OFFSHORE DRILLING

AND
COMPLETIONS
TRAINING MANUAL

c 1996 DRIL-QUIP, INC.

This document is the property of DRIL-QUIP, Inc and shall not be copied or used for any
purpose other than that for which it is supplied without the express written authorization of
DRIL-QUIP, Inc., 13550 Hempstead Hwy., Houston, Texas 77040, U.S.A.

How Oil and Gas Reservoirs

Accumulate
Introduction ................................................................................ 1
Sedimentary Rocks ..................................................................... 1
The Formation of Oil and Gas ................................................... 2
Underground Traps for Oil and Gas ........................................ 3
Anticlinal and Dome Traps ........................................................ 4
Fault Traps .................................................................................. 4
Stratigraphic Traps .................................................................... 4
Salt Dome Traps ......................................................................... 5
Reservoir Pressures .................................................................... 5
Pressure Gradients ..................................................................... 5

Table of Contents

How Oil and Gas Reservoirs

Accumulate

Introduction
This chapter provides a general outlook of the following:
How reservoirs of oil and gas accumulate
How drilling for these reservoirs is done
With few exceptions, all naturally occurring oil and gas that
comes from wells, drilled on land and offshore, is found in
layers or beds of sedimentary rocks deposited millions of
years ago. The first chapter in this manual is devoted to the
formation of sedimentary rocks and trapped accumulations
of oil and gas.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks, or derived rocks, are formed by the erosion and decomposition of uplifted land masses. Years ago,
these uplifted land masses of basement rock were predominantly made up of granites and basalts formed into hills and
mountain ranges. These mountains and hills were exposed to
the elements of sun, wind, rain, frost, etc. which gradually
caused small fragments of the base rocks to break off and get
washed or blown down to a lower level. Some of the minerals,
such as silicates and carbonates, also dissolved and went into
solution.

How Reservoirs of
Oil and Gas
Accumulate

The natural drainage system of streams and rivers finally

deposited these rock particles and dissolved minerals into
lakes, swamps, river deltas and the sea. In many cases, the
beds of these lakes, swamps, river deltas and seas became
sinking sedimentary basins. This meant that more and more
deposition, or sedimentation, could take place as the bed of the
sedimentary basin was sinking. As the deposits of sediments
got thicker and thicker, the lower layers were exposed to
increasing compressive loads called overburden and increasing temperatures occurred as the sediments got deeper.
Under the conditions of increasing load and temperature, the
sediments became compacted. Coupled with the chemical
action of silicates and carbonates coming out of solution, the
deposited fragments became cemented together into a combined rock. The cementing medium of silicon (quartz) or
calcium carbonates (calcite) make up nearly one third of the
combined rocks formed in this way.
The types of rocks formed by this process are shales, clays,
siltstones, sandstones and gravels. They are classified as
clastic sedimentary rocks. This type of sedimentation and
rock formation has been occurring for nearly 500 million years
and is still very obvious today. The thickness of marine
sedimentary rocks have been measured in excess of 60,000
feet.
The Formation of Oil and Gas
This is not the only form of sedimentation that occurs. The
decomposition of dead animal and plant life, both land and
marine, have also been taking place on a large scale in the
previously referenced sinking sedimentary basins. The organic and skeletal matter from these dead animals and plants
became trapped in the water borne sediments and were also
buried by additional deposits of sediment and organic matter.
Figure 1.1. Anticlinal or Dome Traps

The most prolific source of organic matter deposited and

trapped in this manner comes from very small dead marine
animals, particularly those with protective shell structures.
2

How Reservoirs of
Oil and Gas
Accumulate

This occurred on such a massive scale that very thick layers of

sediments were formed entirely from dead microorganisms
with protective calcareous shells and skeletons. Coral reefs
are an example of this type of deposit.
As these organic derived deposits were buried deeper and
deeper by subsequent layers, they were subjected to increasing compressive loads and temperatures. The fragments of
shell and skeletons became cemented together, and the organic matter consolidated. Rocks formed by this process
include limestone, dolomite, chalk and coal. Naturally occurring oil and gas are formed by the effects of pressure, temperature and chemical and bacterial action on the trapped organic
matter in sediments that has decomposed into various constituents. The layer of sedimentary rock where this decomposition has taken place is known as the source rock.
Almost all sedimentary rocks are deposited in a water environment. As oil is lighter than water and gas is lighter than oil,
it is not unexpected that these constituents will try to separate
themselves with gas at the top, oil in the middle and water at
the bottom.
Underground Traps for Oil and Gas
As the majority of rocks are permeable (allow passage of fluids
and gases through interconnected pores in the rock), the
natural tendency for oil and gas is to migrate upwards through
the permeable formations until they can escape at the surface.
This process has continued slowly throughout time and is still
evident today in oil and gas seeps at the surface. This upward
migration of oil and gas is occasionally halted by an impervious barrier (one with little or no effective permeability) or cap
rock. The oil and gas then start to accumulate in the rocks
below the cap rock. The rocks below the cap rock are known
as reservoir rocks. A typical cap rock is very compacted with
no interconnected pore space, such as a shale or clay. Typical
reservoir rocks include sandstones, siltstones and limestones. Figure 1.2. Fault Trap
In terms of natural occurrence in sedimentary rocks, shales
account for about 50%, sandstones and siltstones about 25%

How Reservoirs of
Oil and Gas
Accumulate

and limestones also about 25%. This simple picture of oil and
gas formation and accumulation in neat horizontal beds of
rock is complicated by movement in the Earth's crust. These
movements are created by massive forces of tension and
compression in the Earth's crust which have caused land
masses to separate and push up into hills and mountain
ranges.
Anticlinal and Dome Traps
These movements affect the layers of sedimentary rocks causing them to form anticlinal or dome structures (upward folds).
Synclines are downward folds. When these anticlines or
domes have an impermeable layer or cap rock within their
structure, they form a very nice trap for the oil and gas
migrating upwards (Figure 1.1).
Fault Traps
Earth movements also cause the layers of sedimentary rocks to
tilt. Any migrating oil and gas can escape upwards through
the tilted rock formations which ultimately become exposed
and eroded at the Earth's surface. The same forces of tension
and compression in the Earth's crust can also cause the rock
formations to separate at a plane of weakness. Forming a fault,
the rock formations move relative to one another along the
fault plane. Sometimes this faulting in tilted sedimentary
rocks will place an impervious barrier next to the migrating oil
and gas. In this manner, a fault trap is created and an
accumulation of the oil and gas can occur (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.3. Stratigraphic Trap

Stratigraphic Traps
Another form of trap can be created when tilted rock formations are exposed at the Earth's surface and, in turn, are
weathered and eroded by the elements. This eroded surface
becomes the bed of a sinking sedimentary basin. Subsequently, an impervious layer of sedimentary rock is laid on top
of the tilted rock formation as the formations sink once again.
Over time, the migrating oil and gas in the tilted formation is

How Reservoirs of
Oil and Gas
Accumulate

trapped by the impervious layer of rock. This form of trap is

called a stratigraphic trap (Figure 1.3).
Salt Dome Traps
Another form of trap for oil and gas accumulations is associated with salt domes. These traps are formed when a massive
plug of salt tries to move upwards through denser layers of
rock. The layers of rock above the salt dome are forced into a
folded structure and, with the correct layers of rock in place, a
trap for oil and gas is formed. It must be pointed out that not
all salt dome structures are traps for oil and gas simply because
oil and gas accumulations werent there in the first place.
Historically, the very high success ratio for finding oil and gas
associated with salt domes, particularly in America, lead the
early drillers to believe that oil and gas had its origins in the
actual salt. As explanied, this is not the case, just a popular
misconception (Figure 1.4).
What is obvious is that the erosion and the process of creating
sediments of oil containing formations is a constant cycle. All
parts off this cycle have occurred (and are still occurring)
throughout history.
Reservoir Pressures
The formation of oil and gas has generally occurred at some
considerable depth which accounts for the fact that most
reservoirs of oil and gas are under pressure. This knowledge
should help with the understanding that drilling holes into
these reservoirs requires due care and attention. During
drilling operations, the reservoir pressure needs to be overbalanced by the hydrostatic column of drilling fluid in the well
bore as the hole is drilled through the cap rock into the
reservoir. A rough pressure gradient of 1/2 psi/ft. can be used
to calculate an estimated reservoir pressure. For instance, a
reservoir 10,000 ft. below the surface would have an approximate pressure of 5,000 psi.

Figure 1.4. Salt Dome Trap

Pressure Gradients
Fresh water has a pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft. and sea

How Reservoirs of
Oil and Gas
Accumulate

water has a pressure gradient of 0.443 psi/ft. Simple multiplication quickly reveals that a sea-water column of 10,000 ft.
only exerts a pressure of 4,430 psi which is insufficient to
overbalance a 5,000 psi reservoir. This tells us that a heavier
fluid is required for adequate control of the reservoir pressure.
This concept is fundamental to all drilling and production
operations and explains why pressure control of formation
fluids and gases is given the highest priority in the oil industry,
as oil and gas flowing out of control are extremely dangerous
and potentially life threatening.

Equipment Used in Rotary

Drilling
Introduction ................................................................................. 7
Drilling Bit ................................................................................... 9
Drill Collar Sub ........................................................................... 9
Drill Collars ................................................................................. 9
Drill Pipe .................................................................................... 10
Kelly Saver Sub ......................................................................... 10
Kelly and Kelly Bushing ........................................................... 10
Kelly Cock .................................................................................. 11
Swivel .......................................................................................... 11
Travelling Block and Hook ...................................................... 12
Crown Block and Drilling Line................................................ 12
Mast or Derrick ......................................................................... 12
Support Systems ........................................................................ 13
Drilling Fluid Circulation System ........................................... 13
Mud Pump or Slush Pump ....................................................... 13
Standpipe and Standpipe Valve ............................................... 13
Rotary Hose ............................................................................... 14
Bell Nipple and Return Flowline ............................................. 14
Shale Shaker .............................................................................. 14
Running and Pulling System .................................................... 15
Drawworks ................................................................................. 15
Brake System ............................................................................. 15
Rotating System......................................................................... 15
Rotary Table .............................................................................. 15
Rotary Beams ............................................................................ 16
Master Bushings ........................................................................ 16
Elevators and Links .................................................................. 16
Drilling Fluids ............................................................................ 17
Top Drive Drilling ..................................................................... 19

Table of Contents

Equipment Used in Rotary

Drilling

Introduction
The purpose of this section of the manual is to give a brief
overview of the equipment and systems used to drill and
complete a well for production.
As the training course continues into offshore drilling and
production, it will be seen that the equipment and systems
used on land have been adapted for offshore use but the
primary functions of the equipment have not changed at all.
Figure 2.1 is an illustration of a land drilling operation and
Figure 2.2 illustrates the configuration of a land rotary drilling
rig that will be used to describe the equipment involved in
rotary drilling.

Figure 2.1. Illustration of a land

drilling operation

The primary function of the drilling rig used in the oil industry
is to drill a hole that penetrates an oil or gas reservoir in a safe
and timely manner. Starting from the bottom of the hole, the
drilling bit is the business end of the whole system as it is the
only piece of equipment that actually makes hole. All of the
rest of the equipment can be considered as the support system;
to raise and lower the bit into the hole; to rotate the bit with
controlled weight; to flush the cuttings from the bit/rock
interface as the hole is drilled; and to provide fluid pressure
control as the bit penetrates beds of rock that may contain gas,

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig

CROWN BLOCK

WATER TABLE

DRILLING LINE
MAST OR DERRICK
STRUCTURE
TRAVELING BLOCK
GOOSENECK

HOOK

ROTARY HOSE

SWIVEL

STAND PIPE

KELLY COCK
KELLY

MUD PUMP OR
SLUSH PUMP

STAND PIPE VALVE

KELLY BUSHINGS
ROTARY TABLE
RIG FLOOR
ROTARY BEAMS
KELLY SAVER SUB
SUBSTRUCTURE

GROUND
RETURN FLOWLINE

SUCTION PIT

CELLAR

BELL NIPPLE
SETTLING PIT
BLOWOUT PREVENTER STACK

CEMENTED
CONDUCTOR

CASING HEAD

SHALE SHAKER

CEMENTED
CASING
CASING SHOE
DRILL PIPE
ANNULUS
RETURNS
WELLBORE

LEGEND
DRILLING FLUID

DRILL COLLARS
DRILL COLLAR SUB
DRILLING BIT

CIRCULATION PATH

Figure 2.2

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

oil or water at high pressures.

Drilling Bit
The most common bit used in rotary drilling is the roller cone
bit and its most common form is the three-cone, or tri-cone, bit.
Each roller cone is equipped with teeth that chip off fragments
of the rock as the bit rotates and the roller cones roll over the
bottom of the hole.
The resulting chips or cuttings have to be cleared from the
drilling face. This is accomplished by the circulation of the
drilling fluid down through the inside of the bit, and back to
the surface in the annulus return.
Many improvements have been made to roller cone bits over
the years including the introduction of nozzles, or jets, that
utilize teeth with hardened inserts and larger and better
bearings. All of these improvements have been made in order
to increase penetration rates and extend the life of the bit.

Figure 2.3. Photo of a typical drilling

bit

STABILIZER

The bit has a threaded pin up. This connection is threaded for
right-hand make up, with the thread being very coarse and
rugged, machined on a taper. This form of tool joint is very
common in drill pipe, drill collars and drilling assemblies.
Drill Collar Sub
The next piece in the drilling assembly is a short, heavy-walled
pipe section with a tool joint box up/box down configuration.
This short section of heavy-walled pipe is called a drill collar
sub, or substitute, and is made up to the tool joint pin of the
drilling bit.

DRILL COLAR

STABILIZER

DRILL COLLAR

Drill Collars
STABILIZER
The next section of the drilling assembly is made up of drill
BIT
BIT
collars. Drill collars are usually 30' heavy-walled, high-grade
steel pipe that have right-hand tapered tool joints in a box up/
Figure 2.4. Illustration of two typical
pin down configuration which is the most common way that bottom hole assemblies
oilfield tubulars are used.

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

The number of drill collars required in the drilling assembly

will depend on the expected range of weight that will be
applied to the drill bit. The required weight on the bit is
achieved by letting a certain length of the drill collars act on the
bit as a compressive load while the drilling string is turned to
the right. The rest of the drill collars and the attached drill pipe
above will be kept in tension. The balance point between
compression and tension is called the neutral point and it
appears to be one of the more common points of failure for drill
collar tool joints.
Drill Pipe
As already mentioned, drill pipe is used above the drill collar
section of the drill string. Drill pipe has a thinner wall section
than drill collars and is made from high-grade steel pipe. It is
equipped with tapered, right-hand threaded tool joints boxup/pin down. Drill pipe normally comes in 30' lengths.
Kelly Saver Sub
At the top of the drill string is the kelly and it's attached kelly
saver sub. The kelly saver sub is a short section of heavywalled, high-grade steel pipe with tool joints box up/pin
down. As the name implies, this sub is a protective tool which
remains attached to the kelly and is a replacement item when
the tool joint pin on the saver sub is worn out or damaged after
numerous connections and disconnections to drill pipe.

Figure 2.5. Photo of a typical kelly

and kelly bushing

10

Kelly and Kelly Bushing

The kelly is made from high-grade steel pipe with a square or
hexagonal section. It is usually 40' long for rotary drilling
operations on land. The square or hexagonal section fits into
a corresponding square or hexagonal hole in the kelly bushing. The kelly bushing is equipped with drive pins which fit
into corresponding holes in the rotary table. When the rotary
table is rotated to the right (clockwise), the kelly bushing is
turned to the right. This rotates the kelly, which also rotates
the attached drill string and rotary bit, to the right.

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

As the bit makes more hole, the kelly moves down through
rollers in the kelly bushing until another 30' section or more of
hole has been drilled. The whole drill string and kelly are then
pulled up until the kelly bushings are picked up out of the
rotary table so that the last drill pipe connection can be broken
(unscrewed) to insert another length of drill pipe. In this
operation, the kelly and kelly bushing are handled together.
The threaded connection at the top of the kelly is a left-hand
thread as the right-hand rotation applied to the kelly during
drilling operations would effectively unscrew right-hand
threaded connections above the rotary table.
Kelly Cock
The next piece of equipment above the kelly is the kelly cock.
The kelly cock is a safety valve which can be closed manually
with a quarter turn. Remotely-operated kelly cocks are also
available. The purpose of the kelly cock is to provide a means Figure 2.6. Photo of a typical kelly
of closing in pressure inside the drill pipe string in the event and kelly cock
that higher than expected pressures are encountered during
the drilling of the hole. The kelly cock will normally be
equipped with left-hand threaded connections box up/pin
down.
Swivel
The upper box connection of the kelly cock mates with the pin
down connection of the next major piece of equipment, namely
the fluid swivel. This extremely important unit supports the
weight of the entire drilling assembly on a large, sealed
bearing housed in the swivel. This bearing allows the drill
string to rotate without rotating the swivel body. The swivel
has a fluid inlet through which the circulating drilling fluid is
Figure 2.7. Photo of a typical crown
pumped through the bore of the sealed bearing and then into block
the bore of the kelly and attached drill string.
The upper part of the swivel body is equipped with a large,
heavy bail through which the hook of the travelling block is
passed.

11

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

Travelling Block and Hook

The travelling block and hook form part of the hoist mechanism which enables the drilling assembly to be lowered into,
or pulled out, of the hole. On standard exploration drilling
rigs, the travelling block will usually house 6 large pulley
wheels, wire or sheaves. The travelling block is strung with
interconnecting drilling line, or cable, to the crown block
integrated into the top of the mast or derrick structure.

Figure 2.8. Photo of a typical derrick

Figure 2.9. Photo of a typical mud

pump.

12

Crown Block and Drilling Line

The crown block also has 6 large sheaves and the stringing is
accomplished by reeving the drilling line around the sheaves
on the travelling block and crown block. One end of the
drilling line is anchored at the foot of the mast or derrick
structure. This line is known as the dead line. The other end
of the line is wound onto the cable drum of the hoist mechanism, or drawworks, on the rig floor. This line is the fast line.
The stringing of the drilling line does not necessarily use all the
sheaves of the travelling block and the crown block. The
drilling line may use 4, 5 or 6 of the sheaves. The number of
sheaves selected will determine if 8-line stringing (4 sheaves),
10-line stringing (5 sheaves) or 12-line stringing (6 sheaves)
is being used. The fewer lines used in the stringing means
faster hoisting or lowering speeds, but decreases the load
carrying capacity. The more lines used in the stringing means
slower hoisting and lowering speeds, but increases the load
carrying capacity.
Mast or Derrick
The large mast or derrick structures that support the crown
block and all of the load carried by, and including, the travelling block and hook, are commonly rated at 1,100,000 lbs. to
1,300,000 lbs. maximum load capacity. The height of most
land exploration masts or derricks does not exceed 150'. The
reason for this height arises from the need to accommodate the
travelling block and hook while pulling the drill pipe out of the
hole, usually 3 joints at a time. This is called a thribble and is

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

approximately 90' in length. The length of 3 interconnected

joints of drill pipe is called a stand. These stands are
racked in a vertical manner within the mast or derrick structure.
Support Systems
The topics thus far have covered the equipment required to
drill a hole. However, the hole could not be drilled without the
means to circulate the drilling fluid, raise and lower the
drilling assembly and rotate the drill string. All of these
support functions can be operated independently of one another as well as collectively in any combination required.
The following notes will discuss these support functions.
Drilling Fluid Circulation System (Refer to Figure 2.2)
Mud Pump or Slush Pump
In the drilling of exploratory or development wells, a very
large pump is required to maintain a circulation system. The
oilfield pumps used for this purpose are called mud pumps or
slush pumps. They are large, positive displacement duplex or
triplex pumps. By changing the piston and liner sizes, the
piston stroke and the strokes per minute of these pumps can
deliver volumes in excess of 1,000 gallon per minute and
output pressures over 6,000 psi. The drive units or prime
movers for mud pumps are usually diesel engines. Power
transmission from the engine to the pump is usually by way of
V-belts and grooved pulleys mounted on drive shafts.

Figure 2.10. Typical standpipe valve

manifold

Standpipe and Standpipe Valve

The drilling fluid is delivered under pressure to the standpipe
through the standpipe valve. The standpipe valve is a safety
valve and performs a function similar to the kelly cock valve
when unexpected pressure anomalies occur in the drilling
operation. It can be operated manually usually with a quarter
turn from the fully open position to the fully closed position.
The standpipe is made from high-grade steel and is normally
attached to a leg of the mast or derrick structure. The high Figure 2.10.A Photo of a typical
pressure drilling fluid passes through the standpipe and standpipe

13

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

gooseneck at the upper end of the standpipe into the flexible

rotary hose. The other end of the rotary hose is connected to
the inlet on the swivel which provides the fluid path into the
drilling string.

Figure 2.11. Photo of a typical rotary

hose

Rotary Hose
The rotary hose is exposed to very tough conditions in it's
service life. It has to be flexible as it is connected to the swivel
which goes up and down in the mast or derrick as the drilling
assembly is raised or lowered during drilling operations. The
rotary hose has to withstand high pumping pressures as well
as high temperatures from the drilling fluid, particularly as
the hole gets deeper and abrasive action of the drilling fluid.
Pressure ratings for rotary hoses are found in the range of 5,000
psi to 10,000 psi working pressure depending on the service
anticipated. Rotary hoses vary in length, but 75' is the normal
length for land drilling.
The drilling fluid passes through the bore of the kelly, the
string of drill pipe, the section of drill collars and the jets, or
nozzles, in the bit at the bottom of the hole. From here, the
drilling fluid returns carrying the cuttings from the action of
the drilling bit up the annular space between the drill string
and well bore to the surface.
Bell Nipple and Return Flowline
Here the fluid passes through the blowout preventer (B.O.P.)
stack mounted on a casing head or wellhead spool, and then
into the bell nipple mounted on top of the B.O.P. stack. The
drilling fluid then enters the return flowline which directs the
fluid over the vibrating screen of the shale shaker.

Figure 2.12. Typical bell nipple

discharge line and shale shaker

14

Shale Shaker
The purpose of the shale shaker is to separate the cuttings from
the drilling fluid so that they are removed from circulation and
collected as samples for examination. The strained drilling
fluid then drops into the settling pit. The settling pit gives the
drilling fluid time to drop the very fine particles of and
intoformationthat have become entrained in the drilling fluid.
The drilling fluid then passes over a partition in the settling

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

tank the suction pit where it is picked up by the suction pipe

of the mud pump, and the circulation cycle starts all over
again.

CROWN
BLOCK

DEADLINE

Running and Pulling System

Drawworks
As previously mentioned, the drawworks (hoist mechanism)
provides the means to reel in the drilling line (fast line) onto a
large drum as it raises the travelling block, hook and drilling
assembly. The drawworks also lets out the drilling line as the
drilling assembly is lowered. The drawworks is usually
powered by large diesel engines or electric motors and has
various gear selections to alter the winch speed of the drum
pulling in the drilling line.
Brake System
The drawworks is also equipped with a very powerful brake
system that is controlled by the driller as the drilling assembly
and drill pipe is lowered into the hole. The amount of the load
being lowered into the hole is measured by a weight indicator
sensing mechanism which is attached to the dead line. The
readout from the weight indicator sensor is transmitted to a
large scale dial that the driller can observe on his console.
During drilling operations, it is this weight readout that tells
the driller how much weight is being applied to the bit.
Drilling rigs are generally equipped with a dual braking
system, a mechanical braking system and an electric or hydraulic braking system.

FAST
LINE
DRILLING LINE
(8 LINES ARE STRUNG)

TRAVELING BLOCK
DRILLING HOOK
DEADLINE ANCHOR

DRUM

DRAWWORKS
DRUM BRAKE

STORAGE REEL

Figure 2.13. Illustration of

drawworks, brake, and hoisting
system

Rotating System
Figure 2.14. Photo of a typical rotary

Rotary Table
table and bottom of the block and hook.
The means to rotate the drilling assembly is provided by the
rotary table which is usually powered by a diesel or electric
prime mover. A large rotary chain, engaging sprockets
mounted on the drive shafts, is the normal means of power
transmission from the prime mover to the rotary table. The
rotary table itself is a very large, rugged piece of equipment. It

15

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

is mounted on very large steel beams, called rotary beams, at

the rig floor level.
Rotary Beams
These rotary beams are integrated into the substructure which
supports the entire derrick structure. The rotary table is
positioned centrally below the crown block. The center section of the rotary table rotates while the main section remains
firmly anchored. The center opening is normally 17-1/2" to
27-1/2" on land based rigs. Offshore, the central opening of
rotary tables are larger, normally 37-1/2" to 49-1/2".

Figure 2.15. Photo of a typical

substructure.

Master Bushings
For easy removal, the master bushings are split in half. Each
half sits into a matching recessed profile in the center of the
rotary table. When in place, the master bushings have a
tapered, central hole that provides the seat for the drill pipe
slips. The drill pipe slips are used to wedge around and
support the drill pipe string at the rotary table. This function
is required when adding another joint of drill pipe, or single,
and when the drill pipe is tripped (pulled or run) in and out of
the hole.
The kelly bushing fits into the rotating center section of the
rotary table and around the kelly. As the center section of the
rotary table rotates, so does the kelly bushing, the kelly, the
connected drill pipe and drilling assembly.

Figure 2.16. Photo of casing elevator

suspended by links from the block and
hook.

Elevators and Links

A set of elevators and bails are required on the rig site for each
size casing and tubing used to drill the well. These items are
sized by the outside diameter and anticipated weight of each
string of pipe. These tools provide a rapid means for running
and pulling pipe while the kelly, kelly bushing, swivel and
rotary hose is stored in the "rathole". Elevators are generally
rental items, but are occasionally supplied by the casing crew.
For the larger casing sizes, slips are sometimes an integral part
of the elevator for easier handling due to the size and weight.

16

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

This concludes the main functions needed to drill a hole. They

are pumping, rotating, raising and lowering. As our earlier
discussion on oil and gas reservoirs mentioned, the need for
control of formation pressures must be constantly addressed
while drilling a hole. The next section will address the function of drilling fluid as a medium to control these pressures.
Drilling Fluids
This subject is a major topic in its own right. The purpose of
the following discussion is to highlight the primary functions
of drilling fluids. These functions are summarized below.
1. Control pressures of formations penetrated. This is
achieved by ensuring that the hydrostatic column of drilling fluid exerts a pressure on the formation that is higher
than the water, oil or gas pressure in the formation. This
prevents entry of the formation fluids or gases into the
wellbore.
2. Clear the cuttings from between the drilling bit and the
cutting face on bottom. This is achieved by the large
volume of drilling fluid blasting through the nozzles on the
bit that is positioned to clear the freshly cut face. This
jetting action also provides a hydraulic cutting action
which can be significant in some rock formations.
3. Remove the cuttings from the hole. This is achieved by its
carrying properties, directly related to its gel strength,
and the upward velocity of the annulus return.
4. Cool and lubricate the drilling assembly. The cooling is
achieved by providing a cooler drilling fluid from the
suction pit and circulating out the hot drilling fluid generated downhole by the cutting action of the bit and the
deeper, hotter formations. The drilling fluid provides
lubrication by lessening the frictional losses between the
drill string, the walls of the drilled hole, and at the cutting
face between the bit and rock.

17

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

5. Consolidate the walls of the drilled hole to prevent the

caving-in, or collapse, of certain types of rock into the
wellbore. This is achieved by the drilling fluids capacity to
deposit a thin "mud cake" on the walls of the hole. The mud
cake forms because the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid is greater than the formation pressure and a natural
loss of drilling fluid to the formation occurs. Large losses
of drilling fluid are prevented by the mud cake forming
on the walls of the hole, just as a filter cake forms in any
filtration process. By keeping a small pressure differential
(100 - 150psi) between the hydrostatic column of the drilling fluid and the formation pressure, the loss of drilling
fluid to the formation is also minimized.
The simplest drilling fluid is water, either fresh water or sea
water, and it is commonly used to drill the shallow sections of
the hole. Although water is very good for penetration rates, it
has poor properties for preventing the collapse, or caving in,
of the sides of the hole, particularly where the formations are
unconsolidated or have thick beds of natural clay. During the
drilling of shallow hole sections, the re-circulated water will
pick up clay minerals which will hydrate in the water forming
a natural slurry or thin mud. These hydrated clay minerals
will form a gel with the water which improves the cutting
carrying properties of the mud along with its higher viscosity.
Water-based muds as drilling fluids have undergone many
improvements over the last hundred years with the addition
of specially prepared bentonite clays that form very stable gels
or muds. Saltwater clays have also been used extensively.
Low solids mud have been introduced using cellulose-based
gels as the clay substitute in the mud. Oil-based muds have
been used for many years, particularly where water loss from
a conventional mud is seen that cause formation problems or
damage.
As has been stressed in previous notes, the pressure control of
formations containing water, oil or gas accumulations needs
constant attention. Controlling the density of the drilling
18

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

fluid, or mud, also controls the bottom hole pressure exerted

by the mud on the formation. This is achieved by adding
weighting materials to the mud. The most widely used
weighting material is barites (barium sulfate). It is added to
the mud as a finely powdered mineral that stays suspended in
the mud. The gel strength of the mud is very important in
ensuring that the barites stays suspended and not drop out as
a sediment, particularly when the mud is not being circulated.
Barites are about 4.2 times denser than water.
Top Drive Drilling
In the early eighties, top drive units, one of the most significant
technical advances in drilling, were put into service. Instead
of turning the drill pipe with a kelly and rotary table, a top
drive unit is suspended from the traveling block assembly and
turns the drill string with a direct hook-up eliminating the
need for the kelly, kelly bushing, and rotary table drive. The
unit rides up and down a rail mounted to the derrick, giving
it stability and keeping the drill string centered over the hole. Figure 2.17. Typical Permanent Top
The top drive is powered by either electric or hydraulic motors Drive
which generate the equivalent rpm and torque as like-sized
rotary drives. Top drive units generally have two integral
kelly cocks, a manual and a remote hydraulic. There are two
types of top drives, permanent (Figure 2.17) and portable
(Figure 2.18), permanent being the only means of drilling and
portable being a removable assembly as a secondary means of
drilling using many components of the rotary drive configuration. On both permanent and portable top drives, the stand
pipe and rotary hose must be extended to allow the top drive
to travel to the top of the derrick. Since the drilling power
source can now be positioned at the top of the derrick, two to
three stands can be drilled at a time, depending on the height
of the derrick.

Permanent drives have an integrated swivel and are mounted

to the traveling block, while the portable unit is suspended
from the existing swivel, block and hook assembly. On Figure 2.18. Typical Portable Top
Drive

19

Equipment Used in
Rotary Drilling

permanent top drive systems, the rotary table is replaced by a

master bushing and slip bowls to facilitate the use of casing
and tubing slips. On portable drives, the kelly bushing is
removed from the rotary and slip bowl inserts are used in its
place to facilitate hanging off the drill string to make up joints.
Other advantages of the top drive system include the continuous rotation and circulation going in, or out of, the hole and
that the connections can be made up, or broken out, at any
point in the derrick. The links extend forward from the top
drive unit hydraulically and allow the elevators to pick up
pipe at the V door and monkey board. In general, top drive
units provide enhanced well control and reduce the chances of
sticking pipe while running in and out of the hole.

20

Drilling a Well on Land

Introduction ............................................................................... 21
Primary Conductor ................................................................... 21
Starting Head............................................................................. 22
Mud Riser .................................................................................. 22
Starting to Drill Ahead ............................................................. 22
Running Casing ......................................................................... 24
Installing the Casing Hanger ................................................... 28
Blowout Prevention and Control ............................................. 29
Ram Type Preventers ............................................................... 30
Annular Preventers ................................................................... 31
Controlling a Potential Blowout .............................................. 32
Choke and Kill Lines ................................................................ 33

Table of Contents

Drilling a Well on Land

Introduction
This chapter of the manual assumes that the drilling rig is in
place with all the support systems ready to spud in, or
commence drilling. The land rig diagram in the previous
chapter can be used as a reference.

CONDUCTOR

Figure 3.1. Illustration of the cellar

deck and the primary conductor
installed

Primary Conductor
Most of the wells drilled on land will require a short section of
large diameter pipe, or casing, be installed in the cellar floor.
This primary conductor can be driven into place using a
diesel, or steam hammer, or can be lowered into a pre-drilled
hole and cemented in place. The purpose of the primary
conductor is to prevent loose soil and unconsolidated rock
formations from caving in, or collapsing, into the drilled
section of hole. The collapse, or wash out, of unconsolidated
surface formations can plug the hole and, in severe cases, can
undermine the drilling rig to such an extent that the location
has to be abandoned and the rig moved to an adjacent site. The
primary conductor may range in size from 16" to 30" for most
land drilling operations and the lengths used will depend on
the local conditions varying from a few feet up to 500 ft. or
more. The pressure requirements and ratings of these primary conductors are extremely low as they are not usually
expected to contain more than average formation pressure,
but are mainly in place to provide a primary conduit for the

Drilling a Well on
Land

drilling assembly and prevent formation collapse. Figure 3.1

shows the primary casing in place.
ROTARY
TABLE
ROTARY
TABLE

RIG
FLOOR
RIG
FLOOR

RISER

DRILL PIPE

CELLAR
STARTING
HEAD

DRILLING BIT

Figure 3.2. Preparing to drill out for

surface casing

22

Starting Head
If the primary conductor pipe has been driven into place, the
excess amount above the cellar floor will be cut off and a
starting head will be welded to the primary conductor. If
casing has been used that is equipped with a casing thread or
specialty connector, the drilling operator will have drilled
enough hole and spaced out the lengths of casing so that when
the casing is cemented in place, the last connection is positioned at the cellar floor level. This makes it very convenient
to attach a starting head with a matching thread or specialty
connector. The starting head is equipped with a large, lowpressure flange or hub face looking up. It can have two side
outlets and also have an internal landing profile for the first
casing hanger.
Mud Riser
A mud riser is a short length of large diameter pipe with
matching flange, or hub face, to the starting head and is either
bolted or clamped to the starting head. The upper end of the
short length of riser is equipped with a bell nipple, or flow
nipple, which has an outlet made up to the mud return flow
line. The purpose of the riser is to provide a conduit for the
drilling fluid returns and rock cuttings as the well is drilled. In
some areas of the world, a large bag-type blowout preventer,
or custom designed flow diverter system, may be installed
on the starting head. This is usually only done if a long length
of primary conductor has been installed and shallow pockets
of formation gas are anticipated. The riser and bell nipple are
installed on top of the blowout preventer, or flow diverter,
either as separate units or integrated into the equipment
design. Figure 3.2 illustrates the conventional drilling set-up.
Starting to Drill Ahead
As can be seen from the illustration in Figure 3.2, the bit with
bit sub have been connected to a short length of the drill collar
which, in turn, has been connected to the kelly. The mud

Drilling a Well on
Land

pumps are started and the drilling fluid, usually water

for surface hole, is circulated down through the bit, back
up the annulus, through the mud return flowline and
then back to the suction pit.
The rotary table drive is then engaged and the kelly
bushings are rotated by the rotary table as the kelly
starts to turn to the right. The drawworks braking
system is then let off slowly to lower the rotating drilling
assembly until the bit starts to take weight on the bottom
of the hole.
Drilling proceeds until the kelly has been drilled down
to the top of the kelly bushings. The hole is circulated to
clear the cuttings and the mud pumps and rotary are
stopped. The kelly, with attached drilling assembly, is
pulled out of the hole until the kelly bushings lift out of
the rotary table exposing the connection between the
kelly and the short length of drill collars. Slips and a
safety collar will be set to suspend the drilling assembly.
This connection is broken (unscrewed) and the kelly is
then stabbed and made up to the next length of drill
collar which has been placed in the mouse hole. The
kelly and the additional length of drill collar are then
made up to the drill collar joint sitting in the rotary table.

ROTARY
TABLE

RIG
FLOOR

RISER

SURFACE
CASING

CELLAR
STARTING
HEAD

The kelly is then picked up so that the downward load

on the slips is relieved. This enables the slips to be
removed and the drilling assembly, once again, be lowered back into the hole and drilling will be started up
again.
The process of drilling off the kelly and adding singles
to the drill string proceeds until the hole reaches the
required depth (or casing point). The depth of the hole
will be recorded as a measurement in feet below the
kelly bushings (KB). When the casing point is reached,
the bit is pulled a few feet off of the bottom and the hole
is circulated to remove all cuttings from the hole. When Figure 3.3. Surface casing being run

23

Drilling a Well on
Land

CEMENTING HEAD
TOP WIPER PLUG
BOTTOM
WIPER PLUG

the hole is declared clear of cuttings, the drilling assembly is

pulled out of the hole and the sections of drill pipe or drill
collars will be stood back in the derrick or mast as triples
(occasionally as doubles in small drilling masts). If the drill
collars and drill pipe sizes need changing for the next section
of hole, they will be broken down into singles and put out on
the pipe racks.

CASING SLIPS

BELL NIPPLE

STARTING HEAD

DRILLING FLUID

FLOAT COLLAR

FLOAT SHOE

Figure 3.4. Setup for Cementing

casing into place

24

Running Casing
The next step in drilling the well is to run steel casing into the
hole and cement it in place (Figure 3.3). The purpose of the
steel casing is to provide a protective sleeve in the section of
hole just completed. When cemented, it prevents the rock
formations and fluids from entering the well bore during the
next drilling stage. The size, grade of steel and wall thickness
of the casing will also be selected to contain the higher formation pressures expected as the hole is drilled deeper.
Running the successive strings of casing and production tubing in and out of the hole during these operations is called
"tripping in" and "tripping out". This is accomplished by using
elevators as referenced in the equipment section of the manual.
These elevators latch around the casing or tubing and provide
a landing shoulder for the casing coupling or the tubing upset.
The elevator attaches to the hook on the traveling block by
means of bails. As each joint is lowered into or pulled from the
hole, slips are set around the pipe in the rotary, or in a portable
slip bowl called a "spider", allowing the elevator to be removed and used to pick up the next joint of pipe to be made up
or removed from the string. This process is repeated until all
the pipe is in or out of the hole.
The lengths of casing used are generally 30' long, and equipped
with a threaded pin end and a threaded box end or coupling.
The normal method of running threaded casing is box up/pin
down. The first joint of casing run is the shoe joint, so named
because it has a casing shoe or guide shoe at the lower end
which is rounded to form a smooth guide for the casing as it is
lowered into the hole. Sometimes, the casing shoe has a one

Drilling a Well on
Land

CEMENTING HEAD
TOP WIPER PLUG

CEMENT

BOTTOM
WIPER PLUG

DRILLING FLUID

FLOAT COLLAR

FLOAT SHOE

Figure 3.5. Cementing operation in

progress

way float valve in its body which allows fluid to pass down
through the center part of the shoe, but does not allow fluid to
come back the other way.
This float valve becomes imA
B
CEMENTING HEAD
portant during the cementing process. If the hole has
been drilled through a series
of swelling or sloughing shale
sections, the float shoe can
TOP WIPER PLUG
get plugged and not function
correctly. In areas where this
problem is anticipated, the
float valve may be included
in a float collar which is run
in the casing string one or
two joints above the guide
shoe. All of the joints of casing are measured on the pipe
racks before they go into the
CEMENT
hole. The measurements are
totalled to ensure that the casing shoe ends up a few feet
DRILLING FLUID
from the bottom of the hole.
As the casing is being run, it
is normal practice to fill up
the inside of the casing every
BOTTOM
WIPER PLUG
few joints with drilling fluid.
If this is not done, the casing
FLOAT COLLAR
tends to float as the float
valve prevents entry of drillFLOAT SHOE
ing fluid into the casing.
1. Setting Up to Cement
Casing.
Figure 3.4 shows the cement
head (with top and bottom
cementing plugs in place) and
a simple manifold with two

Figure 3.6. Cement being displaced

25

Drilling a Well on
Land

valves (A & B) attached to the cement head. Two manually

operated release bars release the cement plugs as required.
A

CEMENTING HEAD

2. Cementing in Progress.
The cement slurry, in it's most basic form, is simply powdered
cement and water mixed to a pre-determined density that has
been pumped into the cement head with valve A open and
valve B closed. The release bar for the bottom cementing plug
has been pulled back and the plug is shown moving down the
casing at the interface between the drilling fluid and the
cement slurry. The purpose of the rubber-finned cement plug
is to ensure that the usually denser cement slurry does not
channel down through the drilling fluid, which could ultimately cause poor quality cement to end up in the annulus.
The ball float valve in the float collar is open and the drilling
fluid is being forced down the casing, through the casing shoe,
up the annulus, and return to the mud pits through the return
flowline (Figure 3.5).

DRILLING FLUID

3. Displacement in Progress.
The bottom cement plug has reached the float collar and an
increase in pump pressure will have sheared out the center
section of the plug allowing cement slurry to bypass the plug.
The cement slurry is shown passing through the casing shoe
and up into the annulus. The less dense drilling fluid is shown
being displaced out of the annulus. Also, the top cementing
plug has been released and drilling fluid is being pumped into
the cement head and casing through the open valve B with
valve A now closed. The volume of cement slurry used on the
cement job will have been calculated to ensure that good
quality cement completely fills the annulus and the casing
below the float collar. The top rubber-finned cement plug is
used to ensure that there is no mixing at the drilling fluid and
cement slurry interface, as this could possibly cause poor
cement to get positioned around the casing shoe (Figure 3.6).

CEMENT
TOP WIPER PLUG
BOTTOM
WIPER PLUG
FLOAT COLLAR
CEMENT
FLOAT SHOE

Figure 3.7. Cement in place around

the casing

4. Cement in Place.
The displacement of the cement slurry has been completed
and the top plug has bumped and sealed on the bottom plug.
26

Drilling a Well on
Land

An immediate rise in pump pressure would have signified

this event and the pumps would have been shut down. The
expected volume of displacement fluid would also have been
calculated before the cement job and a very close watch would
have been kept on the volume of drilling fluid taken from the
displacement pit at the surface and/or the pump strokes of the
displacing pump. With the pumps shut off, a valve in the
displacement line would be opened to see if there was any
flow-back from the casing. If there is no flow-back, it would
signify a successful cement job as the float valve in the float
collar is holding the heavier cement slurry in the annulus from
U-tubing back into the casing. This means that the cement
head and cementing lines can be removed; the excess cement
slurry from the starting head up to the bell nipple can be
washed out; and the next step of setting the casing hanger can
take place before the cement slurry hardens. Four hours is
about the normal setting time for cement slurry after it is
mixed. However, various additives to the cement can accelerate or retard the setting time (Figure 3.7).
The cement job just described is fairly typical of all cement jobs
performed to cement casing in a hole. There are innumerable
variations to the methods used and it is not unusual to see
cement jobs performed with only one plug or without any
cement plugs. On occasion, triple cement plugs might be used,
particularly on long casing strings where the cementing may
be done in stages. The choice of method used depends on
many factors; the ability of the formation to accept the increased hydrostatic head from a column of cement slurry; the
requirements of local regulatory bodies requiring the complete shut-off of particular formations (usually fresh water
aquifers); the particular policies of the oil company drilling the
well; etc.

Casing Hanger

Casing Hanger opened

Figure 3.8. Illustration of a typical
slip type hanger

When the cement hardens, it seals off the annulus in the well
which prevents migration of fluids or gases from one formation to another. The hardened cement also provides protection to the casing string from potentially corrosive subsurface

27

Drilling a Well on
Land

water. A good cement job will also enhance the burst strength
capacity of the casing.

BELL
NIPPLE

BLOWOUT
PREVENTER

DRILLING BIT

FLOAT
COLLAR

TOP WIPER
PLUG

FLOAT
SHOE

Figure 3.9. Preparing to drill out of

surface casing with the BOP Stack
installed

28

Installing the Casing Hanger

The next step in drilling the well is to install a casing hanger
into the starting head so that the suspended casing load can be
taken in the starting head. The casing hangers used for land
drilling are normally split or hinged so that they can be
wrapped around the casing and slid down the casing to the
landing shoulder in the starting head (Figure 3.8). Before this
can be done, the riser must be disconnected from the starting
head and lifted up to expose the casing suspended from the
rotary table above. The wraparound type hanger is installed into the starting head. The casing hanger will be
equipped with a bulk type seal that seals against the casing
and against the prepared profile of the starting head. The
casing hanger will also have internal slips to grip the casing.
The slips are set on a taper so that the downward load forces
the slip elements to grip the casing more firmly. Most casing
hanger designs rely on the weight of the suspended casing
acting through the slips to activate the seal between the casing
and housing. Other designs have the seals independent of the
weight set action. These seals are mechanically activated by
lockdown screws.
After the casing hanger is correctly positioned in the starting
head, the casing load is picked up by the hook, or drawworks,
and the casing slips and the safety clamp (if used) would be
removed. The casing load would then be slowly lowered so
that the slips in the casing hanger start to take a grip and
support the casing load. When this has been successfully
achieved and the casing hanger packoff seal has been set
(either by the weight of the suspended load or mechanically),
the excess casing above the hanger will be carefully cut off.
The precise cut off point will be dictated by the manufacturer
of the equipment, as the casing stub has to fit into the next
casing spool which will be bolted or clamped to the starting
head. The casing stub usually has to interface and seal with the
intermediate packoff bushings installed with the next casing

Drilling a Well on
Land

spool. With this operation completed, the well now has its
primary conductor and surface casing string in place. The next
stage in drilling the well is to install the blowout preventer
(BOP) stack directly on the casing spool, adapter or drilling
spool attached to the casing spool.
This next section of hole is drilled with the blowout preventer
stack in place as shown in Figure 3.9. Therefore, the following
text is devoted to a brief discussion on the main elements of the
BOP stack and its functions.
Blowout Prevention and Control
What is a blowout? It can be described as an uncontrolled
flow of fluids and/or gases from the wellbore to the atmosphere.
How does a blowout occur? As mentioned in earlier discussions on drilling fluids, the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
column of drilling fluid must always exceed the pressure of
the fluids and/or gases contained in the formations being
Figure 3.10. Illustration of the BOP
penetrated. If this positive pressure differential is not main- Stack
tained, the formation fluids and gases can enter the wellbore
and displace the drilling fluid which can lead to a blowout
condition if corrective action is not taken.
The most common reasons for a blowout to occur in open hole
sections of the well are:
The drilling fluid column density is lowered by gas bubbles
escaping from drilled cuttings or the formation.
Formation fluids or gases enter the wellbore as the drilling
assembly, acting as a plunger or swab, is pulled out of the hole.
Loss of drilling fluid due to a lost circulation zone in the Figure 3.11. Dual Ram-type
wellbore which reduces the hydrostatic column which, in preventers
turn, can allow formation fluids or gases from another zone in
the well to enter the wellbore.
Failure to fill the hole when pulling out drilling assemblies

29

Drilling a Well on
Land

from the hole. This permits the fluid column to drop in the
well, thereby reducing the hydrostatic pressure on the formation penetrated.
An unusually high pressure zone is encountered and the
hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid is simply insufficient to
contain the formation fluids or gases.
When any of the above conditions occur, the drilling fluid
column will be pushed back out of the well slowly at first, but
gaining speed rapidly as the column gets lighter and lighter
with the entry of more and more formation fluids or gases. The
main flow will be out of the annulus, but flow will also come
out of the drill pipe if there is no means to shut it off.
The blowout preventer is used to close the annular space
therefore preventing further loss of fluid from the annulus.
There are two main types of blowout preventers. These are
described below.
Figure 3.12. Annular preventer

Ram Type Preventers

The illustration in Figure 3.11 shows two ram type preventers.
The ram type preventer contains two pistons that drive two
rubber packers, or rams, to meet and seal at the center of the
BOP stack bore. The shape of the rams would have been
selected to either close and seal on drill pipe (drill-pipe rams),
close and seal on casing (casing rams) or close and seal on open
hole (blind rams). The rubber elements of the rams are
sheathed in shaped steel plates, or fingers, and used for an
anti-extrusion device as well as provide additional strength.
Some blind rams are designed specifically to cut drill pipe or
tubing and seal off the well bore. These rams are known as
blind, or shear, rams. The normal operating pressure to
hydraulically open and close these rams is 1500 psi. Shear
rams need additional force to cut drill pipe or tubing and this
is achieved by putting on a larger operating piston and cylinder while still using the normal 1500 psi operating pressure.
Ram-type preventer bodies can have pressure ratings that
cover up to 15,000 psi.
The construction of the rams in the ram-type preventers is
30

Drilling a Well on
Land

such that a string of drill pipe can be hung from them, if

necessary.
Annular Preventers
The illustration in Figure 3.12 shows the annular preventer,
typically installed at the top of the BOP stack on the dual ram
type preventer. As shown in the cross-section, the rubber
packing element is a complete annular ring that is driven
inwards by the upward movement of the annular piston
acting on the tapered interface between the two parts. The
rubber element can close and seal on any size of tubular as well
as on open hole. The rubber packing element is reinforced
with radial steel fingers to give the element additional strength
and reduce the extrusion of the rubber when activated. The
annular preventer is always installed at the top of the BOP
stack. The flexibility of the annular preventer's rubber element
is such that the drill pipe and it's tool joints can be stripped in
to, or out of, the well with pressure contained under the rubber
element. This practice is only used in emergencies and, as one
would expect, this type of use causes very high wear on the
rubber element. Other names used for annular preventers are
bag-type preventers and spherical preventers.
The normal operating pressure to hydraulically close the
annular preventer is 1500 psi, but this may be reduced if the
wellbore pressure is assisting the closure of the preventer on
a tubular in the wellbore (there is concern about the collapse
rating of the tubular, particularly if it is casing). The annular
preventer returns to its open position as the annular piston is
hydraulically moved downwards. The rubber element returns to it's fully open position with a considerable natural
spring force in the element itself. However, in old and worn
elements, this natural spring force is sometimes insufficient
and this part of the BOP stack can often be a restriction to
drilling tools being lowered into, or pulled out of, a well. In
order to overcome this problem, the industry has adopted the
practice of cutting the rubber packing elements in two so that
the two halves can easily move back to their fully open
position.

31

Drilling a Well on
Land

ANNULAR
PREVENTER

RAM
PREVENTERS

GAS OR OIL

Figure 3.13. Circulating the well

through the choke and kill manifold

32

Controlling a Potential Blowout Condition

One of the early signs that formation fluids or gases are
entering the wellbore is that the level of drilling fluid in
the mud pit is rising quite rapidly as the drilling fluid is
being forced out of the
hole. A continuous recording pit level indicator will provide this eviCHOKE & KILL MANIFOLD
dence to the driller or
rig supervisor. Many pit
level indicator systems
have built-in alarm systems just in case the importance of the event has
escaped the vigilant eye
of those concerned. If it
is quickly determined
that the flow is indeed
uncontrolled, then the next action would be to close a
ram, or rams, on the BOP stack so that they close on the
tubular in the wellbore. The closure of any ram or
annular preventer must take place very rapidly. The
reason for this is that escaping fluids can be extremely
abrasive and the rubber elements can be destroyed if
they move to the fully closed position too slowly. The
fast closure of preventers is accomplished by having a
large pre-charged reservoir or accumulator of hydraulic
fluid that will instantly provide several gallons of hydraulic fluid at the 1500 psi operating pressure.
The next thing that will happen is that pressure will start
to increase under the closed preventer and in the drill
pipe, or tubular, in the wellbore. Assuming that the drill
pipe is in the hole and the kelly is attached, a means to
circulate the well still exists. However, circulation will
only be re-established when heavier drilling fluid is
prepared in sufficient quantities to completely circulate
the old drilling fluid out of the drill pipe and annulus.

Drilling a Well on
Land

Choke and Kill Lines

In this case, the drill pipe becomes the kill line as it is
delivering the heavier fluid to kill the flow of fluids and/
or gases from the wellbore. Obviously, the returns from
the annulus will be under pressure. These are taken
through a choke and kill manifold which will be connected to the side outlet of the casing spool, or drilling
spool, directly below the BOP stack. The line from the
side outlet to the choke and kill manifold is known as the
choke line (Figure 3.13).
The back pressure maintained by the adjustable choke
in the choke and kill manifold on the annulus returns. It
ensures that the effective hydrostatic head in the annulus is sufficiently high to contain the formation fluid
and/or gases that have been entering the wellbore.
As the heavier drilling fluid is forced down the drill pipe
and up the annulus, the pressure gauge reading on the
choke and kill manifold will gradually decrease indicating that the annulus pressure is dropping. When the
pressure reading has dropped sufficiently, the adjustable choke is opened to it's fully open position or it is
bypassed by opening an alternative flow-path in the
choke and kill manifold. When full circulation has been
re-established with the heavier drilling fluid, the mud
pumps will be shut down and the annulus pressure and
flow will be observed to see if the well killing operation has been successful. If there is no pressure increase
or flow, the closed preventers in the BOP stack will be
opened and the normal circulation path, by way of the
bell nipple and mud return flowline, will be re-established and drilling operations can proceed.

33

Drilling a Well on
Land

This brief and simplified description of blowout

preventers and their functions is merely an introduction
to a very complex and important area of pressure control in drilling wells. There are many variations in the
theories and practices used in controlling potential blowout conditions. The regular functional and pressure
tests required for BOP stacks, BOP stack control systems
and choke and kill manifolds are among the most important tests in drilling wells. One leak in the fluid path
when trying to control a formation flow or kick can
lead to total destruction of the drilling rig, loss of the
well and extreme danger to human life. Definitely not a
subject to be taken lightly.

34

Completing the Well

for Production

Completing the Well for

Production
Pressure Testing the BOP Stack & Casing Hanger Seals ..... 35
Drilling the Hole for the Production Casing String ............... 36
Logging the Hole ....................................................................... 36
Completing the Well for Production ....................................... 38
Running the Downhole Tubing Assembly .............................. 39
The Production Tubing String ................................................. 40
Dual Zone Completions through the
Production Annulus .................................................................. 44
Dual Zone Completions with a Second Tubing String .......... 44

Table of Contents

Completing the Well for

Production

Pressure Testing the BOP Stack and Casing Hanger Seals

After the BOP Stack has been installed, the next step is to
pressure test the packoff seals on the casing hanger previously
landed and the BOP stack and connectors.
This series of pressure tests can be done by lowering a cup
tester, or special packer, on the drill pipe so that the test tool
seals in the casing below the casing hanger. One of the pipe
rams can then be closed onto the drill pipe. Hydraulic
pressure applied through the side outlet of the drilling spool
will test the BOP ram seal on the drill pipe, the metal ring
gasket seal between the BOP stack and the drilling spool, the
upper casing hanger packoff seal, and the seal between the test
tool and the casing string.
The pressure tests will be done to a specified pressure, usually
80% of the collapse rating of the suspended casing, not exceeding the working pressure of the BOP stack for a specified
period of time. Any leaks would be noted as significant
pressure drops and the leak, or leaks, would be investigated
to determine their location.
Assuming a successful series of pressure tests, including the
upper pipe rams and the annular preventer, has been achieved,
the rams would be opened and the test tool would be re

Completing the Well

for Production

trieved. A bore protector may then be installed on the next

casing hanger seat to protect the sealing surfaces for the next
casing hanger packoff and to protect the landing shoulder in
the casing spool.
Many land wellhead systems are equipped with small test
ports in the casing spools to allow a pressure test to be
conducted on the casing hanger packoffs without a full BOP
stack test. Regular BOP stack tests will be conducted on a
regular basis (once a week or more) depending on local
regulations and company procedures.
Drilling the Hole for the Production Casing String
With all of the pressure tests successfully concluded and the
bore protector in place, the next drilling assembly is made up
and lowered down into the cement plugs in the casing. Using
the drilling fluid used to drill the previous section of hole, the
cement plugs, float collar, hardened cement and casing shoe
will be drilled out and a few feet of new hole may be made. At
this point, the old drilling fluid may be displaced from the hole
by new drilling fluid specially prepared and weighted for the
next section of hole.
As this section of hole is projected to penetrate the producing
formation, the conditioning of the drilling fluid is of great
importance. The drilling fluid properties such as weight,
viscosity and fluid loss will be checked regularly.
The on-site geologist will be monitoring the cuttings coming
over the shale shaker as the producing formations are approached. Once the expected formation or formations have
been drilled through, the hole will have reached total depth
and no further drilling will take place. The hole will be
circulated to clear the last cuttings from the annulus, the
drilling fluid will be conditioned and the drilling assembly
will be pulled out of the hole.
Logging the Hole
The next operation will be to run a series of logging tools on
36

Completing the Well

for Production

multiple core, armored electric cable, into the hole and continuously record the formation characteristics measured by
the logging tools as they are slowly pulled out of the hole at a
constant speed. There are a variety of logging tools or sondes
used, but essentially the logging tool has a source of energy
(electrical, radio-active or sonic) that is transmitted into the
formation by means of contact pads on spring loaded arms. As
the logging tool is pulled slowly out of the hole, receivers in the
logging tool monitor the amount of energy returning to the
logging tool and the continuous recording of these return
signals makes up what becomes the well log.
Interpretation of these well logs can tell the well-site geologist
many characteristics of the formations penetrated, such as
porosity, permeability, if it is water bearing or oil bearing and
if it provides an internal caliper log of the well bore. From
these logs and the geologist's analysis and correlation of
cuttings from the well, the subsequent decisions on how to
complete or abandon the well are made.

TUBING
STRING

PRODUCTION
CASING SET ABOVE
THE PRODUCTION
ZONE

OPEN HOLE

Figure 4.1. Top Set or Open Hole

Completion

TUBING
STRING

If the well being drilled was an exploration well, the decision

to drill the hole deeper would also hinge on the interpretations
made from these logs.
For our purposes, this well is a development well being drilled
into known formations and therefore our next step is to
complete the well.
After the logging operation has been completed and the last
logging tool is out of the hole, the next step will be to run a
wiper trip with the drilling assembly. This wiper trip is
merely running the drilling assembly to the bottom of the hole,
watching for any tight spots in the open hole section. Once on
the bottom, the drilling fluid will be circulated and conditioned prior to running casing. Any tight spots in the open
hole section will be reamed by the drilling assembly. In
other words, the drilling assembly will be rotated, raised and
lowered through the tight spots.

PRODUCTION
ZONE

PRODUCTION
CASING SET
THROUGH THE
PRODUCTION
ZONE

PRODUCTION
ZONE

Figure 4.2. Set Through

Completion

37

Completing the Well

for Production

After the hole has been cleaned up, the drilling assembly is
pulled from the hole, the bore protector is removed from the
casing spool and the rig is prepared to run casing and cement
it in place.
WORK-OVER
BOP STACK

TUBING HEAD
PRODUCTION
CASING

There are generally two methods for completing a producing

zone: top set, or open hole, completions and set through
completions (Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2). In an open hole
completion, the production casing is run and set above the
producing zone. A packer is then set inside the production
casing on the tubing. A tubing stinger, located below the
packer, allows the producing fluid to enter the tubing string
and flow to the surface.

CASING HEAD

DRILLING
FLUID

CEMENT PLUG

PRODUCING
ZONE

The cementing procedure will follow the same pattern as

shown in the previous chapter. Once the final displacement of
cement is completed and the float valve in the casing string is
holding, the next step is to install the casing hanger and casing
hanger packoffs for the casing string. Again, this has been
described in an earlier chapter and is depicted in Figure 4.3.
Completing the Well for Production
A Set through completion is generally the most common
method used for completing a producing zone and will be
used as a completion example.
When the production casing string has been landed and
tested, a cement bond log (CBL) may be run to confirm the
quality of the cement job. If no remedial work is required, the
BOP stack will be removed and the tubing head will be
installed and packed off against the prepared stub of the last
casing string. The tubing head looks very similar to a casing
head, having side outlets and an internal landing profile for
the tubing hanger.

Figure 4.3. Cased Hole, Preparing

Tubing heads are often equipped with test ports to test the
to drill out cement plug

packoff seal with the last casing string as well as to test the
metal ring gasket seal between the tubing head and the casing
head. The tubing head will most likely be equipped with

38

Completing the Well

for Production

radial bolts, positioned in the

upper part of the tubing head,
that will subsequently be used
to lock down the tubing hanger
when it is landed in the tubing
head.
Running the Downhole Tubing Assembly
A small bore BOP stack will be
installed on the tubing head. The
drilling assembly will then be
lowered into the casing and run
down to tag the top of the cement on the top cementing plug.
The cement and top plug would
be drilled out leaving several
feet of good quality cement
above the production casing
guide shoe (Figure 4.4). This
drilled depth is noted in the well
log as the plugged back", or PB,
depth.
Figure 4.4. Drilling out
cement plug

Next, the drilling fluid will be

conditioned for perforating the
casing and the drilling assembly
will be pulled out. The casing and cement is then perforated
all the way through to the producing formation (Figure 4.5).
These perforations are made with a perforating gun, which
carries shaped charges, or bullets. The perforating gun is
lowered into the hole on an armored, multi-core electric cable.
When the perforating gun is positioned at the correct depth,
the shaped charges are electrically detonated and a known
interval of casing and cement will be fully penetrated with 4
shots, or holes, per foot. The vertical length of perforations
made will depend on the length of perforating gun, or guns,
used.

Figure 4.5. Perforating

casing

39

Completing the Well

for Production

When the perforating operation is complete and the last

perforating gun is removed, the drilling assembly, complete
with casing reamer, is run to bottom. Any tight spots are
reamed by rotating the drilling assembly as it moves up and

DRILLING FLUID

CIRCULATING
JOINT OR
SLIDING SLEEVE

SEALING
OVERSHOT
OR BLAST JOINT
BLAST JOINT

down through the tight spots that may have resulted from
distortion of the casing during the perforating operation.
After this operation, the drilling assembly is carefully pulled
out taking care not to swab the well in as the producing
formation is now able to flow into the casing through the
perforations.
The Production Tubing String
The rig is then set up to run the production tubing and
downhole production assembly into the casing. The illustration in Figure 4.6 shows completion using a single tubing
string. In this case, the bottom of the tubing is equipped with
a tubing plug nipple, with internal profile, to receive a tubing
plug or tool. These tubing plug profiles are used extensively
in down hole completion assemblies, especially as the completion becomes more complex. The plugs and tools set in these
internal tubing profiles are run on wireline, usually by a
wireline service company.

PACKER

PRODUCING
FORAMTION
BLAST JOINT
TUBING PLUG
NIPPLE
PRODUCTION
CASING

Figure 4.6. Installing Tubing

String

40

The next item up in the tubing string is a blast joint. Blast joints
are used, in lengths, to overlap the perforated interval and
resist the potentially erosive wear that might result from a
very productive zone, either oil or gas, as it enters the well
bore.
The next part of the downhole assembly is a hydraulically-set
packer. The packer is set by applying pressure to the tubing
string when it is in place and a tubing plug has been set in the
bottom tubing plug nipple. The increase in pressure drives
tapered segments together which, in turn, force the slip segments outwards to the bit into the production casing. At the
same time, the synthetic rubber sealing elements are squeezed
together to seal off the tubing casing annulus. The energy in
the seals and slips are maintained after the hydraulic pressure

Completing the Well

for Production

is released by a ratchet or wicker preparation within the

packer body. Mechanically set packers are commonly used in
this type of downhole completion.
The next item of equipment shown in the illustration is another blast joint, again placed to overlap the upper perforated
interval.
The next piece of equipment shown is a tubing overshot that
enables the lower part of the completion assembly to be left in
place so that the tubing can be pulled for inspection or modification. These tubing overshots are equipped with recoverable seals in the overshot section and are usually designed to
release with right-hand or left-hand rotation, as required. The
mandrel section of the tubing overshot is usually equipped
with an internal plug profile.
The next item up is a circulating joint, or sliding sleeve. The
circulating joint has an internal sleeve that can be moved up or
down to open or shut circulating ports. The internal sleeve has
a tubing plug profile so that a shifting tool can be set, and
locked into the sleeve. This operation is done on wireline.
After the shifting operation is complete, the shifting tool will
be recovered.
The rest of the tubing assembly shown consists of tubing
terminating at the tubing plug bushing which is threaded onto
the last joint of tubing. The upper end of the tubing plug
bushing is equipped with internal tubing threads so that a
landing joint of tubing can be installed.
The assembly just described constitutes the entire tubing
assembly for our example. It by no means describes all of the
equipment found in downhole completion assemblies and has
been used only to illustrate typical components in our theoretical well. All of the components and tubing are carefully
measured prior to running to ensure their correct position
inside the production casing.

TUBING

CIRCULATING JOINT OR
SLIDING SLEEVE

SEALING OVERSHOT
BLAST JOINT

BLAST JOINT

PACKER
SLIPS
PACKER SEALING
ELEMENT

BLAST JOINT

TUBING PLUG
NIPPLE

Figure 4.7. Illustration of a

typical completion tubing
string

41

Completing the Well

for Production

TREE CAP
SWAB VALVE
WING VALVE

UPPER
MASTER VALVE
LOWER
MASTER VALVE

TUBING HEAD

STARTING HEAD

TUBING STRING

PRODUCING
ZONE

Figure 4.8. Nipple down BOP Stack

and install production tree

42

After the tubing assembly has been run, a slick joint tubing
hanger will be installed on the last joint of tubing. The tubing
plug bushing and the tubing landing joint will then be added.
Next, the entire assembly is slowly lowered into place until the
tubing hanger seats and seals in the internal profile of the
tubing head.
A tubing plug will then be run on wireline and set in the
bottom tubing plug nipple. The tubing hanger seals will be
externally pressure tested and, assuming tests were successful, the hydraulic packer will be set by applying sufficient
internal hydraulic pressure to the tubing string. These setting
pressures can range from 1,000 psi or more. The setting of the
packer can usually be noted by a sudden jolt in the tubing
string. If a shear out plug has been used in the bottom of the
tubing string instead of a tubing plug, then a sudden drop in
pressure will be noted after the setting pressure has been
reached and the plug shears out of the bottom of the tubing.
After the hydraulic packer is set, the landing joint of tubing is
removed. The BOP stack is removed and the tubing bonnet is
bolted to the tubing head spool (Figure 4.8). This traps and
seals the tubing plug bushing.
The production tree, or christmas tree, can then be bolted to the
tubing bonnet. The next step is to displace the drilling fluid
from the tubing and the tubing casing annulus. This is done
by first mounting a wireline lubricator on top of the production tree. The wireline service company will then open the
swab valve and two production valves on the tree and then
lower the shifting tool down to the circulating sleeve. The
sleeve will be moved to the open position so that the circulating ports are open. The drilling fluid is displaced by water or
crude oil by pumping down the tubing by way of the upper
wing valve and taking the annulus returns through the annulus wing outlets.
Next, the wireline operator will shift the sleeve in the circulating joint to the closed position and retrieve the shifting tool. A

Completing the Well

for Production

FLOW COUPLING

retrieving tool will then be run in to recover the tubing plug

in the bottom of the tubing.
Now the well is live, but has
COMPLETION
not yet been unloaded (FigFLUID
ure 4.9). This unloading
operation describes the initial
production from the perforations in the producing formaFLUID FROMTHE
tion as it pushes the displaced
PRODUCING ZONE
water or crude oil out of the
tubing or annulus.

CIRCULATING JOINT
OR SLIDING SLEEVE

The unloading usually

starts slowly but, as the water
or dead oil is pushed out of
the well, it gains speed until
the live crude oil, with its associated gas, surges out flare
lines attached to the side outlets of the production tree into
a collection tank or sump.
When it is decided that the
producing zone, or zones, has
cleaned up sufficiently, the
well is closed by shutting the
production master valves and
the annulus wing valves.

SEATING NIPPLE
FLOW COUPLING

PRODUCTION
TUBING

UPPER
PRODUCTION ZONE

PACKER

The flowlines from the well

are then connected to any processing equipment required
before the crude oil or gas
enters the main gathering
LOWER
PRODUCTION ZONE
lines. Simple processing of
the produced oil and/or gas
Figure 4.9. Illustration showing includes de-watering, or sepathe well being "unloaded", or rating, the bulk of the gas from Figure 4.10. Dual zone completion
through the production casing anbrought on stream
the crude oil.
nulus

43

Completing the Well

for Production

FLOW
COUPLING
SEATING
NIPPLE
FLOW COUPLING
FLOW COUPLING
SLIDING SLEEVE
FLOW COUPLING

UPPER PACKER
FLOW COUPLING
SEATING NIPPLE
FLOW COUPLING
PERFORATED
SPACER TUBE

PINNED COLLAR

SEATING NIPPLE

UPPER
PRODUCTION
ZONE
BLAST JOINT
FLOW COUPLING

LOWER PACKER

SEATING NIPPLE
PERFORATED
SPACER TUBE
SEATING NIPPLE

LOWER
PRODUCTION ZONE

Figure 4.11. Dual zone completion through the a second tubing

string

44

Dual Zone Completions and

Dual Zone Completions
through the Production Annulus
The rig is then set up to run
the production tubing and
downhole production assembly into the casing. The illustration in Figure 4.10 shows
dual zone completion using a TUBING STRING
TUBING STRING
FOR UPPER
LOWER
single tubing string. In this FOR
PRODUCING ZONE
PRODUCING ZONE
case, the bottom of the tubing
is equipped with a tubing plug Figure 4.12. Dual string tubing
nipple with internal profile to hanger
receive a tubing plug or tool.
These tubing plug profiles are used extensively in down hole
completion assemblies, especially as the completion becomes
more complex. The plugs and tools set in these internal tubing
profiles are run on wireline, usually by a wireline service
company). While this technique has been practiced, it is not
common.
Dual Zone Completions with a Second Tubing String
A Second way of configuring a dual zone completion is with
a second packer and tubing string. The illustration in Figure
4.11 shows dual zone completion using two tubing strings. In
this case, a second packer is set above the upper producing
zone which allows the first tubing string to pass through it and
has a recepticle for a second tubing string. The tubing strings
will usually be designed with more flow control equipment in
it. The plugs and tools used to set plugs and control the tubing
tools will again be run on wireline.
When a dual zone completion is considered with a second
tubing string, the tubing hanger at the surface will be configured to accomodate two tubing strings (Figure 4.12). In this
case, the production tree will have two master valves, two
swab valves and two wing valves in the each tubing string.

Completing the Well

for Production

A completion tree that accomodates a dual zone completion

will have two production bores (Figure 4.13). Typically, a
master valve block is utilized to reduce leak paths and reduce
stack up heights.
Conclusion
Our theoretical well is now complete and has been used to
illustrate a number of the operations and practices used in
drilling and completing wells. There are many variations to
the size and ratings of wellheads, BOPs and production trees,
not to mention the corrosive problems of H2S and CO2.
However, it is hoped that these notes have given the reader an
insight into the fundamentals of onshore operations.

Figure 4.13. Typical Dual completion tree

45

Casing & Casing Connectors

Used in Offshore Drilling
Function ..................................................................................... 47
Grades of Steel ........................................................................... 49
Thread Forms ............................................................................ 49
Special Large Diameter Thread Forms .................................. 52
Special Large Diameter Connectors ........................................ 52
Offshore Casing Programs ....................................................... 55

Casing & Casing Connectors

Used in Offshore Drilling

Function
The function of steel casing in drilled wells is to provide a
strong sheath, or liner, to the hole. The casing selected for a
particular size of hole will be expected to withstand external
formation pressures acting to collapse the casing as well as
resist anticipated internal pressures trying to burst the casing.
The tensile strength of the casing will also be carefully reviewed with respect to the length and weight of casing being
suspended in the hole.
Casing that has been cemented in place has an improved
resistance to burst pressure, but this extra burst capacity is
usually discounted as the quality of the cement behind the
casing is not quantifiable. The purpose of cement in the
casing/hole annulus is generally to stop the migration of
fluids or gases from a zone to the surface. It also aids in
improving the pile or load-bearing (compressive strength)
capacity of surface conductors and casing strings. Casing
provides a smooth internal bore for the passage of drilling
tools and downhole assemblies while, at the same time, giving
a maximum guaranteed bore dimension (drift diameter). This
is particularly important in order to avoid the possibility of
jamming downhole equipment into the casing.

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

Minimum
Yield
PSI *

Minimum
Tensile
PSI **

Grade

API
Specs

5L & 5LS

Line Pipe Conductor, Structural

30,000

48,000

5L & 5LS

Line Pipe, Conductor, Structural

35,000

60,000

H-40

5A

Casing, Tubing

40,000

60,000

X-52

5LS & 5LX

Line Pipe, Conductor, Marine Riser

52,000

66,000

X-56

5LS & 5LX

Line Pipe, Conductor, Marine Riser

56,000

75,000

J-55

5A

Casing, Tubing

55,000

75,000

K-55

5A

Casing, Tubing (Corrosion Resistant)

55,000

95,000

X-65

5LS & 5LX

Line Pipe, Marine Riser

65,000

80,000

E-75

5A

Drill Pipe

75,000

100,000

C-75

5AC

Casing, Tubing (Corrosion Resistant)

75,000

95,000

N-80

5A

Casing, Tubing

80,000

100,000

X-95

5AX

Drill Pipe

95,000

105,000

P-105

5AX

Tubing

105,000

120,000

G-105

5AX

Drill Pipe

105,000

115,000

P-110

5AX

Casing

110,000

125,000

Q-125

5AQ

Casing

125,000

135,000

S-135

5AX

Drill Pipe

135,000

145,000

V-150

5AX

Casing

150,000

160,000

Application

* Minimum value of stress or elongation, before permanent deformation occurs

* *Maximum value of stress or elongation, before permanent deformation occurs
Figure 5.1

48

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

Grades of Steel
Casing is made from various grades of steel with different wall
thicknesses to accommodate the physical requirements of
burst, collapse, tensile strength and drift diameter (mentioned
earlier). Also, the chemical composition of the steel is important if the casing is to resist corrosive gases or fluids, or if it is
to be easily welded to other steel components. Welding to
casing is not generally very easy because of the high carbon
content in the steel alloys used for the casing.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has set the accepted
industry standards for the dimensional, physical and chemical properties of casing, tubing, drill pipe and line pipe. Figure
5.1 is a brief summary of the grades of pipe most commonly
used in the oil industry.
Thread Forms
The thread forms used in casing couplings and connections
are required to provide a strong, pressure tight means of
screwing lengths of casing together.
The simplest thread form used in the oil industry is a rounded
thread machined directly on to the pipe ends. Usually, there
are 8 threads per inch and the thread form is machined on a
taper of 3/4" per foot. The threaded end of the casing is called
a male thread, or pin. The casing coupling is a short length of
large diameter pipe, threaded internally with a matching
thread form. The coupling is usually installed on one threaded
end (at the mill site). The exposed half of the coupling thread
form is called a female thread, or box. The casing is normally
run in the hole in a box up/pin down manner.
The eight-round thread form is a metal-to-metal sealing thread
when made up to the recommended torque value. As deeper
wells were drilled, the demands for increased tensile load
capacity and pressure ratings increased and new thread forms
were developed. Longer couplings were used to extend
thread forms and rugged square thread forms (with 5 threads

49

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

Typical Standard Casing Thread Forms

API Non-Upset Threaded and

Coupled joint with 8 Round
threads per inch

Mill Buttress Threaded and

Coupled joint with 5 threads per
inch

Threaded and Coupled Joint with

Square Thread Form and Trapped
Pin Ends

API Modified Threaded and

Coupled Joint with Teflon Seal
Ring

Integral Threaded Joint with

Resilient Seal Ring

Integral 2 Step Threaded Joint

with Metal-to-Metal Seals

Figure 5.2

50

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

per inch) were machined on the pipe ends giving rise to the
commonly used mill buttress casing.
Couplings, with internal shoulders, were introduced to prevent thread galling problems caused by over-torque. The
internal shoulders were prepared with a reverse angle to trap
the nose of the pin end of the thread and to also generate a
metal-to-metal seal.
Sometimes, the casing was prepared with an upset or thicker
walled section at each end so that a stronger thread form could
be machined directly on to the upset section. Teflon seals were
introduced and two step thread forms were used in special
cases. The following cross sections give a brief look at some of

HORIZONTAL CAM
KEY

E-60

S-60

C-60

FB-60

H-60

H-90

S-60D

FB-60D

H-60D

H-90D

D-60

D-90

VERTICAL SLOT
KEY

Figure 5.3. Illustration of the AntiRotation Keys of the threaded

Specialty Connectors

Cross Section of DRIL-QUIP QUIK-THREAD and

Multi-Threaded Specialty Connectors
Figure 5.4

51

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

the more popular casing connections (Figure 5.2).

Special Large Diameter Thread Forms
The thread forms previously illustrated could be used on
nearly all casing sizes up to 20" OD. The main problem with
fine thread forms on large diameter pins and boxes is cross
threading. This results in a lot of expensive lost time when
running the casing. The answer to this problem has been
solved on large diameter casing and conductors, up to 30" OD,
by using very coarse 2-pitch or 3-pitch rounded thread forms
on generous tapers (Figure 5.3). These new thread forms
allow good stabbing characteristics and fast thread make-up,

SL-60

SF-60

NS-60

HD-90

NF-60

HF-90

FOD-90

Cross Section of DRIL-QUIP QUIK-STAB

Weight Set Specialty Connectors
Figure 5.5

MULTIPLE LOAD
SHOULDER

ANTIROTATION
PIN

DUAL TAPER

LOCK RING
INSTALLATION
GROOVE

while virtually eliminating cross threading. These proprietary thread forms are machined on pin and box forgings and
the finished pins and boxes are then welded on to line pipe.
Resilient seals are usually used to provide the pressure integrity of the joint. The reverse back angles on thread forms and
shoulders are used to provide additional burst capacity and
bending load capacity.
Special Large Diameter Connectors
There are some instances where the use of threaded connectors is not the best practical means of connecting large diameter tubulars together. Sometimes, with poor surface hole

Figure 5.6. Cross section of the

Quik-Stab Connector

52

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

conditions, the speed of running the conductor or casing

becomes the most important criteria. For these occasions,
automatic connectors that use lock rings provide the fastest
means of make-up (Figure 5.5). These automatic connectors
are machined from pin and box forgings and welded to
lengths of line pipe. The pin member usually carries a lock ring
which is depressed as the box member stabs over the pin.
When the box is correctly seated, the lock ring snaps in to a
matching groove in the box and the two connector halves are
locked together. Large resilient seals are carried on the pin
member and seal against prepared surfaces inside the box
member. These special large diameter connectors also incorporate an anti-rotation feature, usually a key, or pin, that is
located in a matching slot or groove on the box member
(Figure 5.6).
These large diameter connectors are automatic and particularly useful when tubulars need to be lowered down into the
hole without the risk of any rotation induced by the make-up
of connectors. The connection at the bottom of the subsea
Hole/Bit
Size

Casing
Size

Grades of
Steel

Setting Depths
Below Sea Floor

36"

30" OD x 1.000" Wall

310 lb-ft

A or B Line Pipe

100' - 500'

26"

20" OD x 0.625" Wall

133 lb-ft

X-52 / X-56

400' - 1600'

17-1/2"

13-3/8" OD 68 lb-ft

J-55 - N-80

1400' - 5000'

12-1/4'

9-5/8" OD 47 lb-ft

C75 - P110

4000' - 13000'

8-1/2"

7" OD 23-35 lb-ft

C75 - V150

6000' - 22000'

Figure 5.7

wellhead housing joint is a case in point. The object here is to

avoid any rotation from being imported to the cam actuated

53

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

Typical Offshore Casing Program

30" x 20" x 13-3/8" x 9-5/8" x 7"
Mudline Suspension Equipment

18-3/4" Subsea Wellhead System

150' - 500'

36" HOLE
30" CASING

500' - 1600'

26" HOLE
20" CASING

17-1/2" HOLE
2000' - 4500'

13-3/8" CASING

12-1/4" HOLE
5000' - 12000'

6000' - 20000"

9-5/8" CASING

8-1/2" HOLE
7" CASING

Figure 5.8

54

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

running tool used to lower the wellhead housing into position.

Automatic connectors also find widespread use in hammer
driven conductors and piles, where no threaded make-up
capability exists. The following cross sections of DRILQUIP's automatic connectors amply illustrate the features
discussed in this section.
Offshore Casing Programs
The most commonly used casing program used in offshore
exploration drilling,, from bottom supported or floating drilling vessels, is tabulated below.
The illustration in Figure 5.8 gives a diagrammatic crosssection through a mudline suspension system and a subsea
wellhead system showing the relationship of hole size to
casing.
The classic casing program illustrated will be modified if an
additional casing string is required, or one is left out. An extra
casing string may be required to shut off a lost circulation zone
or a section of hole with caving or swelling shale problems.
Some examples of other casing programs follow:
Examples:
36" x 24" x 18-5/8" x 13-3/8" x 9-5/8" x 7" Casing Program
30" x 20" x 16" x 13-3/8" x 9-5/8" x 7" Casing Program
30" x 16" x 10-3/4" x 7-5/8" Casing Program
The last example is more likely to be used for a development
well as the drilling conditions are known and the protective
casing strings, anticipated in the exploration well, can be left
out. Also in development drilling, the production string of
casing will be designed to accommodate the largest downhole
tubing completion compatible with the expected production
of oil and/or gas.

55

Casing and Casing

Connectors Used in
Offshore Drilling

The casing program design becomes very important in development drilling. It ensures that optimum sizes of casing are
used, still maintaining accepted safety or design factors, relative to the economics of drilling the well and it's productive
life.
Design factors used in casing string analyses are justifiably
conservative. Using a factor of 1.00 to represent the material strength of the casing in question, commonly used
design factors are tension 1.75, burst 1.5 and collapse 1.1.

56

Offshore Drilling from a

Jackup Drilling Vessel
Introduction ............................................................................... 57
Jack-up Drilling Vessels ........................................................... 60
Drilling a Well From a Jack-Up Drilling Vessel Using
Mudline Suspension Equipment and a Conventional
Surface Wellhead System ................................................... 61
Introduction ............................................................................... 61
Mudline Suspension Equipment .............................................. 61
Primary Conductor Installation .............................................. 63
Flow Diverters ........................................................................... 66
Drilling Ahead For the 20" Casing String .............................. 67
Running and Cementing the 20" Casing ................................ 67
Running and Cementing 13-3/8" Casing ................................ 71
Running and Cementing 9-5/8" Casing .................................. 74
7" Mudline Casing String......................................................... 76
Well Abandonment ................................................................... 76
Installing Temporary Abandonment Corrosion Caps .......... 78
Alternative Stab-in TA Caps .................................................... 80

Table of Contents

Offshore Drilling from a

Jackup Drilling Vessel

Introduction
The previous chapters of this manual have been focused on
the review of common practices and procedures for drilling a
development well on land, and completing the well for production. The next chapters will be devoted to a similar
treatment of drilling and completing wells offshore.
The natural evolution of offshore drilling occurred when the
known geological formations of existing oil or gas fields could
easily be extrapolated beneath coastlines, waterways or lakes
in producing areas. The means to tap into these additional
reserves was achieved by extending jetties and causeways out
into the open water. These jetties and causeways provided a
solid base for the land drilling rigs to be established, and
development or exploration wells were drilled and completed using the land drilling techniques previously described
in this manual. This form of offshore drilling was established
around the year 1900 and was the primary method of developing offshore reserves of oil and gas for many years (Figure
6.1).
The concept of using a customized barge with the drilling rig
and required support equipment was put into practice in
Louisiana in the early 1930's. The original intention was that
the barge would provide a stable floating base to drill from.
Figure 6.1. Jetty drilling and Jack-up

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

Figure 6.2. Time Chart; Evolution of Offshore Drilling

However, the load of equipment and material on board caused

it to rest on the bottom of the shallow bayou where it was
located. Drilling proceeded from the partially submerged
barge and the first "submersible" drilling vessel was in business.
Meanwhile, the improvements in seismic surveys and geological extrapolations indicated the existence of many large
geological structures under the shallow waters of the Gulf of
Mexico. To reach these locations many miles offshore, the cost
of establishing jetties and causeways was prohibitive and
therefore more mobile or independent drilling bases were
designed and built (Figure 6.2). These designs evolved from
58

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

CROWN BLOCK
WATER TABLE
DRILLING LINE
MAST OR
DERRICK STRUCTURE
JACK-UP LEG
TRAVELING BLOCK
GOOSENECK
ROTARY HOSE
STAND PIPE

HOOK
SWIVEL
KELLY COCK
KELLY

MUD PUMP OR
SLUSH PUMP

STAND PIPE
VALVE

KELLY BUSHINGS
ROTARY TABLE
RIG FLOOR
ROTARY BEAMS
KELLY SAVER SUB
SUBSTRUCTURE

SUCTION PIT
SETTLING PIT
SHALE SHAKER

RETURN FLOWLINE
BELL NIPPLE
BLOWOUT PREVENTER
STACK
CASING HEAD

30" RISER

JACK-UP HULL

WATER LINE
20" CASING

RELEASABLE
CONNECTOR
MUDLINE SUSPENSION
SYSTEM

MUDLINE

DRIVEN 30" CONDUCTOR

DRILL PIPE
CEMENTED 20" CASING

Figure 6.3

CASING SHOE
ANNULUS RETURNS
DRILL COLLARS
DRILL COLLAR SUB

WELLBORE

DRILLING BIT

59

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

the "jetty" and "submersible" technology already established,

as shown in the time chart.
These new offshore drilling and productions systems; platforms, jack-ups, semi-submersibles, drillships, and tension
leg platforms are described in the following chapters.
Jack-up Drilling Vessels
Jack-ups are the most commonly used mobile drilling vessels
used in offshore exploration and/or development drilling.
The basic design of a jack-up drilling vessel is a custom built
floating hull section equipped with a complete drilling rig and
living quarters for operating personnel. The jack-up is also
equipped with three or more large legs that can be raised or
lowered using powerful jacking assemblies. The jack-up is
generally towed to location by tugs with the legs in the raised
position. When at the selected drilling site, the legs are jacked
down to the sea floor or lake bed. Quite often, a prior survey
of bottom soil conditions will have given an idea of the
penetration that can be expected from the legs. It is common
practice for the feet of the legs of the jack-up to be equipped
with water jets to assist in getting the legs down through mud
etc. to solid, load-bearing strata. When each leg is determined
to be on solid footing, it will be separately load-tested to ensure
that the legs will not move down unexpectedly when the hull
section, with its full operating load, is jacked up to its operating height above the water. This height, or air gap, is generally
in the range of 60-80 ft. above the mean-water level depending
on sea or weather conditions expected. In this mode, the jackup provides a stable platform for wells to be drilled using
conventional land drilling techniques.
Jack-ups can drill in water depths of 50 ft. to 500 ft. depending
on their size, specifications and bottom conditions. Some jackups are equipped with a reinforced steel sea-floor, mat,
which is attached to the legs of the jack-up and rests on the seafloor when the legs are jacked down. The purpose of the mat
is to distribute the downward load from the legs more evenly,
as a means of avoiding the point loading that occurs when
60

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

individual legs penetrate the sea-floor.

The drilling mast, or derrick, on jack-ups is generally designed
to move laterally within the hull section of the jack-up so that
a number of wells can be drilled from the jack-up on a known
well center spacing. This feature is particularly useful if the
jack-up is drilling wells through a sea floor drilling template,
or if it is being used in a cantilever mode over an established
steel platform jacket with multiple well conductors.
As noted previously, jack-ups come in various sizes and
configurations. The smaller jack-ups may not have enough
space or capacity to house all of the pipe racks, pumps or
drilling fluid storage that a conventional land rig set-up would
include. The use of a tender, or customized barge, with all
of the necessary support equipment on it and adjacent to the
jack-up provides the extra space and capacity.

CONVENTIONAL WELLHEAD
SYSTEM

MUDLINE SYSTEM

Drilling a Well From a Jack-Up Drilling Vessel Using

Mudline Suspension Equipment and a Conventional Surface Wellhead System
Introduction
This section of the manual describes the equipment and general practices used in drilling a single offshore exploratory
well from a jack-up. The assumption is made that the reader
is already familiar with land drilling and completion practices.
Mudline Suspension Equipment
The use of mudline suspension equipment in drilling wells
from jack-ups has become a common practice. In the early
days of jack-up drilling, the primary conductor would have
been made up from welded sections of large diameter steel
pipe. The subsequent casing strings would be suspended
from the casing heads and spools installed at the cellar-deck
level. There are seldom any disconnect points in the conductor
or the casing strings at the mudline. They would be removed
by cutting through all of the strings at or below the mudline

61

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

System Features
Standard service system rated for 15,000 psi
H2S service system rated for 10,000 psi
High load carrying capacity
Stack down system
Running Tool Features
Right hand rotation releases running tool.
Wash out ports are located in the running
tool and not the hanger.
Two resilient seals and a metal-to-metal seal
are located above the wash out ports in order
to assure re-seal after wash out.
The seal below the wash out ports is located
sufficiently (3 turns) from the ports so that no
cement can be washed into the threads.
A one-way seal located at the bottom of the
running tool protects the tie-back seal areas
during wash out.
All running tools are fully aligned prior to
thread contact to prevent cross-threading in
case the tool must be remotely stabbed.
Available without wash ports.
Hanger Features
Large flow-by area designed to allow full
360o bearing area between load shoulder and
landing shoulder for greater hanging capacity.
All hangers stack down, fully exposing the
tie-back thread and seal areas.
Running and setting of hangers is accomplished in a single trip.
All hangers are simple weight set designs.
No rotation or lifting is required to set the
hangers.
Each mudline hanger is equipped with a left
hand running thread and right hand tie-back
thread.
Two separate metal-to-metal seal preparations
are included in each hanger. One running
tool seal area and one for tie-back tools.

MS-15 Mudline Suspension System

Figure 6.4

62

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

using a mechanical cutter run on drill pipe, or alternatively

blasted apart using one large explosive charge run inside the
last casing string. Mudline suspension equipment provides a
means of mechanically disconnecting all conductor and casing strings at or below the sea level.
The following summary of the major features of a modern
mudline suspension system also highlights additional advantages:

Casing loads are suspended at or below the sea-bed

(mudline) which means the loads supported at the
cellar-deck level are greatly reduced.

Each mudline suspension casing hanger is equipped

with a mechanical disconnect point, usually in the form
of a coarse right hand release thread form. This means
that cutting tools and explosives are not required when
abandoning the well either temporarily or permanently.

Usually a re-connection point is also provided in the

mudline casing hanger design so that a well can be reentered with tie-back strings and seals. These reconnection points are usually in the form of right hand
make-up thread forms.

Mudline casing hangers are usually designed with

circulation ports that can be opened and closed mechanically. These circulation ports are used to circulate
out any excess cement that has got into the annulus
above the casing hanger during the casing cementing
operation.

The pressure and load capacity ratings of mudline

casing hangers are normally greater than the attached
casing strings.

Primary Conductor Installation

After the jack-up has been elevated to its drilling position and

63

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

RELEASING
SCREWS

the support equipment is all in place and hooked up, the next
operation is to establish the primary drilling conductor which
is generally driven into place with a diesel or steam hammer.

RESILIENT SEAL

The primary conductor is usually made up of 40 ft. sections

(sometimes 50 ft.) of thick walled large diameter steel pipe. 30"
ANTI-ROTATION
O.D. x 1" wall pipe is commonly used, but larger sizes and
PIN
different wall thicknesses are used in special applications. The
40 ft. lengths of conductor can either be welded together or be
Figure 6.5. 30" Quik-Stab Connector
equipped with specialty connectors that fit together very
quickly. These specialty connectors can be the automatic
variety using a lock ring that snaps into a lock ring groove as
the two halves come together, or they can use large modified
square thread forms that require rotation and torque to make
up the joints (Figure 6.5). These large diameter connectors
usually have generous bearing shoulders to withstand heavy
driving loads and are equipped with large resilient seals.
LOCK-RING

LOCKING
SEGMENTS

RESILIENT
SEALS

HF-60/90
QUIK-STAB
CONNECTOR
BOX PROFILE

Figure 6.6. 30" Quik-Jay Connector

Some primary conductor strings will also include a remotely

releasable connector above the mudline (Figure 6.6). This
connector must also provide the ability to be reconnected in
the event the well will be tied back for subsequent drilling or
completion.
The 30" conductor string may also be equipped with an
internal landing shoulder that will be positioned at, or near,
the sea-bed after the conductor is driven into place. The
landing shoulder will provide the seat for the mudline casing
hanger on the next casing string.
For handling purposes, the
40 ft. lengths of conductor
may be equipped with two
steel pad-eyes with a flat
landing base. These pad
eyes are usually welded to
the outside of the conductor about 3 ft. from the
upper end and are used to

64

45 DEGREE LANDING
SHOULDER

MINIMUM ID

Figure 6.7. 30" Buttweld Sub

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

land the joint at the rotary table, or on a false rotary, so that the
next joint can be connected. When the next joint has been
connected, the conductor string is picked up and the pad eyes
are cut off. The conductor string is then lowered until the next
set of pad eyes lands at the rotary table. This procedure
continues until the conductor string starts to take weight on
the sea-floor. At this point, the conductor string will be driven
by a diesel or steam hammer. Conductor lengths are added as
the conductor string is driven downwards into its refusal
position. The point of refusal will be stated as a number of
blows-per-foot for a two or three foot interval. The size and
energy output of the hammer will be used to determine the
required blows-per-foot at refusal. An alternative to using
pad eyes for running the conductor is to use two sets of
conductor elevators, one set used as a landing shoulder and
the other set to pick up and lower the next joint into position.
Figure 6.8 illustrates the components in a driven conductor
string.
The shoe joint of a driven conductor is open-ended with the
shoe being reinforced with additional metal and prepared
with a vee shaped or wedge shaped cross-section.
The required penetration of the primary conductor into the
sea-floor will have been established before the conductor
string is assembled and lowered to the sea-floor. The required
minimum penetration is usually determined by the local
regulating authorities with a stated number of blows per foot
as the conductor reaches refusal conditions.

HAMMER JOINT

CONDUCTOR
PIPE

QUIK-STAB
CONNECTOR

QUIK-JAY
CONNECTOR

BUTTWELD
SUB

QUIK-STAB
CONNECTOR

If the driving conditions are difficult, the conductor may not

be close to minimum penetration depth even though refusal DRIVING SHOE
conditions have been met. In this case, the drilling rig is set up
to drill out of the shoe and into formation below to a specified
depth. The drilling assembly is pulled out of the hole and Figure 6.8. 30" primary conductor
driving operations are re-started.
casing string
There are two other means of getting the primary conductor
into place. These consist of drilling a hole and cementing the

65

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

PACKER ELEMENT
DIVERTER ASSEMBLY

ROTARY TABLE AND

SUB STRUCTURE

conductor in place, or jetting the conductor into position.

These methods are generally not used as they tend to disturb
the bottom sediments more than the driving method, and
therefore reduce the pressure containing capability of the
installed conductor.
Assuming the primary conductor has been driven into place,
it is most likely that the last conductor section added to the
drive string will be cut off at the cellar-deck level. A large
flanged starting head, or casing head, will then be welded to
the conductor. This starting head may have an internal
landing shoulder to land the casing hanger from the next
casing string.

DIVERTER HOUSING

OVERSHOT RISER
SPOOL

OVERSHOT
PACKER
ASSEMBLY

CONDUCTOR SUB

Figure 6.9. Flow Diverter

66

The section of the primary conductor above the sea bed is

called a riser, so named because it has raised the circulation
level of the drilling fluid from ground zero. In this case, the
circulation level is raised from the sea floor to the cellar-deck
level of the jack-up directly below the rotary table. This riser
section of the conductor will normally be in compression and
may need lateral support. If the riser section is particularly
long and the conductor cannot be used in a free-standing
condition, then a tensioning system comprising pad-eyes and
turnbuckles will be used to support the riser.
Flow Diverters
The use of flow diverter systems on jack-up drilling vessels has
become a common practice, particularly in exploratory drilling (Figure 6.9). The flow diverter will be installed on the
primary conductor and it may consist of a large annular
preventer, or a customized flow diverter. The purpose of the
flow diverter system is to provide a means of closing the
annular space between the drill pipe and the primary conductor above large bore side outlets. The flow diverter system is
activated in the event of drilling into an unexpected pocket of
shallow formation gas at a pressure which overcomes the
hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid in the hole creating a
potential blowout condition. The rubber packing element in
the annular preventer, or flow diverter, is closed on the drill

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

pipe. If there is no drill pipe in the hole, the packing element

is designed to close off the open hole. At the same time a large
side outlet below the diverter is opened to a large bore flare
line extending outboard of the jack-up. There is usually more
than one flare line, and the choice will depend on prevailing
wind direction. The fluid and/or gas coming out of the well
is allowed to blow out of the flare line, clear of the rig, with no
effort to control the well bore pressure. Most shallow pockets
of gas are small in volume and will blow down quite fast,
sometimes in a matter of minutes but usually in a few hours.
Any effort to put back pressure on the formation by a choke
mechanism may cause the formation to break down at the
conductor shoe, leading to the potential hazards mentioned
earlier, namely gas breakthrough at the sea floor and possible
cratering. When the blow of gas from the shallow packet is
exhausted, the drilling fluid column will be re-established and
the drilling operations can proceed again. Because of the
dangerous conditions that can exist during the operation, all of
the control functions of the flow diverter system can be controlled from a remote or alternative location on the jack-up.
Drilling Ahead For the 20" Casing String
When the diverter system has been installed at the top of the
primary conductor, the bell nipple and mud return flowline
will be hooked up and drilling for the next casing string can
commence. Sea water will almost certainly be used as the
drilling fluid and the hole will be drilled to casing depth. The
hole will be circulated clear of cuttings and the drilling assembly will be pulled out of the hole.

ALIGNING
PROFILES

ALIGNING
PROFILE

RESILIENT SEAL

Figure 6.10. Quik Thread Connector

Running and Cementing the 20" Casing

The next casing string used inside the primary conductor will
be large diameter, usually in the size range 16"-24" OD. The
most common size is 20" OD and is usually supplied in 40 ft.
lengths and equipped with right hand threaded connections.
Because the daily operating costs for jack-up drilling are high,
a lot of attention is given to time saving equipment and
practices. Fast make-up connections specially designed for

67

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

large diameter conductors and casing is one area where considerable time savings are achieved over traditional thread
forms.

CASING THREADS
METAL SEAL BACK-UP
RESILIENT SEALS
WASH OUT PORTS
RESILIENT SEALS
RUNNING THREADS
ONE WAY SEALS

Figure 6.11. 20" Mudline Hanger

Running Tool

TIE-BACK THREADS
RUNNING THREADS

20" OD casing can be supplied from most pipe mills with 8

round threads per inch or a mill buttress thread form with 5
threads per inch. In practice, these threads can be difficult to
make-up offshore, particularly if high winds are prevailing
and cross-threading is not uncommon.
Modern thread forms for 20" casing are usually 2 or 3 threads
per inch, which means the threads are coarser, therefore more
rugged and less prone to damage (Figure 6.10). Also, the
threads are a rounded design and machined on a generous
stabbing taper sometimes incorporating a reverse angle on the
back flank of the thread form to create very positive engagement and greater burst capacity. Most of these modern
threaded connections come equipped with a resilient seal and
many are designed with metal-to-metal sealing capabilities.
These proprietary threaded pin and box couplings are usually
machined from high quality steel forgings and are equipped
with a 20" weld preparation to match the plain end 20" OD
pipe. Some manufacturers provide the completed 40' long
joints or weld the pin and box connectors to the 20" pipe
provided by their customers.

LANDING RING
FLOW-BY HOLES
RETAINER RING

LANDING
SHOULDER FOR
13-3/8" MUDLINE
HANGER

CASING THREADS

Figure 6.12. 20" Shoulder Hanger

68

Sometimes in special circumstances, automatic connectors

with incorporated lock-rings are used. These pin and box
connectors simply stab together using the weight of the casing
joint and lock ring, usually carried on the pin member and
snaps into position in a lock ring groove on the box member.
The casing string is made up using the threaded connections
in a box up/pin down mode. Each length of casing used
would be recorded and the mudline suspension casing hanger
and running tool would be spaced out precisely in the casing
string. The running string of casing above the running tool is
usually identical to the casing string suspended from the
mudline suspension hanger (Figures 6.10 and 6.11). The
running string is also spaced out so that no coupling or

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

connection interferes with the subsequent wrap-around casing hanger installation in the surface casing head.
When the casing string has been run and landed correctly on
the mudline shoulder in the primary conductor, the running
string will extend above the rotary table and the cementing
head will be attached to the top of the casing.
The cementing of the casing string then takes place in the same
manner as described in the land drilling section of this manual.
The only difference in the cementing operation using a mudline
suspension system is that any excess cement in the annulus
above the mudline casing hanger has to be washed out. If not,
the running tool will get cemented in place making recovery
of the running string at the end of the well rather more
difficult. The removal of any excess cement is usually achieved
by opening washout ports in the mudline hanger or the
running tool by rotating the running string 6 turns to the right.
The coarse right-hand release threads on the running tool
cause the tool to back off from its running position to expose
the washout ports. The excess cement is circulated out of the
annulus by pumping water or drilling fluid down the running
string and taking returns from the annulus. When all of the
cement has been cleaned out, the washout ports are closed by
rotating the running string 6 turns to the left so that the
running tool re-seats in its running position and the ports are
sealed off. It has become accepted practice to spot several
barrels of cement retarder around the running tool prior to
closing the ports.
There are certain occasions when operational requirements
mean that the cement slurry in the annulus (above the hanger)
has to be washed out using small diameter tubing lowered
down into the casing/conductor annulus.
At this point, the cement head will be removed and the flow
diverter etc. will be disconnected from the starting casing Figure 6.13. 20" Mudline Running
head. The flow diverter assembly will be lifted up to expose Tool made up to the Shoulder Hanger
and ready to run

69

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

STARTING
HEAD

20" CASING

30" CASING

Surface Wellhead after the 20" Casing

has been Installed

20" Shoulder Hanger and

Running Tool Landed
Figure 6.14

70

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

the running string of 20" casing. Then the 20" casing is cut at
a specified distance above the top of the 30" conductor flange
and a 20" socket weld casing hanger is welded to the 20" casing
stub. Usually the socket weld casing head will sit directly on
the 30" conductor and it will have short stabilizer ribs that
centralize the casing head with respect to the 30" conductor.
The 20" casing head will have two side outlets and an internal
landing profile for the 13-3/8" surface casing hanger.
The next step in drilling the well is to install a BOP stack on the
20" casing head. Some rigs will have two BOP stacks e.g. a 203/4" 2,000 psi BOP stack and a 13-5/8" 10,000 psi BOP stack. In
this case, the 20-3/4" BOP stack would be installed on the 20"
casing head, and the 13-5/8" BOP stack would be installed on
the next (13-3/8)" casing spool. If the rig is equipped with a
single BOP stack it will most likely be an 18-3/4" 10,000 psi (or
15,000 psi) BOP stack. Some vessels may have a 16-3/4" BOP
stack but this size is not very common these days. For our
theoretical well, the assumption is that a single 18-3/4" BOP
stack is available and is therefore installed on the 20" casing
head. The rig is then set up to drill a 17-1/2" hole for the 133/8" casing string.
The next section of the 17-1/2" hole is then drilled to casing
depth with the BOP stack in place. The drilling procedures
used are the same as described in the land drilling chapter of
this manual.
There are various adaptations and alternative equipment
selections that can change the basic procedures just described.
Running and Cementing 13-3/8" Casing
The 13-3/8" casing string will include a mudline hanger
running tool (Figure 6.15) and a mudline suspension hanger
(Figure 6.16). Care will be taken when spacing out the 13-3/
8" casing string to ensure that no casing coupling interferes
with the subsequent installation of the wrap-around hanger in
the surface casing head.

71

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

The 13-3/8" casing string is

run into the hole and the landing ring on the mudline
hanger seats on the internal
landing shoulder of the 20"
mudline hanger. The last joint
of 13-3/8" casing will extend
above the rotary table and a
cementing head will be installed. Cementing of the 133/8" casing then takes place.
If any cement slurry finishes
up in the 20" x 13-3/8" annulus above the mudline hanger,
it can washed out by rotating
the running string 6 turns to
the right to expose the washout ports in the running tool,
and circulating out the excess
cement. At this point, it is
considered good practice to
spot up to 10 barrels of cement
retarder at the mudline
hanger. The running string is
then rotated 6 turns to the left
to close the washout ports.

CASING THREADS

METAL-TO-METAL SEAL

RESILIENT SEALS
WASH PORTS
RESILIENT SEALS

RUNNING THREADS

ONE WAY SEAL

Figure 6.15. 13-3/8" Running Tool

METAL-TO-METAL
SEAL
TIE-BACK THREAD
RUNNING THREAD

LANDING RING
FLOW-BY HOLES

RETAINER RING

After the cement has set, or

the well is considered safe,
the BOP stack is disconnected
MULTIPLE LOAD
SHOULDER
from the casing spool and
raised about 2 feet to expose
the 13-3/8" casing. A wraparound casing hanger and seal
assembly will be installed CASING THREADS
Figure 6.17. 13-3/8" Running Tool
around the casing and then
made up to the 13-3/8" Shoulder
sealed in to the prepared pro Figure 6.16. 13-3/8" Shoulder Hanger Hanger ready to run
file in the casing spool. Usually this type of hanger will
72

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

CASING
SPOOL

13-3/8"
CASING
STARTING
HEAD

20"
CASING
30"
CASING

Surface Wellhead after the 13-3/8"

Casing has been Installed

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

13-3/8" Shoulder Hanger and

Running Tool Landed
Figure 6.18

73

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

CASING THREADS

METAL-TO-METAL
SEAL
RESILIENT SEALS
WASH PORTS
RESILIENT SEALS

RUNNING THREADS

ONE WAY SEAL

Figure 6.19. 9-5/8" Running Tool

METAL-TO-METAL
SEAL

TIE-BACK THREAD
RUNNING THREAD

FLOW-BY HOLES
LOAD RING

SPLIT RING
DETENT RING
RETAINER RING
MULTIPLE LOAD
SHOULDER

CASING THREADS

Figure 6.20. 9-5/8" Shoulder

Hanger

74

have slips, but will also have a packoff seal that is mechani
cally set by axial bolts made up from the top of the casing
hanger. In some cases, there will be sufficient stretch in the 133/8" casing to weight- set the slips and packoff seal.
The casing string is then cut carefully at a set distance above
the casing hanger, according to the surface wellhead manufacturers advice. The cut off casing is then pulled up through the
rotary table and laid down. The BOP stack is set aside and the
casing stub is dressed to receive a secondary seal unit that slips
over the casing stub and against the prepared internal seal
surface of the next casing spool.
The next step in drilling the well is to install the BOP stack on
the casing spool and prepare to drill 12-1/4" hole for the 9-5/
8" casing string. The hole is then drilled to casing depth, the
cuttings are circulated out, the mud is conditioned, the hole is
logged and the rig is set up to run the 9-5/8" casing string.
Running and Cementing 9-5/8"
4-1/2" API IF
Casing
BOX
The 9-5/8" casing string run will
include a mudline suspension
split ring hanger (Figure 6.19)
SHEAR
PINS
and a running tool (Figure 6.20).
TORQUE
Instead of a landing ring seating PROFILE
KEY
SPLIT RING
on a shoulder in the previous
casing string, the next mudline
casing hanger usually uses a split
ring with a specific external profile that will expand and seat in WASH PORT
the matching internal profile of
the last mudline casing hanger.
These profiles are designed so
that the split ring cannot set prematurely in any other position
4-1/2 API IF PIN
in the previous casing string.
Prior to running mudline casing
hangers, it is good practice to Figure 6.21. Profile Clean Out
run a circulating tool that will Tool

WASH PORT

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

CASING SPOOL OR
TUBING HEAD

9-5/8"
CASING
CASING
SPOOL

13-3/8"
CASING
STARTING
HEAD

20"
CASING
30"
CASING

Surface Wellhead after the 9-5/8"

Casing has been Installed

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@Q,@

,,
QQ

@@Q,@

,,
QQ

@@Q,@

,,
QQ

@@Q,@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ

9-5/8" Shoulder Hanger and

Running Tool Landed
Figure 6.22

75

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

wash, or clean, the internal seating profiles of the previous

mudline hanger (Figure 6.21). This is particularly true where
swelling shales have been encountered in the drilling of the
hole as well as sticky lumps of clay that may have become
trapped in the setting profiles.
When a casing string is being run with a split ring type of
landing ring it is good practice to lower the string slowly into
its landing profile. This allows the natural spring force of the
split ring to fully engage the ring in its matching profile.

The cementing procedures for this casing string follow the

procedures previously outlined, and any excess cement in the
annulus above the casing hanger is washed out by circulating
through the opened washout ports in the mudline suspension
system. (Six turns to the right to open, six turns to the left to
close).
The surface wellhead connections and installation of the wraparound casing hanger and seal assemblies follows similar
steps for each casing string.
7" Mudline Casing String
The next step in the drilling program may call for an 8-3/4" or
8-1/2" hole to be drilled to casing depth. This will most likely
be the section of the hole that will penetrate any productive
formation. The decision will be made at this time to either run
a 7" casing liner that covers the open hole section and hangs
from a liner hanger positioned inside the 9-5/8" casing or run
a full 7" casing string that will extend all the way back to the
surface wellhead.
If a full 7" casing string is required, the 7" mudline suspension
equipment will include a 7" split ring mudline hanger and a
7" mudline hanger running tool (Figure 6.23).
Figure 6.23. 7" Shoulder Hanger
and 7" Running Tool

76

These pieces of equipment are used in the identical fashion as

the 9-5/8" mudline suspension equipment described previ

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

Temporary Abandonment Caps

All Temporary Abandonment Caps make up
into the running tool threads while protecting the tie-back threads.
Temporary Abandonment Caps are available
in vented style or with a back pressure valve.
A simple "J" tool runs and retrieves all Temporary Abandonment Caps.
Temporary Abandonment Caps are available
in both the threaded style and stab-in.

Temporary Abandonment Cap Stack-Up

Figure 6.24

77

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

ously. A mudline hanger profile cleanout tool can also be used

to clean the internal seating profiles of the 9-5/8" mudline
hanger prior to running the 7" casing string.
The cementing of the 7" casing, the washing out of excess
cement in the annulus and installing of the surface casing
hangers and seals all follow the same procedures outlined for
the 9-5/8" casing string.
Well Abandonment
4-1/2" API IF BOX

CENTRALIZER

RUNNING/
RETRIEVING
JAY SLOTS
BACK PRESSURE
VALVE STINGER

TA CAP MAKE-UP
THREADS

RESILIENT SEALS
BACK PRESSURE
VALVE

Figure 6.25. 7" TA Cap and 7" TA

Cap Running Tool

78

If the well is temporarily or permanently abandoned at the end

of the well, it is common practice to set one or more cement
bridges in the well to prevent any possible escape of well bore
fluids. After the bridge plugs are installed, the surface wellhead equipment and BOP stack will be nippled down or
dismantled for use on the next well. The individual running
strings will be released from their respective mudline casing
hangers with right-hand rotation, and recovered for re-use. In
temporary abandonment, sealing corrosion caps are run and
made up to the left-hand running threads in the mudline
casing hangers. These corrosion caps protect the right-hand
tie-back threads and sealing surfaces that will be used when
the well is re-entered.
Installing Temporary Abandonment Corrosion Caps
One of the design features of a modern mudline suspension
system includes stack-down mudline hangers. This means
that the suspension point for each mudline hanger is below the
previous mudline hanger, with enough distance to ensure that
the running tool of the previous hanger is not overlapped by
the next mudline hanger (Figure 6.4). This design feature also
means that the installed TA cap of a particular mudline hanger
is below the running tool/threads of the previous mudline
hanger. As can be seen, each TA cap is covered by the next TA
cap. When the well is temporarily abandoned, the 7" running
string of casing will be released by rotating it 10 turns to the
right.

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

This will tfully disengage the mudline hanger running tool

from the left-hand threads of the mudline casing hanger. The
running string is then picked up and pulled out of the well.
Prior to running the 7" TA cap, it is generally good practice to
run a jetting tool to wash debris out of the 7" mudline hanger
internal thread profiles. The TA cap running and retrieval tool
is made up to a stand of drill pipe. The 7" TA cap can be a
vented design (non-pressure sealing) or can be equipped with
a back pressure valve (pressure sealing) (Figure 6.25). The
vented cap does not require the stinger in the TA running tool
and should be removed. The pressure sealing cap requires the
stinger in the running tool in order to hold the back-pressure
valve open so that there is no hydraulic lock formed when the
TA cap is lowered into the 7" mudline hanger. A hydraulic
lock will prevent the correct make-up of the TA cap to the
mudline hanger.

4-1/2" API IF BOX

CENTRALIZER

With the 7" TA cap running tool made up to the 7" TA cap, the BACK PRESSURE
VALVE STINGER
assembly is lowered into the well on drill pipe. The last 5 to 10
feet before the 7" TA cap tags the top of the 7" mudline hanger RESILIENT SEALS
is done very slowly to avoid thread damage to either piece of RUNNING/RETRIEVING
JAY SLOTS
equipment. The TA caps are self-aligning with the mudline Figure 6.26. Temporary Abandonhangers and the full weight of the drill pipe running string can ment Cap Running and Retrieving Tool
be set down on the TA cap after the initial tag. The drill string for 9-5/8" TA Caps and larger
is then picked up until only 5000 lbs of the hook load is acting
downwards on the mudline hanger running threads.
The drill string is then rotated to the left using rig tongs. After
3 turns, additional torque build-up should be noted. The
torque should be increased to 500 ft-lb more than the initial
rotation torque value. The 7" TA cap is now installed and the
TA cap running tool can be retrieved with a straight upward
pull. If the TA cap was a pressure sealing cap the stinger in the
running tool would be pulled out at the same time and the
back pressure valve would seat in its sealing position providing a containing seal against any subsequent well pressure
that might occur. The resilient seal seals on the outside of the
7" TA cap protecting the tie-back threads and seal surfaces of
the 7" mudline hanger.

79

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

RUNNING/
RETRIEVING
MANDREL

RUNNING/RETRIEVING
JAY LUGS
TA CAP MAKE-UP
THREADS
RESILIENT SEALS

Figure 6.27. Illustration of a "vented"

Temporary Abandonment Cap

RUNNING/RETRIEVING
MANDREL

RUNNING/RETRIEVING
JAY LUGS
TA CAP MAKE-UP
THREADS

RESILIENT SEALS

Figure 6.28. 20" Stab-in "vented" TA

Cap

With the 7" TA Cap installed, the 9-5/8" running string of

casing and 9-5/8" mudline running tool can be released from
the 9-5/8" mudline hanger running threads. As with the 7"
running string, 10 turns to the right disengages the running
tool from the mudline hanger and the 9-5/8" casing can be
pulled out of the well.
The TA Cap Running Tool, which runs the 9-5/8" and larger
sized TA Caps, is configured with an overshot type connection
between the tool and the TA Cap. This is different then the 7"
TA Cap Running Tool (Figure 6.26). The procedures for
running the 9-5/8" TA Cap are identical to the procedures
used to run the 7" TA Cap. It is unlikely that a pressure
containing 9-5/8" TA Cap would be used if the 7" TA Cap was
equipped with a back pressure valve. A TA Cap without a
back pressure valve is called a vented TA Cap.
The 13-3/8" (Figure 6.27) and 20" TA Caps (Figure 6.28) can be
run as required after their respective running strings have
been retrieved. As previously mentioned, the same TA Cap
Running Tool is used for all TA caps 9-5/8" and larger with the
only difference being the centralizing stabilizer that is used
above the tool to provide good alignment as the TA Cap enters
its respective mudline hanger.

Alternative Stab-in TA Caps

Another design of TA Caps available include a split threaded
lock ring that engages the mudline hanger running threads
(Figure 6.28). This TA Cap style is run using the TA Cap
Running Tool on drill pipe, and the applied weight of the
RUNNING/RETRIEVING
MANDREL
running string causes the split ring to collapse inward as the
BACK PRESSURE
VALVE STINGER
TA Cap moves the last 2 inches to its seated position in the
RUNNING/RETRIEVING
mudline hanger. Again, the running string is turned to the left
JAY LUGS
using rig tongs until the torque builds up to 500 ft-lb over the
TA CAP MAKE-UP
THREADS
initial rotational torque value. The threads on the split lock
RESILIENT SEALS
ring will engage the left hand threads of the mudline hanger,
which should take no more the 1/2 to 2 turns. A pick up test
Figure 6.29. Illustration of a Temporary Abandonment Cap with Back Pres- of 5,000 to 10,000 pounds can be performed to verify that the
stab-in TA Cap is latched in.
sure Valve

80

Offshore Drilling
from a Jackup
Drilling Vessel

The stab-in TA Caps are provided in the vented style or with

the back pressure valve features. This type of stab-in cap is
used when any thread damage on the mudline hanger is
suspected in preventing a full thread TA Cap from being
installed.
After all the TA Caps are in place, the 30" conductor will be
disconnected at or above the mudline and recovered. The
disconnection may involve the use of divers to run in releasing
bolts if a specialty connector has been used. The jack-up
drilling vessel will be jacked down to sea-level and the supporting legs will be raised from the sea-bed. Sometimes the
feet of the legs become embedded in re-consolidated sand and
mud. Sea water jets built into the feet are used to break up the
compacted sediments and free the legs. The jack-up will then
be towed to another location. The well may be left with a
marker buoy or a subsea transponder or beeper working off a
long life battery pack. If these markers fail, the coordinates of
longitude and latitude would serve to re-locate the well and,
in these days of inertial navigation, the well can be pin-pointed
within 10 square meters.

81

Jacket and Platform Drilling

and Production Equipment
Platform Drilling and Production ........................................... 83
Jack-ups Used for Jacket Drilling ........................................... 84
Re-entering a Well Drilled with Mudline Suspension Equipment............................................................................................ 85
Retrieving Temporary Abandonment Caps ........................... 85
Installing the 20" Tie-Back Casing String ............................. 87
Alternative Stab-in Tie-Back Tools......................................... 87
Completing the Well ................................................................. 88
Jack-ups Used for Subsea Template Drilling ......................... 90
Platform Drilling and Production ........................................... 91
Drilling a Well From a Jack-up or Platform Using Mudline
Suspension Equipment and a Unitized
Surface Wellhead System ......................................................... 99
Running the 20" Casing ......................................................... 101
Installing the 18-3/4" Unitized Wellhead on
20" Casing ............................................................................... 101
Cementing the 20" Casing ..................................................... 102
Installing the 18-3/4" BOP Stack with Quik-Clamp
Connector ................................................................................ 103
Testing the 18-3/4" BOP Stack and 18-3/4" Unitized
Wellhead Without Casing Hangers Installed ....................... 104
Running the 13-3/8" Casing with 13-3/8" Mudline
Shoulder Hanger and 13-3/8" Surface Mandrel
Casing Hanger ......................................................................... 105
Adjustment Sub ...................................................................... 106
Setting of the Adjustment Sub ............................................... 106
Running 13-3/8" Casing ......................................................... 107
Installing 18-3/4" Seal Assembly on 18-3/4" x 13-3/8"
Mandrel Casing Hanger ......................................................... 110
Installing the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Wear Bushing .................... 111
Run 9-5/8" Casing String with 9-5/8" Split Ring
Mudline Hanger and 9-5/8" Surface Mandrel Hanger ....... 112
Installing 18-3/4" Seal Assembly on
18-3/4" x 9-5/8" Mandrel Casing Hanger ............................ 113
Installing the 18-3/4" x 9-5/8" Wear Bushing ...................... 113
Abandonment .......................................................................... 113

Table of Contents

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Jacket and Platform Drilling

and Production Equipment

Platform Drilling and Production

Once the mudline suspended well has been drilled and temporarily abandoned, the well data is analyzed. When exploration wells drilled by a Jack-up drilling vessel are determined
to be viably produceable, they are tied back to a fixed platform
for surface completion. This process involves reconnecting
casing to the well by way of mudline suspension tie-back tools.
During the tie back process, typically a conventional surface
wellhead system is incorporated and the well is completed in
the same way a land well is completed.
The platform generally consists of two major parts. These
parts are the jacket section constructed from large steel tubular
members and the top-side section, or sections, that will include the drilling rig and its support equipment, production
and processing equipment and accommodations for the operating personnel. In the case where a large field is to be drilled
and developed, the jacket and platform can become large
structures that require considerable engineering and planning. Additional information on large multiple well platforms will be discussed later in this chapter. In the case of
individual wells that are to be completed, only the jacket
structure is installed over the mudline system with the intent
of establishing a flow connection to a platform with the needed
process equipment close by.

83

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Jack-ups Used for Jacket Drilling

Many jack-up drilling rigs are designed with the capability of
drilling wells with the drilling mast or derrick in a cantilever,
or over-the-side, drilling mode. This capability is used when
drilling development wells through small jackets, or tieing
wells, previously drilled back to the jacket for surface completion.
Jackets are usually constructed from large diameter steel
tubular members and are installed by barges and pinned to the
sea floor with piles driven through each leg of the jacket. The
top side of the jacket will be exposed above the water line by
20 ft. or more, depending on the sea states expected at the
location. The jacket will have well conductor guides for one or
more wells built into the open framework structure of the
jacket. If more than one well is planned, the center lines of the
proposal wells will be spaced to accommodate any surface
completion wellheads and production trees.
After the jacket is installed, the jack-up drilling rig is moved in
next to the jacket, and the drilling mast and rotary drilling
equipment are moved out in a cantilever mode over the jacket
drilling slots. If the jacket has been designed to support all
casing loads from the surface wellhead, the jack-up can proceed with drilling the well as previously described without the
use of a mudline suspension system.
In some cases, the well may have already been drilled. One of
the advantages of the mudline suspension system is the ability
to disconnect the riser casing string for jacket installation. In
Figure 7.1. Illustration of cantilever this event, the casing loads will be supported by the suspenJack-up drilling vessel positioned over a sion system at the mudline which will allow a cheaper and
jacket
more economical jacket design.
Tieing what was once an exploratory well drilled with a
mudline suspension system back to a jacket for surface completion is a widely used technique for drilling and completing
wells in Jack-up drilling depths.

84

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Re-entering a Well Drilled with Mudline Suspension Equipment

If a single well is being re-entered, it isgenerally being done to
complete the well as a producer of oil or gas. This means that
the well will be completed with either a steel jacket to support
a mudline tie-back system (Figure 7.1), surface wellhead
equipment and production tree, or it will be completed as a
subsea producer with subsea wellhead adapters and subsea
production tree.
The following text will deal with the tie-back of the mudline
hangers and surface completion using a steel jacket. The
subsea completion of a mudline well will be covered in subsequent chapters reviewing subsea completions.
For this section, we are assuming that a steel jacket with piled
foundations of gas has been correctly positioned over the
temporarily abandoned mudline suspension well (Figure 7.1).
The next step is to move a jack-up drilling vessel, with a
cantilever drilling capability, in next to the steel jacket. The
drill floor and rig will be centered over the temporarily abandoned well. The first operation will be to re-connect the 30"
primary conductor riser to the 30" conductor at the mudline.
If the well was left in good order at abandonment, the reconnection will be achieved by stabbing one half of a specialty
connector over, or into, the mating half left on the seafloor
conductor. This is a difficult operation, particularly if strong Figure 7.2. Illustration of a mudline
tidal currents are present. Underwater television, diver assis- suspended well temporarily abandoned
tant, guidance systems and foul language etc. may all be used
to re-establish the primary conductor.
Retrieving Temporary Abandonment Caps
Once the primary conductor is in place, a surface starting head
will be installed on the conductor at the cellar deck level of the
steel jacket. The 30" conductor will form the main structural
element in support of the surface wellhead equipment and the
surface production tree as well as the primary conduit for the
20" Temporary Abandonment (TA) cap retrieving tool.

85

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Prior to running the TA Cap Running/Retrieving Tool, it may be

advisable to run a TA Cap Clean
Out Tool to wash any debris away
from the TA cap mandrel (Figure
7.3). The retrieving tool is run on
drill pipe with a centralizer above
the tool, to centralize it in the 30"
conductor.

4-1/2" API IF

Wash Fluid

PORTS

Figure 7.4. 20" Stab-in "vented" TA

Cap

86

The TA Cap Running/Retrieving

Tool (Figure 7.5) is run on drill Figure 7.3. Temporary Abanpipe with a centralizer above the donment Cap Clean Out Tool
tool to centralize it in the 30" conductor. When the retrieving tool
has tagged the retrieving mandrel of the TA Cap, it can be
slowly be rotated to the right or left and lowered until the jay
slots on the retrieving tool drop over the lugs on the TA cap
mandrel. The retrieving string is then rotated slowly to the
right and the number of turns should be carefully noted. The
rotational torque should drop as the TA Cap releases from the
running threads in the 20"
mudline hanger. Vented TA Caps
(Figure 7.4) require 3 to 4 turns of
4-1/2" API IF BOX
right- hand rotation while the
pressure containing caps need 6
to 7 turns of right-hand rotation.
The TA Cap should be totally CENTRALIZER
disengaged from the mudline
hanger threads. This can be veriBACK PRESSURE
fied with a pick up test. Once VALVE STINGER
free, the assembly can be pulled RUNNING/RETRIEVING
JAY SLOTS
from the well taking care not to
rotate the drill pipe on the way Figure 7.5. Temporary Abanout. This is a precaution against donment Cap Running and Rethe TA Cap becoming un-jayed trieving Tool for 9-5/8" TA Caps
from the retrieving tool and drop- and larger
ping back down the well.

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Installing the 20" Tie-Back Casing String

After the TA Cap has been recovered, it is considered good
practice to run a washout tool designed to clean the right hand
tie-back threads in the mudline casing hanger. Sea water is
used for this operation as the tool is rotated slowly to the right.
Pressures up to 1000 psi are used and the flushing action
should be done for 10-20 minutes, before pulling out.

CASING THREADS

RESILIENT
SEALS

RIGHT-HAND
The 20" Tie-Back Tool (Figure 7.6) is then run with a centralizer
TIE-BACK THREADS
on the 20" tie-back casing. The tie-back should be lowered
RESILIENT
slowly into the mudline hanger body. The weight acting on
SEALS
the threads should be kept at a minimum as the tie-back string
is rotated 4-5 turns to the right. This makes up the tie-back tool Figure 7.6. 20" Threaded Tie-Back
to the mudline casing hanger. A minimum of 5000 ft-lb of Tool (centralizer not installed)
torque is required to energize the metal-to-metal seal on the
nose of the tie-back tool. The maximum amount of torque
should not exceed 15,000 ft-lb above the initial rotational
torque to engage the threads.

At this point, a pressure test can be conducted to verify the

sealing integrity of the tie-back connection. The amount of
pressure applied will be limited by the pressure ratings of the
various system components. The 20" casing is cut off and a 20"
slip-on weld casing head will be welded to the 20" casing.
Alternatively, an 18-3/5" unitized wellhead could be connected to the 20" casing (a procedure described in the next
section of this manual). The 20" casing head, or the 18-3/4"
unitized wellhead will provide the landing and sealing profile
for the 13-3/8" casing hanger.

CASING
THREADS

RESILIENT
SEALS
RIGHT-HAND
TIE-BACK THREADS

The recovery of the 13-3/8", 9-5/8" and 7" TA caps proceed

sequentially in the same fashion just described after each outer
tie-back casing string has been installed.

RESILIENT
SEALS

Figure 7.7. 20" Stab-In Tie-Back Tool

(centralizer not installed)

Alternative Stab-in Tie-Back Tools

As with the TA Caps, an alternative stab-in as opposed to the
full thread form tie-back tools is available (Figure 7.7). All of
the precautionary cleaning out procedures are used with this
style of tie-back tool and is run in identical fashion to the

87

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

threaded tie-back tool except that weight will be used to push

the split threaded lock ring into the tie-back threads. The
downward travel to reach this position is 2 inches after the
stab-in tie-back tool has landed inside the body of the mudline
casing hanger. The casing string is then rotated 1/2 to 2 turns
to the right. A minimum of 5,000 ft-lb up to maximum of
15,000 ft-lb over the initial rotational torque is required to
energize the metal-to-metal seal.
If it is necessary to apply torque in excess of that achieved with
the casing, a torque tool can be run (Figure 7.9). This torque
tool engages the torque slots found in the ID of the Stab-In Tieback Tool. This tool assists in assuring that the Stab-In Tieback Tool is tight and can achieve the metal-to-metal seal.
This seal can be pressure tested and the tie-back casing is then
landed and sealed off in the
surface wellhead as previ4-1/2" API IF BOX
ously indicated with the standard tie-back system. This
type of stab-in tie-back tool is
only used when thread damage is suspected in the
mudline suspension hanger.

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

Completing the Well

SPRING LOADED
The surface wellhead equip- TORQUE KEYS
Figure 7.8. 13-3/8" Stab-In Tie-Back ment is built up after each tieTool being torqued with the Stab-In Ti- back string until the tubing
Back Torque Tool
spool is installed. The BOP
stack will then be installed on
the tubing spool and the op- Figure 7.9. Tie-Back Torque Tool
eration of drilling out bridge
plugs, cement bridges and perforating the production zone, or
zones, will take place.

88

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

5000
10000

COMPLETION TREE

TUBING BONNET

TUBING SPOOL

INTERMEDIATE
SPOOL

STARTING HEAD

Typical Conventional Wellhead System with completion tree after the well
has been tied back

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

@@

,,
QQ
@@

,,
QQ

Mudline Tie-Back System Stack-Up

Figure 7.10

89

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

The well will be completed with a downhole tubing assembly

and the tubing landed and sealed off in the tubing spool. These
procedures are fully described in earlier chapters that describe
the completion of a land based well, including the installation
of the production tree. The flowlines from the well will then
be connected to any processing equipment on the jacket before
the oil and gas production goes into a subsea flowline that goes
to another production platform or onshore gathering station.
Jack-ups Used for Subsea Template Drilling
The use of subsea drilling templates has increased in recent
years driven, in part, by the need to achieve early production
from an offshore discovery. The wells are drilled while the
jacket and platform facilities are built. Early production
means early cash flow from a field development, which is
extremely important because of current high development
costs and lower crude oil prices.

9
6

The type of subsea template used in conjunction with a jack-up

drilling rig is usually a lightweight 2 to 8 well spacer template,
constructed of steel tubular or I-beam members (Figure 7.11).
The individual well slots normally have shallow funnel guides on top and the spacer
template may only be 10' to 15' high,
depending on the bottom conditions anticipated. In areas
where soft bottom conditions
are expected, the bottom of
the spacer template will be
filled in with steel plate to
create a mud mat with better bearing capacity.

Figure 7.11. Typical bottom supported Template used in mudline suspension

completion work

90

These spacer templates are

usually small enough and
light enough to be lowered
into position on the sea floor,
from the jack-up drilling rig

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

once it is established on loca tion. The drilling of the deviated

wells is done using mudline suspension equipment so that the
tie-back feature with metal-to-metal sealing capabilities can
be used when the jacket and platform facilities are moved in
over the temporarily abandoned wells.
When the tie-back casing strings have been re-connected to the
subsea mudline suspension equipment, the platform- based
drilling or work-over rig, will complete the wells with surface
wellhead equipment.
The cement bridges
or
bridge
plugs left in
the production casing
string will
then be drilled
out, the selected producFigure 7.13. Side view of a conductor supported
tion zones will
Template System. Note the location of the gripper dog
segments
be perforated,
the downhole
completion assembly will be run, the tubing landed in the
surface tubing hanger spool, and the production tree will be
installed.
Platform Drilling and Production
Fixed drilling and production platforms are used to develop
discovered oil and gas fields in offshore and major inland lake
locations. The extent of the discovery will have been determined from exploration wells drilled by bottom-supported, or
floating drilling vessels, and by interpretation of seismic and
geological information. Other important factors when estimating the size of the discovered reserves involve careful
analysis of the production tests on the discovery of wells,
including the very important bottom-hole pressure recordings before, during and after each of the production tests. Figure 7.12. Top view of a conductor
From this information, the size of the platform, number of
supported Template System

91

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

wells required and the best location for the platform will be
decided. The use of deviated wells to reach and drain the
reservoir from its boundaries is a planned feature of every
multiple-well platform. Sometimes the lateral extent of the
discovered field is too great for the wells from one platform to
effectively drain the producing formations. In giant offshore
fields, two, three or four major platforms with multiple wells
may be required to effectively produce the field.
The conventional platforms generally consist of two major
parts, the jacket section constructed from large steel tubular
members, and the top-side section or sections that will include
the drilling rig and its support equipment, production and
processing equipment, and accommodations for operating
personnel.
Using state-of-the-art technology, these steel-jacketed platforms were designed for use in all ranges of water depths. The
vast majority of offshore platforms are installed in water
depths less than 500 ft. deep, but there are an increasing
number that are used in water depths over 800 ft. with the
current water depth record being +1100 ft.
The steel jacketed section of the platform is the first part of the
platform required and usually constructed at a shore side
facility in the horizontal position. The major tubular legs of the
jacket will be equipped with guides for subsequent piles to be
driven through each of the legs into the sea-floor to anchor the
jacket section securely in place. The size of the platform and/
or the bottom conditions may also dictate if additional piling
is required to secure the platform. In this case, the additional
piles are driven through external pile guides on the legs of the
steel jacket. These piles are called skirt piles.
The steel jacket will almost certainly include in its construction
the guides for the primary drilling conductors for each well.
When the jacket is complete, it is usually loaded onto a large
flat-topped barge and towed out to location. The steel jacket

92

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

is then slid off the barge into the water and supported by the
buoyancy of sealed tubular members and usually additional
attached buoyancy modules. By controlled flooding and
positioning tethers attached to the tubs, the jacket is lowered
slowly to the sea bed. Once in place, the task of pinning it to
the sea bed with the previously mentioned piles and/or skirt
piles takes place.

MIGHTY SERVANT 2

MIGHTY SERVANT 2

MIGHTY SERVANT 2

Figure 7.14. Sequence illustrating the off-loading and positioning of the jacket over the template system

This piling operation will be done by a specialist contractor

with a large floating vessel with a crane and pile hammer
installed. The long sections of tubular piles are usually welded
together or they are connected with specialty connectors that
fit together very quickly. These specialty connectors have to
be strong enough to withstand high bending loads, particularly if the piles are being battered into position at an angle.
These connectors have to also be releaseable, especially if they
are used in the recoverable pile follower sections. Pile connectors have been used in all sizes of from 20" OD to 84" OD.

93

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

After the piles to secure the jacket have been driven into place,
it is generally the practice to drive the primary well conductors
into place. Again, the use of specialty connectors has become
a common alternative to welding the conductor sections together. Depending on the bottom conditions, the primary
conductors will penetrate the sea bed in excess of 100 ft. before
the point of refusal is reached. The point of refusal will be
stated as a number of blows-per-foot for a two or three foot
interval.
The size and energy output of the diesel or steam-hammer will
be used to determine the required blows-per-foot at refusal.
Sometimes, the local regulatory bodies require a minimum
penetration to be reached. If the minimum penetration depth
has not been reached when
the point of refusal is reached,
then it is quite common for a
Figure 7.15. Photo of a pile driving small drilling unit to be used
operation
to drill out the center of the
conductor pile and make additional hole below the pile
shoe. The pile hammer is then
re-installed and the conductor pile is again battered into
place.
After all of the primary conductors are driven into place,
the drilling modules of the
platform top-side sections will
be installed so that the drilling program can be started.
On smaller jackets, a bottom
supported drilling rig will be
moved in adjacent to the steel
jacket. A cantilevered drilling
rig will then commence to drill
the wells in each well slot on
the jacket.

94

Figure 7.16. Illustration of the conductors installed in the template system

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

The wells will be drilled using the conventional drilling equipment and systems used in land drilling. However, there are
some areas where the drilling equipment used may differ
from the conventional land-based systems. One requirement
for modified equipment may be to move the suspension point
for the suspended casing strings, used in the
drilling of the well, from the jacket structure
to the sea floor. This requirement would be
obvious from the outset when the jacket
structure is designed, built and the strength
of the structure decided. The drilling system
required to provide the sea bed support is
generally referred to as a casing support
system (Figure 7.17). The casing support
system depicted in the illustration will be
used in conjunction with a typical surface
wellhead or unitized wellhead system.
Another area where the offshore drilling
equipment may differ is the use of a flowdiverter system, which is installed on top of
the primary conductor while the hole is
drilled for the surface casing string. The
flow diverter system may consist of a large
annular preventer or a customized flow
diverter. The purpose of the flow diverter
system is to provide a means of closing the
annular space between the drill pipe and the
primary conductor above the large bore side
outlets. In the event of drilling into an
unexpected pocket of shallow formation gas Figure 7.17. Illustration of the casing support system used
at a pressure which overcomes the hydro- in a jacket and platform completion operation
static head of the drilling fluid and thus
precipitates a potential blowout condition, the flow diverter
system is put into operation. The fluid and gas coming out of
the well is directed through large bore flare lines which
terminate outboard of the drilling operational area. This
means that potentially hazardous gas is not blowing in an
unrestricted fashion through the rotary table into the rig floor

95

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

ROTARY TABLE AND

SUB STRUCTURE

DIVERTER
ASSEMBLY

DIVERTER HOUSING
AND
FLOWLINE OUTLETS

OVERSHOT SPOOL

OVERSHOT RISER
AND PACKER

CONDUCTOR PIPE
STARTING
HEAD

Conductor Set

Figure 7.18

96

Surface Casing
Set

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

area where it could possibly ignite causing major damage.

Once the blow of gas from the shallow pocket is exhausted, the
drilling fluid column will be re-established and the drilling
operations can proceed again. Because of the dangerous
conditions that can exist during this operation, all of the
functions of the flow diverter system are equipped with
alternative and remotely operated controls. One question
commonly asked is, Why isnt the annular preventer or flow
diverter used to shut in the gas blow and set about controlling
the well through a choke and kill manifold?
The answer to this is that closing in a shallow pocket of gas will
cause the build up of pressure in the wellbore which may
break down the formation at the shoe of the primary conductor. If this occurs, the gas then starts to find its way to the sea
bed through multiple cracks or fissures in relatively unconsolidated sediments. Now the gas is spread over a large area
as it comes bubbling up through the water around the drilling
platform, and the dangers of ignition are increased as well as
the possible formation of craters in the sea bed that could
undermine the whole drilling structure.

97

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

ROTARY TABLE AND SUB

STRUCTURE

DIVERTER ASSEMBLY

DIVERTER HOUSING AND

FLOWLINE OUTLETS

OVERSHOT RISER AND PACKER

BLOW OUT PREVENTER

BOP Installed
Figure 7.19

98

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Drilling a Well From a Jack-up or Platform Using Mudline

Suspension Equipment and a Unitized Surface Wellhead
System
The previous section of this chapter described mudline suspension equipment used in conjunction with a conventional
surface wellhead system assembled from casing spools stacked
up from the initial casing head. A unitized wellhead is simply
one piece of equipment that replaces the 2 or 3 casing spools
used to build a conventional wellhead system. A unitized
surface wellhead (Figure 7.20) is generally manufactured
from a single high grade steel forging, and can have internal
from a single high grade steel forging and can have internal
landing seats or profiles for 2 or 3 casing hangers. The
advantages of a unitized wellhead over a conventional wellhead are summarized below.
Minimizes the number of connections and re-connections of the BOP stack equipment, flanges, clamps etc.
as the well is drilled. The BOP stack can remain
connected to the top of the unitized wellhead as the
well is drilled and each casing string is landed.
The number of potential leak paths is reduced with the
elimination of connections and accompanying steel
ring gaskets or seal rings.
More compact, as the stacked height of casing hangers
inside the unitized wellhead results in an overall reduction in height. This height reduction is particularly
advantageous where headroom beneath drilling substructures or drilling vessel rotary floors is restricted.
Saves rig time by reducing the number of connections
and re-connections of BOP stack equipment etc.
The unitized wellhead is primarily used in the drilling of
development wells, but the daily costs of offshore operations
have caused a number of operators to review time saving

99

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Exploratory Unitized Wellhead System Feature

Simple reliable and trouble free operation
Available for most casing programs, Standard or H2S
Service
Compact space savings design
Fewer Flanges Reduce possible leak paths
Mandrel Type Casing Hangers run through the BOP
Stack eliminating nipple up/nipple down time
Large passages for flow-by and cement returns
True Metal-to-Metal Seals on Seal Assembly
Seal Assembly can be tested without installing the BOP
Stack
All casing Hangers use the same Seal Assembly within a
particular wellhead size
BOP Stack can be tested without pulling the Wear Bushing

Unitized Wellhead System

Figure 7.20

100

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

equipment as unitized wellheads are being used more often in

exploratory drilling.
The following text assumes that the drilling of the well from
the jack-up has reached the point where the 30" primary
conductor is installed and the 26" hole has been drilled for the
20" casing.
Running the 20" Casing
The 20" casing string will include the 20" mudline shoulder
hanger, 20" mudline running tool and the 18-3/4" wellhead
that are all run on the full bore wellhead running tool (Figure
7.21). The 20" casing shoe is the first joint run. Intermediate
casing joints are made up and run until the casing that will be
below the mudline is run. The pre-assembled joint including
the 20" mudline hanger and the 20" mudline hanger running
tool is then made up to the 20" casing. After the pre-assembled
mudline hanger joint passes through the rotary table, the
casing string must not be rotated as the 20" casing is lowered
into the hole. This is to prevent the possibility of the mudline
running tool from backing off and releasing from the mudline
hanger as the casing is being lowered into the hole. All of the
20" casing connections above the running tool should be made
up to manufacturers maximum allowable torque. If the connections are equipped with anti-rotation keys, these should
also be installed. These precautions are necessary as the
running string will subsequently be rotated to the right to
open the mudline washports and then back to the left to close
the washports. Aaccurate spacing of the 20" running string is
also required to be able to place the top of the modified square
thread (located on the outside of the 18-3/4" unitized wellhead) to within six inches of the top of the 30" conductor.

18-3/4"
CLUTCH-TYPE
RUNNING TOOL

18-3/4"
UNITIZED
WELLHEAD

20" RISER CASING

20"
MUDLINE HANGER
RUNNING TOOL

20"
MUDLINE
SHOULDER HANGER

20" CASING

Installing the 18-3/4" Unitized Wellhead on 20" Casing

The 18-3/4" wellhead running tool (Figure 7.22) is a full bore
7.21. Unitized Wellhead, 20"
threaded running tool which is made up to the wellhead with Figure
casing, and mudline hanger running
left hand rotation at the surface. This full bore feature allows tool and hanger
the operator to launch cement wiper plugs from the surface.

101

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

CASING
THREADS

RIGHT-HAND
RUNNING
THREADS
RESILIENT
SEALS

Figure 7.22. Unitized wellhead

running tool

QUIK-CLAMP
CONNECTOR
PROFILE
9-5/8" CASING
HANGER
POSITION

SIDE OUTLETS
13-3/8" CASING
HANGER
POSITION
LANDING
RING
20" CASING
THREADS

Figure 7.23. 18-3/4" Unitized

Wellhead

102

The unitized wellhead (Figure 7.23) has two casing hanger

positions to set 13-3/8" and 9-5/8" inside the wellhead. The
internal surface will have metal-to-metal seal preparations for
the casing hanger seal assemblies when they are run. The
wellhead has a Quik-Clamp connector profile, but flanged or
clamp hub connections can also be used. A landing ring is
located on the outside so that the wellhead will rest on the 30"
conductor stub. This landing ring can either be fixed or
threaded to allow for adjustment. The wellhead has a threaded
bottom to accept a 20" casing pup joint.
The wellhead running tool and unitized wellhead is picked up
as a complete assembly and the 20" casing connector at the
bottom of the housing pup joint is made up to the last joint of
20" casing. The 20" casing landing joint made up to the
running tool is then used to lower the entire 20" casing string
slowly down until the 20" mudline shoulder hanger lands on
the 30" mudline landing ring. The entire casing string is
weight-set down.
Cementing the 20" Casing
The 20" cement head is installed on the 20" landing joint and
the cementing of the 20" casing proceeds exactly as outlined in
previous text. The inclusion of the 18-3/4" unitized wellhead
and running tool in the 20" casing string have no affect on the
cementing operation as they have full bore openings. The only
operational requirement is to pick up the weight of the casing
string above the mudline hanger so that the upper spline
mechanism of the 18-3/4" wellhead running tool is fully
engaged. After the cement has been displaced, the washports
on the mudline running tool are opened with six turns of righthand rotation so that the excess cement in the annulus can be
washed out.
After the cement job is completed, the washports have been reclosed and seals have been successfully pressure tested, the
20" landing string is tensioned to the desired amount. The two
halves of the threaded split support ring are then fitted onto
the modified square thread on the outside of the 18-3/4"

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

unitized wellhead. The cap screws in each end of the split

support ring are then made up so that the ring acts as one piece.
This ring is then rotated down the threads until it sits firmly on
top of the 30" conductor pipe or flange.
The upward pull on the running string is then completely
slacked off. This allows the stem of the housing running tool
to disengage from the upper splines and engage in the lower
splines of the running tool.
The 18-3/4" unitized wellhead running tool is then turned
approximately six turns to the left which releases it from the
internal housing running threads and it can then be retrieved
and laid down.
Installing the 18-3/4" BOP Stack with Quik-Clamp Connector
Another time-saving piece of equipment that is also gaining
acceptance is a rapid make-up connector at the bottom of the
surface BOP stack. This connector makes up quickly to an
external profile on the unitized wellhead or last casing spool
and avoids the time consuming operation of making up flanges
or clamps (Figure 7.23).
The Quik-Clamp connector at the bottom of the 18-3/4" BOP
stack is unlocked from the BOP test stump. The two halves of
the Quik-Clamp connector will separate when the BOP stack
is picked up off of the test stump. The metal DX seal ring can
now be removed. The seal areas in each half of the connector
should be carefully cleaned and lightly oiled. A new DX seal
ring should be placed carefully into the bottom half of the
connector.

CLAMP HUB TOP

RING GASKET

REACTION
RING
LOCKING
RING
CAM RING
WELLHEAD

Figure 7.24. Quik-Clamp

Connector and BOP Adapter

The 18-3/4" BOP stack with the Quik-Clamp connector in the

released position is now lowered on to the 18-3/4" unitized
wellhead and seated with the entire weight of the BOP stack.
The Quik-Clamp connector is now locked to the outside
profile of the wellhead housing by making up the eight cap
screws (according to the instructions in the service manual).

103

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

The final torque value on each cap screw should be 2700 ft-lb.
The BOP stack installation is then completed and the BOP
stack and Quik-Clamp connector can be tested.
Testing the 18-3/4" BOP Stack and 18-3/4" Unitized Wellhead
Without Casing Hangers Installed
The BOP stack and wellhead pressure test is conducted using the
multi-purpose Combination Tool (Figure 7.25).
Prior to any pressure tests, the Combination Tool is configured
to retrieve the Nominal Bore Protector and lowered down
through the BOP stack on drill pipe until it lands on the 18-3/
4" bore protector installed in the wellhead housing. The
Combination Tool is then rotated to the left no more than a
quarter turn. This allows the lugs on the tool to drop into the
jay-slots. An additional 1/8 of a turn to the left moves the lugs
to the retrieving position in the jay-slots. A straight upward
pull retrieves the Combination Tool and bore protector. The
Combination Tool is then reconfigured as a test tool and is run
on drill pipe to land on the internal load shoulder of the 18-3/
4" unitized wellhead. The resilient seal on the Combination
Tool seals on the reduced bore
just below the load shoulder.
4-1/2" API IF BOX

The BOP stack can then be

tested to 5000 psi by applying
hydrostatic pressure below a
pipe ram closed on the drill
pipe running string. This pressure test will also test the DX
seal of the Quik-Clamp connector. After all pressure tests
have been successfully concluded, the pipe ram is opened
and the Combination Tool is
retrieved with straight upward pull.
If the wellhead housing and
104

RUNNING AND
RETRIEVING JAY-LUGS
(REMOVED)
RESILIENT TEST SEAL
(INSTALLED)

4-1/2" API IF PIN

Figure 7.25. Combination Tool

configured to test the BOP stack

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

BOP stack are rated above 5000

psi, it is advisable to use a
heavy-walled drill pipe of
high grade steel so that the
drill pipe does not collapse at
higher pressures.

4-1/2" API IF BOX

RUNNING AND
RETRIEVING JAY-LUGS

TEST SEAL
The Combination Tool is used RESILIENT
(REMOVED)
to run the 18-3/4" Nominal
Bore Protector (Figure 7.27)
back into the wellhead. Release of the tool from the bore
protector is performed by
turning the Combination Tool
4-1/2" API IF PIN
1/8 of a turn to the right and
Figure 7.26. Combination Tool
picking straight up.

configured to run the nominal bore

protector and wear bushings

The 17-1/2" hole for the 13-3/

8" casing is then drilled. The
hole will then be conditioned, and the rig is set up to run the
13-3/8" casing string. Before running the casing, the 18-3/4"
Nominal Bore Protector will be removed from the wellhead
housing using the Combination Tool run on drill pipe.
Running the 13-3/8" Casing with 13-3/8" Mudline Shoulder
Hanger and 13-3/8" Surface Mandrel Casing Hanger
Historically it has been difficult to realize the benefits of a
unitized wellhead system and mandrel-type hangers when
mudline suspension is used
in the well. The inheritant JAY-SLOT
difficulty is spacing out the
casing string to land the RESILIENT
SEALS
mudline hanger at the sea bed
and the mandrel-type hanger
at the surface simultaneously.
Recently, the introduction of
an oilfield casing tool, by DRIL- Figure 7.27. Nominal Bore Protector

105

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

CASING
THREADS

QUIP, has provided the means to overcome the problems of

space-out and tensioning requirements. The casing Adjustment Sub is a unique casing tool that facilitates adjustment of
the casing string between two fixed points. The
function of this tool is described in the following paragraphs
and it will be incorporated in the 13-3/8" and 9-5/8" casing
strings.

INNER BODY

RETAINER
NUT
SEAL
ASSEMBLY

OUTER BODY

ADJUSTMENT
SLEEVE

OVERPULL
SLOT
CASING
THREADS

Figure 7.28 Adjustment Sub

106

Adjustment Sub
The Adjustment Sub is a full bore tool that is included in
casing strings, generally just below the mandrel-type casing
hangers used in surface and subsea wellhead systems (Figure
7.28).
It is, as the name implies, a tool which provides up to 18" of
vertical adjustment to accommodate any space out discrepancy in casing strings, and also enables the operator to apply
full tension to the casing below the casing hanger. The
Adjustment Sub can be used with surface mandrel-type casing
hangers in conjunction with mudline suspension equipment
where the requirement for casing space out and tension are
also very desirable.
Setting of the Adjustment Sub
With the casing run and the mandrel hanger within 18" inches
of its correct landing seat, the mandrel casing hanger running
tool is released and retrieved. The Adjustment Sub Setting
Tool is run on drill pipe and spaced out so that the kelly can be
used in the rotary table to transmit torque to the running
string. The Setting Tool is lowered 5 feet below the bottom of
the Adjustment Sub. Approximately 1000 psi is then applied
to the setting tool through drill pipe. This pressure forces a set
of pistons against the inside of the load ring which pushes it
out against the inside of the casing. With the pressure maintained, the Setting Tool is pulled slowly up until the load ring
snaps into the matching profile on the Adjustment Sub (Figure
7.29). An increase in load will be noted and this should be

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

increased and then maintained at 10,000 lbs overpull. The

internal pressure can now be removed. The casing string can
be tensioned to the desired amount. With the 10,000 lbs
overpull still applied to the setting tool, the drill pipe is rotated
to the right using the kelly. The center sleeve of the Adjustment Sub will begin to rotate and as it does the mandrel casing
hanger will begin to move down. The center sleeve of the
Adjustment Sub has a compound thread and with three rotations, moves the casing hanger down 2 inches. The number of
right-hand rotations to seat the casing hanger will depend on
how far the casing hanger was above the landing position.
When the torque increases sharply, it is a positive indication of
the casing hanger landing on its seat in the wellhead.
The seals in the Adjustment Sub can be pressure tested with a
straddle cup tester or during the casing pressure test. This is
done by applying the required pressure, usually not greater
than 80% of the burst rating of the casing, down the drill pipe.
Running 13-3/8" Casing
The 13-3/8" casing string (Figure 7.30) is run with the 13-3/8"
mudline shoulder hanger, mudline running tool and the 13-3/
8" Mandrel Hanger with Adjustment Sub on the full bore
clutch-type casing hanger running tool. This 13-3/8" casing
string is spaced out very carefully to ensure that the mudline
shoulder hanger seats correctly on the 20" mudline landing
ring. At this time, the mandrel casing hanger is within 18
inches of its correct landing position at the surface.

4-1/2" API IF

SETTING TOOL
MAIN BODY

SPRING
LOADED
TORQUE KEYS

LOCK RING

The 13-3/8" full bore clutch-type casing hanger running tool

(Figure7.31) is a threaded full bore running tool which is made
up to the 13-3/8" mandrel casing Hanger with right-hand
rotation at the surface. This full bore feature allows the 4-1/2" API IF PIN
operator to launch cement wiper plugs from the surface. The
running tool incorporates splines which allows the tool to
rotate the mudline running tool down the hole without un- Figure 7.29 Setting Tool
threading from the mandrel casing hanger. This is done with
an overpull on the running tool. Any right-hand rotation

107

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

13-3/8" DOUBLE
CLUTCH
RUNNING TOOL
13-3/8" MANDREL
CASING HANGER

13-3/8" ADJUSTMENT
SUB

13-3/8"RISER

13-3/8" MUDLINE
HANGER RUNNING
TOOL

13-3/8" MUDLINE
SHOULDER HANGER

13-3/8" CASING

Figure 7.30. Upper section of the

13-3/8" casing string

108

applied at the rig floor will rotate the mudline running tool to
the right exposing the washports. After the annulus is washed
out, the running tool is rotated to the left to close the mudline
hanger running tool. After the mudline hanger has been
pressure tested, the overpull on the clutch-type running tool is
relaxed. The clutch-type running tool can then be rotated to
the right and be released from the mandrel casing hanger.
The 13-3/8" mandrel casing hanger (Figure 7.32) has righthand running threads. The outside surface has a metal-tometal seal preparation for the casing hanger seal assembly
when it is run. The mandrel casing hanger has a threaded box
down to accept a 13-3/8" casing pup, or (when mudline
hangers are in use) to accept the 13-3/8" adjustment sub.
The 13-3/8" casing shoe is the first joint run. Intermediate
casing joints are made up and run until the casing that will be
below the mudline is run. The pre-assembled mudline hanger
and running tool joint is then picked up and made up to the 133/8" casing string. After the pre-assembled joint passes
through the rotary table, the casing string must not be rotated
as the 13-3/8" casing is lowered into the hole. As was the case
with the 20" casing, this is to
prevent the possibility of the CASING THREADS
mudline running tool from
backing off and releasing from
the mudline hanger as the casing is being lowered into the
hole. All of the 13-3/8" casing
connections above the running tool should be made up CENTRALIZER
to the maximum torque of the
casing connection. These precautions are necessary as the
running string will subseANTI-ROTATION
quently be rotated to the right PINS
to open the mudline RUNNING
THREADS
washports and then back to Figure 7.31. Clutch-Type Casing
the left to close the washports. Hanger Running Tool

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Accurate spacing of the 13-3/8" running string is also required

to place the 13-3/8" mandrel casing hanger within 18" of the
landing seat inside the wellhead.
The mandrel casing hanger running tool and casing hanger is
picked up as a complete assembly and the 13-3/8" adjustment RUNNING
sub made up to the bottom of THREADS
the 13-3/8" mandrel casing SEALING
SURFACE
hanger is made up to the last
joint of 13-3/8" casing. The 13- FLOW-BY
PORTS
3/8" casing landing joint made
up to the running tool is then
used to lower the entire 13-3/8" CASING
THREADS
casing string slowly down until the 13-3/8" mudline shoul- Figure 7.32. 13-3/8" Mandrel
Casing Hanger
der hanger lands inside the 20"
mudline hanger. The entire casing string is weight-set down.
The 13-3/8" cement head is then installed on the 13-3/8"
casing landing joint and a full bore cement job can be done as
per program.
At the conclusion of the cement job, the 13-3/8" mandrel
casing hanger running tool is kept in tension so that the upper
spline section of the tool is engaged and torque can be transmitted to the mudline hanger running tool if washout of excess
cement is required. If the annulus cement level is below the
mudline hanger, then the mandrel casing hanger running tool
is allowed to stroke downwards to the lower spline section.
The mandrel hanger running tool is then released from the
right-hand running threads of the mandrel hanger with seven
turns of left-hand rotation and recovered with straight upward pull.
This leaves the 13-3/8" mandrel hanger unseated. The Setting
Tool is then run down to the Adjustment Sub below the
mandrel hanger. The Setting Tool is actuated with drill pipe
pressure. This locks the Setting Tool into the Adjustment Sub

109

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Figure 7.33. Running the Setting

Tool and setting the mandrel hanger

Figure 7.34. Retrieving the Adjustment Sub Setting Tool

and the casing string is tensioned to the desired amount. The

Setting Tool is then turned to the right to move the mandrel
casing hanger down to its correct position in the 18-3/4"
Unitized Wellhead. Pressure tests are then conducted on the
Adjustment Sub seals and the setting tool is recovered.
Installing 18-3/4" Seal Assembly on 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Mandrel
Casing Hanger
The 18-3/4" Seal Assembly Running Tool (Figure 7.35) is made
up to drill pipe. The 18-3/4" Seal Assembly (Figure 7.36) is lifted
up and slipped on to the suspended running tool. The seal
assembly is turned to the left (counterclockwise, looking down)
to engage the four jay-lugs on the running tool.
This assembly is then lowered through the 18-3/4" BOP stack
110

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

4-1/2" API I.F. BOX

until the seal assembly lands on the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" mandrel

casing hanger. Seven turns of right-hand rotation make up the
seal assembly to the external threads on the casing hanger.
10,000 ft-lb of final torque is required to energize the metal
seals of the seal assembly. The drill pipe torque and the jaylugs on the running tool will be positioned in the automatic
release position from the seal assembly jay-slots. The 18-3/4"
seal assembly can now be pressure tested with the running
tool in position by closing a pipe ram on the BOP stack and
applying test pressure to the annular space below the pipe
ram.
RUNNING TOOL
JAY-SLOT
LOCKING RING

METAL
SEALS

WEAR
BUSHING
JAY-SLOT

At the conclusion of the pressure tests, the rams are

opened and the running tool
is retrieved with straight upward pull.

JAY-LUGS (4)

RESILIENT SEALS

4-1/2" API I.F. PIN

7.35. Seal Assembly RunInstalling the 18-3/4" x 13-3/ Figure

ning Tool
8" Wear Bushing
Figure 7.36. 18-3/4" Seal Assembly
The 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" wear
bushing (Figure 7.37) is set
on the rotary table and the 18-3/4" Combination Tool is made
up to the jay-slot preparation in the wear bushing with 1/8
turn to the right. The wear bushing is then lowered through
the BOP stack until it lands on the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" mandrel
casing hanger. No more than 1/4 turn of left-hand rotation
should be needed for the jay-lugs on the skirt of the wear
bushing to drop into the jay-slot preparation of the seal assemRUNNING/
bly. A quarter turn to the right locks the wear bushing into the RETRIEVING
JAY SLOTS
seal assembly and moves the Combination Tool to its autoBARRIER SEAL
matic release position. The Combination Tool can now be
retrieved with straight upward pull.
JAY SLOTS

The well is now ready for the next drilling phase, namely
drilling 12-1/4" hole for the 9-5/8" casing string. After the hole
has been drilled to casing depth, the hole will be conditioned Figure 7.37. 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Wear
Bushing
and the rig will be set up to run the 9-5/8" casing string.

111

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

CASING
THREADS

CENTRALIZER

ANTI-ROTATION
PINS
RUNNING
THREADS

Figure 7.38 Illustration of the

9-5/8" Clutch-Type Casing Hanger
Running Tool

Run 9-5/8" Casing String with 9-5/8" Split Ring Mudline

Hanger and 9-5/8" Surface Mandrel Hanger
The 9-5/8" casing string is run with the 9-5/8" mudline split
ring hanger and mudline running tool, and the 9-5/8" Mandrel Hanger with Adjustment Sub on the full bore double
spline casing hanger running tool. Again, the 9-5/8" casing
string is spaced out very carefully to ensure that the mudline
shoulder hanger seats correctly in the multiple load shoulder
profile of the 13-3/8" mudline hanger and that the mandrel
casing hanger is within 18 inches of its correct landing position
at the surface.
The 9-5/8" full bore clutch-type casing hanger running tool
(Figure 7.38) is identical in operation to the 13-3/8" full bore
running tool .
The 9-5/8" mandrel casing hanger (Figure 7.39) has righthand running threads. The outside profile has a metal-tometal seal preparation for the casing hanger seal assembly
when it is run. The inside of the 9-5/8" mandrel casing hanger
has right-hand tie-back threads for the possibility of well
testing, if necessary. The mandrel casing hanger has a threaded
box down to accept a 9-5/8" casing pup or when mudline
hangers are used with a 9-5/8" adjustment sub.

RUNNING
THREADS
SEALING
SURFACE

FLOW-BY SLOTS

CASING
THREADS

The 9-5/8" casing shoe, casing, mudline hanger joint, riser and
mandrel casing hanger and adjustment sub are run similar to the
13-3/8" casing (Figure 7.40). As was the case with 13-3/8" casing,
accurate spacing of the 9-5/8" running string is required to place
the 9-5/8" mandrel casing hanger within 18" of its landing seat in
the wellhead. The 9-5/8" casing can be cemented in accordance with the well program.
At the conclusion of the cement job, the 9-5/8" mandrel casing
hanger is adjusted to its landing seat in the same manner as the
13-3/8" mandrel casing hanger.

Figure 7.39. 18-3/4" x 13-3/8"

mandrel casing hanger

112

Jacket and Platform

Drilling and Production Equipment

Installing 18-3/4" Seal Assembly on 18-3/4" x 9-5/8" Mandrel

Casing Hanger
The 18-3/4" Seal Assembly for the 9-5/8" casing hanger is
identical to the seal assembly used on the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8"
mandrel casing hanger. It is run with the same tool and in the
same manner as the seal assembly for the 13-3/8" mandrel casing
hanger.
Installing the 18-3/4" x 9-5/8" Wear Bushing
The 18-3/4" x 9-5/8" wear bushing is equipped with the same
running preparation as the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" wear bushing and
is therefore run in the same manner as the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" wear
bushing. The well is now ready for the next drilling or testing
phase.
Abandonment
The same procedures for abandoning, re-entering and completing the well, as described in the earlier part of the chapter,
can be applied to a well drilled with an 18-3/4" unitized
wellhead.

9-5/8" DOUBLE
CLUTCH
RUNNING TOOL

9-5/8" MANDREL
CASING HANGER

9-5/8"
ADJUSTMENT SUB

9-5/8"RISER

9-5/8" MUDLINE
HANGER RUNNING
TOOL

9-5/8" MUDLINE SPLIT

RING HANGER

9-5/8" CASING

Figure 7.40. Upper section of the

9-5/8" casing string

113

Offshore Exploration From

a Floating Drilling Vessel
Introduction ............................................................................. 115
Floating Drilling Vessel Developments .................................. 115
Reusable Drilling Equipment Used in Guideline
Drilling Systems....................................................................... 118
Motion Compensator .............................................................. 118
Guideline Tensioners ............................................................... 121
Marine Riser Tensioners ......................................................... 124
Subsea BOP Stacks.................................................................. 126
Wellhead Connector ................................................................ 127
DX Wellhead Connector ......................................................... 127
Lower BOP Stack Frame ........................................................ 128
Blowout Preventer Rams ........................................................ 129
Choke and Kill Lines .............................................................. 129
Choke and Kill Line Valves .................................................... 130
Annular Preventer .................................................................. 130
BOP Stack Mandrel ................................................................ 131
Upper BOP Stack Frame ........................................................ 131
BOP Stack Guide Posts ........................................................... 132
Lower Marine Riser Package Components .......................... 132
BOP Stack Connector ............................................................. 132
Lower Marine Riser Package Framework ........................... 133
Optional Annular Preventer................................................... 133
Ball Joints and Flex Joints...................................................... 134
Flex Joint Extension ................................................................ 135
Choke and Kill Flexible Hoses, or Loops .............................. 135
Marine Riser System ............................................................... 136
Marine Riser Joints ................................................................. 136
Telescopic Joint ........................................................................ 139
BOP Stack Control System ..................................................... 140

Table of Contents

Offshore Exploration From

a Floating Drilling Vessel

Introduction
Exploration drilling from floating drilling vessels had its
beginnings in the mid 1950s when flat-bottomed barges were
modified to incorporate a central opening, or moon-pool, in
the vessel. The drilling derrick and rotary drilling equipment
were built into the deck structure over the moon-pool. The rest
of the barge was used for storage of equipment, mud chemicals, drill pipe, etc. as well as living quarters for the operating
personnel. These barges were towed to location by oceangoing tugs and anchored to the sea floor with up to 8 anchor
lines radially deployed from the barge. These lateral anchoring restraints limited the sideways movement of the vessel,
but had little effect on the up and down movement caused by
tidal or wave action. The drilling operations from these
floating vessels could not proceed in the same fashion as land
drilling without some changes to the traditional equipment
and procedures. The equipment changes and developments
are discussed later in this chapter.

Figure 8.1. Illustration of a semi

submersible floating drilling vessel

Floating Drilling Vessel Developments

As the offshore drilling industry expanded, the requirement
increased for more mobile floating drilling vessels with increased water depth capability. Self-propelled shipshape
vessels were custom designed and built. Large self-propelled
semi-submersibles became more popular, particularly in

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

areas where sea conditions were known to be severe, i.e. the

North Sea. Conventional anchoring systems are used to
anchor drillships and semi-submersibles in position. The
semi-submersible tends to offer a more stable base to drill from
than a drillship. This results from the
fact that the buoyancy for the semiSemisubmersible is provided by large
Submersible
(Anchored)
pontoons that are submerged 70'100' below the water line
Floating
which puts them mostly
Production
Systems
out of the main zone of
(Anchored)
Drillships
(Anchored)
Dynamically
Positioned
Drilling
Vessels

Submersibles

Figure 8.3. Example of a typical

Drillship

Jackups
Land
Frist
Commercial
Oil
Production

Jetties

Platform

Tension
Leg
Platform

1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Figure 8.2
Illustration depicting the development of offshore and subsea drilling and
completion vessels.

wave action. The supporting columns extending up from the

pontoons are subject to wave movement, but the volumetric
displacement is small when compared with the mass of the
semi-submersible. Therefore, the semi-submersible tends to
move up and down less and roll slower than a drillship in
similar operating conditions.
Figure 8.4. Example of a typical
Semi-Submersible

116

As offshore drilling locations moved into deeper waters, the

use of conventional anchoring systems became prohibitively
more expensive and time consuming. Any water depths in
excess of 3000' have usually been drilled by dynamically
positioned drillships and semi-submersibles. These drilling

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

CROWN BLOCK

WATER TABLE

DRILLING LINE

MAST OR DERRICK
STRUCTURE

TRAVELLING
BLOCK
GOOSENECK

ROTARY HOSE
STAND PIPE

HEAVE COMPENSATOR
HOOK
KELLY COCK
KELLY
KELLY BUSHING

MUD PUMP OR
SLUSH PUMP

STAND PIPE VALVE

GUIDELINE (4 TYPE)
TENSIONER

ROTARY TABLE
RETURN FLOWLINE

SUCTION PIT
SETTLING PIT

TENSIONING
CABLE (4-6 TYPE)

RISER TENSIONER
(4 -6 TYPE)

SHALE SHAKER

TELESCOPIC JOINT
ANCHOR CHAIN
(8 TYPICAL)

MOONPOOL

MARINE RISER
MARINE RISER
CONNECTOR

GUIDELINE (4 TYPE)

BALL JOINT
LOWER MARINE RISER
PACKAGE GUIDE FRAME
BOP STACK POST
(4 TYPE)
B.O.P. STACK
WELLHEAD CONNECTOR

PERMANENT GUIDE BASE

SUBSEA WELLHEAD

TEMPORARY GUIDE BASE

CEMENTED 30" CONDUCTOR
CEMENTED 20" CASING

DRILL PIPE
CASING SHOE

DRILL COLLARS

ANNULUS RETURNS

DRILL COLLAR SUB

WELLBORE (17-1/2" HOLE)
DRILLING BIT

Figure 8.5
Illustration of the main components of the Ship-Shape Floating Drilling Vessel

117

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

units are held on location by powerful thrusters that are keyed

into the satellite navigational system now available. The
theory is that the vessel can be held on a centerline location in
normal conditions within a 10 meter circle. The success of
these dynamically positioned vessels appears to verify the
theory. Wells have been drilled in water depths exceeding
7000' using these specialized units and guidelineless drilling
systems.
However, the next part of this chapter is devoted to the
modified and specially developed equipment used by anchored floating drilling vessels using a guideline drilling
system.

ACCUMULATOR
AIR

AIR

PISTON

HYDRAULICS
HYDRAULICS
HOOK

HOOK

Figure 8.6. Illustration of drillstring compensator

principle of operation

118

Reusable Drilling Equipment Used in

Guideline Drilling Systems
Motion Compensator
Anchored floating drilling vessels supplied a
unique set of challenges to the oil industry. At
the time, drilling technology was not prepared to accommodate the constant motion of
the floating drilling vessel. A system of specialty equipment had to be designed to eliminate any wave-induced motion. One of the
most important pieces of equipment created
to handle this challenge is the motion or
drillstring compensator.
The function of a drill string motion compensator is to suspend the drilling assembly so
that a constant weight is applied to the drill bit
as the floating drilling vessel moves up and
down. The principle of operation is depicted
in Figure 8.6. The motion compensator is
shown as a single cylinder and piston assembly supplied by hydraulic fluid from a large

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

pressurized accumulator. The hook is attached to the piston

and the drill pipe while the drill collars and bit are suspended
from the hook.
As can be seen from the diagram, the drilling assembly is
shown resting on the bottom of the hole. Any pressure
applied under the piston will provide an upward force. This
force can be expressed by the equation:
Force (lbs) = Pressure (psi) x Piston Area (Sq ins)
Consider the following example where the total hook load is
100,000 lbs., and a pressure of 1000 PSI is applied to the
compensator piston with an effective area of 80 sq. in. Using
the above equation
Force (lbs) = 1000 x 80 = 80,000 (lbs).

Figure 8.7. Early derricks and

traveling blocks were retrofitted with
two cylinder motion compensators

This means that the compensator is exerting 80,000 lbs. of

upward pull which is not enough to lift the drill bit off of the
bottom of the hole because the total hook load is 100,000 lbs.
This means that 20,000 lbs is not supported by
the compensator and is acting on the bit. This
AIR SUPPLY
BOTTLES
example describes a static condition. If the
MOTION COMPENSATOR
drilling vessel moves down, and the compensator with it, then this action would tend to
ACCUMULATOR
increase the weight on the bit. However, the
COMPRESSOR
storage accumulator is providing fluid at a
AND DRYER
constant 1,000 psi to the underside of the piston. This moves the piston upward to support
80,000 lbs. leaving 20,000 lbs. on the bit once CONTROL
PANEL
again. As the vessel moves up, so does the
FLUID
compensator and effect is to lift the drilling
SUPPLY
assembly out of the hole. However, the piston
can only support 80,000 lbs. as the fluid under Figure 8.8. Schematic of a single cylinder drillstring
the piston moves back into the storage accu- Motion Compensator
mulator at 1000 psi. In this manner, the float

119

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

Figure 8.9. Photo of a typical air

compressor and dryer unit

ing drilling vessel moves up and down, but the compensator

moves in and out ensuring that the weight on the bit is
maintained at 20,000 lbs. If more or less weight is required on
the bit, this is achieved by bleeding off the air pressure or
increasing the air pressure from the air compressor/dryer
assembly. In effect, the sensing device for the compensator is
the drill string resting on the bottom of the hole. In drilling
operations, the neutral point between the tensioned drill
string and the portion resting in compression on the bottom of
the hole is always maintained within the drill collar section of
the drilling assembly. This is done because the drill collar
sections and tool joints are very much more rugged than the
drill pipe.
The design of the drill string motion compensators usually
employs two hydraulic cylinders and pistons. These cylinders
and pistons are integrated into a unit that is inserted between
the travelling block and hook (Figure 8.7). The designs have
evolved using pistons in compression, or tension. Travelling
block compensators are by far the most common in use on
floating drilling vessels. Recently with the increasing use of
top-drive drilling systems, crown block motion compensators are being used to eliminate the number of long flexible
hoses in the derrick associated with travelling block compensators.
The supply of operating fluid for the compensator at nearly
constant pressure relies on a bank of high pressure air storage
bottles. These air storage bottles are kept at operating pressure
by an air compressor/dryer, or alternatively for additional
compressed air bottles.

Figure 8.10. Photo of a typical

drillstring compensator accumulator

120

An integrated system of guideline tensioners, riser tensioners

and drill string motion compensator can all be fed high pressure air from a large bank of air bottles supplied by one air
compressor. The control panel for the drill string compensator
is mounted adjacent to the driller's console and weight indicator. The control panel is provided with system pressure gages,

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

compensator extension indicator, and control valves to raise

or lower the operating pressure. Most compensators have a
locking mechanism that locks the compensator together in its
closed position and the control panel will have the control
lever to actuate the lock mechanism.
Most drill string compensators have 20'-25' of stroke capacity
with a dynamic load carrying capability ranging between
400,000 lbs. to 600,000 lbs. Maximum system operating pressures range from 2000 psi to 3500 psi.
Motion compensators are often used when lowering equipment to the sea floor, to provide a soft landing. For instance,
if a BOP stack or a subsea production tree is being lowered on
to a subsea wellhead, the compensator can be set to support all
but 5000 to 10,000 lbs of the total hanging load. This means
that even in fairly heavy swells, the BOP stack or tree is not
subjected to a fierce impact when it lands on the subsea
wellhead. Motion compensators are also used when landing
casing hangers and the suspended casing strings in subsea
wellheads.
The motion compensator is probably the single most important innovation that simplified floating drilling operations.
Guideline Tensioners
The requirement for guiding drilling equipment from the
floating drilling vessel to the sea floor resulted in the use of a
guideline system. Some early systems used 3 guidelines, but
these were quickly displaced by systems using 4 guidelines
attached to a weighted guide base on the sea floor. The wire
cables used for guidelines are equally spaced on a 6' radius
from the central point of the guide base. This is the accepted
industry standard today. Each guideline has to be tensioned
so that it remains taut as the floating drilling vessel moves up
and down. One early method used to tension guidelines was
simply to string each guideline over 4 suitably positioned idler
sheaves and connect the 4 guidelines to 4 hanging weights.

121

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

TO AIR SUPPLY

ACCUMULATOR
AIR

This simple guideline tensioning system had operational deficiencies, such as accommodating large swells and tidal movement, the guideline was cut to a specific length for the particular water depth at the drilling location and the weight needed
some guidance restraints to prevent them from swinging
around in a dangerous fashion.
If the guideline broke for any reason, the hanging weight
would drop and cause varying degrees of damage as it found
its way to the sea floor. A better system was required and
special guideline tensioners were designed and built.

FLUID

PISTON

WEIGHT
TO AIR SUPPLY

ACCUMULATOR
AIR

FLUID

PISTON

WEIGHT
Figure 8.12. Illustration
demonstrating the guideline tensioner
principle of operation

122

Most guideline tensioners in use today use a hydraulic cylinder and piston assembly in conjunction with wireline sheaves.
Figure 8.5 shows the guideline tensioners and their position
on the floating drilling vessel. Figure 8.11 shows the main
components of the guideline tensioning system.
High pressure air from the air compressor/dryer is supplied
to the air storage bottle or bottles. The control panel has air
control valves and air pressure gauges for each guideline
tensioner. When the air control valve is opened, the air
pressure then acts
on the fluid in the
AIR STORAGE
ACCUMULATOR
accumulator. The
BOTTLES
TENSIONER
fluid under pressure then acts on
the piston providCONTROL
ing an upward
PANEL
force. The piston
rod has two
AIR
wireline sheaves
COMPRESSOR
mounted at its
AND DRYER
upper end. The
hydraulic cylinder has two
Figure 8.11. Illustration guideline tensioners
wireline sheaves
main components

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

mounted at its lower end. The steel guideline cable is strung,

or reeved, over the four sheaves of the guideline tensioner.
The end of the guideline from the sea floor guide base is passed
over the idler sheave which is hung from underneath the rig
floor. The other end of the guideline is spooled from a drum
of cable and clamped with a wire line anchor to the fixed
framework of the guideline tensioner.
The guideline tensioner is mounted to the floating drilling
vessel structure using mounting plates. In operation, as the
floating drilling vessel moves up and down, the piston with
the two upper sheaves will move in and out. This means that
guideline cable is let out as the vessel moves up, and guideline
cable is pulled in as the vessel moves down.
As can be seen from the diagram, if the floating drilling vessel
moves up, the piston will move down. Specifically, as the
guideline tensioner moves up 4 feet, the guideline tensioner
piston will move down 1 foot, because of the 4:1 mechanical
advantage of the guideline tensioner.
If the required tension in a guideline is 5000 lbs., the tensioner
piston has to exert an upward force of 20,000 lbs., again
because of the 4:1 mechanical advantage of the tensioner. If the
piston area is 20 sq. inches, then the air pressure required in the
system is 1000 psi. This is based on the equation:
Force (lbs) = Pressure (psi) x Area (sq in).
The tension in the guideline can be altered by adjusting the
systems operating pressure. This is done by bleeding off air
pressure or adding pressure by means of the air compressor,
or an adjacent high pressure air vessel.
The guideline will remain taut at a practically constant tension
while the floating vessel moves up and down, and the piston
assembly moves in and out supported by the air spring

123

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

PISTON

ACCUMULATOR

AIR
STORAGE

which contracts and expands as the hydraulic fluid moves in

and out of the air/oil accumulator. Obviously, as the air
volume contracts, the pressure in the system will increase and
reduce when the air volume expands. This in turn translates
into increased or decreased tension in the guideline. If the air
volume, or air spring, is large, then the tension variations are
minimized. This can be achieved by having a bank of interconnected air storage bottles and the load, or tension variations,
are reduced.
Normally, guideline tensioners are designed with a 40' or 50'
line travel capability and a 16,000 lbs. tension limit. Maximum
operating pressures vary between 2,000 psi and 3,500 psi
depending on the make of tensioner used. The guideline
tensioner shown in Figure 8.13 is called a compression type
because the piston rod is always in compression when it is
operating. Other styles of tensioners use a configuration that
puts the piston rod in tension during operation.
The previous illustration shows the guideline tensioner components as independent pieces, but designs integrate the air/
oil accumulator and the air storage vessel into the structure of
the guideline tensioner resulting in a compact unit.

TO
AIR SUPPLY

Figure 8.13. Illustration of a typical

guideline tensioner

Guideline tensioners also see duty if additional guidelines are

required by guiding TV cameras on frames down to the sea
floor. When a well is completed, each guideline will be cut, or
pulled, from the sea floor guide structure and spooled back
through the tensioner on to the spare drum of cable. As with
all cable used in hoisting and tensioning devices, a log of tonmiles will be recorded for each tensioner. When the recommended service life of the cable is approached, it is cut and
slipped so that new cable is put into service.
Marine Riser Tensioners
The function of marine riser tensioners is to apply a constant
upward tension on the marine riser so that no part of the
system is in compression during the up and down motion of

124

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

the floating drilling vessel. Usually, the neutral point is

calculated to be within the BOP stack. The tension required in
the marine riser is a function of marine riser weight and
density of the drilling fluid within the marine riser.
The most common form of riser tensioners uses a hydropneumatic system to provide a constant force to a hydraulic
cylinder and piston assembly. The cylinder and piston assembly are configured with wireline sheaves that accept the reeving of the riser tension cable. Figure 8.14 is a diagrammatic
cross-section of a riser tensioner showing the relationship of the major components. As can be seen
AIR STORAGE
from this diagram, riser tensioners are just larger
versions of guideline tensioners. The principle of
operations is identical (refer to the earlier section on
AIR
SUPPLY
guideline tensioners to understand the basic mode of
operation).
One end of the riser tensioner cable is attached to the
outer barrel of the telescopic joint by means of fixed
pad eyes, or a tensioning ring with pad eyes. Sometimes the tensioning ring is designed to accommodate
4, 6 or 8 riser tensioner cables depending on the size of
riser and the water depths encountered. The tensioning
ring can also be designed to rotate and a fluid bearing
may be incorporated to assist the rotation. This is particularly
true of operations conducted from a guidelineless floating
drilling vessel where the vessel will be moved by its thruster
to head into the weather. Single riser tensioners are usually
designed with a 50' stroke capability and tension capacities
from 60,000 lbs. to 100,000 lbs. Some dual designs will have a
capacity of up to 160,000 lbs. Operating pressures of the
system range from 2,000 psi to 3,500 psi depending on the type
and manufacturer. Ton-mile records are kept on the tensioner
cables, and they are cut and shipped when service life recommendations are approached.

PISTON

ACCUMULATOR

CONTROL PANEL

Figure 8.14. Illustration of a typical

riser tensioner

The riser tensioners are usually mounted on either side of the

125

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

rig structure in a row and the idler sheaves are suspended

below the rig floor.

Figure 8.15. Photo of a typical BOP

stack outfitted for guideline drilling
operations

Subsea BOP Stacks

The first BOP stacks used in floating offshore drilling operations incorporated the ram preventers and annular preventers
in the bore sizes and pressure ratings that were available in the
land drilling business. A popular combination used was a 203/4" x 2000 psi BOP stack and a 13-5/8" x 5000 psi BOP stack.
This combination of BOP stack is known as a two stack system
and is in occasional use in today's floating drilling operations.
By definition, each size of BOP stack was connected to a
matching size of subsea wellhead housing, and this type of
subsea wellhead system become known as a two stack wellhead system. The value of this two stack system was that each
hole size could be drilled with a full bore drilling assembly
without the use of an under-reamer. Its disadvantage was that
the 13-3/8" casing string and attached 13-5/8" wellhead housing had to be run into open hole as the 20-3/4" BOP stack had
to be pulled prior to running the 13-3/8" casing. Also the cost,
in terms of time, required to run and pull two BOP stacks in the
course of drilling a subsea well became a major consideration.
The introduction of single 16-3/4" x 5000 psi subsea BOP
stacks to drill a subsea well overcame the inherent problems of
a two stack system. However, under-reaming was still a
requirement to open the pilot hole drilled through the 16-3/4"
subsea wellhead up to 17-1/2" to accommodate the 13-3/8"
casing string.
The use of 18-3/4" BOP stack components, specially created
for offshore drilling, to be used in conjunction with an 18-3/4"
subsea wellhead housing, has now become the offshore industry standard. In parallel with the move to the 18-3/4" bore
systems, the pressure rating requirements for offshore BOP
stacks also increased. Abnormally over-pressured formations
and zones were encountered with bottom hole pressures in
excess of 12,000 psi. The requirement for a 15,000 psi BOP

126

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

stack became a necessity and the BOP stack components got

heavier and bulkier. It is not uncommon for a fully equipped
18-3/4" x 15000 psi BOP stack to weigh 180 tons.
The primary function of the subsea BOP stack is basically the
same as a land BOP stack, namely to provide a pressure tight
means of controlling potential blowout conditions. The following narrative will describe the components and functions of a
fully equipped 18-3/4" subsea BOP stack.
Wellhead Connector
The wellhead connector, attached to the bottom of the BOP
stack, is a hydraulically operated unit that can be locked to,
and unlocked from, a matching profile at the top of the subsea
wellhead housing. Subsea wellhead profiles are categorized
as hub profiles or mandrel profiles. The wellhead connector
carries a metal seal gasket which provides a seal between the
wellhead housing and the wellhead connector. This metal seal
gasket is fully energized by the locking force of the wellhead
connector. The various manufacturer designs for wellhead
connectors are too numerous to cover in this brief review, but
this component receives a lot of attention as its reliability of
operation is of the utmost importance in the running and
recovery of subsea BOP stacks. The upper body of the wellhead connector usually has a key slot in its bore. This key slot
is used when setting oriented tubing hangers when, and if, the
well is completed.
DX Wellhead Connector
The Dril-Quip DX Wellhead Connector is a mandrel profile
connector designed for deepwater, high wellhead pressures
and longer drilling times. This wellhead connector incorporates three hydraulic circuits:

Primary Lock

Secondary Unlock

Primary Unlock

127

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

The primary
locking circuit provides
the power to
LOCKING
SEGMENTS
lock the wellhead connecANNULAR
tor to the well- PISTON/
head. The pri- CAM RING
mary unlock- SPREADER
ing circuit un- SEGMENTS
locks the Connector from SECONDARY
UNLOCK PISTON
the wellhead,
providing 25%
greater unlocking
force than locking
Figure 8.16. Illustration of the 18-3/4"
force. The secondary DX Wellhead Connector
unlock circuit is an independent unlocking circuit
used as a backup to the primary unlock circuit. The secondary
unlocking circuit provides 88% greater unlocking force than
locking force.
The DX Wellhead Connector (Figure 8.16) incorporates a
unique locking segment retracting feature which ensures the
locking segments are fully retracted from the wellhead profile
when the connector is unlocked. This is accomplished with
four spreader cam segments that are attached to the annular
piston/cam ring.
Figure 8.17. Illustration showing the
positive unlock feature of the DX
Wellhead Connector

The Ring gasket retainer system is ROV compatible for easy

ring gasket replacement without retrieving the BOP Stack to
the surface.
Lower BOP Stack Frame
As mentioned earlier, the size and weight of the BOP stack
components means that the supporting framework for the
integrated stack needs to be carefully designed. The lower

128

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

BOP stack frame has a central steel structural ring that is bolted
to the body of the wellhead connector. The frame will normally have four arms terminating in structural flanges that
will match up with the four posts of the BOP stack.
Blowout Preventer Rams
Modern subsea BOP stacks will have 4 ram preventers in
them. The illustration shows two dual ram preventers stacked
up and bolted to the upper adapter of the wellhead connector.
One of the four rams will be a blind/shear ram capable of
cutting through drill pipe and sealing the bore of the BOP
stack. These rams, in common with the main BOP stack
components, require hydraulic power to close and open the
rams. The position of the blind/shear ram in subsea BOP
stacks appear to be a matter of personal preference as they
have been placed in each of the four positions available. The
most common position appears to be the second ram position
from the top.

UPPER
BOP STACK
FRAME

POSTS

Choke and Kill Lines

LOWER
As can be seen from the BOP stack cross section, choke and kill
BOP STACK
outlets are provided under each ram position. In the example
FRAME
shown in Figure 8.20, each outlet has been connected to a
choke or kill line. Dual hydraulically operated gate valves are Figure 8.18. Illustration of the BOP
shown on each outlet. This doubling up of the valves provide stack frame.
extra safety for this important well control function. If the BOP
stack is used to control a blowout, the rate of fluid or gas flow
through these choke
and kill valves and lines
can be very high and if
abrasive particles are
carried in the fluid or
gas, the gates and seats
in the valve can be damaged extensively. The
choke and kill lines are
manufactured from ex
Figure 8.19. Photo of typical 18-3/4" 15,000 psi
ram preventers

129

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

tra heavy wall line pipe with pressure ratings in excess of the
pressure rating of the BOP stack. This measure is taken in
order to provide a greater than normal safety factor to components that may see very severe operational conditions in their
service life. The choke and kill lines terminate in male stab
subs above the upper BOP stack frame.
KILL LINE

MANDREL
RAMS

GATE
VALVES
GATE
VALVES

WELLHEAD
CONNECTOR

Figure 8.20. Illustration of the

wellhead connector, rams and
mandrel stack-up

130

Choke and Kill Line Valves

These specialized mud service gate valves are hydraulically
operated and are usually furnished with gates and seats that
are hard-faced with tungsten carbide, or equally wear resistant metal. They are usually mounted in pairs to provide a
CHOKE
safety back-up. The hydraulic operators will have a spring
LINE
cartridge that will close the valve in the event of hydraulic
control failure.
Annular Preventer
The next component in the BOP stack is the annular preventer
that is bolted or clamped to the top of the upper ram preventer.
The annular preventer has a full opening rubber element
reinforced with metal ribs that can close on any shape of
tubular positioned within the BOP stack bore. The rubber
element can close on open hole, but this capability is only used
in an emergency as the resulting wear and tear shortens the
service life of the element. In BOP stack testing, the annular
preventer will be pressure tested on a large diameter tubular
section positioned in the BOP stack. The unit is hydraulically
closed and usually retracts to its full open position when the
closing pressure is bled down. The natural spring force of the
rubber element is usually sufficient to get full retraction.
However, if it does not retract properly, it becomes a constriction to the passage of full bore down hole tools. A number of
down hole equipment failures have been attributed to the
gouging of exposed seals and seal surfaces as they have passed
through constrictive annular elements. As mentioned in the
earlier chapter on land drilling, a number of drilling operators
cut the elements in half to assist the element in retracting to a

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

fully open position. The pressure ratings of annular preventers

mounted on subsea BOP stacks are usually lower than the
pressure ratings of the ram preventers.
BOP Stack Mandrel
The BOP stack mandrel is bolted or clamped to the top of the
annular preventer. It has the same bore dimension as the BOP
stack. The upper end of the mandrel has an external profile in
the form of a hub or a grooved locking dog preparation. The
BOP stack mandrel is the connection point for he connector in
the lower marine riser package.
Upper BOP Stack Frame
Figure 8.21. Illustration of a typical
The upper BOP stack frame is the most structurally significant annular preventer
frame in the BOP stack. It is mounted around the annular
preventer and is connected to each of the four BOP stack guide
posts. The upper frame provides the baseplate for two female
control pod receptacles. These receptacles are mounted 180o
apart and provide
the locking and
sealing interface
for the two retrievable control
pods that are run
with the BOP
stack. Only one
control pod is required to operate
the BOP stack.
The other control
pod provides a Figure 8.22. NL Shaffer and Hydril Annular
backup in the Preventers
event of a failure
in the first control pod. The receptacles have outlets that are
connected to each of the hydraulic control functions on the
BOP stack.

131

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

CONTROL POD
RECEPTACLES
UPPER BOP
STACK FRAME

Figure 8.24. Illustration of the main

BOP Stack assembled

BOP Stack Guide Posts

These 4 guide posts, mounted at the 4 corners of the BOP stack,
are large tubular members with longitudinal slots to accommodate the 4 guidelines. Each post has a line trap, top and
bottom, to capture the guideline. The lower part of the post is
a downward facing cone to give the stack primary guidance as
its posts move down over the four posts of the sea floor guide
structure. The BOP stack posts and framework are designed
to protect the integrated BOP stack components from any
bending loads or stresses anticipated during the drilling of a
well. Sometimes, because the drilling conditions induced by
underwater currents and surface weather are expected to be
particularly severe, the BOP stack framework is beefed up.
The drilling contractor may also want the stack equipped for
emergency recovery in a worst case scenario. This could mean
that the BOP stack has been dropped and is resting on the sea
floor on one side in water depths too deep for diver assistance.
For this case, the framework may be designed so that a
recovery grapple can engage one leg or post and recover the
BOP stack without any buckling or damage. There are other
emergency recovery systems for BOP stacks that have lost
their conventional control system because of a control pod
failure or a plumbing failure on the BOP stack. This means the
BOP stack cannot be unlocked from the subsea wellhead and
hydraulic power has to be supplied to the wellhead connector
by another method. In these days of remotely operated
vehicles (ROVs), an acceptable solution would be to deploy
the ROV with the ability to connect a hydraulic adapter to an
outboard mating assembly on the BOP stack. Hydraulic
power would come from a pre-charged accumulator carried
by the ROV and the wellhead connector could be unlocked
and the BOP stack recovered.
Lower Marine Riser Package Components
BOP Stack Connector
This piece of equipment can be identical to the wellhead
connector on the bottom of the BOP stack, and quite often that

132

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

is the case (Refer to Figure 8.25). It is hydraulically locked and

unlocked from the BOP stack mandrel. This connector is
rarely separated when the BOP stack and lower marine riser
package are in position locked to the subsea wellhead. However, in an emergency or if weather conditions are severe and
the floating drilling vessel is forced off location, the BOP stack
will be left on bottom in a shut-down mode and the lower
marine riser package and the marine riser system will be
recovered. Sometimes, the emergency occurs very rapidly
and the vessel moves off location which applies a high bending moment at the BOP stack as the marine riser system tries
to pull the BOP stack over on its side. The requirement for a
guide positive release from the BOP stack becomes extremely
important and the designs of these BOP stack connectors have
seen some changes. One such change has been to reduce the
swallow of the connector so that the connector body does not
bind with the BOP stack mandrel even though the locking
mechanism in the connector has been released. The reduced
swallow allows the BOP stack connector to release more easily
giving rise to high angle release connectors. The term high
angle is misleading as the specifications usually call out a
maximum release angle of 10o from the vertical. Normal
connectors probably have a release angle of 3o or less.

FLEX JOINT
EXTENSION

FLEX
JOINT

FLEX
LOOPS

CONTROL
PODS

ANNULAR

BOP STACK

Lower Marine Riser Package Framework

CONNECTOR
Usually, a four armed frame is built around the BOP stack
connector with guide cones and line runners to engage the CONTROL PODS
four guidelines. This framework usually carries two mating
control pod receptacles that interface with the two control pod
receptacles on the BOP stack upper frame. Also, two female Figure 8.25. Illustration of the lower
choke and kill line stab subs are integrated into this framework marine riser package
that engage the male choke and kill stab subs on top of the BOP
stack.
Optional Annular Preventer
Sometimes a second annular preventer is called for in the BOP
stack design, again reflecting the commonly occurring theme

133

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

of equipment redundancy in subsea equipment design. The

second annular preventer can be included in the main BOP
stack and occasionally has been done. However, weight and
height limitations on floating drilling vessels have generally
dictated that the second annular is put in the lower marine
riser package. It is bolted or clamped to the BOP stack
connector.
Ball Joints and Flex Joints
The lateral migration of the floating drilling vessel as it moves
within its anchoring restraints because of surface currents or
wind action means that the marine riser is flexing backwards
and forwards, even if somewhat slowly. Subsea currents can
impart a considerable side loading as the currents act on the
effective sail area of the marine riser system. To control the
effects of these movements being transferred into the BOP
stack and lower marine riser package, a full bore ball joint, or
flex joint, is included at the base of the marine riser. These units
are bolted or clamped to the top of the BOP stack connector or the
second annular preventer if one is included in the lower marine
riser package.
Single ball joints allow up to 10o flex from the vertical and rely
on resilient seals to keep the drilling fluid inside the marine
riser. Some of the inherent problems with ball joints are that
the seals have to move backwards and forwards over a seal
surface that is lubricated by drilling fluid on the inside and
seawater on the outside. As marine risers are tensioned, this
tension is also applied to the ball joint which means the ball
and socket sections of the ball joint are forced together. These
factors create an abrasive wear environment for the seals and
seal surfaces. Various means of pressurized lubrication have
been used on ball joints and have extended the service life of
these units.
The development of flex joints that have no moving seal
surfaces was a technical advance in this critical area of marine

134

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

riser systems. The modern flex joints use a shaped multilayered laminate of synthetic rubber and steel that is bonded
together. The flex element permits up to 10o angular movement from the vertical and has its own spring force to bring it
back to a vertical position when no side loading is applied. The
flex joints are a lot stiffer in their movement than a ball joint.
Flex joints have largely replaced ball joints in floating drilling
operations as they are virtually maintenance free (Figure
8.26).
Flex Joint Extension
This piece of equipment is constructed from a short length of
marine riser pipe. The lower end usually has a flanged
connection that forms part of the top adapter of the flex joint,
or may be bolted to the top of the flex joint. The upper end of
the flex joint extension is normally equipped with a marine
riser connector pin looking up. The length of the flex joint
extension is dictated by the need to accommodate flexible
choke and kill hoses, or steel flex loops.
Choke and Kill Flexible Hoses, or Loops
The choke and kill lines from the BOP stack have to pass
around the flex joint, or ball joint, and flexible lines are required to accommodate the angular deflection as the flex units
move (Figure 8.25). The lower ends of the choke and kill lines
in the lower marine riser package are female stab subs that are
integrated into the guide frame. The upper ends of the choke
and kill lines terminate as male stab subs, secured in a support
flange that is usually an integral part of the marine riser
connector pin mentioned earlier. The connecting lines between these stab connections are flexible hoses, or flex loops.
The flexible hose can be compared with a short section of
rotary hose. Some of these hoses are more heavily built than
others depending on the pressure rating of the choke and kill
line system. The flexible steel loops are also made of thicker
walled material based on pressure requirements. Usually
15,000 psi systems use steel loops, but high pressure armored

Figure 8.26. Illustration of a flex

joint currently in use

135

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

DIVERTER SYSTEM

flexible hose is available when specified.

Marine Riser System

TELESCOPIC JOINT

TENSIONING
RING

INTEGRAL
CHOKE AND KILL
LINES

RISER JOINT

Figure 8.27. Illustration of the upper

section of the marine riser system

136

Marine Riser Joints

The function of the marine riser is to provide a steel conductor
that (a) raises the drilling fluid circulation level from the sea
floor to the floating drilling vessel and (b) provides a conduit
for the drilling assemblies and casing strings as they are
lowered into the BOP stack and well bore.
Early marine riser systems used large diameter steel pipe with
flanged end connections. Each section of marine riser was 50'
long with a selection of shorter sections or pup joints, for
spacing out the marine riser in order to accommodate the
water depth at a drilling location. The choke and kill lines
were usually run separately through the use of guide frames
or stabbed through guide funnels attached to the marine riser
body. The lower end of the choke or kill line would be a stab
sub that latched into a matching receptacle on the BOP stack.
Modern marine riser systems have the choke and kill lines
integrated into each marine riser joint, and the marine riser
connectors are pin and box assemblies that are locked rigidly
together (Figure 8.27). The joints are usually run in the pin up/
box down mode as are the integral choke and kill lines. The
choke and kill lines stab together when the marine riser joints
are stabbed and locked together. The support flanges at each
end of the marine riser joint are recessed to provide the
attachment points for each end of the choke and kill lines.
Additional clamps are used around the body of the marine
riser to hold the choke and kill lines in position.
Marine riser connectors usually have locking dogs, carried in
the box half of the connector, that are driven inwards to engage
a matching groove profile on the pin half of the connector.
Some marine riser box connectors use a heavy section locking

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

ring that is driven into a matching lock ring groove on the pin
section of the connector. Whatever means is used, it is imperative that the locking dog, or ring, is held firmly into position
while the marine riser is in service. The natural movement and
flexing of the marine riser, coupled with vibrations from the
drill string, can loosen the connection if an anti-backout means
is not provided for each make-up mechanism.
The resilient seals for each choke and kill stab connections are
carried in the female half of the stab sub. The resilient seals for
the marine riser connections can be carried on either the box or
pin section.
As offshore wells were drilled in deeper and deeper water, the
various lengths of marine riser have increased as well as the
overall weight of the mariner riser. In order to reduce the
marine riser load, buoyancy systems have been used very
effectively. These buoyancy systems have varied in form from
buoyancy modules of syntactic foam attached to the riser to
integral buoyancy cans that use compressed air systems to
displace the sea water from the cans.
The diameter of the marine riser pipe and the wall thickness
are carefully selected to match the bore of the associated
subsea BOP stack. Some common match-ups are listed in the
chart below.
Riser Size (OD)
16"
18-5/8"
21"
24"

BOP Stack Size

13-5/8"
16-3/4"
18-3/4"
21-1/4"

The pressure rating of the BOP stack will determine the

pressure rating of the choke and kill line system. The diameter, wall thickness and the grade of steel pipe used in the
manufacture of the choke and kill lines is a function of the

137

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

pressure rating and flow capacity required in the choke and

kill lines. A limiting factor on the overall OD of the integral
marine riser is the maximum opening through the rotary
table. 49-1/2" rotary tables have become quite common in
offshore floating drilling systems and appears to accommodate most requirements.
The BOP stack and lower marine riser package are lowered to
the sea floor wellhead or marine riser. Each joint is picked up
using a marine riser handling tool which consists of a marine
riser box down with a short drill pipe stem and box up. The
first joint is lowered through the rotary table and connected to
the marine riser pin on top of the flex joint extension. The BOP
stack and connected lower marine riser package is then picked
up off of the support beams, or spider beams, which are then
retracted out of the way. The assembly is then lowered until
the upper support flange on the marine riser joint can be
landed on the four support dogs of the marine riser handling
spider sitting on the rotary table. The marine riser handling
tool may have choke and kill pressure test caps on it that seal
on the marine riser choke and kill lines. A pressure test can be
made against the closed choke and kill line valves on the BOP
stack.
After a successful pressure test, the marine riser handling tool
is removed and the next joint of marine riser is stabbed over
and made up to the marine riser pin sitting in the marine riser
handling spider. The marine riser and suspended BOP stack
are then picked up, the four spider dogs are retracted, and the
assembly is lowered until the four spider dogs can once again
be positioned under the support flange of the added joint of
marine riser. More marine riser joints are added in this
manner, including any required pup joints for spacing purposes. The choke and kill lines will be pressure tested at
regular intervals, usually every 2 or 3 joints, as the riser is run.
The uppermost component of the marine riser system, the
telescopic joint, is added next.

138

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

Telescopic Joint
The function of the telescopic joint is to provide sufficient
vertical stroke which compensates for the effect of heave and
tidal motion on the floating drilling vessel. The telescopic joint
is made up of two main components, the outer barrel and the
inner barrel (Figure 8.28). The outer barrel has a marine riser
connector box at its lower end which connects to the last joint
of marine riser. The outer barrel carries the rubber sealing
elements that permit the inner barrel to stroke in and out
containing the drilling fluid in the marine riser. The sealing
elements are contained in a packing box mounted on top of the
outer barrel. The inner barrel has the same bore as the marine
riser and an upper connection that mates with a bell nipple, or
flow diverter system. The lower end of the inner barrel is
equipped with a shoe that provides a funnel shaped profile for
drilling tools coming out of the hole and a stop shoulder that
comes up against the packing box when the telescopic joint is
fully extended. Typically, telescopic joints have a 50' plus or
minus stroke capability and can support in excess of 1,000,000
lbs load in the locked shut mode or the fully extended mode.
In operation, the outer barrel of the telescopic joint is a fixed
part of the marine riser connected to the sea floor by way of the
BOP stack. It carries the attachment points for the riser
tensioning system to maintain the marine riser in tension as
the floating vessel moves up and down. The inner barrel is
attached to the underside of the rig floor by way of the attached
bell nipple or flow diverter.

INNER
BARREL

PACKING OR
STUFFING BOX

CHOKE & KILL

STAB SUB

OUTER
BARREL

The choke and kill lines are attached to the outside of the outer Figure 8.28. Illustration of a typical
barrel. The lower ends of the choke and kill lines are female telescopic joint
stab subs that mate and seal with the male stab subs on the last
joint of marine riser when the telescopic joint is connected. The
upper end of the choke and kill lines are equipped with a stab
sub profile, a clamp or flange connection. Flexible high
pressure hoses are connected to these choke and kill end
fittings as well as the high pressure steel lines leading to the

139

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

choke and kill manifold. These high pressure choke and kill
hoses have to be long enough to accommodate the full stroke
of the telescopic joint in operation.
BOP Stack Control System
All of the functions on the BOP stack and lower marine riser
package require hydraulic fluid under pressure to lock and
unlock the wellhead connector, to open and close the choke
and kill valves and to open and close the ram preventers and
the annular preventers. Therefore, the function of the control
system is to direct sufficient volumes of hydraulic fluid under
pressure to the required BOP stack components.
The most common type of EMERGENCY
BATTERY PACK
BOP
stack
control system
is a hydraulic
pilot operated
system. This
CONTROL
MINI PANEL
HYDRAULIC
PANEL
system is used
POWER UNIT
because it ofHOSE REEL
MANIFOLD
fers a fast reHOSE REEL
sponse time
from the conHOSE BUNDLES
trol panel initiation to operation of the
BOP
stack
function. The
control line
CONTROL
umbilical is an
POD
ACCUMULATOR
integrated asRACK
sembly of multiple small diameter control Figure 8.29. Schematic diagram of the BOP stack
hoses and one control system
or two larger
140

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

diameter hydraulic fluid supply hoses. The umbilical is

usually sheathed in a smooth, hard wearing plastic.
As mentioned earlier in the BOP stack components summary,
two control pod receptacles are integrated into the lower
marine riser package framework which, in turn, engage and
seal on two more receptacles on the main BOP stack framework. The dual control pod system gives 100% redundancy of
operation with either control pod and connected umbilical
capable of operating the BOP stack functions completely.
The control pod contains pilot operated valves that, when
actuated, direct the hydraulic fluid to the required functions
by way of the steel control lines connecting the outlets on the
control pod receptacle to the BOP stack functions. One of the
primary operating requirements is that the valves and rams
operate very quickly in order to avoid excessive drilling fluid
wear if these components are closing on a potential blowout
condition. If all of the hydraulic fluid had to pass through the
fluid supply hose in the control line umbilical, then slow
closure rates would result. In order to improve the closure
time, a bank of hydraulic fluid accumulators are mounted on
the BOP stack. The capacity of this high pressure storage bank
is usually 1-1/2 times or more than the total volume required
to operate every single function on the BOP stack at least once.
This source of high pressure fluid provides the required surge
of hydraulic power when a pilot valve in the control pod is
opened and maintained by constant supply from the fluid
supply units on the floating drilling vessel.

Figure 8.30. Photo of a typical BOP

stack control panel

Figure 8.31. Photo of a typical

hydraulic supply Koomey unit

When the BOP stack is lowered to position on the sea floor, the
control pods are locked to their respective receptacles on the
BOP stack and the two control line umbilicals are spooled out
with two steel cables attached to the control pods.
Once the BOP stack is landed, the auxiliary control panel on
each umbilical spool can be used to lock the BOP stack to the
Figure 8.32. Photo of the moonpool
subsea wellhead housing. Because the BOP stack can be
area and the umbilical reels

141

Offshore Exploration
From a Floating
Drilling Vessel

operated from either of the two control systems, shuttle valves

are used to direct the fluid flow to the required function.
Sometimes, these shuttle valves are mounted directly on the
inlet ports of the BOP stack component or they are integrated
into a bank of shuttle valves mounted on the BOP stack.
If one of the control pods malfunctions, it can be unlocked and
pulled to the surface independently of the BOP stack by the
pod cable and control line umbilical. Usually, drilling operations will be suspended while the control pod is repaired and
re-run down to the BOP stack.

Figure 8.33. Photo of a control pod

being tested (unlocked and pulled)

142

The main control panel is mounted on the rig floor close to the
driller's console. A number of the controls will require two hand
operations so that inadvertent operation of a BOP stack function
cannot take place. A duplicate remote control panel will be
situated in the rig superintendents office on board the floating
drilling vessel. The operating pressure for the hydraulic control
system is usually in the range of 1500-3000 psi.

Introduction to Subsea
Wellhead Equipment
Introduction ............................................................................. 145
Temporary Guide Base ........................................................... 146
Drilling 36" Hole ..................................................................... 148
30" Conductor, 30" Housing, And Permanent
Guide Base ............................................................................... 148
Jetting the 30" Conductor In To Place .................................. 152
Installing the 30" Conductor with a Mud Mat ..................... 153
Dril 26" Hole ............................................................................ 153
Drilling Without Returns ....................................................... 153
Drilling With Returns ............................................................. 154
Drilling with Returns And A Flow Diverter.......................... 155
20" Casing, 18-3/4" Wellhead Housing ................................. 156
18-3/4" BOP Stack, 21" Marine Riser .................................. 160
18-3/4" BOP Stack Testing ..................................................... 161
18-3/4" Nominal Bore Protector ............................................ 162
Features of Subsea Casing Hanger System ........................... 166
Casing Hanger, Seal Assembly Running Tool ....................... 166
18-3/4" Seal Assembly ............................................................. 168
13-3/8" Casing, 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Casing Hanger ............... 169
18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Wear Bushing ............................................ 179
9-5/8" Casing, 18-3/4" x 9-5/8" Casing Hanger ................... 181
18-3/4" x 7" Casing Hanger and 18-3/4" Wear Bushing ..... 183
Testing the BOP Stack ............................................................ 184
Mill and Flush Tools ................................................................ 185
18-3/4" Seal Assembly Running Tool .................................... 188
The Emergency Seal Assembly .............................................. 189
Emergency Drill Pipe Hangoff Tool ...................................... 190
Abandonment .......................................................................... 190
Optional Subsea Wellhead Equipment ................................. 191
Full Bore Cementing and Full Bore Running Tools ............. 191
16" Supplemental Casing Hanger System ............................ 193
Deepwater Drilling Considerations ....................................... 195
Annulus Packoffs .................................................................... 197
Secondary Conductor String ................................................. 197
Riserless Supplemental Casing Systems ............................... 198
Table of Contents

Introduction to Subsea
Wellhead Equipment

Drilling A Typical Subsea Well With An 18-3/4" 15,000 PSI

Three Hanger Wellhead Housing
Introduction
This chapter of the manual assumes that the floating drilling
vessel, shipshape or semi-submersible, is anchored over the
selected drilling site and that the reader is familiar with the
practices and procedures used to drill a well on land.
Floating drilling has seen the evolution of specialized equipment in order to deal with underwater conditions and sea
motion. These pieces of specialized equipment; Tensioners;
Heave Compensators; Subsea BOP Stacks; and Marine Riser
Systems should be referenced as the drilling of our typical
subsea well is described.
Subsea wellhead systems have gone through an evolution
over the years. Each different subsea wellhead system has
made its own contribution to the overall development of
subsea wellhead technology. The subsea wellhead system
that will be used in this discussion will be a DRIL-QUIP SS-15
Subsea Wellhead System.
Figure 9.1. Stack-up of the 18-3/4"
SS-15 subsea wellhead system

The design objective of the SS-15 Subsea Wellhead System is

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

two-fold. First, to provide the operator with the latest in

technology, as well as maximum strength and capacities.
Secondly, to provide a wellhead system that is easy to install
and requires a minimum amount of handling. This is accomplished by incorporating a weight-set seal assembly design
and minimizing the total number of tools to install the wellhead components.
All subsea wellhead components can be placed into three
major categories:
1.
2.
3.

Figure 9.2. Illustration of the

temporary guide base

Guidance Equipment
Wellheads, Casing Hangers, Seal Assemblies,
and Wear Bushings
Running Tools

Temporary Guide Base

The function of the temporary guide base is to provide a
weighted primary guide base on the seal floor with four guide
lines attached to it for the guidance of tools and equipment as
the well is drilled.
Before it is run to the sea floor, the open compartments of the
temporary guide base (Figure 9.2) are first filled with weighting material, usually sacks of barites or cement, until it weighs about 25,000 lbs.

Figure 9.3. Temporary guide base waiting transport

146

This is usually done while it sits on the spider

beams located directly below the rotary table.
The four wire guidelines (3/4" or 7/8") are
connected to the four pad eyes on the temporary guide base. The four guidelines are 90o
apart on a 6' radius which is an industry standard. The temporary guide base running tool
is made up to drill pipe and then inserted into
the short guidance funnel on the temporary
guide base made up to the 4 jay slots with

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.4. Landing the temporary guide base on the sea floor with the
Temporary Guide Base Running Tool

1/8th of a turn to the left.

The temporary guide base is then picked up, the spider beams
are retracted and the temporary guide base is lowered on drill
pipe to the sea floor letting out the four guidelines as it goes
down.
When the base has landed on the sea floor, the weight is set
down on the running tool and the drill string is rotated 1/
8th of a turn to the right to disengage the running tool from the
jay slots in the base. The temporary guide base running tool
is then retrieved with a straight upward pull.
The guideline tensioners mounted on the drilling vessel are
activated (see Tensioner Section of Chapter 2 for more detail).
The tension in each guideline will be up to 5,000 lbs. pull, but
not enough to lift the temporary guide base off the sea floor.

147

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Drilling 36" Hole

The next operation is to drill the 36" hole for the 30" conductor.
The 36" drilling assembly is made up and lowered on drill
pipe down through the rotary table to the moonpool or spider
deck area. Here a retrievable guide frame, with two arms
equipped with line runners or guide cones, is installed around
the drill pipe above the drilling assembly. Two opposite
guidelines are installed in the line runners or guide cones and
the drilling assembly can now be guided as it is lowered to the
sea floor and enters the central hole in the temporary guide
base.
The first section of 36" hole can now be drilled. After the first
additional joint of drill pipe has been added to the drill string,
the retrievable guide frame can be recovered to the surface.
The 36" hole is then drilled to depth using sea water as the
drilling fluid with returns and cuttings being dumped at the
sea floor.

ALIGNMENT
LUGS

CEMENT
RETURN HOLES

An alternative method in guiding the 36" drilling assembly is

to centralize the bottom hole assembly inside the guide lines
with four soft line ropes and shackles which act like runners
along the guide lines. When the drilling assembly enters the
center receptacle of the temporary guide base, the ropes
simply break off allowing the rig to proceed with drilling the
36" hole.

GUIDE
TOP
RETAINER
RING
LEVEL
INDICATOR

30" LANDING
SHOULDER

GUIDE
POST

Figure 9.5. Illustration of the drilling or expendable

permanent guide base

148

This section of open hole is usually about 150'

- 200' deep, but can often be difficult to keep
open if the sea floor sediments are loose and
unconsolidated. To stabilize the hole, it is
sometimes the practice to spot a pre-mixed gel
of clay and water in the hole prior to running
the primary conductor.
30" Conductor, 30" Housing, and Permanent
Guide Base
Before the 30" primary conductor is run, the

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

permanent guide base is set on

spider beams below the rotary
table. The permanent guide base
is a four post structure with slotted posts to receive the four
guidelines which are inserted
and secured in place with the
guideline traps. The four guide
posts are 90 apart on a 6' radius
from the center of the base. Permanent guide base post tops are
available in a number of styles.

CEMENT RETURN HOLES

GUIDE
TOP

ALIGNMENT
LUGS

30" LANDING
SHOULDER

RETAINING
COLLAR
RETRIEVAL
LUG

RETAINER
RING

GUIDE
POST

GIMBAL
LOCKING PIN

LEVEL
INDICATOR

T HANDLE
LOCKDOWN
SCREWS

GIMBAL

RECOVERY
CHAIN

Figure 9.6. Illustration of the remote retrievable

permanent guide base

Since the permanent guide base interfaces the wellhead equipment with the BOP stack (no two BOP stacks are alike),
permanent guide bases are available in a number of configurations. First, there is a simple drilling guide base which
incorporates all the features necessary for drilling a subsea
well. This guide base, however, is not retrievable (Figure 9.5)
without plugging the well and retrieving the wellhead equipment too. This drilling guide base also has bolts on posts that
are not retrievable or re-installable during the drilling operation. Drilling or expendable guide bases are typical of early
subsea drilling guide base configurations.

The remote retrievable permanent guide base is retrievable

with a drill pipe running and retrieving tool and does so while
leaving the 30" wellhead, 18-3/4" wellhead and all the wellhead components in place on the sea floor (Figure 9.6). This
guide base also has the capability for ROV assisted guide post
removal and reinstallation in the event a post is damaged
during the drilling operation.
Permanent guide bases are manufactured according to the
specifications of the operator and may combine one or more of
the features described. For purposes of this discussion, the

149

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

remote retrievable permanent guide base will be featured.

30" WELLHEAD
RUNNING TOOL

30" WELLHEAD

30" WELLHEAD
EXTENSION

DRILL PIPE
CEMENT STINGER

The 30" conductor is made up from 40' or 50' lengths of

conductor pipe with large diameter automatic weight-set
connectors that lock together as the box member stabs over
the pin member (refer to Chapter 1). Automatic weight-set
connectors are the connector of choice because of the difficulty in handling and rotating the large bore diameter conductor on the Floating Drilling Vessel.
The 30" shoe joint is passed through the center opening of the
permanent guide base. In order to ensure that the 30" shoe
will be centered when it is lowered to the sea floor, four soft
line guide ropes are attached to small pad eyes welded to the
outside of the shoe joint. The guide ropes are then secured to
the guidelines with small shackles that also act
as line runners. The 30" conductor sections are
connected and run and the last joint with the
30" wellhead housing (Figure 9.7) welded on
top is added and the 30" wellhead housing is
landed in the rotary table.
A cement stinger of drill pipe can be made up at
this time using a false table on top of the 30"
wellhead housing. The 30" wellhead housing

Figure 9.7. Illustration of the permanent guide base,

30" wellhead and the 30" Wellhead Running Tool

150

Figure 9.8. 30" wellhead landed at the rotary table

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

running tool is then made up to the cement stinger and

lowered into the 30" wellhead housing. The four pins on the
running tool should be aligned with the four anti-rotation
slots in the top of the 30" wellhead housing. The running tool
is made up to the wellhead housing by rotating the tool 5 turns
to the left. This rotation forces a lock ring on the running tool
out into the matching internal profile of the 30" wellhead
housing. Verify that the running tool is fully made up by
observing the indicator rod. At this time, the ball valves for the
fill up and vent lines installed on top of the running tool can be
opened.
The conductor, complete with housing, running tool and
cement stinger, is then picked up and lowered through the
rotary table until the 30" housing alignment slots can be
aligned with the four lugs in the center section of the perma- Figure 9.9. Lowering the 30"
wellhead and permanent guide base
nent guide base. The 30" housing is secured to the permanent into the splash zone
guide base with a retainer that snaps closed over the
top of the 30" housing. A cable is attached to the ball
valve handles on the running tool which is spooled
out when the complete assembly of conductor, 30"
housing and permanent guide base is lowered to the
splash zone.
As the assembly is lowered on drill pipe, the 30"
conductor is allowed to fill with sea water through
the fill-up ports in the running tool. When the conductor is full, the cable attached to the ball valve
handles is pulled up to close the vents. Continued
upward pull shears the cable from the handles and
the cable is retrieved.
As the assembly is lowered to the sea floor, the 30"
guide shoe will enter the drilled hole and the four soft
rope guides will break. The permanent guide base
gimbal will land on the temporary guide base funnel
Figure 9.10. Illustration of the 30" wellhead,
(Figure 9.10). At this time, the 30" conductor is running tool and permanent guide base landed on
cemented in place, usually with at least 100% excess the temporary guide base

151

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

cement slurry over the calculated volume of the annulus

between the 30" conductor and the 36" hole. The additional
cement is expected to fill the sections of oversize hole that
usually occur in drilled hole. The complete cementing of the
annulus is extremely important as the pile section formed by
the 30" conductor and the hardened cement is the foundation
building block of the whole well. In instances where the
cement job is an obvious failure, a top cement job will be
performed. This entails running a cement stinger of pipe into
the annulus and pumping in additional cement slurry with the
expectation that the 30" conductor will be stabilized.
Assuming a good cement job, the 30" housing running tool is
released with five turns of right-hand rotation and retrieved
with straight upward pull.
Figure 9.11. Retrieving the 30"
Wellhead Running Tool after the
permanent guide base and 30"
wellhead have been installed

Jetting the 30" Conductor In To Place

Sometimes. the sea floor conditions are very soft and not
suitable for drilling because of the risk of caving and collapsed
hole. Jetting the 30" conductor into place can be an excellent
alternative.
The 30" conductor used in jetting operations has an open
ended shoe. The drill pipe stinger extending below the 30"
housing running tool is equipped with a jetting assembly
positioned just inside the 30" shoe.

The assembly of 30" conductor, 30" housing, running tool and

permanent guide structure is made up as described in the
previous text. This time, however, no temporary guide base
is used and the four guidelines attached directly to the top of
the four posts on the permanent guide structure. The four
flow-by plugs in the running tool are removed as the jetting
returns will come out of these ports. The whole assembly is
then lowered to the sea floor and the jetting with sea water
Figure 9.12. Illustration of the 30"
proceeds as the 30" conductor moves down through the sediwellhead, running tool and permanent
ments. Jetting will continue until the permanent guide strucguide base jetted into position on the sea
ture is a few feet off of the sea floor (Figure 9.12). The running
floor
152

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

tool is released with 5 turns of right-hand rotation and retrieved with straight upward pull. The four guidelines are
tensioned as required.
Installing the 30" Conductor with a Mud Mat
In recent years, the trend has been towards jetting the 30" into
place. This method for installing the conductor does not
require the use of a temporary guide base.
When sea floor conditions are not consolidated and the
method for installing the 30" is through jetting, typically the
use of a mud mat is incorporated into the 30" PGB assembly.
The mud mat supplies the assembly with a foundation for
support.
The mud mat is set down in the moonpool area first, then the
permanent guide base is set on it. The 30" conductor is made Figure 9.13. Permanent guide base
and mud mat in the moonpool
up in the same way previously described in the jetting section.
The whole assembly is lowered into the sea and jetting operations commence. The jetting operation is finished when
the mud mat touches down on the ocean floor and it has
been determined that the necessary support has been
provided (Figure 9.14). The running tool is released
with 5 turns of right-hand rotation and retrieved
with straight upward pull. The four guidelines
are tensioned as required.
Drill 26" Hole
Drilling Without Returns
The 26" hole for the 20" casing can be drilled
without the annulus returns and cuttings coming back to the drilling vessel. This is done by
simply guiding the 26" drilling assembly into
the open 30" conductor and drilling ahead
again using sea water as the drilling fluid. The Figure 9.14. Illustration of the permanent guide base, 30"
annulus returns between the drill pipe and Wellhead Running Tool, 30" wellhead, and mud mat jetted
into position on the sea floor

153

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

SECONDARY
UNLATCH
1/4" NPT

LATCH
1/4" NPT
UNLATCH
1/4" NPT

Figure 9.16. Illustration of a

hydraulic latch with a flange
connection up. The flex joint will be
attached to the top flange connection

the 30" conductor come out of

the 30" housing and spill onto
the sea floor. The 26" hole is
drilled to depth and a premixed gel of clay and water
will probably be spotted in
the hole prior to pulling out
the 26" drilling assembly. This
method of drilling the 26" hole
gives absolutely no means of
controlling any flow of formation fluids or gases into the
hole if the hydrostatic pressure of the sea water column
is overcome by unexpected
formation pressure. An uncontrolled blowout will then
result.

9
MARINE
RISER
BALL OR
FLEX JOINT

HYDRAULIC
LATCH
PERMANENT
GUIDE BASE

Drilling With Returns

30" WELLHEAD
HOUSING
If returns are required at the
drilling vessel, then a riser has
to be established from the 30" Figure 9.15. Illustration of the
wellhead housing back up to marine riser system used when
drilling with returns to surface
the drilling vessel. This is
achieved by using the marine
riser system that is used with the subsea BOP stack (Figure
9.15). (Refer to Marine Riser Systems section of Chapter 2. )
However, the subsea BOP stack and wellhead connector is not
used. A hydraulic latch is used at the bottom of the mariner
riser. The hydraulic latch (Figure 9.16) locks and seals to the
internal profile of the 30" wellhead housing and provides a 261/4" bore. A flex joint or ball joint will be used directly above
the hydraulic latch and marine riser joints will complete the
riser section up to the telescopic joint at the top.
The marine riser system will be tensioned (Refer to Tensioner

154

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

section of Chapter 8) and the drilling assembly for the 20" hole
will be run down to the cement inside the 30" conductor.

DIVERTER
SYSTEM

The bore of the riser system used will determine if a 26" bit can
be used or if a pilot 17-1/2" bit and a 26" under-reamer is
required. As 30" marine riser systems are fairly uncommon, it
is almost certain that a pilot bit and under-reamer will be used
in conjunction with a 21" or similar size riser.
As a circulation system has now been established, the 30" shoe
and a few feet of new hole will be drilled out with sea water as
the drilling fluid. A light water clay gel drilling fluid will then
be used to displace the sea water from the hole and drilling will
continue until the 20" casing depth is reached. This method of
drilling with returns gives a little more protection against
formation fluids or gases entering the wellbore as the increased hydrostatic head of a light gel drilling fluid is definitely an advantage over a column of sea water. However, the
latch and marine riser system have to be disconnected and
retrieved before the 20" casing and 18-3/4" subsea wellhead
housing can be run. This means that the hydrostatic pressure
in the wellbore will be reduced as sea water takes the place of
the drilling fluid column in the marine riser. This can be a
moment of truth, but usually the precautions of drilling with
returns will have given indications in the cuttings and drilling
fluid if problem zones were present.
Drilling With Returns And A Flow Diverter
The drilling setup here is virtually identical to the one just
described except that a flow diverter system is installed on the
inner barrel of the telescopic joint. The purpose of the flow
diverter is to enable the escaping gas, from a shallow pocket
encountered in this section of hole, to blow itself down through
large diameter flare lines and outboard of the drilling vessel.
Assuming the 26" hole section has been drilled to casing depth,
the rig is then set up to run 20" casing.

TELESCOPIC
JOINT

MARINE
RISER JOINT

Figure 9.17. Illustration of the riser

system, telescopic joint, and Diverter
System when drilling the 26" hole
with returns to surface

155

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

20" Casing, 18-3/4" Wellhead Housing

The 18-3/4" 15,000 psi Subsea Wellhead Housing is a unitized
wellhead which provides an interface between the subsea
BOP stack and the subsea well (Figure 9.18). The Wellhead
itself is a pressure vessel and the male member to a large bore
diameter conMETAL RING GASKET SEAL
nection (the feAREA
male counterpart is the well- WELLHEAD
head connector CONNECTOR
on the bottom LOCKING PROFILE
of the BOP RUNNING TOOL /
HANGER
stack). The 18- TUBING
LOCKING PROFILE
3/4" wellhead
will house, and
thus support,
each additional
7" CASING
casing string HANGER POSITION
when they are
run
and 9-5/8" CASING
landed. The ID HANGER POSITION
of the 18-3/4"
wellhead pro- LOCK RING
vides a metalto-metal sealing surface for 13-3/8" CASING
the seal assem- HANGER POSITION
bly when it is PRIMARY LANDING
e n e r g i z e d SHOULDER
around the casing hanger. 16"
WEAR BUSHING
The wellhead LOCKING PROFILE
provides a primary landing
Figure 9.18. Illustration of the
shoulder in the
18-3/ 4" high pressure wellhead
bottom
ID
area.

156

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

This landing shoulder is the landing seat for the

13-3/8" (or smaller) casing hanger and casing
when it is installed in the wellhead. This landing
shoulder interface provides a total of 7 million
lbs. end-load support capacity. The multiple
load shoulder/load ring interface is necessary to
support the combined casing loads (13-3/8" plus
9-5/8" plus 7") and the end load generated when
15,000 psi is applied to a BOP test tool to test the
BOP stack. The wellhead will have a 20" casing
extension welded to the bottom of it so that the
20" casing can be made up and hung off the
bottom of the wellhead.

Figure 9.19. Inspecting the 18-3/4" wellhead

housing

On floating drilling vessels, the 20" casing string can be very

difficult to make up and run in the hole. This is particularly
true if the drilling vessel is moving around in rough weather
conditions of high seas and high winds. The stabbing and
make up of 40' joints of 20" casing in these conditions can cause
cross threading and thread damage. In recent years, the
development of coarse threaded connectors, that are welded
to line pipe, has provided the industry with connections that
make up rapidly, eliminate cross threading and are damage
tolerant. (Refer to Chapter 1 "Casing and Casing Connectors
Used in Offshore Drilling").
The 20" casing shoe joint is lowered through the rotary table
and four soft rope guides are attached in similar fashion to the
30" shoe joint previously described. These guide ropes will
ensure that the 20" shoe joint stabs centrally into the 30"
housing as the 20" casing is run.
When the last joint of 20" casing is landed in the rotary table,
a drill pipe cement stinger, if required, can be run down inside
the 20" casing. This is usually done through a split support
plate sitting on top of the 20" casing using two sets of drill pipe
elevators.

Figure 9.20. Testing the 20" shoe

for flow

157

DRILL PIPE RUNNING

STRING

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

18-3/4" WELLHEAD
RUNNING TOOL

18-3/4"
WELLHEAD

20" CASING
(WELLHEAD
EXTENSION)

AUTOMATIC
WEIGHT SET
CONNECTOR

DRILL PIPE
CEMENT STINGER

Figure 9.21. Illustration of the 18-3/4"

Wellhead Running Tool and 18-3/4"
wellhead made up ready to run

158

Prior to running the 20" casing, the 18-3/4" wellhead housing

running tool (Figure 9.21) and the 18-3/4" subsea wellhead
housing will have been assembled. A drill pipe pup joint will
have been added to the bottom of the running tool if a cement
stinger or a cement plug retainer is to be used on the cement
job. The 18-3/4" subsea wellhead housing may have a nominal bore protector installed to protect the internal profile and
sealing surfaces during subsequent cementing and drilling
operations. However, modern practice is to leave the nominal
bore protector out and run it after the BOP stack is tested. The
18-3/4" Running Tool is made up to the 18-3/4" subsea wellhead housing by rotating the tool stem to the left 5 turns. This
drives a cam down behind push rods which, in turn, drive a
split lock ring outwards into the matching profile in the
wellhead housing. Correct make up is verified by checking
that the indicator rod has moved down the correct distance.
The whole assembly is then picked up in the derrick and made
up to the cement stinger drill pipe box sitting on the split
support plate. The stinger is then picked up and the split
support plate is removed. The 18-3/4" housing joint is then
lowered
and
made up to the
threaded box
looking up, or
on to an automatic stab-in
connector pin
looking up. A
number of operators prefer
the automatic
connector as it
avoids any rota- Figure 9.22. Picking up the 18-3/4" wellhead with
tion that might 18-3/4" Wellhead Running Tool
be imported into
the running tool.

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

The 20" casing and 18-3/4" subsea wellhead housing are run
down to the 30" housing using a drill pipe running string.
During the running of the 20" casing, it will not fill automatically with sea water as the float valve in the shoe or float collar
will prevent fluids from entering the casing. This means that
every three or four joints, the casing will be filled as it is run.
Complete filling of the casing can be achieved by using the air
vent valves on the 18-3/4" housing running tool as it is
lowered below the water level. When full of sea water, the air
vents are closed and the 18-3/4" housing and attached casing
are lowered and landed in the 30" wellhead housing. This
landing operation is usually done using a heave compensator,
(Refer to Heave Compensator section of Chapter 2) which
allows the operator to land the 18-3/4" housing softly and
smoothly. This is particularly useful when the drilling vessel
is experiencing a fair amount of heave. If the 18-3/4" housing
has seated correctly in the 30" housing, a split
lock ring on the 18-3/4" housing will snap into a matching
Figure 9.23. Running the 20"
groove in the 30" housing. A pickup test of 25,000 lbs will casing, and 18-3/4" wellhead with the
confirm that the 18-3/4" housing is locked in place.
18-3/4" Wellhead Running Tool
The 20" casing is then cemented, as required. If a cement plug
retainer has been used below the 18-3/4" housing running
tool, then balls or darts will be dropped through the drill pipe
running string to release the cement plug, or plugs, at the
appropriate stage of the cement job. The annulus returns
displaced from the hole during the cement job will pass
through the aligned parts in the 30" housing and permanent
guide base on to the sea floor. If excess cement has been
planned to ensure a good cement job all the way up the 30" x
20" casing annulus, then the excess cement will also fall on to
the sea floor.
At the conclusion of the cement job, the 18-3/4" Wellhead
Running Tool is released from the 18-3/4" subsea wellhead

159

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.24. Illustration of the 18-3/4" wellhead landed in the 30" wellhead
with the 18-3/4" Wellhead Running Tool

housing with five turns of right-hand rotation and retrieved

with straight upward pull.
18-3/4" BOP Stack, 21" Marine Riser
The next operation is to run the 18-3/4" BOP stack on the 21"
marine riser with integral choke and kill lines and lock the
wellhead connector on the bottom of the BOP stack to the 183/4" subsea wellhead housing. (This topic is covered in more
detail under the Subsea BOP Stacks and Marine Riser Systems

160

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

sections in
Chapter 2).
The riser will
be tensioned,
as required, to
ensure that no
part of the marine riser system is in compression. This
is done in order to minimize the po- Figure 9.25. Running the BOP stack on marine riser
tential
for
equipment failure that can occur quite rapidly in components
that are in compression and subjected to the constant flexing
and motion experienced by marine risers. Choke and kill stabs
are made up on the telescopic joint and the BOP stack is
prepared for the next phase of the drilling operation.
RESILIENT
TEST SEAL

18-3/4" BOP Stack Testing

The BOP Isolation Test Tool (Figure 9.26) used to test the BOP
stack is a plug type test tool that functions by weight-set. The
tool provides sufficient flow-by during running and retrieving and incorporates an activator ring that assures the tool
does not set prematurely. The illustration shows the tool in a
configuration used to test the BOP stack when casing hangers
and/or wear bushings are installed in the wellhead. When the
wellhead is void of any casing hangers or wear bushings (such
is the case at this stage of the operation), then a wellhead

ACTIVATOR
RING

WELLHEAD
HOUSING
ADAPTER

housing adapter is required to make up the landing shoulder

of the BOP test tool compatible with the landing shoulder in
the bottom of the wellhead. The wellhead housing adapter is
slipped onto the test tool and captured with a retainer ring. Figure 9.26. Illustration of the BOP
The tool is run on drill pipe and landed in the 18-3/4" wellhead Isolation Test Tool and wellhead
housing adapter

161

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.27. BOP Test Tool with

wellhead housing adapter ready to
run

Figure 9.28. Testing the BOP stack with the BOP Isolation Test Tool

housing (Figure 9.28). The BOP stack is pressure tested

through each of the two control pods on the BOP stack. The
choke and kill lines and BOP choke and kill valves will also be
pressure tested and functionally tested. After successful tests,
the test tool is retrieved with straight upward pull.
18-3/4" Nominal Bore Protector
The nominal bore protector is a machined steel sleeve, that is
installed in the subsea wellhead housing to protect the internal

162

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

profiles and sealing surfaces from damage during drilling

operations (Figure 9.29). It is equipped with a running jay slot
type profile and an internal lip type retrieving profile. The
nominal bore protector has resilient seals on it's outer profile
that act as trash seals, preventing debris from getting
behind the nominal bore protector.
The Multi-Purpose Tool is
used to run and retrieve the
nominal bore protector and
the wear bushings. This is
done through the use of
adapters (Figure 9.30). There
are four adapters - a running
and a retrieving adapter for
the nominal bore protector
and a running and a retrieving adapter for all of the wear
bushings. The seal assembly
is also retrieved with the wear
bushing retrieving adapter.
The wear bushing adapters
will be discussed later in this
chapter.
Prior to running the nominal
bore protector, the Multi-Purpose Tool is equipped with
the Nominal Bore Protector
Running Adapter. The MultiPurpose Tool is lowered into
the nominal bore protector
and rotated to the left so that

MULTI-PURPOSE
TOOL

NOMINAL BORE
PROTECTOR
RUNNING
ADAPTER

NOMINAL BORE
PROTECTOR

NOMINAL
BORE
PROTECTOR
RUNNING
ADAPTER

Figure 9.30. Multi-Purpose Tool

with the nominal bore protector
running adapter highlighted for use

Figure 9.29. Illustration of the

nominal bore protector made up to the
Multi-Purpose Tool

163

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.31. Illustration of the Multi-Purpose Tool installing the nominal bore
protector in the wellhead

the four jay lugs engage the jay slots in the ID of the bore
protector. The Multi-Purpose Tool and nominal bore protector
assembly is lowered on drill pipe, inside marine riser and the
BOP stack, taking care not to rotate the running string during the
operation. The nominal bore protector is set on its landing seat
in the subsea wellhead housing.
With 5000 lbs. weight acting on the Multi-Purpose Tool, it is
turned 1/4 turn to the right to unjay it from the nominal bore
protector and retrieved with straight upward pull. A 17-1/2"
164

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

JET SUB
EXTENSION

LATCH
RETRIEVAL
RING

Figure 9.33. Illustration of the Multi-Purpose Tool landed in the nominal

bore protector for retrieval and washing out the multiple load shoulder profile
in the bottom of the wellhead in preparation for running the 13-3/8"
casinghanger
NOMINAL BORE
PROTECTOR
RETRIEVING
ADAPTER

hole is then drilled to the 13-3/8" casing depth, the hole is

circulated and the drilling fluid is conditioned prior to running the 13-3/8" casing.
Before running the 13-3/8" casing, the nominal bore protector
has to be removed from the 18-3/4" subsea wellhead housing.
The Multi-Purpose Tool is used for this operation and is set up

JET SUB

with a jet sub (Figure 9.32) and extension made up to the

Figure 9.32. Multi-Purpose Tool

with its nominal bore protector
retrieving adapter, jet sub, and jet sub
extension highlighted for use

165

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

bottom of the tool. Also installed to the Multi-Purpose Tool is

the Nominal Bore Protector Retrieving Adapter and latch ring.
The Multi-Purpose Tool is then run on drill pipe down to the
nominal bore protector, cleaning the last 5 to 10 feet by
circulating through the jet sub extension and jet sub. When the
Multi-Purpose Tool lands on the nominal bore protector, the
latch retrieval ring engages a matching groove inside the top
of the bore protector. The bore protector can be recovered with
straight upward pull. It is good practice, at this point, to
circulate through the jet sub extension and jet sub so that the
jetting action cleans the 13-3/8" casing hanger load profile at
the bottom of the 18-3/4" wellhead housing.
Features of Subsea Casing Hanger System
The operational features offered in a modern subsea casing
hanger system have given the drilling operator a number of
important selections that require decisions before running the
casing hanger. An evolution of these features are discussed in
the following text.

Figure 9.34. Multi-Purpose Tool

and nominal bore protector retrieved
to the rig floor

Casing Hanger, Seal Assembly Running Tool

The Casing Hanger, Seal Assembly Running Tool has experienced a number of evolutionary advancements. Early seal
assemblies were installed in the wellhead with rotational
torque and each casing hanger size required its own dedicated
running tool. Furthermore, the running tool ran the casing
hanger only and the seal assembly was run in a separate trip.
Testing the seal assembly occurred with a tool run in a third
trip and if the seal assembly did not test, the test tool had to be
recovered and the seal assembly retrieved in yet another trip.
The early systems required a family of casing hanger running
tools and multiple trips to install a tested casing hanger and
seal assembly. Clearly there was room for improvement.
First, the casing hanger running tool was modified to carry the
seal assembly along with the hanger when casing was run.

166

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

This allowed the operator to install the hanger and set the seal
assembly in the same trip - eliminating one trip. Subsequent
modifications gave the running tool the capability of testing
the seal assembly after it was energized.
Finally, all size casing hangers were modified to accommodate one casing hanger running tool - eliminating the requirement for obtaining a running tool for each size hanger.
These improvements allowed floating drilling and exploration to move into new frontiers. As deeper and deeper water
depths became common, the need for two additional improvements became obvious. First, the seal assembly was now
further away from the rig and the process of applying rotational torque to set and install the seal assembly was inefficient. Second, if the seal assembly did not test successfully
after installation, the additional trip required to retrieve it
consumed time and represented costs that could be eliminated.
"Weight-Set" systems were introduced as an alternative to
torque-set systems. The concept is to take advantage of the
force from weight and pressure to energize the seal assembly.
Rotation will be required to simply unlock the tool from the
casing hanger. This will greatly simplify the installation of a
seal assembly in deep water without applying massive amounts
of torque at the surface.

LOCK SLEEVE
ACTIVATOR
RELEASE
SEGMENTS
SEAL
ASSEMBLY
RECOVERY
SHEAR PINS
CAM ACTUATED
LOCK RING

SEALS FOR
TESTING THE
SEAL ASSEMBLY
AND THE BOP
STACK

The system used in this discussion is a weight set system. The

Casing Hanger Seal Assembly Running Tool is a weight-set
tool which carries the casing hanger and seal assembly to the
wellhead when the casing is run. Running threads (commonly Figure 9.35. Illustration of the
used in previous systems) have been eliminated to reduce the Casing Hanger Seal Assembly
Running Tool
possibility that the operator will encounter high torque when
rotating the drill pipe to release the tool from the casing
hanger. This tool has the capability to test the seal assembly

167

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

and the BOP stack after the seal assembly is energized and
locked down. Additionally, if the seal assembly pressure test
fails, the running tool used in this discussion has the ability to
bring the seal assembly to the surface when the running tool
is retrieved - eliminating an additional trip to recover the seal
assembly.
18-3/4"
Seal
LOCKING
SLEEVE
Assembly
CASING
The 18-3/4" Seal
HANGER
Assembly incorLOCK DOWN
RING
porates a metal(OPTIONAL)
to-metal sealing
system that is LOCKING RING
weight-set (Fig- METAL-TOure 9.36). Once METAL
SEALING
the Seal Assem- SYSTEM
bly is energized
(after the casing Figure 9.36. Illustration of the Seal Assembly
is cemented), test
pressure functions an actuator sleeve on the running tool
which locks the seal assembly to the hanger. An optional lock
ring on the OD of the seal assembly will lock the seal to the
wellhead, if desired.
The choice to lock the casing hanger to the wellhead can be
made at the very last moment before the casing is run. The
external lock ring can be removed if casing hanger lockdown
is not required. Usually, the reason that casing hangers are
locked down is because they are being used in a development
well where the heat from the producing fluids or gases may
cause the casing to expand, overcoming the residual tension
and move the casing hanger and seal off its seat. This move
ment can potentially cause seal failure with the unwelcome
prospect of oil and gas getting into unwanted places. On
exploration wells the casing hangers are generally not locked

168

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

down, which can make recovery of the subsea

hangers a little bit easier during plug and abandonment operations.

SEAL ASSEMBLY
LOCKING GROOVE

LANDING SEAT FOR THE

NEXT CASING HANGER

SEAL
ASSEMBLY
SEALING AREA

13-3/8" Casing, 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Casing Hanger

RUNNING
The 13-3/8" casing hanger has a 4 degree taper on the
TOOL
LOCKING
OD of the top of the hanger. This is the metal-to-metal
GROOVE
sealing area of the hanger which is used by the seal
FLOW-BY
assembly to seal against. The top of the 13-3/8" casing
hanger is configured to provide a landing shoulder
LANDING
SHOULDER
for the next casing hanger. Inside the top of the 13-3/
8" casing hanger, a threaded profile is provided for
CASING
THREADS
tieback purposes. This tieback profile allows the
operator to tie the hanger back to the surface for
surface completion. A two grooved locking profile
Figure 9.37. Illustration of the 13-3/8" casing
hanger
for the cam actuated lock ring on the Casing Hanger
Seal Assembly Running Tool is located below the
tieback threads. The 13-3/8" casing hanger incorporates a landing shoulder found on the bottom OD section. This
landing shoulder lands on the landing shoulder in the bottom of
the wellhead when the hanger lands on its seat. These landing
shoulders supply the support necessary to accommodate the
combined casing loads of 13-3/8", 9-5/8" and 7" plus the end load
generated from 15,000 psi BOP stack test against a BOP test tool.
The ability of the wellhead to support the combined loads of the
casing weight and the end load from a 15,000 psi BOP test are
what makes this a 15,000 psi wellhead system.
In most cases, the casing hanger will be run on drill pipe, the
single trip method will be used and the hanger will not be
locked down. There are cases where the casing hanger will be
run on casing (as opposed to drill pipe) and this situation will
be covered in optional equipment under full bore running
tools found later in this chapter.
Before the 13-3/8" casing is run, the 18-3/4" casing hanger

169

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

running tool is made up to the 18-3/4" seal assembly and the

18-3/4" x 13-3/8" casing hanger (Figure 9.38).

CASING HANGER
SEAL ASSEMBLY
RUNNING TOOL

SEAL ASSEMBLY

CASING
HANGER

Figure 9.38. Casing Hanger Seal

Assembly Running Tool, seal
assembly and 13-3/8" casing hanger
made up and ready to run

170

First, the casing hanger running tool is prepared with 8 new

spring-loaded shear pins. The seal assembly, without the
outer lock ring, is installed over the 8 shear pins and retained.
If a cement plug retainer is required, it is installed on the
bottom threaded connection of the running tool. The first joint
of pipe above the running tool will have a specified OD as it
will subsequently have rams closed on it during the pressure
testing of the seal assembly and BOP stack.
The running tool and seal assembly is then set into the 183/4" x 13-3/8" casing hanger
which is normally set in the
rotary table for this operation.
The stem of the running tool is
then rotated 3 turns to the left
and lifted out of the casing
hanger. The seal assembly is
installed on the eight spring
load shear pins and the wiper
plugs are installed on the plug
retainer. The tool is then carefully stabbed back into the
hanger. Three to four more
right-hand turns are made
until torque builds up and the
running tool is fully made up. Figure 9.39. Casing Hanger Seal
Assembly Running Tool, seal
The running tool stem is then assembly and 13-3/8" casing hanger
rotated to the right 1/8 turn so being made up
that the cam-actuated drive
mechanism in the running tool is not in an initial bind later
when the running tool has to be released from the hanger. The
whole assembly of running tool with special BOP test joint,
seal assembly, casing hanger and cement plug retainer is stood

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.42. Sequence showing Hanger and Seal Assembly Running Tool, Hanger Landed
(TP Drawing 31500-06)

171

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Hanger and Seal Assembly Running Tool,

Hanger Landed
TP 31500-06

172

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.42. Sequence showing Hanger and Seal Assembly Running Tool, Seal Assembly Landed on Hanger
(TP Drawing 31500-07)

173

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Hanger and Seal Assembly Running Tool,

Seal Assembly Landed on Hanger
TP 31500-07

174

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.42. Sequence showing Hanger and Seal Assembly Running Tool, Seal Assembly Tested and Locked Down
(TP Drawing 31500-08)

175

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Hanger and Seal Assembly Running Tool,

Seal Assembly Tested and Locked Down
TP 31500-08

176

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

back in the derrick. Protective covering is often placed on the

metal-to-metal sealing surfaces to help ensure these critical
seal surfaces will not be damaged during handling.
The 13-3/8" casing string is then assembled and run into the
hole. The threaded couplings used on this casing string will
normally be an API mill buttress thread unless unusual
downhole conditions are anticipated or the casing string is
very long. Depending on the downhole conditions, other
thread forms will be selected based on their resistance to high
bending loads seen in deviated wells, their gas sealing properties and their load carrying capacity.
The use of spring cage type centralizers is not recommended
on casing strings run in subsea wells. Obviously, the intention
of centralizers is to center the casing in the hole to help the
cement to form a uniform sheath around the casing, but this
perceived advantage is far out-weighed by the potential damage that a loose leaf spring can cause in a subsea wellhead.
With the last joint of 13-3/8" casing supported in the casing
slips at the rotary table, the running tool assembly is picked up
and the casing hanger is made up to the 13-3/8" casing. The
makeup of the threaded connection is done very carefully to
avoid any rotation of the running tool relative to the casing
hanger body. Any protective covering that had been placed on Figure 9.40. Casing Hanger Seal
Assembly Running Tool, seal
the metal-to-metal sealing surfaces are removed.
The whole casing string is now picked up, the casing slips are
removed and the casing string and hanger are run on drill pipe
down to the subsea wellhead housing. As the seal assembly
requires a minimum of 15,000 lbs. weight to set the seal, the
running string may include drill collars to set the seal. The last
few feet of travel down to the seat in the wellhead housing are
made a lot easier with the motion compensator set to provide
a safe landing. Once the casing hanger has landed, it can be
said that it is in the correct seating position. The casing is then
cemented according to the well program. During the opera

assembly and 13-3/8" casing hanger

being lowered through the rotary table

177

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

tion, the casing must not be picked up or rotated. Using the

motion compensator, leave 15,000 lb. of the running string
weight acting down on the running tool.
Rotate the drill string 5 or 6 turns to the right which releases the
running tool from the casing hanger body and the running tool
will drop 10 inches at which point the seal assembly has
landed over the outside of the casing hanger body.
The full weight of the running string is then set down on the

Figure 9.43. Illustration of the Casing Hanger Seal Assembly Running Tool
after the seal has been tested and locked, testing the BOP stack

178

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

seal assembly which energizes the resilient seals on the seal

assembly and pushes the metal seals into position. The BOP
stack drill pipe rams are then closed on the special drill pipe
stem above the running tool. Pressure is then applied below
the closed ram building up quickly to 2,500 psi. If this pressure
holds satisfactorily for 30 seconds, then the pressure is increased to 3,500 psi minimum. This pressure provides the
required downward force to establish a metal-to-metal seal
and lock the seal assembly to the casing hanger.
At this time, other BOP stack functions can be operated and
pressure tested. After successful conclusion of the pressure
tests, the pipe ram is opened and the casing hanger running
tool is retrieved with straight upward pull. Approximately
60,000 lb. overpull is required to shear the 8 spring loaded
shear pins that hold the seal assembly to the casing hanger
running tool.

18-3/4" x 13-3/8" Wear Bushing

The 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" wear bushing is a rugged steel sleeve
that lands into the 13-3/8" casing hanger body. It provides
protection for the internal profiles and sealing surfaces of the
subsea wellhead housing and the casing hanger from damage
during drilling operations. It is run into the well on the MultiPurpose Tool with the Wear Bushing Running Adapter installed.
Prior to running the 13-3/8" wear bushing, the Wear Bushing
Running Adapter is installed on the Multi-Purpose Tool. Four
spring loaded shear pins are the locking mechanism used to
attach the Multi-Purpose Tool to the wear bushings. The
Multi-Purpose Tool and wear bushing running adapter is
installed into the top of the wear bushing (Figure 9.44), and its
own weight depresses the spring loaded shear pins until they
snap into the mating groove in the wear bushing. The assembly is then run on drill pipe and the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" wear
bushing is landed on the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" casing hanger. The

WEAR
BUSHING
RUNNING
ADAPTER

Figure 9.44. Illustration of the

Multi-Purpose Tool and the wear
bushing running adapter highlighted
for use

179

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

MULTI-PURPOSE
TOOL

WEAR BUSHING
RUNNING ADAPTER

13-3/8" WEAR
BUSHING

Figure 9.46. Illustration of the Multi-Purpose Tool installing

the 13-3/8" wear bushing in the wellhead
8 spring loaded shear pins on the bottom of the wear bushing
automatically lock into the matching groove in the seal assembly body. The Multi-Purpose Tool is released from the wear
bushing with approximately 30,000 lbs upward pull which
shears the four shear pins on the tool, and it can be pulled
straight out of the hole.

Figure 9.45. Illustration of the

Multi-Purpose Tool made up to the
13-3/8" wear bushing and ready to
run

180

The rig is then set up to drill 12-1/4" hole to the 9-5/8" casing
depth. If BOP stack pressure tests are required during this
section of hole, these can be done with the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8"

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

wear bushing in place using the 18-3/4" BOP Isolation Test

Tool.
After the 12-1/4" hole is drilled, the 18-3/4" x 13-3/8" wear
bushing is retrieved prior to running the 9-5/8" casing. The
Multi-Purpose Tool equipped with latch ring, wear bushing,
retrieving adapter and jet sub is run on drill pipe. Prior to
entering the wellhead, mud pumps are started and fluid is
pumped through the drill string to wash out any debris that
may have accumulated while drilling the 12-1/4" hole. As the
Multi-Purpose Tool is lowered into the wear bushing, the fluid
being pumped will clean the retrieving profile in the top of the
wear bushing. When the Multi-Purpose Tool lands in the 133/8" wear bushing, the latch ring snaps into the matching
groove in the top of the wear bushing. An overpull of 60,000
lbs. shears the 8 spring loaded shear pins at the bottom of the
wear bushing. This releases
the wear bushing from the
casing hanger and it can be
recovered to the surface with
straight upward pull. The jet
LATCH
RETRIEVAL
sub can be used in this operaRING
tion to clean the retrieving
profile on the wear bushing
WEAR
if thick clays or gumbo from
BUSHING
RETRIEVING
the drilling operation are susADAPTER
pected of interfering with retrieval.
9-5/8" Casing, 18-3/4" x 9-5/
8" Casing Hanger
The 9-5/8" casing hanger is
similar to the 13-3/8" casing
hanger, with the exception
of the smaller bore with a 95/8" casing thread (Figure
9.49). The 9-5/8" casing
hanger is equipped with a

JET SUB

Figure 9.47. Illustration of the

Multi-Purpose Tool with the wear
bushing retrieving adapter and jet
sub highlighted for use

181

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.48. Illustration of the Multi-Purpose Tool and jet sub landed in the
13-3/8" wear bushing for retrieval

landing seat which mates with the top of the 13-3/8" casing
hanger. The 9-5/8" casing hanger is run in the same manner
as the 13-3/8" casing hanger - with the casing hanger, seal
assembly running tool and 18-3/4" seal assembly. Operational procedures; five to six right-hand rotations of the drill
pipe and running tool, a 10" drop in the drill pipe and initial
setting pressure of 2,500 psi are the same as described with the
13-3/8" casing hanger and seal assembly. Subsequent BOP
stack pressure tests are then performed.
The 9-5/8" (Figure 9.51) wear bushing is similar to the 13-3/8"
wear bushing. It has the same running and retrieving profile
182

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

SEAL ASSEMBLY
LOCKING GROOVE

in the top to accommodate the Multi-Purpose Tool running and retrieving adapters. The only difference is that
it is shorter because it now has to protect a shorter length
of housing and has a reduced bore compatible with the
hanger bore.
Assuming that the 9-5/8" casing hanger, seal assembly
and wear bushing are all correctly installed, the next step
is to then drill 8-1/2" hole, or larger, for the 7" casing.
The 18-3/4" x 9-5/8" wear bushing is retrieved with the
18-3/4" Multi-Purpose Tool prior to running the 7"
casing.

LANDING SEAT FOR THE

NEXT CASING HANGER

SEAL ASSEMBLY
SEALING AREA

RUNNING TOOL
LOCKING GROOVE

FLOW-BY

LANDING SHOULDER

Figure 9.49. 9-5/8" Casing Hanger

18-3/4" x 7" Casing Hanger and

18-3/4" x 7" Wear Bushing
The previous paragraphs also apply to the 7" casing hanger (Figure 9.52). The landing shoulder
referenced supports the 7" wear
bushing and is a possible landing shoulder for a subsea tubing
hanger in the event this well is
completed subsea.
The previous paragraphs discussing wear bushings also apply to the 18-3/4" x 7" wear bushing (Figure 9.53). The 7" casing
hanger and wear bushing are
run in an identical manner as the
previous casing hangers and
wear bushings.
Assuming that this equipment
has all been correctly installed
the next step is to then drill a 6"
hole to total depth, discovering Figure 9.50. Illustration of the Casing Hanger Seal Assembly
two or three highly permeable Running Tool installing the 9-5/8" casing hanger

183

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

LATCH
RETRIEVAL RING
PROFILE
SHEAR PIN
RUNNING
PROFILE

LOCKING
SHEAR PINS

Figure 9.51. Illustration of the 9-5/

8" wear bushing

LATCH
RETRIEVAL
RING PROFILE
SHEAR PIN
RUNNING
PROFILE
LOCKING
SHEAR PINS

Figure 9.53. Illustration of the 7"

wear Bushing

184

pay zones that exhibit no pressure drawdown on extended

drill stem tests.

SEAL ASSEMBLY
LOCKING GROOVE

LANDING SEAT
FOR THE NEXT
CASING HANGER

Testing the BOP Stack

The Casing Hanger Seal As- SEAL
ASSEMBLY
sembly Running Tool has the SEALING AREA
capability to test the BOP stack RUNNING
when the casing hanger and TOOL
LOCKING
seal are run. There is, how- GROOVE
ever, a need to test the BOP
LANDING
stack at intervals when the rig RING
is drilling each hole. There are
two additional methods for Figure 9.52. Illustration of the 7"
testing the BOP stack in these casing hanger
situations.
As previously described in this chapter, the BOP Isolation Test
Tool is used to test the BOP stack after it is initially run using
the wellhead housing adapter. Once casing hangers have been
installed in the wellhead, the wellhead housing adapter is
taken off of the BOP Isolation Test Tool to configure the test
tool so it can land in either the wear bushings or casing
hangers. This test tool will seal in the wellhead bore above the
previously installed seal assembly and isolate the seal assembly from any test pressure.
A second method for testing the BOP stack is with the MultiPurpose Tool and its cup tester accessories. Each cup tester
accessory is sized to fit each casing hanger. This allows the
operator to run or retrieve a wear bushing and test the BOP
stack in the same trip. An important feature for deepwater
drilling operations in that costly trip time is eliminated. Additionally, each test cup will sit in the throat of its corresponding casing hanger as opposed to the casing to allow the
operator to perform a pressure test to the full BOP stack rating
without being limited by the casing pressure rating. When the

Assembly Run

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

TEST
SEAL
ACTIVATOR
RING

Figure 9.54. Illustration of the BOP

Isolation Test Tool configured to test
the BOP stack when casing hangers
and wear bushings have been installed
in the wellhead

Figure 9.55. Illustration of the BOP Isolation Test Tool landed in the 7" wear
bushing for testing the BOP stack

Multi-Purpose tool and cup tester is used to test the BOP stack,
the seal assembly is also pressure tested.
Mill and Flush Tools
Casing hanger seals in any wellhead system, land or offshore,
are of critical importance for the safety of the well if abnormal
pressure conditions are encountered. These seals prevent
high pressure fluid or gas that may be in the well bore from
entering the casing annulus below the casing hanger with the

185

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

7" CUP

9-5/8" CUP
13-3/8" CUP

Figure 9.56. Illustration of the

Multi-Purpose Tool and cup tester
accessories

Figure 9.57. Illustration of the Multi-Purpose Tool and 9-5/8" cup tester
landed on top of the 9-5/8" wear bushing

Figure 9.58 Illustration of the

Multi-Purpose Tool and 9-5/8" cup
tester accessories

186

potential to rupture the outer casing string and cause sever

damage to the well. Therefore, great care is taken to ensure
that the seal areas where the casing hanger seal is set are free
from any debris that could cause a malfunction. However, the
best laid plans do not always succeed, and such is the case with
downhole casing hanger seals. The debris can take a number
of forms from very hard, tough pieces of formation to manmade items such as pieces of metal from drilling tools and
accessories.
If debris is carried into position with the casing hanger and

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

seal assembly, it may prevent the seal from being driven down
to its correct sealing position, in which case a poor pressure
test may result. As previously indicated, a feature of the
Casing Hanger Seal Assembly Running Tool is that it will
automatically retrieve the seal assembly in these situations.
There it will be inspected very closely in order to determine the
cause of the problem. If interference from debris is suspected,
then mill and flush tools are used to clean out the seal area
between the casing hanger body and the wellhead housing.
The Multi-Purpose Tool, jet sub and mill and flush adapter

MULTI-PURPOSE
TOOL

WEAR BUSHING
RETRIEVING
ADAPTER
MILL AND FLUSH
ADAPTER

JET SUB

Figure 9.59. Illustration of the

Multi-Purpose Tool, jet sub and mill
and flush adapter

Figure 9.60. Illustration of the Multi-Purpose Tool, jet sub and mill and
flush adapter cleaning out the annulus area

187

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

(Figure 9.59) assembly is run down to the casing hanger on

drill pipe. The jetting action is directed down inside the mill
and flush adapter and up the outside. The assembly is slowly
rotated as jetting continues, and the assembly is slowly lowered until the mill reaches the end of its travel over the body
of the casing hanger. This operation is conducted with as
much care as possible as the mill teeth will break up any debris
present into small pieces that may get washed into the annular
space between the mill body and the wellhead housing. If the
pieces are hard metal, they can score the seal surface on the
inside of the wellhead housing which can cause further sealing
problems.
When the mill and flush adapter is retrieved, a visual inspection of the nylon indicator pins will indicate if the mill reached
the end of its specified travel. If not, a decision will need to be
made whether to rerun the mill and flush adapter or run an
emergency seal assembly (the emergency seal assembly will
be discussed later in this section).
Mill and flush tools are also available for use with the standard
jet sub to clean out the seal area between a 16" supplemental
casing hanger and the 20" adapter mentioned earlier.
18-3/4" Seal Assembly Running Tool
If all goes well during the milling operation, another standard
18-3/4" seal assembly can be run on the 18-3/4" Seal Assembly
Running Tool. The Seal Assembly Running Tool runs and
installs the seal assembly in a similar fashion as the Casing
Hanger Seal Assembly Running Tool (Figure 9.61). The only
difference is the Seal Assembly Running Tool does not carry
casing and therefore does not require any rotation to function
a locking ring. The seal assembly is carried to the casing
hanger on spring loaded shear pins and locked down by a lock
sleeve activator in the same manner the Casing Hanger Seal

188

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Assembly Running Tool does.

The seal assembly is installed on the spring loaded shear pins
of the Seal Assembly Running Tool and run to the casing
hanger. Once it has been determined that the seal has landed
on the hanger, a minimum 15,000 lbs. is applied to the running
tool. Pipe rams are closed and 2,500 psi is pumped down a
choke or kill line to energize the seal assembly and cause the
running tool to lock the seal assembly to the casing hanger
(Figure 9.62 and Figure 9.63).
The Emergency Seal Assembly
The emergency seal assembly is a weight set design and is also
run using the 18-3/4" Seal Assembly Running Tool. Its design
is such that it will seal in a slightly higher position in the
wellhead. This requires a larger sealing system since more
annular space will be spanned by the seal. The emergency
sealing system is elastomer; a logical approach since the
emergency seal is used only when the standard seal is unable
to set and test, it is assumed that a scratch in the wellhead or
casing hanger is preventing a metal-to-metal seal.
The

USQ,DB@Q,@
WXUSFGDBSB

,



AA

AA

RR

,
Q


S
CC


TT

AA

CC


AA

RR

@,B@

,
Q


S

CC


TT

B@,
R

Q
,

A
AA

RR

@
@

,
Q


S

CC


TT

AA

CC


AA

RR

,
Q


S

CC


TT

AA

@

,
B


CC


AA

RR

,
Q


S

CC


TT

AA

@

,
B


CC


AA

RR

,
Q


S
CC


TT


CC


B


S
CC


TT

CENTRALIZING
SLEEVE

LOCK SLEEVE
ACTIVATOR

SEAL ASSEMBLY
RECOVERY
SHEAR PINS

SEAL ASSEMBLY
TEST SEALS

Figure 9.61. Illustraion of the Seal

Assembly Running Tool

Figure 9.62. Seal assembly

landed but not tested

Figure 9.63. Seal assembly

tested and locked down

189

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

emergency seal does not change the stack up dimensions and

is not retrieved prior to running the next casing hanger.
Emergency Drill Pipe Hangoff Tool
Weather conditions are an important factor in the successful
operation of a floating drilling vessel. Storm conditions can
cause temporary suspension of drilling operations and in sever conditions, warrant the drillLOCKING
ing vessel actually disRING
connect from the wellhead.
RESILIENT
SEALING
SYSTEM

When a disconnect is imminent, the rig must stop

drilling operations and
Figure 9.65. Illustration of the emergency
trip drill pipe out of the seal assembly
ole to raise the drill bit
into the last casing string
installed. If time is a factor, the emergency drill pipe hangoff tool
is then made up to the drilling string and lowered to the
wellhead to hangoff the drilling assembly in the well. Pipe
rams in the main BOP are closed around the emergency drill
pipe hangoff tool and the drill pipe above the tool is then
rotated to disconnect this upper section of drill pipe from the
drilling string that has been hungoff in the wellhead. The rig
can then disconnect the lower marine riser package (refer to
Chapter 2) from the main BOP leaving the well secure.
After the storm conditions have passed, the lower marine riser
package is reconnected to the main BOP, the emergency drill
pipe hangoff tool is reconnected and the drilling vessel can
return to drilling operations.
Abandonment
If the well is a duster, or even if it had some promising

190

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

shows but is considered expendable, then the well will be

permanently abandoned. Bridge plugs and cement bridges
will be set in the open hole section and inside the casing to
prevent any future migration of wellbore fluids from one zone
to another or up the wellbore itself.
Any uncemented casing below the casing hangers will be cut
and recovered along with the associated subsea casing hanger.
The 18-3/4" subsea wellhead and 30" conductor housing and
the four post permanent guide base will be recovered for
reconditioning and reuse. Sometimes the equipment is recovered in too poor a condition to be repaired and is declared
scrap. The sea bed is therefore left clear of debris, a requirement that is being imposed in many offshore drilling areas.
If the well is a keeper, then the well is temporarily abandoned so that it may be completed at a later date with a subsea
production tree or become one well of a subsea template
development that is eventually tied back to a platform installed over the subsea wells. In this case, temporary bridge
plugs and/or cement bridges will be set in the well to prevent
fluid or gas migration and a sealing corrosion cap may be
installed on the 18-3/4" subsea wellhead housing. Usually, a
passive fluid with corrosion inhibitor is spotted in the subsea
wellhead when the corrosion cap is installed. The floating
drilling vessel will then recover anchors and move off to
another location. A marker buoy or pinger will be left to mark
the well site and if they disappear or fail, the measurements of
latitude and longitude are used to relocate the well.

DUAL CAM
ACTUATOR
SUB

TEST
SUB BOWL

BLIND RAMS
TEST DART

Optional Subsea Wellhead Equipment

Figure 9.66. Illustration of the drill

Full Bore Cementing and Full Bore Running Tools

pipe release and test sub used for
The majority of subsea casing hangers are run on drill pipe emergency drill pipe hangoff
running tools because the running operation is speeded up
and the shouldered drill pipe tool joints give very positive
control of turns and torque transmitted to the running tool.

191

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Figure 9.67. Illustration of a Temporary Abandonment Cap installed on the

wellhead

The main drawback to drill pipe as a running string is that

stage cementing jobs are a little more difficult to perform than
a full bore cement job from the surface. Also, on some
occasions when very long strings of 13-3/8" or 9-5/8" casing
are run below a subsea casing hanger, the drill pipe joint
strength becomes a limiting factor. A full bore cement job
does, however, require the seal assembly be run in a second
trip after the casing hanger and casing has been run and
cemented in place.
Figure 9.68. Getting ready to run a
13-3/8" casing hanger with the full
bore running tool

192

The two-trip approach does offer the operator the opportunity

to clean out the sealing area between casing hanger body and

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

wellhead housing before running the seal assembly. Also, the

circulation path for annulus returns is less obstructed which
could help the cement job. The main culprit in seal assembly
failures is nearly always trapped debris in the seal area that
either gouges the sealing surfaces or prevents the seal assembly from getting down to its correct position. Some recovered
subsea wellhead housings and casing hangers have shown
that various items, such as tong dies, detached centralizer
springs, a small lever from power tongs and even a drill pipe
wiper have finished up in critical sealing areas or ex-centralized the casing hanger.

CASING
THREADS

RUNNING
THREADS

SEAL

The 13-3/8" full bore casing hanger running tool is a threaded RINGS
tool which makes up into the threaded profile located in the Figure 9.69. Illustration of the
top of the 13-3/8" hanger (Figure 9.69). The 9-5/8" (Figure 13-3/8" full bore casing hanger
9.70) and 7" full bore running tools are cam actuated tools. As running tool
already noted, cam actuated running tools are more desirable
then threaded tools to minimize the potential for high torque
when the tool is being rotated for release. The reason the 133/8" casing hanger full bore running tool is threaded is because of the restricted area available between the bore CASING
and the ID of the casing hanger in the locking profile area.
THREADS
Supplemental Casing Hanger Systems
The most common casing program used in offshore exploration drilling is 30" x 20" x 13-3/8" x 9-5/8" x 7" and the subsea ACTIVATING
SLEEVE
wellhead system most commonly used has a 30" housing with
the 30" conductor attached and a three hanger 18-3/4" high
pressure housing with the 20" casing attached. However, LOCK
RING
there are offshore drilling locations where an additional cas- SEAL
ing string is required to shut off a known problem formation RINGS
or is included as an insurance string in anticipation of drilling Figure 9.70. Illustration of the
problems.
9-5/8" cam actuated full bore casing
hanger running tool

One way to handle the extra casing string is to use a four

hanger 18-3/4" housing with the 20" casing attached. This
approach has been used quite often, but the extra long housing

193

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

does not come cheaply and operators now have to

carry 3 and 4 hanger housings in their inventory.
A convenient solution to this optional hanger
position is to hang the 16" casing inside the 20"
casing much like a liner (Figure 9.71). This approach requires the use of a special forged adapter
strategically placed in the 20" casing string to
optimize coverage of a known problem formation and minimize 16" casing costs.
The 20" adapter is welded into a joint of 20" casing and
reserved as a special joint. This 20" joint is placed in the 20"
casing string when casing is run allowing final adjustments of final placement to occur at the last minute.
Figure 9.72 illustrates the 20" adapter which has a positive
casing hanger landing shoulder and a prepared internal
seal surface for the casing hanger seal assembly.
Figure 9.73 illustrates the 16" casing hanger which is run
on a 16" Casing Hanger
Seal Assembly Running
Figure 9.71. Illustration of the 16"
Tool similar to the 18-3/
supplemental casing hanger system and
4" Casing Hanger Seal Asits placement in the 20" casing string
sembly Running Tool. SEALING
The 16" supplemental AREA FOR
16" SEAL
casing hanger system can be ASSEMBLY
used as a single trip system,
where the 16" casing hanger
and attached 16" seal assem- LOAD RING
PROFILE
bly (Figure 9.74) are run with
the 16" Casing Hanger Seal LANDING
SHOULDER
Assembly Running Tool.
As was the case with the 18-3/
4" seal assembly, the 16" seal
assembly is weight-set and
pressure lock. The 16" Casing
Hanger Seal Assembly Run
194

FOR 16"
CASING
HANGER

Figure 9.72. Illustration of the

20" adapter for the 16" supplemental
casing hanger

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

ning Tool can also test the

seal and retrieve it if it does
LOCKING
SLEEVE
not test. A 10" drop indicates the seal assembly has
LOCKING
RING
been delivered to the casRESILIENT
ing hanger and an initial
SEAL
pressure test of 2,000 psi,
then raised to 80% of casFigure 9.74. Illustration of the
ing yield sets and locks
16" seal assembly
the seal to the hanger. A
60,000 lb. overpull indicates that the seal is locked in place.

SEALING AREA
LOCK DOWN
GROOVE
SEALING
AREA
RUNNING
TOOL
LOCKING
PROFILE

LOAD
RING
ACTUATING
SLEEVE

After successful tests, the running tool is retrieved and a

special 18-3/4" x 16" wear bushing is run and landed in the 183/4" wellhead housing. This wear bushing absorbs the main Figure 9.73. Illustration of the
16" positive stop supplemental casing
wear and tear generated by the drilling operations for the next hanger
casing string. The 16" wear bushing is also designed to
withstand any downward test loads induced when the 18-3/
4" BOP Isolation Test Tool is landed on top of the wear
bushing.
Deepwater Drilling Considerations
Deepwater drilling experience has identified a phenomenon
of shallow water flow from sands buried at relatively shallow
depths below the mudline. The concern is that during spudin procedures and drilling out for surface pipe (typically done
without riser), this shallow water zone will be encountered.
The water flow can range from a temporary zone pressuring
and discharging to a serious flow from a geologically overpressured zone which will flow around the conductor and/or
surface pipe resulting in a loss of the well or related seafloor
equipment such as a template.
Many solutions to the problem have been explored and im- Figure 9.76. Making up the 16"
pacted technology from cement slurries to wellhead equip- Casing Hanger Seal Assembly
Running Tool, seal assembly and 16"
ment. Following is a discussion of the various solutions,
Casing Hanger

195

18-3/4" RIGID LOCKDOWN

WELLHEAD

30" RIGID LOCKDOWN

WELLHEAD
18-3/4" SEAL
ASSEMBLY

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

ANNULUS PACK OFF

Actuated when the 18-3/4" wellhead is

preloaded into the conductor wellhead, the
annulus shutoff system seals off the annulus
between the 20" casing and the primary
conductor string(s).

MUD MAT

16" SEAL ASSEMBLY

16" POSITIVE STOP SUPPLEMENTAL
CASING HANGER

20" SUPPLEMENTAL ADAPTER

26" STAB HANGER
26" SUPPLEMENTAL ADAPTER

16" SUPPLEMENTAL CASING

HANGER SYSTEM
The field proven 16" supplemental casing
hanger is run hung off and sealed in the 20"
adapter above the 20" stab sub. It is rated to
5,000 psi and one million pound tensile capacity
combined loading.
SECONDARY CONDUCTOR STRING
The secondary conductor string is hung off in
the primary conductor and supplies foundation
strength and rigidity to the primary conductor in
unstable pressurized sands. The secondary
conductor string is set above the hazard and
can carry a landing adapter for the 20: riserless
supplemental casing hanger system.

20" STAB SUB

20" SEAL ASSEMBLY
20" RISERLESS SUPPLEMENTAL
CASING HANGER
16" CASING
36" CASING
26" CASING
20" CASING

20" RISERLESS SUPPLEMENTAL

CASING HANGER SYSTEM
The 20" riserless supplemental casing hanger
incorporates a separate testable, replaceable
packoff that is set in the 20: X 26" annulus.
DRIL-QUIP's riserless supplemental casing
hanger system is designed to be installed in
open water on drill pipe. Expensive large bore
diameter riser and a subsea diverter for testing
is not required.

Figure 9.76. Illustration of the Wellhead System with options for controlling pressureized sands

196

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

partial and/or otherwise, with respect to the wellhead equipment.

Annulus Packoffs
Methods to address the shallow water flow problem initially
started with a need to supply a secondary mechanically actuated seal between the conductor (30") and surface (20") strings.
This seal is carried on the 18-3/4" high pressure housing and
is actuated after the cementing operation with a tool which
drives "locking tabs" down which, in turn, drive a ring with
resilient seals into the annulur area between the conductor
wellhead and the 18-3/4" wellhead.
If the cement job had been contaminated by a shallow water
zone, then any flow around the surface pipe would be inhibited by the annulus packoff. Concern arouse, however, about
the possibility that the annulus packoff would cause overburdened pressure to force a shallow water flow into the formation and around the conductor string eroding the entire foundation of the well. This concern supplied the logic towards
reinforcing the conductor string with a second conductor
string.
Secondary Conductor String
Several options are available and have been considered to
strengthen the foundation pile and/or seal of the annulus
between the two conductor strings. Alternative conductor
programs utilizing 36", 26" and 24" have become common.
One technique is to "piggy-back" the conductor wellheads
with either 36" and 30" or 30" and 24" hanging from them.
Conductor wellheads can also be nested as discussed in the
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) section found in chapter 10.
Nested conductor wellheads are not standard and are usually
found on development wells as was the case with the TLP
application discussed.

197

Introduction to
Subsea Wellhead
Equipment

Another technique for designing subsea wells with two conductor strings utilizes the "scab hanger" concept. This involves the placement of a buttweld sub below the first wellhead which supplies a landing shoulder for a second conductor string to be hung off from that point. Scab hangers can be
designed with various features such as simple landing shoulders, with or without flow-by and with a lock ring, or with
shear pins. These hangers are designed to supplement the
foundation characteristics of the conductor string.
Riserless Supplemental Casing Systems
When drilling a well with a shallow water hazard in the
horizon, the ultimate protection becomes a large bore diamater
hanger system that offers a testable, retrievable, replaceable
packoff or seal assembly, such as the features found in the 16"
Supplemental Casing Hanger System (Refer to the 16" Supplemental Casing Hanger section found previously in the chapter).
The 20" Supplemental Casing Hanger System offers a solution, but presents the neccesity to run the 18-3/4" wellhead,
20" extension with an adapter for the 16" casing hanger system
and a special stab sub that slides into the throat of the 20"
casing hanger. This special stab sub will have multiple sealing
systems on its OD to assure a seal between the 18-3/4" wellhead and the rest of the 20" casing string.

The 18-3/4" SS-15 Wellhead System was developed around

the classic 30" x 20" x 13-3/8" x 9-5/8" x 7" casing program. As
various drilling parameters and needs are considered, wellhead systems are modified to accomodate the specifications.
To date, subsea wellhead systems have been offered to the
industry that are 13-5/8", 16-3/4", 18-3/4" and 21-1/4". Because of the evolutionary changes in wellhead systems requirements, Subsea Wellhead System changes will forever
continue.

198

10

TLP and Tie-Back to Subsea

Wellhead Systems

Introduction ............................................................................. 199

Tie-Back to Subsea Wellhead Systems .................................. 200
Tieing Back the 18-3/4" Wellhead ......................................... 201
20" Internal Tie-Back Connector .......................................... 201
20" External Tie-Back Connector ......................................... 203
TLP Subsea Wellhead Systems .............................................. 208
Guide Bases vs Templates ...................................................... 208
Nested Conductor Wellhead Housings .................................. 209
Drilling With Returns to Surface .......................................... 210
18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown Wellhead and 20" Stab Sub ........ 211
Standard Wellhead Components ........................................... 212
Lockdown Sleeve .................................................................. 213

Table of Contents

10

TLP and Tie-Back to Subsea

Wellhead Systems

Introduction
The previous chapter described the process of drilling an
exploratory well with a subsea wellhead system. When
completion wells are drilled using subsea wellhead equipment, consideration for the completion method must be made.
The first completion method may involve a tie-back to surface
with a surface production tree. The second is a subsea tree. A
decision for the method used is based on many factors, with
one of the most important factors being the water depth the
well has been drilled in.
Subsea production trees are specialty surface trees that are
modified to accommodate the remote location on the sea floor.
These trees have been installed in a range of relatively shallow
water up to water depths of several thousand feet. A discussion of subsea production trees and components can be found
in Chapter 11 "Introduction to Subsea Completion Systems."
Figure 10.1. Illustration of a
Tension Leg Platform

When the water depth is within the 1200' range, typically a

platform is utilized and a tie-back system is installed to
establish communications from the surface to the downhole
equipment. A second conventional or unitized specialty
wellhead is made up at the surface and a typical tree is
installed. A surface tree operated and maintained by a man

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

has been the completion method preferred by a majority of the

operators. This is an important issue because water depths
beyond 1200' are outside the technological envelope of a
platform that stands on the sea floor. For this reason, a
structure that will allow surface completions has to be created
that will make deep water subsea wells viably produceable
with surface trees.
The Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a floating structure that is
tethered to the sea floor. Each tether is tensioned to pull the
platform down into the water, which tempers the behavior of
the structure in any wave action. Movement, both horizontal
and vertical, is severely restrained but not eliminated. The TLP
behaves like a platform standing on the sea floor so subsea
wells can be tied back to the surface for completion.

Figure 10.2. Illustration of a

Tension Leg Platform over a template

When a subsea wellhead is tied back to a TLP, the tie-back

string must be tensioned to inhibit metal fatigue and riser
failure. This tension combined with the slight, but constant,
movement effects the subsea wellhead system. The wellhead,
wellhead components, and upper section of each casing string
is "cold worked" and realize more stress then a subsea wellhead that is tied back to a standard platform. For this reason,
the subsea wellhead is modified to accommodate the stress
imparted to the wellhead system when used in conjunction
with a tension leg platform. There can be many variations to
a TLP subsea wellhead design depending on the sea floor
geology, casing program and operator preference. The following discussion centers around a TLP subsea wellhead
system used in the Gulf of Mexico as an example.

Tie-Back to Subsea Wellhead Systems

The previous section of this chapter discussed the installation
of a TLP subsea wellhead system. Subsea wellhead systems
and TLP subsea wellhead systems should be designed for tieback to the surface for surface completion. There are a number
200

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

of ways to tie-back a subsea wellhead system. Regardless of

the design and whether it is a platform tie-back or TLP tieback, the wellhead body will, in most cases, be tied back to
establish a barrier string between the sea and the production
casing annulus. There will always be a tie-back for the
production casing string and there may or may not be a
secondary tie-back between the production annulus and the
barrier string.
The following section discusses the number of different variations for tieing back a subsea wellhead system and will assume
that the maximum amount of casing strings will, in deed, be
tied back. In the end, the operator will make a choice as to
whether he will follow the scheme presented here or select
some modification and/or some combinations of the standard
tie-back system presented.
Tieing Back the 18-3/4" Wellhead
Tieing back the 18-3/4" wellhead consists of a wellhead connector that will conform to the strength and pressure specifications for the particular well. There have been a number of
wellhead connectors used over the years which are summarized in the following list:
1. Standard drilling hub type wellhead connector (used in
the TLP subsea wellhead discussed earlier in this chapter)
2. Standard drilling mandrel type wellhead connector (discussed in Chapter 8)
3. Standard internal type tie-back connector
4. External type tie-back connector
20" Internal Tie-Back Connector
The 20" Tie-Back Connector is an internal tie-back connector
used to connect the 20" barrier riser string to the 18-3/4" subsea
wellhead. The 20" Tie-Back Connector is run on casing and
locks to the running profile located in the wellhead ID with a
cam actuated split lock ring (Figure 10.4). The lock ring is

Figure 10.3. SS-15 Standard

Subsea Wellhead stackup
system

201

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

actuated with a threaded wedge ring which is driven down

when the threaded actuator ring is rotated. Resilient type seals
mate with the ring gasket profile in the top of the wellhead.
Since angular mis-alignment and wellhead off-set mis-alignment are of critical concern, the connector body is designed to
accept a stab nose to assist in high angle stabbing conditions.

20" TIE-BACK
CONNECTOR

20" STAB
NOSE

18-3/4"
SUBSEA
WELLEAD

DRILL PIPE
STINGER

Figure 10.4. Illustration of the

20" connector and high angle stab
nose being lowered into the wellhead

202

10

The High Angle Stab Nose guides the 20" Tie-Back Connector
into the 18-3/4" wellhead. It is equipped with a non-abrasive
nylon nose to protect the ring gasket seal area when it is
entering the wellhead. The nylon nose can also be replaced
with an attachment which provides a drill pipe connection to
allow entry into the wellhead with a drill pipe entry stinger. A
retrieving profile in the top of the stab nose allows the 20"
Torque Tool to lock to the stab nose when the tool is run and
landed in the 20" Tie-Back
Connector. The High Angle
Stab Nose is retrieved when
the Torque Tool is retrieved.
First, the 20" Tie-back Connector and High Angle Stab
Nose are run on 20" casing
which will become the barrier
riser string. The drill pipe
stinger or nylon nose guides
the connector into position
over the wellhead. The 20"
Tie-Back Connector is lowered
into the 18-3/4" wellhead until the 20" Tie-Back Connector
has landed in the wellhead. A
confirmation that the 20" TieBack Connector is firmly
seated out in the 18-3/4" wellhead is made by filling the 20"
riser with water.

Figure 10.5. Internal tie-back

connector ready to run

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

The 20" Torque Tool locks and

preloads the 20" Tie-Back
Conector to the 18-3/4" wellhead
(Figure 10.6). Run on drill pipe
inside the barrier riser string,
the Torque Tool lands on a ring
inside the 20" connector. The
drill pipe is then rotated to the
right until the three torque keys
on the Torque Tool locate their
corresponding slots in the actuator ring of the 20" Tie-Back
Connector. The Torque Tool is
Figure 10.7. Retrieving the
then rotated to the right approxihigh angle stab nose with the
mately eight turns to lock and
20" Torque Tool
preload the tie-back connector
to the wellhead. With casing elevators latched to the 20"
casing, a confirmation that the 20" Tie-Back Connector is
locked to the wellhead is made by taking a 10,000 lbs. overpull.
The 20" Torque Tool is retrieved with a straight upward pull
bringing the High Angle Stab Nose with it. Wellhead and BOP
equipment are made up at the surface as dictated by the
operator.
20" External Tie-Back Connector
The 20" External Tie-Back Connector is also used to connect the 20"
barrier riser casing string to the 183/4" subsea wellhead in situations
where the running profile in the
wellhead ID is not accessible. The
External Tie-Back Connector has an
overshot type bottom which swallows the wellhead. Resilient type
seals mate with the ring gasket profile in the top of the wellhead. This

Figure 10.6. Illustration of the

Torque Tool locking the tie-back
connector to the 18-3/4" wellhead

Figure 10.8. Photo of the

external tie-back connector

203

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

connector can be designed to lock to a hub type as well as

several variations of mandrel type profiles.
The External Tie-Back Connector is compatible with the High
Angle Stab Nose and is run in a similar manner as the Internal
Tie-Back Connector.
All SS-15 subsea casing hangers are equipped with a modified
acme right-hand thread that
RIGHT HAND
is designed to accept a
TIE-BACK
THREADS
threaded split lock ring (Figure 10.9). The 13-3/8" Stab-In
Tie-back Adapter is equipped
with a threaded split lock
ring and will provide a means
to connect the last casing
hanger run to any riser casing
size or connection.
The 13-3/8" Stab-In Tie-Back
Adapter incorporates a split
threaded lock ring which pro-

Figure 10.11. Illustration of the

13-3/4"Stab-In Tie-Back Adapter
landed in the casing hanger

204

Figure 10.10. Photo of the 13-3/8"

Stab-In Tie-Back Adapter. Note the
thread split lock ring

Figure 10.9 Illustration of a

standard subsea casing hanger

vides a simple weight-set lock

and rotation torque interface
between the tool and the casing hanger (Figure 10.10). The
seal between the Tie-Back
Adapter and the casing hanger
ID is a metal-to-metal seal with
resilient type seals as back up.
The jetting tool is used to flush
and clean out any debris that
may exist in the tie-back
threads of the subsea casing
hanger prior to running the
tie-back adapter.

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

A 13-3/8" Torque and Test Tool can be used to impart final

torque to preload the 13-3/8" Stab-In Tie-Back Adapter to the
subsea casing. The Torque and Test Tool is equipped with test
seals to isolate the tie-back connection (Figure 10.12). Pressure
down the drill pipe confirms a tight seal exists between the TieBack Adapter and the casing hanger. After pressure tests are
successful, the Torque and Test Tool is lifted with straight
upward pull and retrieved to the surface. Surface wellhead
equipment is installed.
The standard subsea wellhead discussed in this manual offers
the above described tie-back capability. If it is desirable to
monitor the annulus between the secondary string and the
production casing hanger, a special annulus monitoring casing hanger must be installed during the drilling phase. This
annulus monitoring casing hanger is equipped with the necessary thread profiles and porting to maintain continuity
between the annulus below the wellhead and the annulus in
the riser allowing uninterrupted monitoring.
Figure 10.13 illustrates an annulus monitoring casing hanger.
The annulus monitoring ports are isolated from the well bore
with a protective sleeve which threads into the throat of the
hanger. This protective sleeve also protects the right-hand
production casing tie-back threads from any damage from
drilling bits as they are raised and lowered during the drilling
process. The annulus monitoring features are essentially
ignored during the drilling phase and the hanger is run as if it
were a standard casing hanger.

Figure 10.12. Illustration of the

13-3/8" Torque & Test Tool making
up and testing the 13-3/8" Stab-In
Tie-Back Adapter

RIGHT HAND
TIE-BACK
THREADS
ANNULUS
MONITORING
PORTS
RIGHT HAND
TIE-BACK
THREADS

The 10-3/4" (or 9-5/8", 7-5/8" and 7") Stab-In Tieback Tool also PROTECTIVE
SLEEVE
incorporates a threaded split lock ring to facilitate stab-in and
make up (Figure 10.14). Metal-to-metal primary seals are
backed up with resilient backup seals on the nose of the tool.
The split lock ring locks the tool to the right-hand modified
acme thread located behind the protective sleeve in the annuFigure 10.13. Illustration of the
lus monitoring casing hanger.
annulus monitoring casing hanger

205

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

Prior to running the Tie-Back

Tool, the protective sleeve is
removed from the annulus
monitoring casing hanger to
expose the tie-back threads.
The 10-3/4" Stab-In Tie-Back
Tool is run in the same manner the 13-3/8" Tie-Back
Adapter (Figure 10.16).

Figure 10.14. Photo of the 10-3/4"

Stab-In Tie-Back Tool. Not the metalto-metal sealing nose

A torque and test tool is also

provided to ensure the tieback connection is locked and
pressure tight (Figure 10.17).

Figure 10.16. Illustration of the

10-3/4" Tie-Back Tool landed in
the annulus monitoring casing
hanger

As each casing string is tied

back, the surface wellhead is
built up in stages. When the
tie-back system has been successfully installed, the surface
wellhead is ready to be completed. Down hole work is
performed and tubing with
tubing hanger is run. The tree
is nippled up and the well is
placed on line.
Figure 10.15. Illustration of the
annulus monitoring casing hanger
with protective sleeve removed

206

Figure 10.17. Illustration of the

10-3/4" Test Tool making up the
10-3/4" Stab-In Tie-Back Tool

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

Figure 10.18
Illustration of the Tie-Back to Subsea Wellhead System installed

207

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

TLP Subsea Wellhead Systems

Figure 10.19. Illustration of a

guidelineless guide base used with
dynamically positioned drilling
vessels. This guide base is designed
for completion wells (non retrievable)

Figure 10.21. Illustration of the mud

mat and guidelineless guide base in
the moonpool area, ready to run
conductor

Guide Bases vs Templates

A TLP project will undoubtedly be costly. For this reason, the
field the operator is completing must be capable of supporting
a large quantity of wells. Template systems provide exact well
spacing and are the most common initial structures placed on
the sea floor. The conductor wellhead design will match each
receptacle in the template. The conductor casing size may
need to be larger than the 30", the wall thickness will most
certainly be greater and the material may be stronger then
previously discussed. Again, all of the final specifications will
be a function of the sea floor geology, water depth and operator preference.
The TLP wellhead system
used in this example will
not utilize guidelined drilling technology. Each well
will be drilled with a dynamically positioned drilling vessel and guidelineless drilling technology. A
dynamically positioned
Figure 10.20. Map of the wellhead
drilling vessel is a specially
location on the sea floor. A template
equipped drilling vessel
system was not used
designed to drill in water
depths considered too deep
for the use of anchors and guidelines to be practical. Instead,
computers control the drilling vessel and incorporate thrusters to maintain the drilling vessel over the well site. When
using a dynamically positioned drilling vessel, a substitution
is also made by replacing the permanent guide base with a
guidelineless guide base.
A unique approach is to pass on the use of a template system
and install the conductor casing, guidelineless guide bases

208

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

and a mud mat in a precise pattern mapped out on the sea floor
(Figure 10.19). Since dynamically positioned drilling vessels
have historically proven to be quite precise, the expense of a
template was saved. The sea floor conditions were quite soft
and, in fact, unconsolidated for the first 100'. The first conductor starts with 38" and two nested conductor wellheads were
necessary.
The mud mat is positioned in the moonpool area with the
guidelineless guide base positioned on top of it. A 36" conductor jet shoe is lowered through the rotary table through the
center receptacle of the guidelineless guide base and mud mat.
Intermediate 36" conductor joints were made up and run
using a 1/2 turn make up Quik-Thread connector similar to
the ones described in Chapter 1 of this manual. The 38"
conductor swages into 36" below the first 100'. Finally, the 38"
special conductor wellhead is run to the conductor string and,
with a 38" Wellhead Running Tool similar to the 30" Wellhead
Running Tool described in Chapter 9, is used to lower the
Figure 10.22. Illustration of the 38"
wellhead into the guidelineless guide base and mud mat.
The entire assembly is picked up and lowered to the sea floor.
Jetting operations were used to install the 38"/36" conductor
string, guidelineless guide base and mud mat (Figure 10.22).
Once the mud mat touches down on the sea floor, the 38"
WellheadRunning Tool is rotated with five right- hand rotations and retrieved to the surface.
Nested Conductor Wellhead Housings
As previously noted, the example TLP wellhead system incorporates a nested conductor configuration. A second 26"
conductor string will crossover to a section of 28" conductor
topped out with a 28" conductor wellhead that will fit inside
the 28" conductor. The 28" conductor wellhead will provide a
special profile for a preloaded connection between the high
pressure wellhead and conductor casing strings (Figure 10.24).
The 26" conductor will also incorporate a special adapter
which supplies a landing shoulder and resilient sealing area
for a 20" Supplemental Casing Hanger System similar to the

conductor, guidlelineless guide base

and mud mat jetted into position on
the sea floor

Figure 10.23. 38" Wellheads, 28"

wellheads and 18-3/4" wellheads in
final assembly

209

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

16" Supplemental Casing Hanger System described in Chapter 9.

Figure 10.25. Running the 28"

special Rigid Lockdown
WellheadHousing

The 28"/26" second conductor casing string is run and landed

in the 38" wellhead with a 28" Wellhead Running Tool (Figure
10.26). Again, the 28" Wellhead Running Tool is similar to the
30" Wellhead Running Tool previously described. After the
28" conductor is cemented
into place, the wellhead
running tool is released LOCK
with five right-hand rota- DOWN
GROOVES
tions and retrieved.
Drilling With Returns to
Surface
Before drilling the next section of hole, a hydraulic 5 TAPER
latch, special subsea
diverter system and large
diameter riser system are
run and connected to the Figure 10.24. Ilustration of the
28" wellhead to protect special 28" Rigid Lockdown Wellhead
Housing
against possible shallow
gas pockets. The subsea diverter is essentially a bag type
preventer hydraulically controled from the surface. In the
event gas migrates into the well bore, the diverter will be
closed and large hydraulically actuated valves below the
diverter serve to vent the gas safely to the sea.
O

Figure 10.26. 28" wellhead installed

in the 38" wellhead

210

The 20" casing hanger and 20" seal assembly is run on a 20"
Casing Hanger Seal Assembly Running Tool and the hanger is
landed inside the 28" Supplemental Adapter (Figure 10.27).
After the casing is cemented, the running tool is rotated and
the 20" seal is set with 15,000 lbs. of weight, similar to the
procedure previously described. A plugging dart is dropped
in the drill pipe and lands out in a sliding sleeve in the neck of
the 20" Casing Hanger Seal Assembly Running Tool. Since

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

there are no choke or kill lines

available to test the 20" seal,
pressure is introduced through
the drill pipe which reacts
against the dart to shift the
sleeve in the running tool creating a pressured path into the
wellbore. Pressure applied to
the seal and diverter will determine if the seal is set. When
testing is complete, the 20"
Casing Hanger Seal Assembly
Running Tool is retrieved.
Figure 10.27. 20" Supplemental
18-3/4 Rigid Lockdown
Casing Hanger and Seal installed
Wellhead and 20" Stab Sub
The 18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown
Wellhead locking mechanism
is found in the center section of the wellhead body and the
reaction ring found at the bottom OD section of the wellhead
(Figure 10.28). These components are designed to establish a preloaded connection between the 18-3/4" wellhead and the conductor wellhead it is sitting in. By
driving the locking tabs down, the split lock ring is forced into
the 2 grooved running profile inside the top section of the 28"
(or 30" on standard rigid lockdown systems) wellhead. This
action compressively loads the wellhead down into the reaction ring and the 5o taper profile in the ID of the 28" wellhead.
This locking mechanism will create between 500,000 psi to
2,000,000 psi of preload depending on the amount of force used
to drive the locking tabs down.

STANDARD
18-3/4" BODY

LOCKING
TABS
LOCKING
RING

The 18-3/4" wellhead will have a 20" Supplemental Casing REACTION

Hanger Adapter , several joints of exactly dimensioned 20" casing RING
and a special 20" stab sub directly below it. The 20" stab sub will
slide into the ID of the 20" Supplemental Casing Hanger. The 20"
stab sub has multiple resilient seals on the OD to ensure a Figure 10.28. Illustration of the
pressure tight seal is established between the wellhead and the 18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown Wellhead

211

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

20" casing hanging in the 28" conductor. The 16" casing string will
hang inside the 20" above the special stab sub and be cemented
into place. This will cover up the seals on the 20" stab sub and seal
off any potential leak paths.
Since the 18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown Wellhead has an OD larger
than the ID of the 30" riser system, the subsea diverter system and
riser must be retrieved prior to running the wellhead.

Figure 10.29. Illustration of the

18-3/4" Mechanical Rigid Lockdown
Wellhead

Figure 10.30. Running the 20" Stab

Sub and 18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown
Wellhead

Figure 10.31. Top view of the

Mechanical Rigid Lockdown Tool

212

The 18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown Wellhead is run with the Mechanical Rigid Lockdown Tool (Figure 10.32). This tool is connected to
the wellhead with the standard 18-3/4" Wellhead Running Tool.
After the 18-3/4" wellhead is landed in the 28"
wellhead, the Mechanical Rigid Lockdown Tool
is functioned with a1/8 left-hand turn and pulled
straight up. This action drives the tools actuating
sleeve down which, in turn, drives the locking
tabs on the wellhead down rigidly locking the 183/4" wellhead to the 28" wellhead. An ROV
camera confirms the wellhead
is locked
down. Five right-hand turns
release the 18-3/4" Wellhead MASTER
LINKS
Running Tool and Mechanical Rigid Lockdown Tool from INDICATOR
the 18-3/4" wellhead. The tool PLATE
is retrieved with 5 right-hand
rotations and a straight up18-3/4"
ward pull.
WELLHEAD
Standard Wellhead
Components
The BOP stack is run and
tested with the BOP Isolation
Test Tool as described in the
previous chapter. A nominal
bore protector is installed with
the Multi-Purpose Tool and
the Nominal Bore Protec

RUNNING
TOOL

LOCKING
TABS
ACTUATOR
SLEEVE

Figure 10.32. Illustration of the

18-3/4" Mechanical Rigid Lockdown
Tool and Wellhead Running Tool

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

tor Running Adapter. A 22" hole is drilled in preparation for

the 16" casing. The 16" Supplemental Casing Hanger and the
16" seal assembly is run with the 16" Casing Hanger Seal
Assembly Running Tool. The seal assembly is tested, locked
down and the running tool retrieved. The 16" wear bushing is
installed with the Multi-Purpose Tool and the Wear Bushing
Running Adapter.
The next hole section is drilled in preparation for the first
casing hanger to be installed into the wellhead. The casing
hanger is installed in the same as previously described in
Chapter 9.
Lockdown Sleeve
The Lockdown Sleeve is unique to the TLP wellhead system.
By landing on the last casing hanger and locking into the 183/4" wellhead running profile, the Lockdown Sleeve preloads
all of the wellhead components into the bottom of the wellhead (Figure 10.34). This is to minimize the stress induced
from bending loads on the wellhead system throughout the
life of the TLP and increase the fatigue life. The Lockdown
Sleeve incorporates a tie-back profile and load supporting
shoulders designed to offer a contingency hanging point for
the production casing string. The seal mounted to the OD is
inverted and reacts against a 4o back tapper shoulder on the
Lockdown Sleeve. This seal isolates the production casing
bore from the rest of the wellhead components.

Figure 10.33. Illustration of the

18-3/4" Rigid Lockdown Wellhead
and 20" stab sub installed

Once the Lockdown Sleeve is installed, a specialized corrosion

cap is run with an ROV assist running tool. The corrosion cap
contains a compartment of corrosive inhibitor which is injected into the wellhead and water is displaced from the
wellhead when the cap is landed.
Subsequent wells are batch drilled with the dynamically positioned drilling vessel while the TLP structure is being built at
a fabrication facility. When completed, the TLP will be moved
to the drilling location and installed. All corrosion caps will be
retrieved and the wells tied back to the surface for completion.

213

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

ACTUATING SLEEVE
LOCKDOWN
SLEEVE

Figure 10.36. Running the corrosion

cap with Corrosion Cap Running
Tool

SEAL ASSEMBLY

LANDING SEAT

TUBING HANGER
HANGOFF PROFILE

Figure 10.34. Illustration of the

18-3/4"Lockdown Sleeve

Figure 10.35. Illustration of the

18-3/4"Lockdown Sleeve

214

TLP and Tie-Back to

Subsea Wellhead
Systems

10

Figure 10.37
Illustration of the TLP Wellhead System installed. The
corrosion cap has been left out for clearity

215

11

Introduction to Subsea
Completions
Introduction and Scope
The subsea production tree offers the means by which a
single subsea well can be completed, controlled and produced. The early underwater production trees were very
simple, and were nothing more than a stacked assembly of
standard flanged valves installed by divers on an underwater flanged wellhead. Lake Erie was the site for over 300 of
these early underwater trees that were first installed in the
1930s. Production from the wells was done through lakebed flow lines; and control of production was done manually by sending a diver down to open or shut valves on the
production trees as required.

Figure 11.1 Photo of a typical

Subsea Tree, LRP and EDP

Since the 1930's subsea tree technology has developed and

advancements have made deep water subsea completions a
reality. Many different varieties and tree configurations
have evolved. This chapter introduces the concepts, the
terms, the equipment and the installation steps of subsea
tree components. Most examples used represent actual
equipment supplied, however, there are many common
variations which are represented with graphics. Keep in
mind that general categories have been identified in an
attempt to simplify different concepts and tree types. There

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

are, in some cases, overlap, and in all cases exceptions to

each generalization.

Open Hole Completion

PRODUCTION
CASING
DOWN HOLE
SAFETY VALVE
TUBING
SLIDING
SLEEVE
TUBING
RECEPTACLE
PACKER/
HANGER

OPEN HOLE
PRODUCING
ZONE

Figure 11.2 Typical top-set or open

hole completion method.

Subsea Completion Tree Considerations

Any serious attempt to understand current day subsea
completion trees will cover a bewildering array of specialized equipment and technologies. For purposes of simplifying the subject these technologies are divided into five
major categories;

Downhole Configuration
Subsea Wellhead System to be Completed
Tubing Hanger Equipment
Tree and Tree Components
Flow line Connections
Control Equipment

Downhole Configuration
Any consideration of subsea tree designs starts with a
consideration for the following:
The Completion Method
Downhole Completion Equipment
The completion method specifies the process of selecting
zones that will be exposed to the well bore. The most common completion methods used in subsea production systems are a top-set or open hole completion, and a setthrough completion method.
In a top-set or open-hole completion (Figure 11.2), the
casing is set in place and cemented above the producing
formation. Additional hole is drilled beyond the casing and
through the productive formation. The additional hole is
not cased. Since all zones are exposed to the well bore, this
method is often used when known reservoirs are being
developed. In such cases, the zones of interest have been
previously defined and it is desirable to expose all zones.

216

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

In a set-through completion method (Figure 11.3), the final

hole is drilled through the formation and the hole is cased
and cemented. This method requires that perforations be
made through the casing to reach the productive zone. This
method makes it possible to accurately control the effects of
stimulation and production operations. Zone isolation is
much easier with set-through completions because packers
and other downhole equipment are able to form more
effective seals inside the casing.
There are other completion methods that represent some
variation of the already mentioned methods. Dual completions are also a consideration, but historical performance
has indicated that it is not practical in a subsea completion
application.
Downhole completion equipment used to produce hydrocarbons has been broken down into the following categories:
1. Packers
2. The tubing string, coupling size, type and grade
3. Surface controlled sub-surface safety valve (SCSSV),
plug nipples, tubing-seal receptacles, sliding sleeves,
flow couplings, surface controlled subsurface safety
valves
4. Sensing units, such as temperature, pressure, etc.

11

Set-Through Completion
PRODUCTION
CASING
DOWN HOLE
SAFETY VALVE
TUBING
SLIDE SLEEVE
TUBING
RECEPTACLE

PACKER/HANGER

PRODUCING ZONE

PRODUCTION
CASING

Figure 11.3 Illustration of a typical

set-through completion method.

The specific tubing design and configuration, and the number of above components designed into the tubing string, is
strictly the operators choice. The tubing design and/or
downhole equipment incorporated in the tubing design will
be a function of the following;
number of zones to be completed
type of completion method

217

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

workover scenario anticipated (i.e., direct overhead

access is to be required or can workover be accomplished remotely from a production platform?)
downhole equipment type (pressure balanced
downhole safety valve or standard)
Following is a list of specific items that the tubing hanger
system must interface with:
1. Downhole Safety Valve (SCSSV). The downhole safety
valve is a fail-safe close valve located in the tubing
string above the packer. This valve requires constant
pressure, supplied through one control line from the
remote production station, through the tubing
hanger to the valve downhole to keep the tree producing. In the event a catastrophe occurs, (example:
fishing net pulling the completion tree over, or an
iceberg scours the ocean floor and breaks the production flow-line), the SCSSV control line will be disrupted, resulting in a pressure loss and automatic
shut-in of the tree.
Sophisticated downhole valves are designed to react
to a pressure surge in the flow line and will automatically shut-in, alerting the operator to a possible
problem with the producing zone. These downhole
safety valves are pressure balanced and will require two control lines through the tubing hanger.
2. Downhole Sensing and Position Indicator Devices.
Downhole sensing devices, such as temperature or
pressure sensors, transmit the sensed information to
the remote production station through electrical lines
which pass through the tubing hanger. These
electrical lines will also terminate in a seal pocket in
much the same manner as the SCSSV control line,
but will house an electrical connection to the electrical line to the sensor.
218

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVE

REQUIRES POCKET IN
TUBING HANGER

GAS LIFT MANDRELS

REQUIRE LARGE VOLUME
ANNULUS ACCESS

PRESSURE GAUGE
TRANSMITTER REQUIRES
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION
AT TUBING HANGER

Figure 11.4 Illustration of a sophisticated down hole completion equipment.

219

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

3.
Annulus Access Specifications. Downhole access such as
gas lift will effect the tubing hanger and control whether any
additional access lines need be designed into the tubing
hanger. Also it is good practice to have an annulus access port
through the tubing hanger body for purposes of fluid circulation during completion of the well and subsequently for
pressure monitoring of the annulus when the well is in production. This annulus access bore through the tubing hanger
body will also have a seal pocket at the top and a threaded box
down for any suspended annulus tubing.
4.
Workover Specifications.
In the most sophisticated
designs, presumably for trees
in the deepest water, most in
accessible locations, some
downhole workover capabilities do exist without using a
vessel overhead. Through
Flow Line, which calls for
annulus access downhole and
the addition of a third line
called the service line. The
service line will also have a
seal pocket at the top and a
threaded box down for any
suspended tubing. This
tubing string crosses back
over to the annulus access
line and is used to back out
any tools that have been
pumped down the annulus
line.

Figure 11.5 Illustration of the SS-15 Subsea Wellhead System with 7"
production casing installed.

220

The type of tubing hanger

used, is a function of the
downhole completion equipment specified. Finally the

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

tree is designed around the tubing hanger, once it has been

specified and the workover scenario has been clarified.
Subsea Wellhead and Configuration
Before subsea completion trees and associated equipment
can be discussed, the subsea wellhead system and the
wellhead components installed during the drilling process
must be reviewed (Figure 11.5). The reason is to clarify the
following items:
1. Water depth
2. Casing program and production casing size
3. Wellhead size, type (manufacturer, connector profile,
etc.), pressure rating and guidance equipment foundation
4. Space availability for a subsea tubing hanger
5. Profile configuration for:
Tubing Hanger Seal Assembly
Tubing Hanger Lockdown Profile
There are many types, sizes, and pressure ratings of subsea
wellhead systems. Additionally, the casing program installed during the drilling phase affects the completion tree
specifications. These are all issues that must be considered
to make a determination of the location of the tubing
hanger relative to the wellhead and wellhead components.
Depending on the production casing string installed, wellhead type and manufacturer, tubing hanger manufacturer,
and annulus requirements, the following choices for tubing
hanger location are available:
1. Landed on the production casing string.
If there is space available in the wellhead, and the same
manufacturer for the wellhead and tubing hanger are

TUBING HANGER
LOCKDOWN
PROFILE

TUBING HANGER
POSITION

TUBING HANGER
LANDING SEAT
TUBING HANGER
METAL-TO- METAL
SEALING AREA

Figure 11.6 Illustration showing

SS-15 Wellhead System drilling
equipment and detail of tubing hanger
landing seat, sealing area, and
lockdown profile.

221

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

TUBING HANGER
LANDING SEAT

TUBING
HANGER
ADAPTER
METAL-TO-METAL
SEAL

selected, the tubing hanger will likely sit on top of the

production casing hanger and lock into the hanger, seal
assembly or the wellhead (Figure 11.6).
2. Landed in a tubing hanger adapter bowl.
The tubing hanger adapter allows the operator to safely
mix subsea wellhead and subsea completion tree vendors. Run and installed prior to running the tubing
hanger, the tubing hanger adapter bowl seals in the
casing hanger ID with metal-to-metal seals and provides
a convenient lock down profile for the tubing hanger
(Figure 11.7).
3. Landed in a tubing head.
When completing a well that has been drilled by a
jackup, and the well incorporates a mudline suspension
system, the tubing hanger is landed in a tubing head.
The tubing head ID profile allows for a landing seat,
metal-to-metal sealing profile, and a tubing hanger
lockdown profile (refer to Figure 11.8).

Figure 11.7 Illustration of a Tubing

Hanger Adapter.

TUBING HANGER
LOCK DOWN
PROFILE

TUBING
HANGER
LANDING
SEAT

Figure 11.8 Illustration of a tubing

head used for completing a mudline
suspended well subsea.

222

When the well has been drilled with a subsea wellhead,

a tubing head can also be used when mixing manufacturers. This configuration, known as a "split tree" consists of a tubing head mounted to the top of a wellhead
connector. This lower section of the tree will also include a guide frame, flowline stab components, and any
control system components that may be required. The
tubing head profile will mimic the wellhead profile.
The rest of the tree will start with another wellhead
connector, a guide frame, the tree body and control
system. While the additional expense of 2 wellhead
connectors exist, there are added benefits of the split
tree. First, the tubing hanger system can be simplified
because the annulus can be monitored from a side outlet
on the tubing head. Secondly, the lower portion of the
tree can carry flowline pull-in components, control
system hardware, etc.

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Standard 10,000 psi wellhead systems (including DRIL-QUIP'S

10,000 psi wellhead) are shorter than the 15,000 psi wellhead system illustrated. A shorter wellhead places the
subsea tubing hanger above the top of the wellhead if a 7"
casing hanger has been installed. While this does not necessarily eliminate the possibility of landing a tubing hanger in
the 7" casing hanger, the tubing hanger is unprotected and
subject to damage during tree installation. Furthermore, it
requires the tubing hanger lock inside the casing hanger
instead of using the wellhead for lock down. An alternative
is to consider the split tree previously described. For 10,000
psi systems, hopefully the last casing hanger position has
not been used, and the tubing hanger can occupy this space.
As previously noted, an alternative is to utilize a tubing
hanger adapter and lock the tubing hanger inside it.
Tubing Hanger Systems and Running Tools
In a subsea well, production tubing is supported and sealed
off inside the subsea wellhead housing. The tubing hanger
and the running tool necessary to install it defines a tubing
hanger system. On wells with subsea wellheads, the subsea
tubing hangers are run and landed through the marine riser
and the subsea BOP stack with a full drilling fluid/completion fluid column in place. On wells that have been mudline
suspended, the subsea tubing hangers are landed in a
tubing head through casing riser and a surface BOP stack.
Before a discussion of the Tubing Hanger System can proceed, the following information must be identified:
1. Nominal wellhead size and pressure rating
2. Production casing size and pressure capacity
3. Number and size of tubing strings supported
4. Number and size of control ports for downhole
functions and/or sensing devices
The great majority of subsea tubing hangers are mandrel
type hangers as opposed to slick joint type hangers. The
reason for this is that space out and sealing difficulties of a

Figure 11.9 Photo of a split tree used

for completing a subsea wellhead
system. Note the tubing head spool
between the two wellhead connectors.

223

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

slick joint type hanger are not easily over come in a wellhead out of manual adjustment range. In addition to the
production bore, any communication with any equipment
down hole, such as downhole safety valves (SCSSV), temperature sensors, gas lift mandrels, etc., must pass through
the tubing hanger.
In order to accommodate these requirements, all tubing
hanger systems can be summarized into two categories.
PRODUCTION BORE

ANNULUS ACCESS
PORTS (IF REQUIRED)

Figure 11.10 Top view of a

concentric bore tubing hanger system.

Concentric bore or non-orienting tubing hanger.

Multi bore or orienting type of tubing hanger system.

Concentric Bore Tubing Hanger System

The most basic subsea tubing hangers have a single central
bore threaded box down to make up to a single tubing
string (Figure 11.11). The upper part of the tubing hanger
body will have a central seal pocket to receive the mating
male stab sub from the subsea production tree. The tubing
hanger is lowered into position with a running tool that is
connected mechanically or hydraulically to the tubing
hanger body ID. The running string may be drill pipe,
tubing or a custom designed completion string with integral
tubing strings and control lines.
Generally the tubing hanger will incorporate a metal-tometal seal and a positive lockdown feature. The metal-tometal seal will either be torque or weight set energized and
isolates the annulus from the tree. The lockdown feature is
maintained by a lockdown ring and an actuating sleeve
which is actuated by weight and locked in position with a
ratchet lock down threads. The purpose of locking the
tubing hanger in place, is to provide a restraint against
upward thermal expansion of the tubing string during
production. The residual tension in the tubing string may
be sufficient to counteract the thermal expansion of the
tubing, but if the production temperatures are too high, the
lock down feature is essential. This restraint ensures that
the annulus seal on the tubing hanger see very little move-

224

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

ment due to thermal expansion.

Figure 11.10 and Figure 11.11 show concentric tubing
hanger designes to land in a tubing head . The hanger
incorporates a weight set metal-to-metal seal. Control over
a maximum of two downhole safety valves is accommodated with special porting in the male stab sub that maintains communication from the running tool (and tree)
through to the tubing hanger. The tubing hanger illustrated
is run with a threaded running tool. Because the hanger
lands in a tubing head, annulus access is through a side
outlet on the tubing head.
The concentric bore tubing hanger designed for a subsea
wellhead incorporates all the features just described, but
also includes a metal-to-metal sealing annulus valve (Figure
11.15). This valve provides access to the production annulus bore through the tubing hanger. Access through the
tubing hanger is necessary
when no side outlet exits
such as the case with a
LOCK RING
subsea wellhead.
ACTUATOR
Control over the annulus
valve (open and close funcMALE STAB
tions) are accommodated
RECEPTACLE
with additional porting in
the male stab sub (refer to
LOCKING
RING
Figure 11.13) similar to the
porting which controls the
SEAL ASSEMBLY
down hole safety valves.
(METAL-TOMETAL SEALING
The subsea wellhead conSYSTEM)
centric bore tubing hanger is
run on a hydraulically
RUNNING
THREADS
actuated tubing hanger
running tool.
Figure 11.11 Illustration of a
concentric bore tubing hanger. This
tubing hanger is designed to land in
a tubing head.

Figure 11.12 Photo of a concentric

bore tubing hanger.

If there is only one producing zone to be completed; a

maximum of one downhole
225

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

CHEMICAL INJECTION

safety valve in the tubing string; and annulus access is for

monitoring only, a concentric bore tubing hanger system is
the most efficient choice because:

ANNULUS
VALVE
OPEN

ANNULUS
VALVE CLOSED

First - All down hole access occurs through the stab sub,
eliminating any need for specific orientation.
SCSSV PORT

SEALS
TREE
SIDE
FLUID
PATH
SEALS

TUBING
HANGER
FLUID
PATH
SEALS

Figure 11.13 Illustration of a male

stab sub.

Second - The concentric bore tubing hanger is a simple

tubing hanger system, making it cost effective and easy to
install.
Third - The concentric bore tubing hanger system supports
the simplest tree configuration. The tree has only one bore
(production) and does not have to be oriented to the tubing
hanger prior to landing on the wellhead.
Multi Bore Tubing Hanger Systems
The multi bore or orienting tubing hangers incorporate the
same metal-to-metal annulus seal found in the concentric
bore tubing hanger system. It also incorporates two or
more pockets in the tubing
hanger body for communiLOCK RING
cations to multiple tubing
ACTUATING
SLEEVE
strings and multiple stab
LOCKDOWN
receptacles, to maintain
RING
control over downhole
ANNULUS
equipment (Figure 11.16).
VALVE

Figure 11.14 Photo of the male stab

sub.

226

Tubing hanger orientation

on multi bore tubing hanger
systems is accomplished
with a keyed Tubing Hanger
Running Tool and a slot in
the wellhead connector on
the BOP stack. An alternative method for orientation
is with a cammed groove on
the Tubing Hanger Running
Tool OD, which interfaces

WEIGHT SET
METAL-TOMETAL SEAL
ASSEMBLY

Figure 11.15 Illustration of a

concentric bore tubing hanger for
subsea wellhead completions.

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

TUBING HANGER
RUNNING TOOL
LOCKING PROFILE

with a pin in a BOP stack outlet.

If the following conditions exist, the ability for the concentric bore tubing hanger to accommodate the design parameters are exceeded.
1. Several downhole safety valves are required and/or a
pressure balanced valve exists.
2. Large volume requirements are necessary for annulus
access.
The multi bore tubing hanger allows the operator to enter
the annulus from directly overhead through an annulus
bore in the tree to the tubing hanger and tubing/equipment
downhole. This capability makes the tubing hanger orientation specific with respect to the tree. This also means that
the completion tree will require a specific design orientation
and a specific orientation to the tubing hanger during
installation.
1. The multi bore tubing hanger can accommodate
several communication lines downhole with stab
subs between the tree and the tubing hanger. Special
downhole sensors, etc., are accommodated in the
same way.

11

LOCK RING
ACTUATING
SLEEVE
LOCKDOWN
RING
ADJUSTING
RING
ANNULUS
BORE
PRODUCTION
BORE

WEIGHT SET
METAL-TOMETAL SEAL

Figure 11.16 Illustration of a multibore tubing hanger.

TEMPERATURE
SENSING
CONNECTION

PRESSURE
BALANCED
SCSSV

ANNULUS
ACCESS BORE

PRODUCTION
ANNULUS

2. The multi bore tubing hanger is a more complex

system because of the downhole specifications and
the workover scenario demanding direct overhead
annulus access.
3. The multi bore tubing hanger system supports a
completion tree which provides the operator with
full annulus access from directly overhead. The
tubing hanger and tree become orientation specific
and provisions must be made for this in the design
phase and operational phase.

Figure 11.17 Top view of a

Concentric Bore Tubing Hanger.

227

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

TUBING THREADS

LOCK SLEEVE
ACTUATOR

DOWNSHOLE
ACCESS
PORTS
(SCSSV's)
CHEMICAL
INJECTION,
ETC.

LEFT HAND
RUNNING
THREADS

Figure 11.18 Illustration of a

mechanical (threaded) concentric bore
Tubing Hanger Running Tool.

228

The Tubing Hanger Running Tool

The hydraulically actuated Tubing Hanger Running Tool is
designed to provide full-tubing-bore access and control of
downhole functions while running and retrieving the tubing hanger. The tubing hanger running tool will be tubing
hanger specific and must be designed to mimic the completion tree. It will be required to perform the following functions:
Engage and release from the tubing hanger body
(either mechanically threaded or hydraulically)
Set annulus seal assembly and lock tubing hanger
down
Pressure test annulus seal and stab sub seals
Provide full bore access for any suspended tubing
strings
Provide the hydraulic conduit for operation of
SCSSV's during the setting of the tubing hanger in
place.
The tubing hanger running tool can lock mechanically
(Figure 11.18) or hydraulically (Figure 11.22) to the tubing
hanger. If the tubing hanger is multi-bore, an index slot in
the activating sleeve of the tubing hanger orients the running tool prior to engagement of the stab subs into the
tubing hanger body.
In operation, hydraulic pressure forces the outer sleeve of
the running tool down against the top of the activating
sleeve of the tubing hanger. This downward movement of
the activating sleeve forces lock dogs in the tubing hanger
outward into a locking groove in the casing hanger. When
these dogs are in position, ratchet-type latches engage the
activating sleeve. This retains the tubing hanger in a locked
position. To unlock the tubing hanger, these locking latches
must be released. Release occurs when pins holding the
latches in place are sheared as the running tool raises the
activating sleeve. This action releases the entire tubing

PRESSURE IS
MAINTAINED ON THE
OPEN FUNCTION OF
THE DOWNHOLE
SAFETY PRIOR TO
LANDING THE TUBING
HANGER

LOCK RING LOCKS

RUNNING TOOL TO
TUBING HANGER

MALE STAB SUB

SUPPLIES PATH FOR
HYDRAULIC CONTROL
FOR DOWN HOLE
EQUIPMENT AND
FUNCTIONS IN THE
TUBING HANGER

ANNULUS SEALING
SYSTEM IS WEIGHT
SET METAL-TO-METAL
SEAL

R
TR

TR
R
T
TR
TR

TR

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Figure 11.19
Tubing Hanger Landed in Wellhead

229

11

R
TR
Q,SQ,
R
TTR
R
TSQ,S
TR
TR

TR

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

PRESSURE IS
MAINTAINED ON
SCSSV

PRESSURE IS APPLIED
TO TUBING HANGER
LOCK DOWN
FUNCTION OF
RUNNING TOOL

RUNNING TOOL LOCK

RING ACTUATOR
DRIVES TUBING
HANGER LOCK RING
ACTUATOR DOWN

TUBING HANGER
LOCKDOWN RING
MOVES OUT, LOCKING
TUBING HANGER TO
WELLHEAD

Figure 11.20
Lock Tubing Hanger To Wellhead

230

R
TR
Q,SQ,
TR
TR
,QSQ,SQ,

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

APPLY PRESSURE TO
UNLOCK RUNNING
TOOL FROM TUBING
HANGER

LOCKING SLEEVE MOVES

UP UNLOCKING RUNNING
TOOL FROM TUBING
HANGER

11

RELEASE PRESSURE
TO SCSSV PRIOR TO
RUNNING TOOL
RETRIEVAL

CLOSE ANNULUS
VALVE THROUGH
ANNULUS VALVE,
CLOSE HYDRAULIC
FUNCTION IN TOOL

Figure 11.21
Unlock Running Tool From Tubing Hanger

231

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

TUBING RUNNING
STRING

COMPLETION RISER

CONTROL HOSES

hanger/running tool assembly from the wellhead for retrieval (see Figure 11.19 to 11.21).
If the tubing hanger is concentric bore, the running tool will
cross over to tubing to the surface. Hydraulic control lines
and umbilical attach to the top of the tubing hanger running
tool to maintain control over the locking function of the
running tool and any downhole equipment in the tubing
string. This hose bundle will be strapped to the tubing
running string.
If the tubing hanger is multi bore, the running string of
choice will be completion riser. Completion riser is discussed in detail later in this chapter. If the completion tree
application is a stand-alone, (i.e. not part of a large scale
completion installation of three or more trees) it is possible
to run the multi bore tubing hanger on tubing with the
control bundle being strapped to the tubing running strings.

TUBING HANGER
LOCK RING
ACTUATOR

RUNNING TOOL
LOCK RING

MALE STAB SUB

Figure 11.22 Illustration of

hydraulic Tubing Hanger Running
Tool.

232

Because of the number of tasks the tubing hanger running

tool must accomplish, a number of hydraulic control lines
are required for the operation and pressure test functions of
the tubing hanger running tool. These hydraulic control
lines will be run in a bundle attached to the drill pipe or
tubing running string as the tubing hanger is run. Sometimes a custom built completion riser will be used, which
has integral tubing strings and control lines inside a steel
tubular housing. Completion riser usually comes in 40' or
50' lengths with special pin and box couplings that are
mechanically locked together. The tubing strings and
control lines have male and female stab subs that are
aligned and made up as each completion joint is added to
the running string. The completion riser approach to running tubing hangers is probably the most efficient and
operationally easy method, but is expensive, and the internal dimensions of the drilling riser and BOP stack may limit
the size of completion riser connector, which in turn limits
the number of through bores it can accommodate.

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Completion riser is also used to lower the subsea tree into

position, so it can be a very versatile product if all the pressure, control and through bore requirements can be
achieved within an imposed design envelope.
Running Tubing and Tubing Hanger
As previously stated the tubing string and attached tubing
hanger will be run within the protection of the drilling
marine riser and subsea BOP stack. The production zone
will have been perforated and a full completion fluid column established. A conditioning trip will have been made
with a downhole assembly, including a bit, and possibly a
casing roller if a downhole completion packer has to pass
through a perforated section of casing.
The tubing string(s) will almost certainly include an array of
tubing plug profiles, a sliding sleeve for circulation, a mechanical or hydraulic set packer, plus the SCSSV. Additional complexity would arise if electric downhole pressure
and/or temperature sensors were included in the completion. The space out of these components has to be performed carefully as they will all be suspended from a mandrel type tubing hanger with no means of vertical adjustment (Figure 11.23).
Completion Tree Configurations
Once the tubing hanger system has been specified, the tree
design can be finalized. The main design parameter will be
to build the tree around the tubing hanger system. The
largest portion of the tree that this affects, is the tree valving
and tree top.
The overall function of a subsea completion tree is to provide a pressure tight termination to the completed subsea
well with manual or remotely operated valves that open
and shut on the production and annulus bores through the
tree. The basic configuration and function of a subsea tree
is very similar to a tree installed on a surface wellhead with

Figure 11.23 Preparing the tubing

hanger and Tubing Hanger Running
Tool for installation.

233

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

a similar downhole tubing configuration and similar production or injection requirements. The major differences
between subsea and surface trees generally relate to the
underwater installation; the remote control of the subsea
tree; and the demand for remote read out information,
concerning bore pressures, bore temperatures and valve
position indicators.
The main purpose of the completion or production tree is to
provide an ability to shut in the well at the subsea wellhead. The tree is therefore a series of valves equipped to be
locked to the wellhead OD, interfacing with the tubing
hanger bores below and connecting outboard to subsea
flow lines at the sea bed. A tree manifold at the top provides a junction point for all control functions and an interface for the tree running tool during installation and reentry for workover.
Tree types range from a simple diver-assisted tree to the
more complex TFL completion tree. To understand the
various tree configurations, the following general categories have been summarized and their features highlighted:
Category 1.
11.24).

Simple diver-assist completion tree (Figure

Used in shallow waters only

Wellhead/tree connector may be simple API connection
or equivalent, manual make-up or hydraulically actuated
Tubing hanger system is simple concentric bore
Low volume annulus access
Valves are stacked
Tree cap/manifold is API connection and manifold is
diver-assist
Control system is direct hydraulic (depending on location of tree relative to production station)
234

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Flow line connection is simple flanged or misalignment

union and flange connection
Category 1 generally incorporates trees that will be installed
on wells that have been drilled with a jack-up.
Category 2.

Simple diver-assist completion tree.

Used in shallow waters only

Wellhead/tree connector will be subsea wellhead profile, manual make-up or hydraulically actuated
Tubing hanger system is concentric bore
Low volume annulus access
Valves are stacked
Tree cap/manifold is API connection and manifold is
diver-assist

Figure 11.25 Photo of a simple

subsea tree for mudline suspended
wells.

Control system is direct hydraulic (depending on location of tree relative to production station)
Flow line connection is simple flanged or misalignment
union and flange connection
Category 2 includes trees that will be installed on wells that
have been drilled with a floater in shallow water.

SWAB VALVE

INJECTION
WING VALVE
UPPER
MASTER
VALVE

Category 3. Diver-assist/non-diver completion tree.

LOWER
MASTER
VALVE

Used in shallow to deeper waters

Wellhead/tree connector will be hydraulically actuated
with either a drilling wellhead connector (such as the
DX wellhead connector), or some variation which meets
bending criteria
Tubing hanger system is either concentric bore or multi

PRODUCTION
WING
VALVE

TUBING HANGER
ADAPTER

WELLHEAD OR
TUBING HEAD
CONNECTOR

Figure 11.24 Diagram of a simple

diver assist subsea tree for shallow
water

235

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

SWAB
VALVE
TREE CAP
INJECTION
WING
VALVE

INJECTION
LINE
LOWER
MANUAL
MASTER
GUIDE FRAME

PRODUCTION
WING
UPPER
FSC MASTER
VALVE
ANNULUS
WING
VALVES
PRODUCTION
FLOWLINE

WELLHEAD
CONNECTOR
TUBING HANGER
ADAPTER

Figure 11.26 Diagram of a simple

subsea tree using stack valve
configuration

bore with annulus valve

Annulus access is for monitoring and/or pump down
Valve Block
Tree cap/manifold is API connection and manifold is
more complex diver-assist or an integral part of the tree
cap
Control system can be direct hydraulic (depending on
location of tree relative to production station), but will
more than likely be sequenced hydraulic or electro/
hydraulic
Flow line connection is misalignment union and flange
connection, Remote pull-in, or lay-away
Category 3 incorporates wells drilled with a floater in shallow to moderate water depths
Category 4.

Through-Flow Line (TFL)

Used in deeper waters

Wellhead/tree connector will be hydraulically actuated
wellhead connector (such as the DX wellhead connector)
Tubing hanger system is multi bore (multi bore is requirement for TFL workover)
Valve Block
Wye Spool
Tree cap/manifold is complex diver-less unitized and
automatic

Figure 11.27 Photo of simple subsea

tree for shallow to moderate water
depths

236

Control system will more than likely be sequenced hydraulic, electro/hydraulic, or multi-plexed
Flow line connection is remote pull-in, or lay-away

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

FSC SWAB VALVE

11

TREE CAP AND

MANIFOLD

Category 4 incorporates wells

that have been drilled with a
FSC ANNULUS
floater, and incorporate the
SWAB VALVES
capability for workover from
FSC
FSC
ANNULUS
the production station. TFL
LOWER
MASTER
MASTER
VALVES refers to the ability to pass
tools through the production
or annulus flow line, through
the tree and tubing hanger to
Figure 11.28 Diagram of a subsea
a pre-determined point
tree designed for moderate water
depths
downhole. While this capability is unique, there is a
large economic sacrifice from the tree design standpoint.
Additionally, through-flow line workover has historically met
with varying results suggest this tree type is not a possible
alternative for this application.
FSC WING
VALVE
FSC UPPER
MASTER

In order to better understand the completion tree and its

components, the following
modules are presented:
Tree/Wellhead Connector
Tree Guide Frame
Gate Valves and Valve
Blocks
Tree Cap/Manifold
Tree Running Tools
Flow line Connections
Control System
Tree/Wellhead Connectors
The subsea tree connector is
the bottom component of the
tree and locks and seals to
the completed tubing head
or subsea wellhead housing.
The connector will support a
male stab sub which estab

SWAB VALVE
BLOCK W/
FSC PRODUCTION
SWAB AND
ANNULUS SWAB
VALVES

MASTER VALVE
BLOCK W/
FSC PRODUCTION
UPPER MASTER
AND LOWER
MASTER VALVES

Figure 11.29 Photo of a moderate

water depth subsea tree.

FSO
CROSSOVER
GATE VALVE

PRODUCTION
AND SERVICE
LINE FLOW
LOOPS

FSC ANNULUS
MASTER

WELLHEAD CONNECTOR

Figure 11.30 Diagram of a through-flow line (TFL) tree.

237

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

lishes communications between the tree and tubing hanger.

The connector size depends on the tubing head or subsea
wellhead size and valve block size. There are a number of
tree connectors that can be used to attach a subsea tree to
the well.
An API connection or equivalent is used to make up a
simple subsea tree to a tubing head. The QUIK-CLAMP Connector is a manually operated, diver assisted make-up
connector. Six make-up bolts pull a locking cam ring up
which drive a split lock ring in around the tubing head
profile. The connector carries a metal ring gasket which
serves to achieve a metal-to-metal seal between the tree and
tubing head.

Figure 11.31 Photo of a throughflow line (TFL) tree.

API CONNECTOR FOR VALVES

MAKE-UP
BOLT (8)
CAM
RING
LOCKING
RING
RING
GASKET
MALE STAB SUB

Figure 11.32 Illustration of the

manual QUIK CLAMP tree connector.

238

The QUIK-CLAMP Connector (Figure 11.32) is also available

with hydraulic actuation. The locking ring is driven into
the locking profile with an annular piston/cam ring. This
design can also be used as the connector for the tree cap and
connector for the Tree Running Tool.
The DRIL-QUIP DX Subsea Wellhead Connector (Figure
11.33) hydraulically locks to and energizes a metal to metal
seal (DX) between tree and wellhead (in the same manner
as the BOP stack). Variations include manually actuated
connectors for diver operation and other mechanical units
actuated by hydraulic running tools. More information
about the DX Connector is found in Chapter 2 of this
manual.
The connector body houses mechanical and hydraulic
operating components and the top adapter will terminate
with an API interface between itself and the valve section.
As an alternative, the upper body of the wellhead connector
can be a unitized component of the valve block. In this case
the gasket is retained in the top adapter flange/master
valve block assembly, and seals between the wellhead
housing and a preparation in the master valve block (Refer
to Figure 11.45 later in this chapter). This is unlike a con

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

ventional DX connector where the gasket seals in the top

adapter. The unitized tree connector/valve block design
eliminates one high-pressure seal and reduces the overall
height of the tree.
An important feature of the DX Wellhead Connector is the
two step metal-to-metal sealing profile. The emergency
second step is comforting when installing a subsea tree on a
subsea well that has experienced a washout on the primary
sealing area. This possibility is all to common on a subsea
well that is being prepared for completion.
Two separate distinct hydraulic systems are used to actuate
the lock/release mechanism of the connector. The primary
system locks and release, while the secondary system is
used exclusively to release the connector.
Tree Guide Frame
The tree guide frame is attached to the outer body of the
tree connector in a predetermined orientation, so that the
guide arms and cones integrated into the tree frame structure will provide the required subsea tree orientation as it is
lowered over the
four post guide
LOCKING
SEGMENTS
structure. By this
means the stab
ANNULAR
subs carried in the
PISTON/CAM
tree connector
RING
will be correctly
aligned with the
SPREADER
SEGMENTS
seal pockets in the
tubing hanger,
SECONDARY
which was oriUNLOCK
ented when it was
PISTON
landed during the
well completion.
The tree guide
Figure 11.33 Illustration of the DX
frame may also
tree connector. This connector is also
used for drilling the subsea well.

Figure 11.34 Making up the QUIKCLAMP Connector.

Figure 11.35 Testing the tree

connector.

239

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

SEAL AREA
(Metal-to-metal)
SEAL AREA
(Metal-to-metal)

STANDARD
GASKET

BACKUP
GASKET
SEAL AREA
(Metal-to-metal)

SEAL AREA
(Metal-to-metal)

Figure 11.36 Illustration of the two

step metal-to-metal DX ring gasket
profile.

Figure 11.37 Photo of a subsea tree

with a guide frame that incorporates a
walk way for a special diver.

provide the support for the control pod base plate, the flow
line connections, and a work platform.
Gate Valves and Valve Blocks
In shallow waters, such as mudline suspended wells drilled
with a jack-up, the valving arrangement consists of stack
valves of either manual (diver-assisted), hydraulic or a
combination of both. The stacked-valve arrangement can
only be used when the tubing hanger system is concentric
bore.
In modern subsea trees the valve cavities for the production
and annulus bores are machined directly into a forged
metal block. The use of an integral valve block, instead of
stacked valves, provides a stronger assembly and also cuts
down on the number of potential leak paths in the tree.
Also, it gives the tree designer the benefit of moving the
center lines of the tree bores closer together so that the
largest production tubing can be squeezed into the confining envelope of the production casing bore used below the
tubing hanger. The various valve operators may be installed in pockets machined in an integral valve block. The
valve block will incorporate either manual actuators, hydraulic actuators or a combination of both. It may also
incorporate one bore (production) in cases where concentric
bore tubing hangers were selected, or several bores if the
multi bore tubing hanger is used.
The gate valves used in these underwater valve blocks
have become extremely reliable with extended service lives.
Features of these modern production valves are metal-tometal sealing of the gate to seat; metal-to-metal sealing of
the stem with the stem packing; and full pressure sealing of
the stem in its back seated position.

Figure 11.38 Installing gate valve

seat seals, inner gate and gate guides
in a valve block.

240

The subsea gate valve used on subsea trees is generally a

hydraulically operated valve, with a spring-loaded fail-safe
close (FSC) capability. The valve is opened and held open

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

by hydraulic control pressure acting on the hydraulic piston

within the valve operator attached to the valve. If control
pressure is removed, or fails, the spring force of the spring
cartridge within the valve operator will move the stem and
attached gate to the closed position. Other features of
subsea gate valves and operators include manual override
capability to open or close the valve with diver assistance or
remotely-operated vehicle (ROV) interface and valve position indication that can be visually observed or electronically sensed. The minimum valve requirement for subsea
trees will include a lower master, a wing, and a swab valve
for a single bore tree. Completion trees with an annulus
bore for direct overhead access to the annulus will also
include a lower master,
wing and swab valve.
UPPER

11

HANDWHEEL
BEARING AND RACE
ASSEMBLY
NON-RISING
STEM
SEAT SEAL
ASSEMBLY

GATE
GATE GUIDES

Figure 11.39 Illustration of a

manually operated metal-to-metal
sealing gate valve.

STEM
BEARING
AND RACE
ASSEMBLY
FAIL-SAFE
RETURN
SPRING

ACTUATOR
PISTON
SEAT SEAL
ASSEMBLY

GATE
GATE GUIDES

Figure 11.40 Illustration of an

hydraulically actuated Series DH failsafe close gate valve.

Corrosive service trim for

subsea gate valves is also
becoming standard practice,
particularly if carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide
gases are anticipated sooner
or later in the service life of
the tree. The special trims
usually consist of particular
metal alloy overlays on the
parent metal, such as stainless steel, inconel, tungsten
carbide, stellite, etc. The
performance of the gate
valves on the subsea tree is
of utmost importance to the
pressure control of the well,
particularly if a catastrophic
accident severs the sea floor
flow lines or control hose
bundle. The doubling up of
the valves in the production

Figure 11.41 Installing an

hydraulically actuated gate valve in a
valve block.

241

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

FSC HYDRAULIC SWAB

W/MANUAL OVERRIDE
FSC HYDRAULIC
UPPER MASTER W/
MANUAL OVERRIDE
WING OUTLET
MANUAL LOWER
MASTER

HYDRAULIC QUIK-CLAMP
TREE CONNECTOR

MALE STAB SUB

bores of the subsea trees

adds another level of safety
in the control of the well.
Modern subsea tree valve
blocks not only have the
production and annulus
master valves in them but
also the swab valves and
sometimes the wing valves
are integrated into the block.
This style of tree block
requires very long and
heavy forgings and the
machining of bores and
valve pockets has to be done
with great accuracy.

Wing Valves
The wing valves are generFigure 11.42 Illustration of a simple diver assist single bore tree with
valve bloc.
ally hydraulically and/or
manually operated gate
valves that are connected to the studded tee portion of the
tree and flowline spool. They can also be manufactured as
a spool that is connected to the master valve block with
flanged or clamped connections. Dual production wing
PRODUCTION BORE
gate valves are included on most modern subsea trees.
ANNULUS BORE

Figure 11.43 Illustration of a wyespool found on TFL trees.

242

On subsea trees designed with through-flow line (TFL)

capability, this section of the tree will become a wye-spool
with smooth angled entry providing the interconnecting
link between the tree production bores and the TFL production and service flow loops. The pump down tools and
locomotives pass through the flow loops and into the production bore. They are recovered by reversing the hydraulic flow and pumping the TFL train out of the production
bore. In order that the returned TFL tools do not try to exit
vertically through the swab valve, a deflector or flow
diverter is installed in the wye-spool. This flow diverter can

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

be an automatic device, or remotely and/or manually

operated. The number of TFL subsea trees installed is very
small, and the number of these trees actually used in a TFL
mode is even smaller. In other words it has not become a
popular design and has proven very costly and difficult to
maintain and operate.
Swab Valves
Re-entries to subsea trees through the top of the tree are
done through the swab valve. This means that downhole
work in the production tubing, such as replacing inserts in
sub-surface safety valves and installing tubing plugs in
selected downhole profiles, is being accomplished with
conventional wireline tools. The conduit for the downhole
wireline tools can be provided by tubing, drill pipe, or
completion riser that is connected to the top of the tree by a
floating production service vessel or drilling vessel. There
have been a few successful vertical re-entries to subsea trees
using an underwater wireline lubricator.
Figure 11.45 shows the next part of the tree including the
swab valves, tree running mandrel, and the hydraulic line
manifold for the tree functions. The swab valves are hydraulically and/or manually operated gate valves that can
only be opened and closed when the tree is connected
vertically through a running or re-entry mode. In other
words these swab valves are never controlled remotely
through the platform based or shore based control system,
as an obvious safety precaution against accidental opening
when the well is on production. Quite often a tubing plug
profile is included in each tree bore section directly above
the swab valve or valves.
Flow Loops and Crossover Valve
The steel flow line loops on subsea trees generally have
smooth curves so that the production flow from the well
causes as little erosive or abrasive wear as possible. Also,
the loops which may be TFL are generally designed with

Function testing the ROV interface

ROV interface panel on a complex

dual bore tree

ANNULUS
FLOW LOOP
LINE

PRODUCTION
FLOW LOOP
LINE

Figure 11.44 Illustration of a TFL

tree and the flow loops that are unique
to TFL trees

243

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

some flex capability which may be utilized during subsea

flow line connections to the subsea tree. The flow loops will
also be interconnected with a crossover pipe and gate valve.
This crossover gate valve is a hydraulically and/or manually controlled valve usually designed with a fail-safe open
(FSO) operator. The crossover valve is used when the
subsea flow lines have been installed, so that the flow lines
can be pigged and flushed in either direction from the
platform or shore based production facility. It can also be
used when the well is on production, in the open mode, to
allow the production to use
TREE CAP MANDREL
an alternative flow path if
damage or maintenance
requirements have closed
TREE CAP
the main production flow
line.
TREE MANIFOLD
FSC ANNULUS SWAB
FSC PRODUCTION SWAP

FSC ANNULUS WING

FSC ANNULUS
LOWER
MASTER
TREE
CONNECTOR

FSC
PRODUCTION
WING

FSC PRODUCTION
LOWER MASTER
GUIDE FLANGE

FLOW LINE

PRODUCTION AND ANNULUS

FLOWLINE CONNECTORS

Figure 11.45 Illustration of a typical multi-bore subsea

tree.

244

Wing outlets are often interconnected by a crossover

valve either inboard or
outboard of the wing valves.
The crossover valve is usually fail safe open (FSO) if
located outboard of the wing
valves as on TFL trees. This
permits circulation through
the flow lines to the tree
without operating a control
function on the tree.
However, when inboard, the
wing valves are fail safe
closed. This permits diverting production through the
alternate annulus or service
flow line if the normal
production flow lines are
damaged. This alternate

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

ALIGNMENT PIN

flow path also allows flow testing of an individual well

when the normal production flow line is tied to a manifold
system which combines flow from several wells into a
common production header.
Number and sizes depend on the tubing program, number
of strings, whether annulus access is provided or not, and
special features required like chemical injection, etc., Material used depends on produced fluid. For example service in
high concentrations of H2S/CO2 requires stainless steel
valve bodies.
Tree Manifold
The tree manifold provides the control line stab receptacles
and outlets that are connected to each hydraulic function on
the subsea tree. The tree running tool has stab subs that
mate with the stab receptacles or seal faces on the tree
manifold which allows direct hydraulic control of the subsea tree through the control line umbilical run with the tree
running string.

TREE CAP
RUNNING
MANDREL

STAB
RECEPTACLES

Figure 11.46 Illustration of the tree

cap and tree manifold of a typical
subsea tree.

The hydraulic connections, or tree plumbing, are usually

done with stainless steel tubing. Each open or close port on
a valve operator or each lock or release function on the tree
connector will be connected to a specified port on the tree
manifold. Also, other hydraulic lines will come from the
tree manifold to the control pod base plate. These other
lines will permit remote control of selected tree functions
from the remote control station.
The tree cap also mates with the tree manifold so that the
tree functions can be operated remotely from the production or shore based production facility through the sea floor
control line bundle. This subject will be covered in more
detail in the section on remote control of the subsea tree.

Figure 11.47 Photo of the lower stab

receptacles, a component of the tree
manifold.

245

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Tree Cap
The basic function of the tree cap is to provide a sealing cap
that blocks to the tree running profile. It is usually run
down to position with the tree running tool. The tree cap
also protects the seal surfaces at the top of the tree and also
protects the exposed surfaces of the tree manifold. The tree
cap may also have internal hydraulic lines or conduits that
provide an interconnection between control ports of the tree
manifold. These interconnections are required so that the
hydraulic control fluid from the remote platform or shore
based facility is directed to the required tree function.
The tree cap has the same upper profile as the tree. Some
tree functions can be controlled through the tree cap when
it is locked and mated to the tree and tree manifold. This
ability to control the tree through a vertical connection as
well as through the subsea control line umbilical requires
the use of shuttle valves which are mounted on the tree cap.
The size of the tree cap can obviously vary considerably
depending on the number of accessories and auxiliary
functions it
INDICATOR ROD

METAL-TO-METAL
SEALING RING
GASKET
ALIGNMENT
PIN

HYDRAULIC
CAM RING

CONTROL STAB
RECEPTACLES
LOCK RING

Figure 11.48 Illustration of a typical tree cap which

uses the hydraulic Quik-Clamp locking system.

246

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

is expected to carry. For guidance and balance purposes,

the use of a four armed guide frame with guide cones is
sometimes required.

Tree Running Tool

The tree running tool will be designed and built to perform
the following functions:
Lock onto and release from the tree running
mandrel
Provide an upper connection or connections for the
tree running string, be it tubing, drill pipe or completion riser
Provide direct vertical access into the production and
annulus bores in the tree
Carry the control line stab subs that interface with
the matching seal receptacles or seal faces on the tree
manifold
Run the Tree Cap
The tree running tool is a multiple use tool, used in running
and retrieving the tree, tree cap, or the electro-hydraulic
control pod. The tool is run either on a tubing string, on
drill pipe with a control hose bundle, or a completion riser.
The top of the tool is a modified pin connector which mates
to tubing or the completion riser. The tool has an internal
mechanism which locks onto the tree manifold or the tree
cap. The body of the tool can contain multiple hydraulic
stabs which mate to the tree manifold ports to supply hydraulic power for all lock/unlock and open/close functions
on the tree.
The running tool locks and unlocks the tree cap through the
integral control lines of the completion riser or the control

Figure 11.49 Photo sequence of fit

and function of the tree running
tool.

247

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

hose bundle. When locked to the tree manifold, the running tool can provide direct surface control of up to nine
tree functions through the control lines in the completion
riser. In addition, direct vertical access is provided to the
tubing bores and the annulus. If individual control of the
tree functions is desired, in addition to those functions
controlled through the completion riser, a separate hose
bundle is required.
Flow line and Control Line Connections
The installation of sea floor flow lines and control lines to
subsea trees is a complex subject. The following notes are
intended to give a brief understanding of the subject, and to
describe the main components and their operation.

Platform control umbilical connection

at the tree

The function of the sea floor flow line or flow lines is to

provide transportation for the subsea oil or gas from the
subsea tree to a remote platform or shore based production
facility. Sometimes the flow lines connect the subsea tree to
a subsea gathering manifold or to the base of an anchored
floating production vessel or
loading buoy.
CROSSOVER
SUB/STRESS
JOINT

The function of the control

lines, usually encased in an
armored multi-core umbilical,
is to provide hydraulic and/or
TWO ARMED
GUIDE
electric power and pilot signals
STRUCTURE
to the control
pod on the tree,
which in turn
directs the
hydraulic fluid
to the required
tree functions.
CAM RING
SPLIT LOCK
RING
The control line
umbilical is
Figure 11.50 Illustration of a typical tree and tree cap
usually run in
running tool.

248

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

conjunction with the sea floor flow lines.

Flow line Connections
The underwater make-up of fluid connections or electrical
connections is associated with a certain risk. Subsea electrical connectors in particular have been prone to immediate
failure and limited reliability. Needless to say a great deal
of effort has been directed at this problem area, and improvements have been achieved in the direct contact connectors using special wiper mechanisms, fluids, and
greases. The most effective underwater electrical power or
electric signal connections appear to be those that use inductive couplers which avoid the requirement for direct
electrical contact.
With these problems in mind, the tree and the flow line
bundle require a specially designed end connection to mate
with, and lock to, the matching connection on the tree. This
end connection can be a seal plate with seal pockets or stab
subs that are pulled into position using a pull-in cable and/
or hydraulic power from a special pull-in tool. The sophistication of these end connections will also depend on the
amount of diver assistance required, or desired, to establish
the flow line control line connection. Sometimes the water
depth precludes the use of diver assistance. In all cases
underwater television cameras would monitor the event,
and in the installations using remotely-operated vehicles
(ROVs) their presence is essential.
Various options in the sequence of tree installation and flow
line connections are usually available. The flow line and
control umbilicals can be connected to a flow line receptacle
structure that is incorporated into the four post guide structure before the tree is run. If flexible flow lines are being
used rather than the more rigid steel flow lines, then it is
possible to make the first end connections of the flow lines
and control lines to the tree before it is lowered to the sea

249

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

floor. This procedure has been used offshore in Brazil and

as the subsea tree is lowered to the subsea wellhead, a
special pipe laying vessel controls the spooling out of the
flow line bundle. The benefit of this approach is that all
connections are done under optimum conditions and the
use of divers and flow line pull-in equipment is avoided.
The pipe laying vessel will continue to spool out the underwater flow line bundle until it reaches the location of the
second end connection.

PRODUCTION
BORE
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTIONS
ANNULUS BORE
SERVICE BORE

Figure 11.51 Illustration of a

complex flow line connector.

When the flow lines are connected to the tree, a series of

pressure tests and control line umbilical tests will be conducted. Also, the flow line or flow lines will be pigged and
circulated to ensure that no damage, kinks, or restrictions
have occurred during the flow line laying and connection
operations.
Assuming that all pressure tests are satisfactory, and the
remote control of the tree functions is successful, the interface equipment from the surface installation vessel will be
recovered, and the well is ready to go on production.
Flow line connections on subsea trees generally fall into
four categories:
1. Simple diver-assist flange or diver-assist misalignment union
2. Hydraulic diverless flow line connector
3. Remote flow line pull-in
4. Flow line lay-away
Diver-assist Flange or Misalignment Union
A diver assist flow line connection has misalignment
flanges with +/-10 degrees angular adjustment to ease flow
line make up. These flowline connections will generally be
found on subsea trees on mudline suspended wells and
shallow water trees on subsea wellheads.

250

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Hydraulic Diverless Flow Line Connector

The diverless flow line flange requires a flowline alignment
structure (FAS) to be installed on the subsea wellhead
guidebase before installation of the tree. Vertical stab flow
line connections have been used on satellite and template
trees. Two advantages result. Most important is that the
flow line connection is automatically made as the tree is
landed. Another is that the angle of approach of a single
flow line in the horizontal plane can vary more because its
termination has a vertical axis allowing rotation without
consequence. The main drawback is that the flow line must
be connected to the wellhead before the tree is run.
Remote Flow line Pull-in
Used with subsea trees beyond diver depths, the remote
flow line pull-in system involves a special hydraulically
actuated flow line and production umbilical pull-in tool.
One end of a tag line is attached to the tool on the surface,
while the other end is attached to the flow line on the sea
bed. Using two guidelines, the tool is run on drill pipe to
the completion tree. Special hydraulic actuators pull the
flow line up to a connection plate. The tool performs final
alignment and connects the flow line to the tree. Piping
between the wing valves and the flow line connection may
need spring and flexibility. Large loops with minimum 5
foot radius bend are necessary for TFL trees to permit
passage of knuckle jointed tool trains.
The Completion Riser
The 5" x 2" - 10,000 psi Riser Joints are part of the dual bore
workover/completion riser system. They are used to run
the EDP/LRP and tubing hanger running/orientation joint
and have a maximum rated tensile capacity of 500,000 lbs.

Figure 11.52 Illustration of a misalignment union.

Figure 11.53 Photo of a typical flow

line.

The riser joints have a dual bore design. One bore is the 5"
production line which is the main load carrying member.
The second bore is the 2" annulus line. It provides commu-

251

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

nication to the annulus bore but does not support any of the
riser loads.
Each riser joint has a connection that is compatible with all
other riser connections in the system. The joints are fitted
with clamps which can accommodate both the tubing
hanger and workover umbilicals. The joints land out securely in both the manual and hydraulic riser spiders.
Sealing throughout the riser systems is achieved with elastomeric polypak type seals. Sealing areas are hard faced.
Other areas are coated for corrosion protection.
In addition to standard 45 ft. riser joints, there are 20 ft., 10
ft., and 5 ft. pup joints. These pup joints allow for optimal
space-out.
Figure 11.54 Hydraulic
flow line connector

Figure 11.55 Photograph of a subsea

tree with a diverless flowline
connector.

252

Running the Subsea Tree

Prior to running the subsea
tree, the tree will be locked
to a test stump and each
function will be operated
and pressure tested the same
way as a subsea BOP stack is
tested before it enters the
water. The running tool will
be connected to the tree
running profile during this
testing operation.
After the production tests,
the master production and
swab valves will be closed
and the tree running tool
will be released from the
tree running profile and be
suspended before flow lines
were connected to the tree,

Figure 11.56 Illustration of a remote

flow line pull-in system

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

then tubing plugs will be set in the tubing hanger bores and
possibly in the plug profiles in the bores above each swab
valve.

11

ALIGNMENT KEY SLOT

RISER BOX
RISER PIN
CONNECTION F/
CONNECTION
ANNULUS BORE
F/PRODUCTION
BORE

Subsea Dual Bore Completion System

RETAINER
RETAINER
RING
As previously discussed in this chapter, a dual bore comple- RING
tion system uses a multibore type tubing hanger that is used
RISER
when vertical access to the annulus and production bores
CLAMP
are required. Orientation is necessary to align the producANULUS
BORE
PRODUCTION
tion and annulus bores in the tubing hanger with those in
BORE
the tree to be installed as well as various stab/seals subs for
ALIGNMENT
downhole hydraulic valves and electrical sensors. In addiRING
tion, the direction and location of the flow line exit from the
RETAINER
RING
well in relation to the orientation of the production bore
RISER PIN
RISER BOX
must be considered. The installation of the tubing hanger
CONNECTION F/
CONNECTION
and subsea tree will involve the use of several groups of
ANNULUS BORE
F/PRODUCTION BORE
running tools and control equipment to facilitate compleFigure 11.57 Illustration of a typical
tion.
Installing the Tubing Hanger
The tubing hanger (Figure 11.59, page 256) will be oriented
and landed in a subsea wellhead provided there is a landing shoulder, sealing area, and provision to lock the tubing
hanger to the wellhead. If no such provision exists in the
wellhead, a tubing head with these features will need to be
installed. The top of the wellhead/tubing head will provide
a locking profile for attaching a blowout preventer stack for
pressure control during completion operations. Generally,
during the drilling phase of the well, a drilling guide base is
used and then removed after landing and cementing the
surface casing strings. The first step in preparing the well
for completion will be installing a completion guide base
which will provide guidance for installing the tree along
with provisions for connecting a flow line and hydraulic
control umbilical from the production platform. In general,
the two types of flow line connection methods are diver/
ROV assist and diverless remote hydraulic.

completion riser joint for a multi-bore

subsea tree.

Hydraulic flowline connector integral

to the tree frame

253

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

The flowline connector can be part of the completion guide

base and the tree guide frame. As illustrated in the photo,
and in (Figure 11.73), the male mandrel of the flowline
connector is on the completion guide base while the female
portion is attached to the tree guide frame.
Figure 11.58 Making up a
completion riser connector.

Completion riser joints in

shipping frame

When the rig is over location and a guidance system has

been established, preparations for running the tubing
hanger and completing the well can be made. In order to set
the tubing hanger and complete the well, it will be necessary to establish some control dimensions to assure the
hanger is set at the correct elevation and aligned properly.
The first of these control dimensions is from the landing
shoulder for the tubing hanger in the wellhead to the locking profile in the top of the wellhead. If the landing shoulder for the tubing hanger was set high, adjustments to the
tubing hanger will be necessary. This dimension is generally established using a lead impression tool (Figure 11.64)
that is run on drill pipe and lands on the tubing hanger
landing shoulder. The top of the tool has retractable lead
blocks that are activated by pumping pressure down the
drill pipe forcing them out into the profile in the wellhead
enabling retrieval of an exact dimension from the landing
seat to the lock down profile in the wellhead. It will also
establish orientation and elevation control data to enable
checking the tubing hanger's elevation and orientation after
it has landed to ensure alignment and proper make up with
the tree.
The tubing hanger systems consist of the tubing hanger and
the equipment required to run and orient the hanger. These
components are as follows:
A hydraulic tubing hanger running tool that will lock
the work string to the hanger, lock the hanger to the
wellhead and provide vertical access to the annulus
and production bores as well as maintain hydraulic

Dual Bore Tree, EDP, and LRP

254

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

control of the downhole safety valve or valves.

An orientation adapter joint (Figure 11.62) to connect
the tubing hanger and tubing hanger running tool to
the riser running string and provide a means of orienting the tubing hanger by interfacing with an orientation pin (Figure 11.63) located directly above the
wellhead in the BOP stack.
A control system to operate the hydraulic functions of
the tubing hanger running tool and the hydraulic
downhole equipment through a control umbilical.
A completion riser system made up to lower the
tubing hanger to the wellhead and provide access to
the annulus and production bores and a structure to
support attachment points for the control umbilical
down to the tubing hanger running tool. This system
will consist of a lower riser joint (Figure 11.60) connected to the top of the orientation adapter joint and
subsequent riser joints to make up the required distance to TD.

Completion guide base

A surface joint (Figure 11.70) to protect the riser

through the rotary, topped off with a circulation handling and test tool which has an integral elevator
shoulder to facilitate lowering the tubing hanger
orientation assembly into place as well as quick connections for the annulus and production bores so that
circulation can be achieved by attaching lines.
A hydraulic riser spider (Figure 11.74, page 268) will
be used at the rotary to suspend the tubing hanger and
riser running assembly as each joint of riser is made up
while the tubing hanger and completion string is being
run.
A tubing hanger elevation check tool (Figure 11.66,

Running the completion guide

base

255

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

LOCK DOWN RING

ACTUATOR IN
SET POSITION

DOWNHOLE PRESSURE
AND TEMPERATURE
LINE

ANNULUS BORE

DOWNHOLE
SAFETY VALVE
LINE

DOWNHOLE
PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE
LINE

TUBING HANGER
SEAL ASSEMBLY IN
SET POSITION

LOCK DOWN
RING ACTUATOR
IN RUNNING
POSITION

PRODUCTION
BORE
DOWNHOLE SAFETY
VALVE LINE

LOCK
DOWN
RING

ADJUSTABLE
LOCATOR
RING

ANNULUS
BORE PLUG
PROFILE

ANNULUS
BORE

PRODUCTION
BORE
PLUG
PROFILE
INDICATOR
PIN
GROOVED
SHEAR PIN
PRODUCTION
BORE
RETAINER
RING

TUBING HANGER
SEAL ASSEMBLY
IN RUNNING
POSITION

METAL-TO-METAL
SEALS

Figure 11.59
Dual Bore Tubing Hanger Assembly
256

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

page 260) to enable verification that the tubing hanger

is all the way down on its landing shoulder and oriented properly.
Prior to running the tubing hanger and production/
completion string, it is a common practice to run the spaceout of the completion string on a dummy tubing hanger.
This hanger is simply a mimic of the tubing hanger body
that is run on drill pipe with the completion string attached
to insure proper space-out. The dummy hanger sets on the
landing shoulder for the tubing hanger. The only hydraulic
function for this operation is the downhole safety valve. The
line passes through a slot in the side of the dummy hanger
and is strapped to the drill pipe back to the surface.
When the space-out of the completion string is correct, the
dummy hanger is pulled back to the surface and removed.
The completion string is then made up to the tubing hanger
and suspended in the rotary on a tubing hanger rotary
bushing (Figure 11.65) which allows for make up of all of
the necessary downhole line connections to the tubing
hanger.
The tubing hanger is then run on its completion riser
running assembly down through the drilling riser and BOP
stack which is landed and locked to the wellhead.
The tubing hanger is then tagged out on its landing
shoulder with partial string weight. Prior to setting the
weight-set seal assembly, the orientation pin on the BOP is
extended so that it comes in contact with de OD of the
orientation adapter joint. The tubing hanger running
assembly is then picked up a short distance so that the
orientation pin engages the helix on the orientation adapter
joint and allows the tubing hanger and running assembly to
orient to the vertical slot in the adapter joint which is preset
to achieve the desired orientation of the production and
annulus bore. With the orientation pin still extended, the

Measuring the lock ring elevation on

the tubing hanger

Hydraulic orientation pin

ALIGNMENT KEY SLOT

RISER BOX
RISER PIN
CONNECTION F/
CONNECTION
ANNULUS BORE
F/PRODUCTION
BORE
RETAINER
RING

RETAINER
RING

RISER
CLAMP
ANULUS
BORE

PRODUCTION
BORE
ALIGNMENT
RING
RETAINER
RING

RISER PIN
CONNECTION F/
ANNULUS BORE

RISER BOX
CONNECTION
F/PRODUCTION BORE

Figure 11.60 Riser Joint

257

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

ORIENTATION/
ELEVATION CHECK
TOOL

FIGURE 11.62
ORIENTATION
ADAPTER JOINT

FIGURE 11.63
BOP ORIENTATION PIN

FIGURE 11.61
TREE TEST BASE

258

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

TUBING HANGER
WASHOUT TOOL

TUBING HANGER

TUBING HANGER
RUNNING TOOL

TUBING
HANGER
SEAL
ASSEMBLY
FIGURE 11.64
MULTI-PURPOSE
TOOL WITH LEAD
IMPRESSION
BLOCKS

FIGURE 11.65
ROTARY TABLE
BUSHING

259

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

4-1/2" IF BOX
CONNECTION

IMPRESSION BLOCK
RETAINER SLEEVE

RETAINER
NUT
LEAD
IMPRESSION
BLOCK

SOCKET SET
SCREW

IMPRESSION
BLOCK
ASSEMBLY

ORIENTATION
LINE

LANDING
JOINT
LANDING HEAD
INDICATOR
PIN

ALIGNMENT
KEY

Figure 11.66 Orientation/elevation

check tool

tubing hanger is set back down on the landing shoulder

with total string weight which will activate the tubing
hanger seal assembly. After the seal has been tested, the
tubing hanger is then hydraulically locked to the wellhead
through the control function in the tubing hanger running
tool. An overpull test will establish that the tubing hanger is
locked to the wellhead. All downhole equipment is then
tested and the wireline tubing hanger plugs for the annulus
and production bores are run and set.
The tubing hanger running tool is hydraulically unlocked
from the tubing hanger and the tubing hanger running
assembly is then pulled back through the rotary using the
riser spider to suspend the balance of the string while each
joint is disassembled and laid down. It is necessary, at this
point, to find out if the tubing hanger and completion string
were landed in the wellhead at the proper elevation and
orientation to ensure that the production and annulus bore
stab subs/seals in addition to the other downhole
connection subs will properly make up with the bottom of
the tee. This is accomplished by running the orientation/
elevation check tool on drill pipe and landing it on the top
of the tubing hanger.
When the tool has landed, it is rotated so that it sits down
inside the top of the tubing hanger using spring loaded
alignment keys matching those in the upper end of the
hanger. In this respect, it is now an extension of the current
orientation of the tubing hanger. Lead indicator pins on the
lower landing shoulder of the elevation tool will indicate
whether the tool has landed in the proper location.

Dual bore dummy tubing hanger

260

On the top of the elevation tool, there is another lead

impression block which is clocked to the proper orientation
position of the annulus and production bores. The elevation
and orientation control data used to establish correct
orientation were made earlier with the BOP stack sitting
atop the tree test stand (Figure 11.61). When the tool is
landed out, the orientation pin in the BOP stack is extended

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

to make an impression in the lead block on the upper

portion of the elevation check tool. The tool is then retrieved
and the indicator pins on the bottom of the tool are
examined to see that the tool landed in the right spot and
the impression in the lead block at the top of the tool
checked against the control impressions made previously to
ensure proper alignment and elevation prior to running the
tree. If all indications are that the tubing hanger is oriented
and at the proper elevation and the annulus and production Hydraulic riser spider completion
bore wireline plugs are set in the hanger, then the BOP stack
and drilling riser are pulled in preparation for running the
tree.
Tubing Hanger Washout Tool
A tubing hanger washout tool (Figure 11.67) is used to
provide a means of cleaning out the upper portion of the
wellhead prior to landing the tree so that the stab/seals
subs in the wellhead around the top of the tubing hanger
are clean, allowing complete make up and sealing to the
seal/stab subs in the bottom of the tree. This tool is run on
drill pipe and simply lands on the top of the wellhead.
Fluid is then pumped down through the drill pipe to the
tool where it exists through jet ports into the upper portion
of the wellhead cleaning the top of the tubing hanger and
exiting through the flowby ports in the top of the tool.
After the washout process is complete, preparation for
running the tree begins. The tree will be run down to the
wellhead on completion riser utilizing a riser spider at the
rotary to suspend the lower riser package and tree as each
joint of riser is added to the running string.
This riser stack up from the bottom up will consist of a
tapered stress joint (Figure 11.68) that provides a means of
connection to the lower riser package, completion riser
joints making up the required length to TD, a tensioning
joint (Figure 11.69) to keep the riser string in tension
throughout the operation, a surface joint (Figure 11.70) to
protect the riser through the rotary area and a surface tree

Tubing hanger washout tool

261

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Tubing Hanger Tagged with

Orientation Pin Retracted

262

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Orientation Pin Extended,

Tubing Hanger picked up while Orientation Joint
Rotates

263

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Orientation Pin Stroked Out,

Tubing Hanger Fully Orientated

264

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

@,@,@,@,@,
@,

Lock Tubing Hanger to Wellhead

265

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Tubing Hanger Running Tool

Unlocked from Tubing Hanger

266

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Elevation Check Tool Landed

With Orientation Pin Extended

267

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions
ANNULUS BOX
CONNECTION
PRODUCTION
RISER PIN
CONNECTION

ALIGNMENT
RING
STANDARD
PRODUCTION
RISER
CONNECTION

ALIGNMENT
RING

ANNULUS
BORE

RISER CLAMP

PRODUCTION
BORE

RADIAL BOLT PIN

CONNECTION

HYDRAULIC ACTIVATING
CYLINDER

LOCKING DOG
ENGAGED

HINGE PIN

LOCKING DOG
RETRACTED
COVER
PLATE

ROTARY ADAPTER
ASSEMBLY

WEAR
PLATE

BASE PLATE

Figure 11.74 Hydraulic spider

(Figure 11.71) to provide pressure control and controlled

access to the production and annulus bores at the surface.
This surface tree may also be equipped with wing valves
on the production and annulus side to facilitate circulation
down to the subsea tree. These valves can be manually or
hydraulically actuated.
Lower Riser Package/Emergency Disconnect Package
A lower riser package (Figure 11.72), or LRP, will be
attached to the bottom of the tapered stress joint for
running the tree. There are three primary functions for this
package, the first being redundant pressure control
provided by hydraulically controlled valves in the
production and annulus bores above the tree since a BOP
stack is not used. The LRP consists of two components; the
lower riser package containing the redundant valves for
the tree and the upper portion being referred to as the EDP
section, emergency disconnect package (Figure 11.73). The
EDP provides the second primary function which is a
means to disconnect from the tree/LRP should the rig need
to be moved off location or excessive wave action dictates
that the riser system be disconnected from the well. The
EDP and the LRP are locked together and to the top of the
tree with remotely operated hydraulic connectors. A

Figure 11.68 Tapered stress joint.

268

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

4-1/2" IF BOX
GUIDE POST FUNNEL ASSEMBLY
LIFTING EYE

RELEASE BOLT

FLOW BY PARTS

DEBRIS SHIELD
WASHING JETS
RELEASE BOLT

SNAP RING

Figure 11.67 Tubing hanger washout tool

hydraulic control line umbilical is connected to the top of

the EDP back to the surface and provides control for the
connectors and valves in the LRP/EDP. Additional control
lines pass through the EDP/LRP to operate the valves and
bottom connector on the tree. The third function of the LRP
is applicable if the valves in the LRP are designed to
provide the ability to shear wireline or coil tubing that may
be in use during the completion or workover operations.

Dual bore tree, LRP and EDP

assembled for a function test

Subsea Trees
A typical subsea tree (Figure 11.75) provides features
including a hydraulic connector at the bottom to lock the
tree to the wellhead, seal pockets or stab sub receptacles in
the bottom to interface with the tubing hanger annulus,
production and downhole tool connections, a flow line
connection system and hydraulic controls and accessories.
Generally, all of the valves in the tree with the exception of
the lower production master valve are hydraulically
controlled with manual overrides which are adapted for
actuation by an ROV. The lower production master valve
will be manually operated and also equipped with the ROV
actuation feature. During the "running the tree" operation,
the valves are hydraulically controlled from the control
umbilical connected to the EDP/LRP which passes the
control fluid pressure down to the tree. Later in the
operation when the tree cap is installed, the functions will
269

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

TAPERED STRESS JOINT

FIGURE 11.73
EMERGENCY DISCONNECT
PACKAGE (EDP)

FIGURE 11.72
LOWER RISER
PACKAGE (LRP)

270

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

FIGURE 11.70
SURFACE JOINT

FIGURE 11.71
SURFACE TREE

11

RISER HANDLING, TEST

AND CIRCULATION TOOL

SURFACE TREE
ADAPTER JOINT

FIGURE 11.69
TENSION JOINT

HYDRAULIC
RISER SPIDER

RISER JOINT

271

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions
STAB PLATE

TREE MANDERL

ALIGNMENT PIN
TREE GUIDE FRAME

METHANOL INJECTION
LINE
ACCUMULATOR

PRODUCTION SWAB
VALVE
CROSSOVER VALVE
UPPER PRODUCTION
MASTER VALVE

PRODUCTION
WING VALVE

ANNULUS WING VALVE

SSSV CONTROL LINE

CONNECTION

VX GASKET TEST
CONNECTION
FLOWLINE
ANODE

FLOWLINE DEBRIS
COVER

DX CONNECTOR
FLOWLINE
CONNECTOR

Figure 11.73 Subsea tree

be bridged over to the control umbilical attached to the

completion guide base so that the tree can be controlled
from the production platform location. For guideline-based
operations, the tree is encased in a guide frame with four
guide posts that mate up with those on the completion
guidebase and LRP package. In the case of guidelineless
operations, some type of funnel down configuration is
incorporated in the bottom end of the tree guide frame to
guide it onto the wellhead.
Running the Tree
In preparation for running the tree, the EDP/LRP package
will be locked to the top of the tree at the surface in the
moon pool. The hydraulic control umbilical is connected to
the top of the EDP. All hydraulics will be tested, ie. the
EDP, LRP, tree hydraulic connectors and valves. At this
point, the tapered stress joint from the completion riser
system will be locked into its connection on top of the EDP.
The riser spider is then installed in the rotary and the EDP,
272

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

LRP and tree will be picked up with the riser handling tool
and hung off in the riser spider.
The tree is then lowered down to its required depth by
adding riser joints. As the riser Joints are added, the
hydraulic control umbilical is fed down off storage spools
and clamped to the riser to provide protection and stability.
At the upper end of the completion riser joints, a tensioning
joint is installed to keep the completion riser in tension
during the landing and completion operations. Tensioning
lines in the moon pool area are attached to the rotating
tension ring on the riser tension joint. The tree is now
landed on the wellhead and locked to the wellhead by
activating the hydraulic lock function through the control
umbilical to the tree connector. An overpull is made to
verify the connection and usually visual verification by TV
camera or ROV observing the indicator rod on the
connector. The flow line connector is made up as required
by design. Pressure testing of all applicable connections and
valve functional testing are performed at this time. The
surface joint is now installed bringing the riser system
through the rotary. The bottom of the surface tree is fitted
with a completion riser connection to make up to the top of
the surface joint. The surface tree is lowered onto the top of
the surface joint by attaching casing elevators at the elevator
shoulder on the upper end of the surface tree body. A
functional test of the surface tree can now be performed, if
applicable. The wireline plugs can now be pulled from the
tubing hanger by hooking up the wire line unit to the quick
union connections on top of the surface tree. Once the plugs
have been retrieved, the well can be completed and flow
tested. The tree is now shut in preparation for pulling the
EDP/LRP/completion riser system. The surface tree is
disconnected and laid aside. The LRP connector is
hydraulically unlocked from the tree and with the riser
spider installed at the rotary, the EDP/LRP/completion
riser system can be retrieved.

The tree on the EDP, LRP, and

completion riser

Dual bore tree cap

Tree cap mounted to tree cap

running tool

273

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

CONTROL JUMPER
TERMINAL ASSEMBLY
(CJTA)

SUBSEA TREE
W/GUIDE FRAME

FIGURE 11.79
COMPLETION
GUIDE BASE
ASSEMBLY

FIGURE 11.78
TREE TEST
STAND

274

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

DEBRIS COVER
RUNNING TOOL
ASSEMBLY

LATCH
UNLATCH

FIGURE 11.77
TREE/TREE CAP
RUNNING TOOL
FIGURE 11.80
DEBRIS
COVER

FIGURE 11.76
TREE CAP

275

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

GUIDELINE
LATCH
RUNNING
TOOL

DRILL PIPE
UTILITY
GUIDE
FRAME

DEBRIS
COVER
FRAME
TREE CAP
MANDREL
OVERSHOT

GL-4 POST TOP

PROFILE
ADAPTER

LATCH
UNLATCH

ROV OPERATING
HANDLE
DEBRIS COVER
RUNNING TOOL
RUNNING AND
RETRIEVING
MANDREL

Figure 11.81 Debris cover and

debris cover running tool

Installing a Tree Cap

A tree cap will now be installed on the tree. The tree cap
(Figure 11.76) will lock to the top of the tree using a
hydraulically actuated connector that engages the same
profile on top of the tree that was used to connect the LRP.
The top of the tree cap has the same mandrel as the top of
the tree so that a hydraulic connector type tree cap running
tool (Figure 11.77) can be used to run the tree cap. The
running tool has a stab plate to attach a hydraulic control
umbilical to function the connector lock and unlock
functions for the tree cap and tree cap running tool. The tree
cap will seal off the annulus and production bores at the top
of the tree and re-route the hydraulic control umbilical
junction on the completion guide base that directs the
control of the subsea tree back to the production platform.
Once the tree cap has been landed on top of the tree, it is
hydraulically locked to the tree. Using and over pull and
visual observation by an ROV, confirmation that the tree
cap has been locked down is made and the tree cap running
tool is hydraulically unlocked from the tree cap and
retrieved. The tree can now be operated from the platform
and brought back on line. In some locations, it may be
required to install a debris cover (Figure 11.80) on the tree
to protect it from falling objects or from being snagged by
fishing nets. These simple steel structures are designed to
cover the tree and divert fishing nets up and over the tree
and falling objects away from the tree.
Installation of the tree is now complete and after guide lines
are released, if applicable, the rig can be moved off location.

Control System
Hydraulic energy is used in all cases to operate subsea
production trees.
Subsea tree control functions are operated from either of
Debris cover

276

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

two points. These are:

1. Workover or Utility Control System (operated from the installation vessel or
workover vessel)
2. Production Control System (operated by the production platform)
Utility Control System
The Utility Control System is a direct hydraulic control system used during tree installation
and workover operations. It consists of the following modules:

1.
2.
3.

Control panel
Hose bundle and reel
Power Skid

The utility control panel located on the installing or

workover vessel is the control center for direct hydraulic
control of the subsea completion equipment. It operates the
tubing hanger running tool, tree running tool, and tree
functions required during installation and workover.
During tubing hanger and tree installation, a direct hydraulic control system umbilical connects the control panel to
the tree through a hose bundle and reel. The umbilical is
generally strapped to the tubing or drill pipe when being
deployed.
Control Systems for Subsea Trees
Hydraulic power is required to remotely operate the open
and close functions and the lock and unlock functions on
the subsea tree. All of the control systems discussed in this
section of the manual have that objective, namely to direct
the hydraulic power to the required tree function.
The production control system will consist of a control
panel, power supply unit and the production umbilical.
Each module will vary in degree of complexity based on the
type of control system and the method of control used.
Four methods of hydraulic control are available for remote

Master 36 function hydraulic

control panel
POWER SKID

CONTROL
PANEL

HOSE
REEL AND
BUNDLE

Figure 11.82 Diagram of Utility

Control System

277

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Land Tree on Wellhead - Overview

278

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Lock Tree to Wellhead Overview

279

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Unlatch and Retrieve LRP/EDP Assembly

280

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

Run Tree Cap with Tree Cap Running Tool

281

11
POWER
SKID

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

production control of the ocean floor completion equipment. These methods are:

HOSE REEL FOR

HYDRAULICS

CONTROL
STATIONS

COMPUTER
PROCESSORS
HOSE REEL
FOR ELECTRIC

Figure 11.83 Diagram of a complex

production control system.

DIRECT HYDRAULIC
CONTROL PANEL

Sea Level
Seal
Level

Direct hydraulic
Sequence hydraulic
Electro-hydraulic (E/H)
Multiplexed electro-hydraulic
Direct Hydraulic or Discrete Hydraulic Control System
The simplest remote control system is one where there is a
dedicated (discrete) control line to each valve operator or
hydraulic mechanism on the subsea tree. The simplest
control line bundle is one where individual flexible control
lines are made into a bundle and wrapped securely together. This bundle of hoses is then laid on the sea floor,
probably in conjunction with the sea floor flow line. One
end is connected to the remote platform or shore based
control station, and the other terminal is at the tree. Divers
will be used to connect the individual control lines to a
manifold on the tree which has previously been plumbed
with stainless steel control lines to each tree function. The
remote control station can now pump hydraulic control
fluid into a single control line and open or close the function
on the tree at the other end of the control line.
This simple hydraulic control system has advantages and
disadvantages. Advantages are that it is simple, has no
moving parts, and is generally a cheap, ready made solution. Disadvantages, the response time from command to
operation of the tree function is slow, as the expansion of
the line under fluid pressure plus the volume of fluid required to operate the tree function must all pass into the
line from the remote station.

TREE VALVES
Seal
Sea Bed

Hydraulic Line

Figure 11.84

282

The slow closure or opening of a tree valve may not be in

the best interest of the valve, particularly if the oil or gas
flow through the valve is erosive or abrasive. The gates and
seats of valves can be cut by the flow of oil or gas, which

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

can prevent the valve from sealing correctly.

The discrete or direct hydraulic control systems have been
used on many occasions, but discoveries in deeper waters
have made diver assistance less attractive, and discoveries
in waters far from established platforms or land have required control systems with faster responses and operating
times.
Piloted Hydraulic Control System
This system requires a sea floor control umbilical that has
multiple small diameter control lines for the pilot pressure
and one or two larger diameter hydraulic lines for higher
volume transmission of hydraulic fluid. Usually this flexible umbilical is encased in a hard smooth protective sheath,
and is run with the sea floor flow line bundle. This control
system will also employ a control pod that locks to a base
plate mounted on the tree framework. This control pod will
contain pilot operated valves that direct the hydraulic
control fluid to the tree function. The control pod is usually
a retrievable piece of equipment, independent of the tree.
In order that the supply of hydraulic fluid is delivered in
sufficient volume and correct pressure to quickly operate
the tree functions, a pressurized accumulator is installed on
the fluid power line at the tree. This accumulator is usually
sized with enough fluid capacity to operate all tree functions at least once before it has to be recharged from the
platform or shore based control station. The tree plumbing
is much more complicated than the direct hydraulic system
previously described. Small bore stainless steel tubing will
connect each tree function to the tree manifold and the tree
manifold outlets will be connected to the control pod base
plate. The tree cap provides the linking conduits for the
operating fluid as it comes from the control pod base plate
to the tree manifold, through the tree cap, back through the
tree manifold to the required operating function on the tree.
This control scenario for the tree is used when the tree is
controlled from a remote control station.

Main control umbilical reeler and

tubing hanger/tree cap control
umbilical reeler

Main control umbilical hookup to

master control panel

283

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

PILOTED HYDRAULIC
CONTROL SYSTEM
CONTROL PANEL

Sea Level
Seal
Level

TREE SUPPLY

PILOT VALVES

TREE VALVES
Seal Bed

Hydraulic Line
Electrical Line
Accumulator

Figure 11.85

Sea Bed

If the tree cap running tool is connected to the tree cap then
vertical control line access is gained through a control line
umbilical run with the tree cap running tool string, which is
in turn connected to the shuttle valves mounted on the tree
cap. Control line fluid from the floating vessel positioned
over the tree will shift the shuttle valve on the connected
line so that the fluid can pass through the tree cap and the
tree manifold to the selected operating function on the tree.
The control panel at the remote station will have each tree
function clearly illustrated on the panel face. Pressure
gauges will indicate the operating pressure in the fluid
power lines to the subsea tree. This pressure is usually in
the 1000-1500 psi range, but higher pressures, up to 3000
psi, have been used. When a control button or lever is
operated on the panel, hydraulic fluid pressure will be
applied to the selected hydraulic pilot line going to the tree.
The pressure in this line will build up until it is sufficient to
open the pilot operated valve in the control pod. There will
be a time delay varying in a few seconds to a few minutes
for the pilot control pressure to open the valve in the control
pod, depending on the distance from the remote control
station to the subsea tree.
However, once the valve opens, the hydraulic fluid under
pressure from the tree mounted accumulator will be directed to the tree operating function very rapidly. As mentioned earlier the control fluid is routed through the tree
manifold, by way of the tree cap, to the selected operating
function on the tree.
In this method of a hydraulic pilot operated control system
the main assemblies of moving parts and seals are housed
in the retrievable control pod on the tree cap. This means
that repairs or maintenance can be done to the control
system, by a dedicated service vessel rather than a floating

Main control panel

284

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

11

drilling or production vessel, without pulling the subsea

tree.
Sequenced Hydraulic Control System
The purpose of the sequenced hydraulic control system is to
provide a means of controlling the subsea tree based purely
on the operating pressure in the operating fluid line and
independent of pilot control lines. The main component in
this system is the sequence valve usually mounted on the
tree cap. The sequence valve is designed to shift to three or
four positions when the incoming operating pressure is
changed within specified ranges. When the valve changes
position the hydraulic fluid is directed to another exit port
in the valve body. If the pressure is raised to the next range,
the valve shifts again and the hydraulic fluid comes out of
another pod. Stated in simple terms the sequence valves
will have one incoming port and three or four exit ports
representing each step up in pressure.

CONTROL PANEL

Sea
SealLevel
Level

TREE SUPPLY

Pressure
Position Range PSI

SEQUENCED HYDRAULIC
CONTROL SYSTEM

SEQUENCE SUPPLY

This means that each exit port can be manifolded to included one tree function, or a number of tree functions. The
following simplified table gives some idea of how the tree
functions could be coupled with a four position sequence
valve used in an override capacity to the normal pilot operated system.

Control panel at umbilical reeler.

SEQUENCE
VALVE

Tree Functions Controlled

All valves on tree move to failsafe close position. Crossover
valve moves to fail-safe-open
position.

MULTI-WELL TEMPLATE

Hydraulic Line

Seal Bed
Sea
Bed

Electrical Line

1000-1500

Normal operating mode, where

hydraulic fluid is directed
through control pod for normal

Accumulator

Figure 11.86

285

11

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

ELECTROHYDRAULIC
CONTROL SYSTEM

pilot operated control of tree.

3

1500-2000

2000-2500

CONTROL PANEL

Keeps tree valves in production

mode, bypassing the control
pod, which could be malfunctioning.

Sea Level
Seal
Level

TREE SUPPLY

SEQUENCE SUPPLY

Shuts in well and could release

recall buoy from tree if so
designed.
The sequence valve listed above has been plumbed into the
hydraulic control system of the subsea tree to provide an
override, or back-up system in the event of pilot control
system failure. The sequenced hydraulic control system is
not generally used as the primary control system for a
subsea tree.

SEQUENCE
& SOLENOID
VALVES

TREE VALVES

Hydraulic Line
Electrical Line
Accumulator

Figure 11.87

Seal
Bed
Sea Bed

Electrohydraulic Control System

The purpose of the electrohydraulic control system for
subsea trees is to send electric signals to the tree control pod
so that the hydraulic port can be directed to the selected tree
function. The means to do this is provided by a sheathed
sea floor control line umbilical that contains the hydraulic
power line and multiple electrical conductors. This sea
floor umbilical is usually run in conjunction with the flow
lines. The subsea electrical connections at the flow line tree interface will be a socket type or an inductive coupler
type. The pilot electric signal from the remote stations
control panel will operate a solenoid operated valve in the
control pod. When the solenoid valve opens, hydraulic
power fluid under pressure will be directed to operate the
selected tree function by way of the tree manifold and tree
cap.
As can be seen in Figure 11.87, the electrohydraulic control
system is very similar to the hydraulic pilot operated control system. The differences being that electric signals have
replaced the hydraulic pilot signals and that the solenoid

286

Introduction to
Subsea Completions

Multiplex Control Systems

The purpose of a multiplex control system is the same as an
electrohydraulic control system, namely to initiate the
hydraulic function on the subsea tree with an electric signal.
Instead of a multicore electrical sea floor umbilical, only 3 or
4 conductors are required which reduces the size and complexity of the sea floor control line umbilical. However, a
decoder of the electric signals sent through the sea floor
umbilical is required, usually housed in the retrievable
control pod. The decoder receives the signal, and then
switches electric signal power to the solenoid valve in the
control pod. The solenoid valve operates and directs the
hydraulic fluid to the selected tree function. The system has
a response time equal to the electrohydraulic control system. The umbilical is cheaper, but the control pod hardware is more expensive.

MULTIPLEXED
CONTROL SYSTEM

CONTROL PANEL

Sea Level
Seal
Level

TREE SUPPLY

operated valves have replaced the hydraulic pilot valves in

the control pod. The operating difference between the two
control systems is that the response time from initiating a
function electrically at the remote control panel to the time
the function operates at the tree is immediate. From an
economic standpoint the sea floor control umbilical is
cheaper in an electrohydraulic system, but the electrical
connectors and control pod solenoid valves are more expensive than their equivalent hydraulic parts. The main advantage is response time weighed against the traditional
difficulty of getting electrical connectors to work consistently underwater. However electro-hydraulic control
systems are in common use, and are integrated with the
increasing number of electrical readout signals from
downhole pressure sensors, tree bore pressure, temperature
sensors, and valve position indicators.

11

MULTIPLEX

MULTI-WELL TEMPLATE
Seal
Bed
Sea Bed

Hydraulic Line
Electrical Line
Accumulator

Figure 11.88

287