 0.

(120)

This equation holds for any choice of 50. In this appendix, the j u m p
conditions are used in the forms (1 19) and (120).
In the following discussions, the state II is considered as given,
and we ask for which values of qz and 01 Eqs. (119)-(120) are satisfied.
T h e system (119)-(t20) has one trivial solution, namely, q~--~ qH and
0 t = OiZ. We shall show that, for this solution, these equations can be
satisfied up to terms of the first order by a suitable choice of dqffdOt.
I f we had a single condition, this would correspond to a zero of the
second order. In these discussion, 50 is arbitrary, it can be considered
as constant, and h is constant, too, for we consider the state II as given.
One then obtains, for the first-order terms in (120),
[(efl/Oq) -- h(SA/eq)]r,n dq~ + [oS~t80 - h(eA/OO)]x , dO, = O,

but because of (t08) the coefficients of dql and dot vanish separately.
Therefore, we are free to choose dqffd01 in such a manner that (119) is
satisfied up to the first order. One has specifically
[8~'f1/Sq850 -- h( ~ f a/3qc~50)]xu( dq~/dO,) + [82f~/80850 -- h( O2fa/80850)]xu .... O.

JOTA: VOL. 12, NO. 6, 1973

627

For cases where state II corresponds to a point of the curve B 1 , one can
use (117) to rewrite this equation as
(y/sin2 q~)[(~fa/Oq)(dqt/dOz) -- ~f4/~O] + (Of3/~q~)i(~h/~q)(dqr/dO,)- Oh/~O] = O.
This equation is t h e n satisfied if one chooses
dqI/dO, = d4/dO.

(121)

Next, we study second-order terms in (t20), assuming that the state

II lies on B 1 and that (121) is satisfied:
[~,f~/~q -- h(~f~/Oq)](d2qr/dO2) 4- [~2]-/~q2 _ h(~f,~/~qZ)](dq/dO~)2
4- 2[e2fa/~q~O -- h(~fa/Oq~O)](dqz/dOz) + [e2fa/eOz -- h(~f~/e02)].
T h e first term vanishes because of (t08); after substitution of (117)
and of a similar equation involving derivatives with respect to 0, one
obtains
[--(y/sin z 9)(eA/eq) 4- (eh/eq)(eA/e~)](dqz/dO,)
-- (y/sin2 ~)(af4/O0) ~- (~h/bO)(af~/aq~)
~-:

-- (ylsin 2 ~)[(ef,~tOq)(dq/dOs) + (Df~lO0)]

+ (Ofale~o)[(Oh/~q)(dqr/dO,) + ~h/~O].

These expressions vanish because of (119)-(116) on account of the

choice of dql/dO~. Conditions (119) can now be satisfied up to terms of
the second order by the choice of dZql/dO~,2.

References
1. GUDERLEY, K. G., and TABAK, D., On the Determination of Optimum
Supersonic Thrust Nozzles of a Given Length for a Flow with Swirl: Theoretical
Part, Office of Aerospace Research, United States Air Force, Report
No. ARL 66-0013, 1956.
2. GUDERLEY,K. G., and BREITER, ~ . C., On the Determination of Optimum
Thrust Nozzles of a Given Length for a Flow with Swirl: Numerical Results,
Office of Aerospace Research, United States Air Force, Report No. ARL70-0161, 1970.
3. GUDERLEY,K. G., and HANTSCH,]~., Beste Formenfuer Achsensymmetrische
Uberschallschubduesen, ZFW, Vol. 3, pp. 305-314, I955.
4. NIKOL'SKI, A. A., Concerning Bodies of Revolution with a Duct which
Possess l]/[inimum Wave Drag in Supersonic Flow (in Russian), Collection of
Theoretical Works on Aerodynamics, Oborongiz, Moscow, USSR, 1957.

628

JOTA: VOL. 17, NO. 6, 1973

5. RAO, G. V. R., Exhaust Nozzle Contour for Optimum Thrust, Theory of

Optimum Aerodynamic Shapes, Edited by A. Miele, Academic Press,
New York, New York, 1965.
6. GUDERLEY,K. G., The Rote of Rao's Postulate in the Optimization of Thrust
Nozzles of a Given Length, ZFW, Vol. 18, pp. 41-44, 1970.
7. G~'DERLEY,K. G., On Rao's 3lethod for the Computation of Exhaust Nozzles,
ZFW, Vol. 7, pp. 345-350, 1955.
8. GUDERLEY,I~. G., and BREITER,M. C., Approximation for Swirl Flows in
the Vidnity of the Throat of a Laval Nozzle, Office of Aerospace Research,
United St,~tes Air Force, Report No. ARL-70-0009, 1970.
9. SHMYGLEVSKIY, Yu. D., Some Variational Problems in Gasdynamics (in
Russian), Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences, Moscow, USSR,
1963.
10. NAUMOVA,I. N., and SIaMYGLEVSKIY,Yu. D., Increase in Nozzle Thrust by
Flow Rotation, Izvestiia Mechanika Zhidkosti i Gaza, pp. 34-37, 1967,