Theory of gravity flow (Part 2)

Andrs Susaeta, Mining Consultant, Professor Mining Department, University of Chile, Chile

Abstract
The objective of this paper is to introduce some control parameters for Fm (Model of Gravity Flow), and using them
prove, through empirical relations and findings from back analysis from Codelco mines, the validity of the proposed
model of gravity flow.
The uniformity Index is introduced and results of back analysis are presented to show relation between draw and
interaction, as well as a methodology to asses and evaluate interactive layout designs.
Some relevant results of the research team are applied to propose a methodology to assess Dta (Isolated draw
diameter) and evaluate layout interaction in the design stage.

1. INTRODUCTION
The proposed model for gravity flow depends on three
principal variables. One of them is related with extraction, that
can be characterized with the Uniformity Index, that is a practical
tool to plan and evaluate the effective uniformity of draw.
The relation of this variable with the proposed gravity flow
model is very important for design and operation of caving
layouts, specially in primary ore, where maintaining uniform
draw is not easy.
The layout design and its relation to the cave material
properties is one of the other control variables of the
proposed model and a very relevant issue for a successful
caving operation. A methodology to determine the isolated
draw diameter for different caving materials at different
extraction percentages is proposed, as well as a criteria to
ensure LHD layout interaction for all the ore column.
2. UNIFORMITY INDEX
The measure of the uniformity of draw is a key issue for
draw control practice. It allows both control and proper
planning of the call order, as well as very easy graphical
representation of the entire mine draw practice.
The proposed index is (as per Susaeta, A, Saavedra, J. unpublished):

I .U . = +

(t

t min )

2
n
tmax

( t max ti )

(1)

where:
: Number of inactive draw points in the draw point
vicinity.
r : Factor of normalization, equal to 99/89.
tp: Tonnage extracted from draw point p under analysis,
in a specific period of time.
ti: Tonnage extracted from draw point i belonging to draw
point p vicinity in the same period of time.
tmax: Maximum tonnage extracted in the vicinity of draw
point p, in the same period of time.
tmin: Minimum tonnage extracted in the vicinity of draw
point p, in the same period of time.
n: Number of draw points belonging to the vicinity of draw
point p.

Analysis of the equation

As it can be seen the equation is constituted by two parts:
A first integer part (), that indicates the number of
inactive draw points in the vicinity, in other words draw
points without movement during the considered period of
time. Then as grows draw is less uniform.
The second part of equation (1) will be called Specific
index of uniformity (I.E.U.). With the normalization factor
r, the I.E.U. is a decimal number between 0 and 1, and
indicates the uniformity of draw among the active draw
points for the selected period of time.
So with the above definition:
Draw characteristic
Completely uniform draw
Completely isolated draw

Specific index of uniformity

0
1

For example, a draw point with a configuration of 6

neighbors and a uniformity index of 1,009, indicates that for
the draw event analyzed, only one of its neighbors was
inactive and the rest of the draw points were extracted in a
relatively good uniformity.
A key issue regarding uniformity is to define which is
the maximum period of time that can be assumed, to
consider that there is still "movement" in the draw
columns so as to generate interaction between them. A
period of three shifts (one day) was determined as the
farthest time where there is reasonable correlation
between the U.I and interaction for back analysis studies.
This result is on line with practical experience and stress
measurements of the mayor apex.
INTERPRETATION OF THE UNIFORMITY INDEX
Due to the vectorial nature of the index where two
informations are integrated in one number it is not possible
to categorize its results linearly. The following matrix (Figure
N1) is proposed to characterize the results, that defines
every draw event either as uniform, semi uniform or
isolated.

By definition the vicinity of draw point p includes that draw

point. Then as an example for a layout of a draw point with
6 neighbors cardinal n of the vicinity is 7.
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Uniformity Index Characterization

Teniente Mine, where vertical up holes were drilled

through the mayor apex into the caved material after it
was closed. The graph (Figure N3) where the U.I,
represented as percentage of time in isolation against
Gi (determined from lithological mapping of the ore over
the pillars) shows the relation between these two
variables.
These results were predictable from the Fm proposed
model. They confirm that draw must be uniform ideally
100% of the time. With this the maximum potential of
interaction degree (Gi) for the design can be attained. The
Gi for any LHD layout, as will be showed will be less than 1,
thus the potential of leaving part of the ore reserves over the
mayor apex is certain.

Figure N1 Uniformity Index example matrix

This matrix can be modified to adjust different design
patterns and uniformity criterias. For programming
purposes special matrix have to be defined for the cave
boundary, where the total possible number of draw points is
less than within the layout.
Each call event (one shift) will have an associated
category of the U.I. Its graphic representation (Figure N2)
for a control period (whole life of mine, one month, etc.) can
be expresed for every draw point in percentage of tonage,
or time, within a specific category. The following figure
shows an example of the representation of a sector of a
case study, where the scale shows percentage of uniformity.
The red then is isolated draw.
Figure N3 Interaction Degree versus Uniformity Index
The following table shows the results of the Dilution
Entry Point for several representative sectors. They confirm
that there is a direct dependency between U.I and Dilution
entry point, for points that have had over 70% extraction
with uniformity. The higher the percentage of time (or
tonnage) extracted with uniformity, the higher the dilution
entry point.

Sector

Uniformity Index

% Dilution Entry

%t =
% t = Unif.
Isolation + semiuni

Figure N2 - Uniformity Index Graphic Representation in

Plan
3. BACK ANALYSIS RESULTS
Using the described parameters, and the Fm concepts,
the information of all the Codelco Mines was analyzed to
determine relations between draw practice and interaction.
- Degree of Interaction (Gi)
A relation between the Gi (Gi = vti / vta) and the U.I
(Uniformity Index) was derived from a sector of El
174

Inca Norte

34

66

57

Inca Central

57

43

41

Quebrada
Teniente

19

81

62

Teniente 4

34

66

54

The following graph (Figure N4) summarizes the

behavior of all LHD draw points of Andina III Panel. This
graph looks like the proposed behavior of Isolated
interactive flow. The Pedza (Dilution entry point of
isolated flow) was determined through a very accurate
tracer of dilution (construction material of previous level)
and the Pedzi (Dilution entry point from interactive flow)
was determined from the change of curve slope. The
real dilution percentage is not accurate because not all
dilution is ryolite. The improve in the draw practice
during the last year has improved the Pedza several
points.

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Figure N4 Percentage dilution versus Extraction for LHD Area A

Figure N5 Relation of Dilution entry (isolated flow) versus draw practice for grizzly 9 x 9 m layout (secondary ore)
The analysis of the Pedza (Dilution entry point of isolated
flow) for Sector A (Andina III Panel) versus percentage of
uniform and semi uniform extracted tonnage (Figure N 5)
show a clear tendency (considering side dilution and other
practical effects) that confirms the previous results.
The generation of a data base that relates a layout with
fragmentation (f) and dilution entry (for isolated and
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interactive flow) is not and easy task because it is very

difficult to encounter representative sectors with consistent
draw uniformity.
The above plus several observed results of the analyzed
caving operations confirm the proposed Fm model at a
mining scale.

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175

4. DESIGN PARAMETERS

DESIGN INTERACTION POTENTIAL

CAVE MATERIAL AND ISOLATED DRAW

DIAMETER ESTIMATION (DTA)
The proposed function Fm (Model of Gravity Flow) is
controlled by the variables: Extraction, Material properties
and Layout geometry. The material properties of the caved
material (Pm) depend of moisture and the internal friction
angle (). Through conceptual analysis the following
expression was derived for :

Considering that the limit for interaction between two

neighbor draw points at a distance Dpe is :

= 100 Cu / (1 + 2.332 Cu)

Dpe < or = 1.5 * Dta

(4)

Then if the following "ideal draw point spacing layout" is

considered (equilateral arrangement), the critical point for
interaction can be expressed as a relation between areas:

(1)

and

Cu = D60 / D10

(material gradation or
uniformity coefficient)

(2)

Where D10, D60 and D80 correspond to fragmentation size

(m) passing accumulated 10, 60 and 80 % respectively.
As defined through similarity analysis the internal
friction angle of the material (f) determines the Dta, so
these is the basic parameter to be considered during the
design stage.
For design purposes the following equations was derived
to assess the isolated draw diameter (Dta ):
(3)
Using standard size distribution for coarse, medium and
fine material for different percentages of extraction the
following table and curve (Figure N6) was computed with
the above equations:

Figure N 6 Isolated draw diameter for different material

types as a function of extraction percentage

For design purposes, the layout has to be interactive at an

extraction percentage of at least 70% of the ore in the
column to obtain a minimum recovery. Ideally interaction
should be permanent, that means that the Dta for design is
near to the one calculated for a fragmentation of 90%
extraction. No detail evaluation of moisture effect was
introduced to the above calculations.

Dta as a function of material type (fragmentation) and percentage extraction

% Extraction

D60
(m)

D10
(m)

D80
(m)

Cu

()

Dta = 5*D80 * tg ()-7

(m)

Coarse Material

10.00

1.44

0.22

2.15

6.69

40.50

32.53

50.00

0.90

0.15

1.30

6.00

40.21

21.04

90.00

0.70

0.10

1.00

7.00

40.60

14.70

10.00

0.67

0.10

1.00

6.69

40.50

15.10

50.00

0.46

0.08

0.79

5.50

39.97

13.64

90.00

0.43

0.05

0.67

9.28

41.19

8.51

10

0,19

0,05

0,45

4,22

39,11

9,58

50

0,17

0,04

0,35

4,25

39,13

7,41

90

0,15

0,04

0,30

4,29

39,16

6,30

Medium Material

Fine Material

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The experimental results for a "Teniente Layout" shows

interaction over the mayor apex for distances of Dpe = 2,5
* Dta, as per Figure N8.
The only way to understand this is to assume that the two
draw columns of the trench act "as one wider draw point".
Interaction over the mayor apex will exist only if all the
following conditions are met:
a) Dpz (Distance between trench draw points) is less or
equal to 1,5 Dta => There exists a Interactive Trench
Diameter (Dzi).
The interactive trench diameter (DZI) is:

Dzi = Dpz + Dta

Figure N7 equilateral layout arrengement

According to following sketch (Figure N9):

The value is defined as the distance between the
drawpoints and the Dta (isolated draw width).
With the interaction index (Ii) defined as active area
(isolated draw area) divided by the total area of influence:

Ii =

Aa
At

c) (Dpm + Dpz) is less or equal to 1,5 * Dzi

5. CONCLUSIONS

With l = 1.5 (critical limit of interaction) the Ii critic can be

calculated for the equilateral layout:

Then the critical interaction limit, expressed as isolated

draw width to total area is (Ii critic) 0,403, or at least 40%
of the total area to be extracted needs to be under
isolated flow behavior in order to have total interaction.
Different geometries with the same critical limit (l = 1.5)
will have different Ii, as expected. Defining a "Dispersion
Index (Id)" for a design as the interaction index divided by
the critical interaction index, different layouts can be
compared.

id =

b) Operational uniform draw is strictly observed

(Interactive draw)

The proposed gravity flow model can be presented as:

Where UI is the uniformity index, Dta the isolated draw

diameter, and Id the dispersion index. Back analysis results
show that in effective caving operations, Fm varies its

li
licritico

The interaction phenomena can be expressed in words,

considering the results of models and Fm conceptualization
and the critical interaction described above as follows:
The isolated draw cylinders form an "open area" (Aa).The
caved material surrounding them behaves as a solid due to
cohesion, forming "pillars" of these material (Ap Pillar
Area). These pillars will have the highest load at a height
where the isolated draw cylinders reach their maximum
width (HDta = 2 * Dta). If the stress of the static material,
plus the friction with the isolated draw column is less than
the of the caved material there will be isolated draw only
(Gi = 0). If the stress is grater than the internal friction angle
of the material the "pillar" will collapse at that location
(Interection height = 2 * Dta) contributing material towards
the isolated draw cylinder.

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Figure N8 Experimental result for a "Teniente" Layout

with interactive Draw

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177

1037 Project, and of all the professionals that participated in

the experimental stage, back analysis of the Codelco data
and conceptual analysis. Both projects were managed by
Hugo Diaz, to a successful end.
Special mention to Dennis Laubscher for setting the
basement, without his acid critic and discussions that led to
permanent review of his interpretation of gravity flow and
caving design, I wouldnt have been compelled to give an
additional step.

7. REFERENCES
Figure N9 - Sketch
behavior through time in three modes: : "isolated",
"interactive-isolated" and "interactive", determined by the Gi
(degree of interaction).
The proposed control variables of the model have been
applied successfully, in planning and draw control
optimization in various mines in operation.
The Uniformity Index has proven a very handy tool for
practical draw control and back analysis of historical draw
practice.
According to the proposed model, and results of stress
monitoring in the sand model, the interaction potential of a
layout and its relation to draw practice can be effectively
observed from the stress changes over the mayor apex
(central pillar). This methodology to evaluate interaction
potential of different layouts should be complemented with a
devised experiment to measure effective f of the caved
material over the mayor apex. Further on, it is
recommended that the back analysis effort done by Codelco
mines is extended to a broader number of operations to
integrate additional panel caving experience into the model.
Moisture as a control variable of f remains to be
investigated in detail, because it has a very important
control over Fm that has not been evaluated in depth.

6. AKNOWLEDGMENTS

Diaz, H., Susaeta,A, (2000), "Modelamiento del Flujo

Gravitacional", Revista Minerales, in Spanish.
Kvapil, R. (1965): "Gravity flow of granular materials in
hoppers and bins," Int. J. Rock Mechanics and Mining
Science, Parts I and II. Vol. 2.
Kvapil, R. (1982): "The mechanics and design of sublevel
caving system," Underground Mining Methods Handbook,
W. Hustrulid ed., SME, New York.
Laubscher, D. (1994): "Cave mining-the state of the art,"
The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy.
Mansson, A. (1995): "Development of body of motion
under controlled gravity flow of bulk solids," Licentiate
thesis, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden.
Susaeta, et all , "Modelamiento del Flujo Gravitacional",
Informe Final, CIMM, 1999. Internal Document.
Susaeta, A., Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 2.
Internal Document.
Tamburino, A , Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 4.
Internal Document.
Verdugo, R., Proyecto Fondef 1037, "Desarrollo de un
Modelo de Flujo Gravitacional para Minera por
Hundimiento de Bloques", Mayo 2002, Sub Proyecto 1.
Internal Document.

The author acknowledges the important contribution to

the results of the CIMM research program and the FONDEF

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