IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO.

3, MAY/JUNE 2005

855

A Comparison of Three-Level Converters Versus

Two-Level Converters for Low-Voltage Drives,
Traction, and Utility Applications
Ralph Teichmann and Steffen Bernet, Member, IEEE

AbstractThis paper evaluates three-level topologies as alternatives to two-level topologies in converters for low-voltage applications. Topologies, semiconductor losses, filter aspects, part count,
initial cost, and life-cycle cost are compared for a grid interface, a
conventional drive application, and a high-speed drive application.
Index TermsLife-cycle cost, multilevel converters, semiconductor losses.

I. INTRODUCTION

HE low-voltage power conversion market (nominal

(IEC); 575 V
line-to-line voltage up to 690 V
(ANSI)) is almost exclusively satisfied by the conventional
two-level dc-voltage link hard-switching converter topology.
Alternatives such as matrix converters or soft-switching converters have failed to penetrate this market. Technological
progress has been slow, relying mainly on semiconductor
device improvements and control intelligence refinements, as
well as on better integration and packaging techniques.
In contrast, the medium-voltage power conversion market
offers some diversity with the presence of a dc-current link
converter and various dc-voltage link multilevel converter structures. In particular, the multilevel converters became very successful in the past decade. While the development of the multilevel structures was mainly driven by the limited semiconductor
voltage blocking capability in conjunction with static and dynamic voltage-sharing concerns, it turned out that the multilevel
topology offered some additional benefits. Among those are
a superior harmonic spectrum for a given gate switching frequency, a lower overvoltage stress at cables and end windings
of transformers/motors, a lower common-mode voltage, and
substantially lower semiconductor switching losses.
The objective of this paper is the evaluation of the potential benefits of a three-level topology in low-voltage power

Paper IPCSD-04-075, presented at the 2003 Industry Applications Society

Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT, October 1216, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Industrial
Power Converter Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review March 1, 2004 and released for publication February
3, 2005. This work was supported by ABB Corporate Research, Germany.
R. Teichmann is with GE Global Research, Niskayuna, NY 12309 USA
(e-mail: teichman@crd.ge.com).
S. Bernet is with the Fakultt IV Elektrotechnik und Informatik, Institut
fr Energie- und Automatisierungstechnik, Fachgebiet Leistungselektronik, Technische Universitt Berlin, D-10587 Berlin, Germany (e-mail:
steffen.bernet@tu-berlin.de).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2005.847285

converters. With the emerging need for higher switching frequencies in applications such as high-speed drives, a desire for
smaller and lighter (filter) components in grid-connected and
traction converters, a three-level-based low-voltage converter
family appears to be one technologically attractive solution.
A first indication of a commercial interest was stated in [1]
and [2]. References [3] and [4] explore the utilization of
high-volume automotive components to build cost-effective
three-level low-voltage drive converters. Reference [5] shows
the efficiency gains of three-level converters over two-level
converters in wind power applications with a high share of
partial load operation. A three-level converter technology is
discussed for three typical application cases. Insulated gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT) semiconductor losses and switching
frequency boundaries are discussed for state-of-the-art IGBT
technology. Initial cost and life-cycle cost comparisons will
conclude the evaluation.
II. TOPOLOGIES
DC-voltage link multilevel converters were proposed in
several configurations. The diode-clamped multilevel converter (DCMLC) [6], also known as the neutral-point-clamped
multilevel converter, the flying-capacitor multilevel converter
(FCMLC) [6], also known as the imbricated cell converter, and
the series-connected/cascaded multilevel converter (SCMLC)
are distinguished [6]. A comparison of these topologies was
presented in [6] and [7]. The common roots of DCMLC and
the FCMLC topologies were shown in [8]. It should be added
that the total semiconductor losses and the terminal voltage
spectrum of a three-level diode-clamped converter and a
three-level flying-capacitor converter are exactly the same for
any given operating point in terms of modulation index and
displacement angle. Unidirectional and partially bidirectional
converters as shown in [9] also feature exactly the same total
semiconductor losses and terminal voltage spectrum if operated
within functional boundaries. Despite using different current
paths, the device number and device types conducting during
each switching state and their duty cycles remain the same.
Only the distribution of the semiconductor losses among the
semiconductor modules is different. This assumes a comparable
modulation technique, a neutral point clamp/auxiliary diode
technology similar to that found in the inverse diodes of the
main switches, and disregards the influence of parasitic circuit
elements.

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856

Fig. 1.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2005

Three-level NPC converter (DCMLC).

converters with the same device technology eliminated device

technology dependency. Representing the main competing
technologies, conventional and trench-gate nonpunch-through
(NPT) IGBTs (EUPEC) [11] and trench-gate punch-through
(PT) IGBTs (MITSUBISHI) [12] were included. With a majority of three-phase low-voltage converters in a power level
between 10 kVA1 MVA, the evaluation is based on a 100-kVA
converter. Common to both the three-level and two-level
topologies is a nominal grid/motor voltage of 400 Vrms and
V. The same displacement
a dc-bus voltage of
power factor (DPF) is set in both topologies. Two-level and
the three-level converters are controlled by an asynchronous,
continuous, sine-triangle modulation scheme with added third
harmonics. Both converter topologies feature the same carrier
frequency yielding the first carrier frequency band at the same
frequency in the ac voltage spectrum.
The following converter applications were compared: 1) a
100-kVA 400-V 50-Hz grid converter; 2) an inverter for a conventional 75-kW 400-V NEMA B induction motor; and 3) an
inverter for a 90-kW 400-V 1.2-kHz high-speed drive.
IV. EVALUATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR LOSSES

Fig. 2. Conventional two-level converter.

A useful implementation of the SCMLC starts with a

five-level topology featuring four times the semiconductors/gate
drives compared to a conventional two-level converter. This is
based on the desire for the optimum utilization of the inevitable
isolation transformers. The DCMLC is best implemented as
a three-level converter; higher order levels typically require a
series connection of the clamp devices. The FCMLC is subject
to a more complex startup routine and a higher number of
capacitors with their detrimental effects on reliability. Based
on these considerations a three-level DCMLC (Fig. 1) is set
against a two-level converter (Fig. 2) for the low-voltage power
converter tradeoff analysis.
III. DEFINITION OF EVALUATION CRITERIA
Low-voltage dc/ac power conversion for drives and grid converters is usually required for nominal three-phase rms voltage
levels of 200230 V, 380460 V, or 575690 V. These voltage
ranges correspond to IGBT voltage classes (two-level structure)
of 600, 1200, and 1700 V, respectively. A three-level converter
for similar terminal voltages is theoretically to be fitted with
300-, 600-, and 850-V modules. The topological evaluation
was based on the 1200-V/600-V IGBT technology (two/three
level) due to the widespread availability of semiconductors of
the same device technology and similar packaging. IGBTs with
300- and 900-V ratings are available as discrete devices [10],
and can easily be packaged in modules if a general technology
transition to three-level converters is desired. Fitting both

Semiconductor losses are a central evaluation criterion for

a topology due to their direct correlation with virtually all
other electrical and mechanical converter parameters. Apart
from gate control characteristics and commutation circuit
parameters, the semiconductor device losses in three-phase
voltage-source dc/ac converters depend on the device techand ac current levels (
),
nology, the dc voltage
the junction temperature , the switching frequency , the
displacement phase angle (displacement power factor), and the
modulation index . The modulation index is defined as peak
line-to-line voltage over dc voltage with a definition range of
01. A displacement phase angle of zero (unity displacement
power factor) designates a real power flow from dc to ac, i.e.,
inverter operation.
A. Device Technology/ Switching Frequency
For a given dc-link voltage the devices in the three-level
converter require half the blocking voltage capabilities of that
of a two-level converter, featuring superior conduction and
switching characteristics for any given current. For example,
600-V IGBTs feature on-state voltages that are roughly 10%
lower than that of a 1200-V IGBT at the same rated current and
technology (Table I). Similarly, the switching loss energies of
a 600-V IGBT with the same device technology and current
are smaller by a factor of 35. This implies that, theoretically,
even a series connection of two 600-V devices features only
40%60% of the switching losses of one 1200-V IGBT while
increasing the conduction losses by less than twice. Similar
high-loss energy differences exist between the voltage classes
1200 and 1700 V.
To compare a two-level converter and a three-level converter
the semiconductor losses were calculated using a MATLABbased simulation tool calculating the switch states and the instantaneous device voltages and currents over one period of the
s. Conduction
output frequency at a sampling rate of

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TEICHMANN AND BERNET: COMPARISON OF THREE-LEVEL CONVERTERS VERSUS TWO-LEVEL CONVERTERS

857

TABLE I
IGBT LOSS DATA FOR MITSUBISHI (PT-IGBT) AND EUPEC (NPT-IGBT) DEVICES [10],[11]

TABLE II
SEMICONDUCTOR LOSS CHARACTERISTICS AND COEFFICIENTS

losses are attributed to devices being in the on-state. Switching

losses are distributed to the devices involved in a commutation
whenever a state transition takes place. The losses during the
sampling period and the switching loss energies were calculated
by
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
where
active device on-state loss energy in sampling period;
passive device on-state loss energy in sampling
period;
active device turn-on loss energy;
active device turn-off loss energy;

passive device turn-off loss energy;

instantaneous commutation voltage;
device manufacturers test voltage;
instantaneous device current;
sampling period;
curve-fitting parameter.
On-state voltages and loss energies as a function of the device current for the IGBT and diode were obtained from manufacturer data sheets [11], [12]. The curve-fitting parameters
are summarized in Table II. For simplicity, the variation of the
semiconductor losses as a function of junction temperature is
neglected; the values specified for a junction temperature of
C were assumed. Details of the semiconductor loss
evaluation tool can also be found in [13] and [14]. For the semiconductor loss and switching frequency boundary evaluation the
converters were assumed to be operated in steady state at a conC and a maximum junction
stant case temperature of
C.
temperature of
Fig. 3 shows the total semiconductor losses in a three-phase
two- and three-level inverter as a function of device technology
) and carrier fre(PT, NPT, trench/conventional, fast/low
V,
,
quency at one operating point (

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Fig. 3. Total semiconductor losses as a function of carrier frequency and

parameter device technology (sine-triangle modulation with added third
harmonic, V = 400 V, V = 700 V, T = 80 C, T = 125 C,
DPF = 0:9, I = 147 A, 200-A IGBTs).

Fig. 5. Semiconductor loss distribution of two-level converter as a function of

displacement power factor (sine-triangle modulation with added third harmonic,
= 400 V, V = 700 V, T = 125 C, I = 147 A, f = 10 kHz, 3
V
IGBT: CM200DU24F).

B. Load Current

Fig. 4. Equi-loss line (two-level/three-level converter) as a function of load

current and parameter semiconductor technology (sine-triangle modulation with
added third harmonic, m = 0:95, V = 700 V, DPF = 0:9, I
= 147 A).

,
A). Both 1200- and 600-V modules
have the same nominal current rating. A device developed for
mJ,
fast switching operation (FF200R12KS4,
mJ,
V at
A) was included for comparison purposes.
Despite the higher conduction losses (two devices in current
path) the three-level topology quickly features lower total
semiconductor losses than conventional and fast IGBTs in
a two-level topology as the switching frequency increases. At
this operating point the three-level topology features fewer total
semiconductor losses at switching frequencies above 4/5 kHz
for trench-gate PT as well as planar NPT IGBTs. Clearly,
the recent introduction of the trench-gate technologies shifts
this crossover point to smaller switching frequencies in favor
of the three-level converter. Some of the loss curves are not
extended to the upper switching frequency range, indicating
that the losses cannot be dissipated from the device within
C,
C).
the thermal specifications (

The magnitude of the load current in relation to the device

current rating has a substantial influence on the switching frequency above which the three-level converter becomes superior.
This crossover switching frequency is shifted to lower values as
the load current becomes smaller. This is due to the fact that
on-state losses decline faster ( quadratic dependency) than
switching losses ( linear dependency) with falling device current and both loss categories are of roughly the same magnitude. Fig. 4 shows an equi-loss line (identical semiconductor
losses of two- and three-level converters) of a dc/ac inverter
V,
,
,
A) as a func(
tion of the load current. For any given load current, switching
frequencies above the lines are preferably implemented with a
three-level converter. Most converters are typically operated in
a load range between 0.40.7 per unit. A three-level topology
therefore becomes a very attractive solution for switching fre
kHz.
quencies as low as
C. Modulation Depth, Displacement Power Factor
A variation of the modulation depth and the terminal displacement angle changes the total semiconductor losses and
loss distribution among active and passive semiconductors.
Figs. 58 depict the loss characteristics with the acronyms
PconD, PconT, PonT, PoffT, and PoffD describing diode conduction losses, IGBT conduction losses, IGBT turn-on losses,
IGBT turn-off losses, and diode turn-off losses, respectively.
In a two-level converter feeding a three-phase balanced load
the losses of all diode chips are the same and the losses of all
IGBT chips are the same [15], [16]. Fig. 5 shows that the total
conduction losses vary with the displacement power factor with
maximum conduction losses in the IGBT and the inverse diodes
and
, respectively. The switching losses
at
of each individual chip are not affected by the displacement
power factor. References [15] and [16] have shown that the conduction losses of the IGBT chips increase almost linearly with

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TEICHMANN AND BERNET: COMPARISON OF THREE-LEVEL CONVERTERS VERSUS TWO-LEVEL CONVERTERS

Fig. 6. Semiconductor loss distribution of three-level converter as a function of

displacement power factor (sine-triangle modulation with added third harmonic,
V
= 400 V, V = 700 V, T = 125 C, I = 147 A, f = 10 kHz, 6
IGBT: CM200DU12F).

859

Fig. 8. Semiconductor loss distribution of three-level converter in rectifier

mode as a function of modulation index (sine-triangle modulation with added
third harmonic, V = 400 V, V = 700 V, DPF = 0:9, T = 125 C,
I = 147 A, f = 10 kHz, 6
IGBT: CM200DU12F).

Fig. 9. Common-mode voltages of two-level converter and three-level

= V ).
converter (f = 10 kHz, V
Fig. 7. Semiconductor loss distribution of three-level converter in inverter
mode as function of modulation index (sine-triangle modulation with added
third harmonic, V = 400 V, V = 700 V, DPF = 0:9, T = 125 C,
I = 147 A, f = 10 kHz, 6
IGBT: CM200DU12F).

increasing modulation depth while the conduction losses of the

inverse diodes are declining.
Diode and IGBT losses exhibit a similar pattern in the threelevel converter. The sum of each type of switching losses, e.g.,
diode switching losses, is also constant. However, the distribution of both switching and conduction losses among the devices
is a function of the displacement angle (Fig. 6). Inverse diodes
(
1, 2, 3;
14) are subject to the same conduction
losses irrespective of the displacement angle. The loss dependency on the modulation depth is displayed in Figs. 7 and 8 for
inverter and rectifier mode, respectively. The conduction losses
and
remain constant while the
of the IGBTs in switches
conduction losses of the NPC diodes and the conduction losses
of the IGBTs in and vary with the modulation index in inverter mode. In rectifier mode the conduction losses of the main
switch inverse diodes increase with increasing while the conand
duction losses of the NPC diodes and the IGBTs in

decline. The influence of different continuous and discontinuous

PWM schemes on the losses of a three-level DCMLC was discussed in [17].
V. PASSIVE COMPONENT CONSIDERATIONS
Passive components are a substantial contributor to weight,
cost, and losses in power converters. In fact, a substantial share
of the converter cabinet of industrial converters operating at
switching frequencies between 25 kHz is taken up by passive
filter components. The design implications for the ac filter, dc
filter, and common-mode filter are discussed.
filter,
A. Common-Mode Filter
Common-mode currents are considered to be the main
reasons for bearing currents/failures and electromagnetic interference (EMI) problems. Fig. 9 depicts the magnitudes of the
common-mode voltages, which cause the common-mode
currents, impressed on the ac system for a two- and a
three-level converter with a sine-triangle modulation. Clearly,
the three-level converter has a much smaller common-mode
voltage. Absolute values depend on the operating point and

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modulation scheme. For the conventional sine-triangle modulation, a reduction of the switching frequency component of the
common-mode voltage of the three-level converter by roughly
25%30% was found. Furthermore, [18] proposes a three-level
converter modulation scheme with which the common-mode
voltages can be suppressed completely.
B.

TABLE III
COMPONENT COUNT/RATING COMPARISON

Filter

Transient overvoltages caused by the pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) switching operation are a major concern for
transformers/generators/motors connected with long cables.
The overvoltage phenomenon due to fast switching transients
) in long cables has been discussed in several
(high
papers [19][26]. The overvoltage at the machine/transformer
terminals is caused by a reflection of the voltage pulse of the
inverter due to a mismatch in load and cable surge impedance.
If the voltage pulse takes longer than one-third of the voltage
rise time to travel from the inverter to the machine/transformer
a full reflection will occur at the machine/transformer terminals
and the voltage pulse amplitude will approximately double
[22]. A 50% reduction in the pulse magnitude in the three-level
converter will obviously reduce the overvoltage stress at the
filter.
load terminals in a design without additional
The drastically reduced switching losses of the three-level
using the IGBT
converter can also be used to reduce the
gate units. A potential avoidance of the
filter at the converter terminals may justify the increased switching losses.
C. AC Filter
The high-frequency content in the terminal voltage of the
three-level converter is substantially smaller due to the threelevel characteristic with an effective commutation voltage of
50% of that of the two-level converter. The resulting harmonic
currents are reduced by the same factor [24]. Because the highfrequency losses are a function of the square of the high-frequency content of the current, the application of a three-level
converter at a given inductance, i.e., motor/generator, will result in substantially smaller losses. Alternatively, the ac filter
inductance can be smaller/less heavy for a three-level topology
to meet a given specification in terms of voltage or current harmonics.
Specifically, for a three-phase system with a modulation
scheme without a phase difference in the carrier signals, the
carrier switching frequency is a common-mode signal and
is not present in the line-to-line voltages. Only the typically
smaller side bands around the switching frequency need to be
attenuated, additionally reducing filter size and losses.
D. DC Filter
Two- and three-level converters show ripple current components on the dc side at side bands that are centered around
the switching frequency. The three-level converter additionally
shows a third harmonic (and other triplen harmonics) at the dc
side [25]. The three-level converter requires a dc-link center
point management. Despite the fact that these points are intrinsically stable, device asymmetries and variations in component
values will offset this balance.

VI. EVALUATION OF PACKAGING AND CONTROLS

A. Packaging
The design of the packaging is highly application dependent.
Until higher production volumes justify an integration of complete converter legs, the three-level topology requires at least the
additional NPC diode modules. In cases where single 1.2-kV
modules can be replaced by a dual 600-V module (typically,
when device current rating is set by thermal considerations) the
main switch arrangement must not be modified.
Specifically for an introduction of a three-level converter into
a dc/ac converter with 1.2-kV IGBTs, the arrangement of the
dc-link capacitors must not be modified. Other voltage levels
require a re-design of the dc capacitor arrangement (Table III).
The total size and weight of the converter will certainly benefit from the smaller cooling unit and smaller passive components. In certain applications a transition of the cooling method
to simpler convection cooling might reduce maintenance efforts
and increase reliability.
B. Sensors/Controls
The number of dc-link voltage sensors, in some cases as
simple as a resistive divider, is increased by a factor of two.
The number of -processors remains the same. For example,
the widely used fixed-point TMS320F24x series offers between
716 dedicated PWM channels. An additional benefit exists
for larger manufacturers that can reuse their medium-voltage
converter control platform, producing a unified control platform
for low- and medium-voltage converters.
The stabilization of the center point potential in the threelevel diode-clamped converter imposes one additional control
criteria. Control of the dc-link center point can be achieved unless the converter is operated in overmodulation [26], [27]. Undoubtedly, the biggest disadvantage of the three-level converter
is the higher number of gate units with its accompanying isolation requirements. The number of gate drivers must be increased
by a factor of two. However, since each gate unit is subject
to only half the switching frequency on average, the total gate
drive power remains the same. Simplified gate drive units for
three-level structures were presented in [4].

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TEICHMANN AND BERNET: COMPARISON OF THREE-LEVEL CONVERTERS VERSUS TWO-LEVEL CONVERTERS

861

VII. RELIABILITY EVALUATION

The three-level converter features a higher part count
(Table III), which tends to compromise reliability. However,
a closer analysis reveals other effects that partly balance the
component-count-based reliability numbers. Assuming a fully
integrated converter leg and a dedicated control processor, the
unavoidable additional components are the gate units, cabling,
and sensors.
FIT
failure in
The failure in time (FIT;
operating hours) rate of the semiconductors (

) is very small compared to other components in the

system. Cabling, control electronics, and fan failures are the
predominant causes of failure in power electronics [28].
All causes of failure are/can be positively influenced by adequate design choices. In particular, the lower losses of the threelevel converter can reduce the ambient temperature of the gate
units (e.g., 1015 K) such that the number of failures is statistically equal to that of a two-level converter, despite doubling
the number of units. The power and number of cooling fans, a
component contributing highly to total system failures, can be
reduced, in particular, in high-frequency applications. Similarly,
the capacitor life expectancy can be increased due to the lower
ripple current stress.
A complete reliability assessment is case dependent; a
three-level converter is not automatically inferior to a two-level
converter.

Fig. 10. Total semiconductor losses during grid operation of converter (V =

750 V, f = 4 kHz, m = 0:85, DPF = 0:98=00:98, T = 125 C, 3 2
CM200DU24F, 6

2 CM200DU12F).

VIII. EVALUATION OF APPLICATION EXAMPLES

A. Grid Converter
Grid converters operate in rectifier and inverter mode
depending on the application. Both types of operation are
characterized by a relatively constant modulation index and
power factor. Variations are to be expected in the current due
to varying load conditions. Typical mains frequencies are
50/60 Hz. Certain utility interconnect requirements regarding
the current quality and the behavior during grid irregularities
must be fulfilled, e.g., IEEE 519-1992. A switching frequency
between 24 kHz is typically chosen at this power level, which
has traditionally been regarded as a good compromise between
filter size/losses and converter efficiency.
The following parameters were set for the purpose of the
evaluation of a grid-connected load and a grid-connected genkVA,
V,
V,
eration unit:
, and
kHz. Fig. 10 depicts the
semiconductor losses of the two- and three-level converter as a
function of the load current for the PT trench-gate technology
kHz. While for inverter opand a switching frequency of
eration the three-level converter is superior over the entire load
range, in rectifier mode the three-level converter is superior up
to a load current of about 0.8 p.u. at this switching frequency.
The loss savings amount to roughly 30%35% at 0.2 p.u. current
for both rectifier and inverter operation. During rectifier operation at rated load the losses of the three-level converter are 8%
higher than that for the two-level converter.

Fig. 11. Total semiconductor losses during grid operation of converter (V =

750 V, f = 8 kHz, m = 0:85, DPF = 0:98=00:98, T = 125 C, 3 2
CM200DU24F, 6

2 CM200DU12F).

kHz, the semiconductor

For a switching frequency of
losses are displayed in Fig. 11. In this case, the three-level converter is clearly superior in both applications over the entire load
range. For both rectifier and inverter operation the loss savings
amount to roughly 50%55% and 25% at 0.2 and 1 p.u., respectively. It should be noted that the two-level converter cannot be
kHz and the thermal
operated at a switching frequency of
C and
C with the
requirements of
MITSUBISHI 200-A devices. In contrast, the three-level converter can be operated with the 200-A devices up to a switching
frequency of 28 and 10 kHz in inverter and rectifier mode, respectively.
An LCL filter is designed to meet grid current quality criteria
set forth in the recommendations of IEEE 519-1992. The design
rules are outlined in [16]. In order to attenuate the switching
harmonics below the limits required, the inductance values and
filter capacitor values (Y-connected) as shown in Table IV are

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TABLE IV
FILTER INDUCTANCE VALUES

respectively. For a switching frequency of 8 kHz, 200 A, 600 V,

and 400 A, 1200-V PT trench-gate IGBTs are assumed. As discussed earlier, the 1.2-kV devices are not able to dissipate the
kHz and the thermal
losses at a switching frequency of
C,
C. In this case,
parameters of
400-A modules are needed and the installed switch power of the
three-level converter is only 62.5% compared to the two-level
converter (see Table III).
Apart from the converter losses, the losses in the sine filter or
the harmonic losses in the motor are smaller due to the lower
harmonic voltages of the three-level converter.
C. High-Speed Drives Converter

Fig. 12. Relative semiconductor loss difference for field-oriented operation of

induction machine with two-/three-level converter (V = 700 V, f = 4 kHz,
T
= 125 C, 3 CMX00DU24F, 6 CMY00DU12F, IM: P = 75 kW,
= 400 V, 50 Hz, X = X = 0:1, X = 2:7, R = 0:021, R =
V
0:025).

required. At this current level the weight for a three-phase input

inductor amounts to roughly 1 kg/10 H.
B. Conventional Drives Converter
In contrast to the grid application, the modulation depth, displacement power factor, and load current are highly variable. A
standard 75-kW 400-V 50-Hz induction motor (
p.u.,
p.u.,
p.u.,
p.u.)
is assumed. The current at rated operation amounts to
A. The losses of the two- and three-level converter based
on PT trench-gate devices were calculated at distinct operating
points in the speedtorque plane. Field-oriented motor control
kHz the relative
is assumed. For the carrier frequency of
loss difference
(6)
is shown in Fig. 12. The loss difference of the three-level and
two-level converter is given relative to the losses of the two-level
converter. The losses of the three-level converter are smaller in
all operating conditions. Variation of torque has a significant
impact on the loss savings. The loss savings range from 3%
(40 W) at rated torque and to 30% (120 W) at low torque.
Variations in speed modify the relative losses only marginally.
If the switching frequency is increased to 8 kHz, the threelevel converter features substantially fewer losses in the entire
speedtorque plane. The loss savings amount to
W and
W for
and
,

The elimination of the mechanical gear in applications such

as compressors and small gas turbines is the main advantage of
high-speed drive technology. Both inverter and rectifier functionality are, thus, required. High-speed drives in the 100-kVA
power class are typically implemented as permanent-magnet
machines operating at a fundamental frequency between
0.53 kHz. For moderate harmonic losses in the machine,
typically featuring a low leakage inductance, the minimum
switching frequency should be substantially above 912 times
the fundamental frequency. A similar switching frequency
range is desired for servo drives [2].
For the purpose of an evaluation of a two- and three-level conkHz.
verter the switching frequency shall be set to
C and
The thermal boundaries were set to
C. The analysis in the previous section has revealed that the two-level converter with 200-A devices cannot
achieve this switching frequency within the thermal specifications given. The chip area of a 400-A 1.2-kV module was needed
to achieve the switching frequency while safely dissipating the
semiconductor losses. The investigation will be limited to rated
V,
operation in both rectifier and inverter mode (
,
A,
C,
C).
Fig. 13 shows the semiconductor loss distribution of the twolevel and three-level converter with smallest possible IGBT current rating for inverter and rectifier operation. The lower losses
of the three-level converter permit the application of 200-A dekHz) and 300-A devices for
vices for the inverter (
the rectifier application (
kHz).
Additionally, the cooling effort needed for the three-level
converter is substantially lower since the losses are roughly
50% of that of the two-level converter. The semiconductor loss
savings in actual terms amount to 2000 and 2100 W for inverter
and rectifier operation, respectively. The losses of the
filter, in this case a highly damped system required by the high
switching frequency, will be substantially smaller.

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TEICHMANN AND BERNET: COMPARISON OF THREE-LEVEL CONVERTERS VERSUS TWO-LEVEL CONVERTERS

Fig. 13. Losses of two-level and three-level converter with smallest possible
IGBT current rating (given in brackets) for inverter and rectifier operation
= 700 V, f = 20 kHz, m = 0:95, DPF = 0:98= 0:98,
(V
T = 125 C, 3
CMX00DU24F, 6 CMY00DU12F).

IX. COST EVALUATION

Initial cost analyses and life-cycle cost analysis are fundamentally different cost assessment methods. With increasing
integration of power electronics components in overall energy supply solutions and continuing trends toward business
models in which sole entities are manufacturer/owner/operator
a cost analysis over the entire product lifetime becomes of
higher importance [14], [29]. A detailed cost analysis for the
grid-connected bidirectional converter operated at 4 and 8 kHz
is presented.
Before the initial costs of the two- and three-level converters
are to be assessed, the cost savings potential of 1 kW of saved
losses will be determined. The net cost (excluding recoverable
taxes) per kilowatthour paid by an industrial client in year 2000
ranges from roughly 13 ct/kWh (Japan), 6 ct/kWh (Germany),
4 ct/kWh (USA), down to 2 ct/kWh (South Africa) [15]. The
present worth of the future energy cost savings can be determined as
(7)
where
accumulated savings in present worth terms;
energy cost savings in month ;
annual interest rate;
number of years.
Disregarding potential energy price escalations or additional
costs of debts, a converter system with 1 kW fewer losses operated 8000 h per annum achieves a cost saving in each individual
,
, and
in the
year of roughly
major markets of Japan, Germany, and the USA, respectively.
For a converter operated over eight years with 8000 h per year
), the energy cost saving per
and an interest rate of 4% (

863

,
, and
kilowatthour at present value are
for Japan, Germany, and the USA, respectively.
For the three-level converter technology to be attractive on
must be
a life-cycle cost basis the present worth savings
higher than the sum of additional initial and development costs
of the three-level technology. Additional benefits such as cost
savings due to a weight/volume reduction in mobile applications, simpler cooling method, reduced installation cost, etc.,
are not included.
Higher initial costs of the three-level converter are mostly attributed to the semiconductor cost. A market survey of semiconductor prices (dual modules, year 2000) indicated that the
prices for 10 000 units would roughly amount to 17 ct/A and
9 ct/A for 1200- and 600-V IGBTs, respectively. This shows that
two 600-V IGBTs are only slightly more expensive than one
1200-V IGBT. Additionally, the 600-V NPC diodes were accounted for with 6 ct/A per diode. The total IGBT/diode module
costs amount to $204 and $288 for the two-level and three-level
converters fitted with 200-A devices, respectively. For an operation at 8 kHz, the two-level converter must be fitted with
400-A devices, bringing the two-level converter cost to $408.
Gate units were accounted for by $10 per channel. The complete controller was included at $50 independent of the number
of channels.
The Austerlitz heat sinks RLS 250.16-500 and RLS 300.14
500 [30] were assumed, which were quoted at 400 USD and
at 450 USD, respectively. Based on the loss calculations
discussed in the previous section the converters operating at
a switching frequency of 4 kHz and the three-level converter
operated at 8 kHz were fitted with the RLS 250.16-500 heat
sink. The two-level converter operated at 8 kHz was fitted with
the larger RLS300.14 type to achieve a comparable heat-sink
temperature at the higher losses.
For a grid converter application, the immediate effect is a
reduction of the filter cost. Prices for a three-phase coil were
quoted at roughly 60 ct H, and the price for three capacitors
at this voltage level is roughly 1 USD F. At 60 ct H in this
current class the inductor cost amounts to $432 and $300 for the
two-level and three-level converter (Table IV) operated at 4 kHz,
respectively. The cost for the individual converter components
are summarized in Table V for operation at 4 and 8 kHz. From
Table V, it is clear that the initial cost of the three-level converter
is equal to or substantially lower than that of the two-level converter of the same power rating despite the higher cost for semiconductors and gate/control units. This is mainly due to savings
in the filter elements and the heat sink.
For a grid interface chosen to operate at 4 kHz the losses
during rectifier operation close to rated load are 120 W higher
in a three-level converter in comparison to a two-level converter (Fig. 10). However, the losses of the three-level converter
are lower than that for the two-level converter by 40 W and
50120 W for inverter operation and rectifier operation at partial load, respectively. From life-cycle cost perspective, a clear
understanding of the operation schedule of the grid interface is
needed to make a decision on the optimum converter topology.
Fig. 11 shows that the absolute loss savings amount to
400 W for a switching frequency of
kHz and rated

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864

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2005

TABLE V
COMPONENT COST ANALYSIS

load for both rectifier and inverter operation. This indicates that
substantial cost savings can be achieved throughout the entire
product life cycle. Even if the initial costs of the three-level
converter are slightly above those of the two-level converter
the three-level converter is paying off in high energy price
kHz,
markets like Japan. At a switching frequency of
the application of the three-level converter is also justified
in all markets due to the higher initial semiconductor cost
in comparison to the two-level converter which needs 400-A
devices. Note that potential loss savings in the filter and the
machine are not yet included. The same statement is valid for
the conventional converter driving an induction machine. A
filter will, if needed, improve the cost balance in favor
of the three-level converter. The utilization of a three-level
topology for high-speed drives and other high-switching-frequency applications is recommended due to significant cost
reduction in both initial and operating costs.

X. CONCLUSION
Three-level topologies are highly attractive for low-voltage
power converters, specifically for applications with medium to
high switching frequencies.
1) The difference in switching loss energies between IGBTs
of the same current class and commonly adjacent voltage
classes is a factor of 35. This is the key device characteristic enabling low switching losses.
2) Due to the specific correlation of switching and conduction losses with load current, a three-level topology is superior in terms of total semiconductor losses at switching
frequencies as low as and beyond 23 kHz in practical
applications. At switching frequencies above 5 kHz, the
three-level converter always features lower losses.
3) Compared to the two-level converter, the three-level converter enables substantially higher switching frequencies
( 4 ) applying devices of the same technology and current class in both converters.
4) The introduction of low on-state voltage trench-gate
IGBTs has a higher leverage effect on three-level converters than on two-level converters.

5) Substantial reductions in filter size/weight and cost (

30%) are possible due to the lower voltage harmonics
in the three-level converter.
6) Reliability concerns can be mitigated by adequate design
choices. The reduction of semiconductor losses will reduce the average temperature at the components and, thus,
decrease the failure rate.
7) The three-level converter is economically viable in highenergy-cost markets, even at low switching frequencies.
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865

Ralph Teichmann received the MS. and Ph.D.

degrees in electrical engineering from Dresden
University, Dresden, Germany, in 1997 and 2002,
respectively.
He was a Visiting Student at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 19951996 and a Research Assistant at Nagasaki University, Japan, in 19981999.
Since 1997, he has been an independent consultant
for various companies, including ABB Corporate Research and Philips Medical Systems. He is currently
with GE Global Research, Niskayuna, NY. His research interests include high-power conversion, renewable energies, distributed
generation, hard- and soft-switching converter topologies, as well as converter
controls.
Dr. Teichmann has been the recipient of several awards, including two scholarships, one industrial fellowship, an IEEE paper award, and a German electrical
engineering society publication award.

Steffen Bernet (M97) was born in Ilmenau, Germany, in 1963. He received the Diploma degree
from Dresden University of Technology, Dresden,
Germany, in 1990, and the Ph.D. degree from the Ilmenau University of Technology, Ilmenau, Germany,
in 1995, both in electrical engineering. The subject
of his Ph.D. dissertation was the investigation of
power semiconductors in soft-switching converters.
He was a Development Engineer in the Department of Private Communication Systems at Siemens
from 1994 to 1995. During 1995 and 1996, he was
a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison. In 1996, he joined ABB Corporate Research, Heidelberg, Germany, where he led several strategic power electronics
and drives research projects for low-voltage and medium-voltage applications.
He led the Electrical Drives Group at ABB Corporate Research from 1998 to
2001. From 1999 to 2000, he was responsible for ABB research worldwide in
the areas of power electronic systems, electric drives, and electric machines. In
2001, he joined the Berlin University of Technology, Berlin, Germany, as a Professor of Power Electronics. His main research areas are high-power converter
topologies, power semiconductors, and motor drives.

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