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Numerical simulation of casting solidification

in permanent metallic molds
ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF MATERIALS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY SEPTEMBER 2006
Impact Factor: 1.95 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.09.025

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Journal of Materials Processing Technology 178 (2006) 2933

Numerical simulation of casting solidification in

permanent metallic molds
T.R. Vijayaram, S. Sulaiman, A.M.S. Hamouda , M.H.M. Ahmad
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
UPM 43400 Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Poskod 43400, Malaysia
Received 26 May 2005; accepted 26 September 2005

Abstract
Casting solidification is actually the transformation of liquid phase to solid phase with the liberation of latent heat of fusion. During this
metallurgical process, it induces casting defects like shrinkage, porosity and hot tears. To eradicate and eliminate these problems, accurate casting
design and proper design of gating system is necessary. This can be predicted and designed by means of computer simulation of casting solidification.
This review paper discusses about the simulation process of casting solidification with the aid of an example, which will help the foundry engineers
and industrial metallurgists to optimize the design parameters, better understand the temperature history of the solidifying casting and hence to
identify the hot spot region with the aid of obtained time-temperature contours. These results will be used to get defect free as cast products on
implementing the above findings attained from the simulation process. In this paper, the importance of heat transfer in the simulation process
is presented. This paper reviews the details of computer simulation of solidification of castings in metallurgical engineering foundries. Since,
computers became widely available in industry, researchers have been working on the development of programs to simulate the solidification of
castings.
2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Casting solidification; Computer simulation software; Hot tears; Hot spots; Solidliquid interface

1. Introduction
Metallurgical phase transformation plays a vital role in the
solidification of castings [1]. Computer simulation of casting
solidification of metals and alloys is a complex phenomenon
[2,3]. The assumptions and constraints used for simulation are
considered as a vital one [8,23]. In the casting process, the
metalmold interface will have an air gap which affects the dissipation of heat flow from the casting to the mold [7,8]. But the
application of pressure during the solidification process reduces
the air gap and forms a tight contact between the casting and the
mold [4,5]. This condition releases the heat at a faster rate and
produces fine grain structured castings [9]. To identify the conditions and optimum values, simulation of solidification process
is done by running indigenously developed computer software
for the casting process selected for investigation [6,11]. The
program output provides the details on time-temperature profile

Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 3 89466330; fax: +60 3 86567122.

E-mail address: hamouda@eng.upm.edu.my (A.M.S. Hamouda).

0924-0136/$ see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.09.025

and heat transfer coefficient values which plays a key role in the
effective design of castings [10,11].
2. Aim of computer modeling of solidication of
castings:
Many computer simulation programs now exist, but some
require computers of a power not generally available to practical
foundry men, while others take an unacceptably long time to
obtain meaningful results. The aim of computer modeling is to
[56]:
Predict the pattern of solidification, indicating where shrinkage cavities and associated defects may arise.
Simulate solidification with the casting in various positions,
so that the optimum position may be selected.
Calculate the volumes and weights of all the different materials in the solid model.
Provide a choice of quality levels, allowing, for example, the
highlighting or ignoring of micro-porosity.

30

T.R. Vijayaram et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 178 (2006) 2933

Perform over a range of metals, including steel, white iron,

grey iron and ductile iron and non-ferrous metals.
3. Literature review
From the existing and recent literature citations it is found
that the currently available casting solidification simulation softwares have not taken all constraints and conditions required for
the realistic simulation process [1214]. This matters more and
influences critically on the output results [31]. Normally simulation is done for simple shape castings particularly cylindrical
and of slab type [15,55]. Very limited complicated shape castings of real engineering components have taken for this research
work and yet not applied all constraints and complete boundary
conditions [16,17]. According to the literature reviewed, it is
clear that the casting solidification simulation is done only to
metals and alloys [1820]. Little work has been done so far on
the simulation of metal matrix composites due to the complexity involved in it [21,22]. The movement and the velocity of the
solidification front are determined by considering the assumed
boundary conditions and constraints [23,24].
4. Signicance of casting solidication simulation of
metals, alloys and composite materials
Solidification of castings varies for different materials. Pure
metal and eutectic alloys solidifies at constant temperature. But
alloys of binary and ternary type solidify over a range of temperature. The result of the simulation process helps to design the castings effectively by identifying the defect locations from the geometrical features of the components [3]. In the case of particulate
composite materials, it is used to determine the particle distribution uniformity during the solidification of composites [2528].
The solidification front velocity decides the particle pushing and
engulfment in the composite casting solidifying process [29,30].
By simulation, the time versus temperature helps to visualize
the temperature contours and distribution inside the solidifying
composites [3133]. So, the effect of the particle hindrance by
the solidliquid interface can be thoroughly studied. The disturbance of the interface by the paniculate decides its distribution
inside the composite casting [34,35]. Similarly, for the optimum
processing of fiber-reinforced composites by squeeze casting,
the infiltration of the liquid alloy into the fiber is simulated to
get the details of the infiltration level and the characteristics of
viscosity, surface tension and wett-ability of the alloy with the
fiber [36]. By generating practical conditions in the software,
one can predict the optimum values like squeeze pressure, die
temperature, molten metal or alloy pouring temperature and perform preheating temperature [3740]. This helps us to identify
whether complete infiltration has taken place or not during solidification process.
5. Steps involved in the development of casting
solidication simulation software
Problem identification.
Shape and size of the cast component.

Identifying the type of metal casting process.

Selecting the type of mesh element.
Identifying the type of mold and cast material.
Direction of heat flow.
Applying the boundary conditions and constraints.
Identifying the physical, chemical and mechanical properties
of the mold and cast material.
Discretizing the selected casting into smaller nodal elements.
Applying pre processor.
Writing the heat transfer equations.
Developing the stiffness matrices.
Writing the codings by selecting a suitable higher-level programming language.
Run the program.
Getting the output results.
Applying post processor to refine and for better results.

6. Available numerical techniques for casting

solidication simulation process
Finite difference method (FDM)
Finite element method (FEM)
Boundary element method (BEM)
Finite difference method is the oldest numerical mathematical technique used to generate the solidification simulation by
discretizing the casting and mold arrangement into smaller equal
elements [4143]. For an element, the small linear distance in
the X-direction is taken as Delta X and the vertical distance
in the Y-direction is taken as Delta Y The air gap resistance
is considered here and one of the above mentioned numerical
methods is applied to get the solution [22,44,45]. Besides, it
is a common procedure to write the basic heat transfer equations for the nodal elements based on the mode of conduction,
convection and radiation [46]. By using finite element method
different types of mesh elements are generated by discretization
and hence stiffness matrices are developed to predict the velocity
of the moving solidliquid interface, time-temperature distribution and particle distribution in the case of composites casting
solidification processing [47,48]. Recently, boundary element
method is adopted to get accurate result outputs and this is considered as an advanced technique by engineering scientists and
technologists [49,50].
7. List of assumptions and constraints to be considered
in casting solidication simulation software package
development

Latent heat of fusion.

Unidirectional heat flow.
Thermal resistanceair gap consideration.
Assuming the absence of crests and troughs in the metalmold
interface.
Isotropic conditions.
Uniformity of properties in all directions consideration.
Square element consideration in mesh generation.
Location of nodes at the centre of the element.

T.R. Vijayaram et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 178 (2006) 2933

Pressurization rate, molten metal temperature and squeeze

pressure consideration in the case of squeeze casting process.
8. Procedure for applying solidication simulation
program
The procedure for carrying out a casting solidification simulation program analysis is listed below [56]:
Using the casting drawing, determine model scale and element size.
Make the solid model of the casting.
Make the solid model of the proposed production method
(feeders, chills, insulators etc.). Use the programs own
feeder-size calculator of required.
Carry out thermal analysis to establish the order of solidification.
Carry out solidification simulation to a set quality standard,
for the selected alloy incorporating shrinkage percentage, in
gate effects etc. this results in the model being changed to
the predicted final shape (internal and external) of the casting showing size, shape and location of shrinkage cavities in
castings and feeders.
Examine the predicted shrinkage (the equivalent of NDT) by
viewing and plotting of 3D X-rays and sections of the model
in 2D slices or 3D sections and relating predicted defects to
solidification contours and required quality standards.
If the predicted defects do not meet the required quality standard, develop an improved production method and repeat the
procedures. These trial-and-error sampling procedures can be
carried out very rapidly, allowing the operator to indulge in
any number of whatif experiments.
Basically, casting solidification simulation software program
performs firstly, the solid modeling, consecutively, the thermal
analysis and solifdifation simulation. During the simulation process, the effect of varying molding position, ingate position,
mold materials, chills, insulating and exothermic materials can
be modelled, allowing the optimum method of making the casting to be predicted [56].
9. Experimental method and description for generating
time-temperature data
A model of squeeze casting process is analyzed for generating time-temperature data during the solidification process. In
squeeze casting process, the pressure is applied until the casting
gets solidified completely in the mold [5153]. So, air gap is
seen only when the pressure is absence and it is not observed
when the pressure is applied [54,55]. The main components of
the experimental set-up for generating time-temperature data are
listed below.

Data acquisition system (DAS).

ADU Converter.
Amplifier.
Solidification simulation software.

31

Metallic mold.
Thermocouple leads.
A suitable induction melting furnace to melt the metal or alloy
ingot.
A suitable computer system with sufficient memory capacity.
A graphic plotter.
The real experimental procedure of the solidification simulation system is explained in a simplified manner with the aid of an
example. The selected metallic mold with the casting cavity is
placed on the floor and sufficient number of hole provisions are
made on it to insert the thermocouple lead wires on the selected
locations of the inside casting surface and at the interior locations apart by opted distances. The extended thermocouple wires
from the mold are connected to the input terminals of the data
acquisition system and the corresponding output leads are linked
to an amplifier to amplify the signals [45,46]. A suitable material
is melted temperature. The final output of the amplified signal
is fed to the computer which is supported by the solidification
simulation software package [33]. The used computer software
helps to generate the time-temperature data readings and it is
shown in Table 1. By using suitable graphic package, the data is
Table 1
Generated time-temperature data
Time

Temperature

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600
630
660
690
720
750
780
810
840
870
900
930
960
990
1020

1400
1380
310
1260
1200
1100
1150
1040
980
900
840
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
600
520
480
420
380
340
300
260
230
200
170
140
100
70

32

T.R. Vijayaram et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 178 (2006) 2933

explains the effect of under cooling of solidifying castings which

reflects more on the inside microstructures responsible for material properties
Acknowledgement

Graph 1. Time-temperature curve generated from the computer solidification

simulation of a eutectic alloy.

further converted into a time-temperature plot which is shown

below in Graph 1.
The obtained time-temperature profile varies for different
materials poured in the liquid form in the mold. It is influenced
by the type of the poured metal or alloy or composite material
melted [5]. The behavior of recaleasence, latent heat of liberation of the material during the phase transformation, melting
point, liquidus temperature, solidus temperature and solidification time can be studied from the generated graph [49,8,10].
10. Applications of casting solidication simulation
software programs
Casting solidification simulation softwares are in regular use
by aluminium, copper, iron and steel foundries using processes
ranging from green-sand, resin-and shell-bonded sand to investment and gravity die casting. Applications include [56]:
Large steel castings such as heavy weighing turbine housings
and stern frames where improved yields and reduced fettling
costs were achieved.
Critical high pressure valve castings.
Repetition castings such as ductile iron crank shafts, where
modeling increases the chance of achieving right first time
methoding, so reducing the lead time for new castings.
Solidification simulation softwares are not only used by
foundry method engineers but also casting designers and
purchasers are using the softwares having experienced significant improved quality from their simulation software-using
suppliers.
11. Conclusion
Casting solidification simulation process is used to identify the defective locations in the castings from the generated
time-temperature contours. It is concluded that casting solidification simulation technology is used to eliminate defects like
shrinkage, porosity and to locate the hot spot regions which
helps to design the components effectively. Besides, it is used
to determine the solidification time and behavior of different
materials accurately. Hence, it is used to determine the cooling
rate influenced by the grain structure of castings. Solidification
simulation of castings provides time-temperature data, temperature contours, hot spot locations, degree of recalescence, latent
heat of fusion and solidification time. The time-temperature plot

The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Department

of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia for the consent to publish this
paper.
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