EXERCISE 3.2.

34

Let A be a matrix of order m×n, and let Im be an identity (or unit) matrix of order
m×m

A=aijm × Im=10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙
n=a11a12∙∙∙a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙∙∙ ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙1
∙∙∙ai1ai2⋯ain∙∙∙am1am2∙∙∙amn, ∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1.

Now to effect any elementary row operation on A, we may first perform the same
elementary operation on I to obtain the corresponding elementary matrix ML. We
then premultiply A by ML to get the desired matrix.

In other words, the three elementary row operations which consist of:
(a) Multiplying of any row by a nonzero scalar (i.e., the ith row by the constant k),
(b) Adding a multiple of a row to another row (i.e., adding -K times the mth row to
the ith row),
(c) Interchanging of any two rows (i.e., the ith and mth rows),
can be accomplished on A by carrying out an identical operation on I, then forming
the product MLA.

Thus, the elementary matrices ML(a), ML(b), and ML(c) which correspond to the row
operations (a), (b), and (c) respectively, are determined by the following relations:

ML(a)A=10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙k∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1a11a12∙∙∙a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙
∙∙∙∙∙ai1ai2⋯ain∙∙∙am1am2∙∙∙amn=a11a12∙∙∙a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙∙∙∙∙∙kai1kai2⋯kain∙∙∙am1a
m2∙∙∙amn,

ML(b)A=10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙1∙-
K∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1a11a12∙∙∙a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙∙∙∙∙∙ai1ai2⋯ain∙∙∙am1am2∙∙∙amn=a11a12∙∙∙
a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙∙∙∙∙∙ai1-Kam1ai2-Kam2⋯ain-Kamn∙∙∙am1am2∙∙∙amn,

ML(c)A=10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙1∙0a11a12∙∙∙a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙
∙∙∙∙∙ai1ai2⋯ain∙∙∙am1am2∙∙∙amn=a11a12∙∙∙a1na21a22∙∙∙a2n∙∙∙∙∙∙am1am2⋯amn∙∙∙ai1ai
2∙∙∙ain.

EXERCISE 3.2.35

2
Finding the elementary matrices MR(a), MR(b), and MR(c) is very similar to finding the
elementary matrices ML(a), ML(b), and ML(c) in Exercise 3.2.34, except that the MR-
matrices operate on the right AMR and can carry out the same operations on the
columns of A, while the ML-matrices operate on the left MLA and can carry out the
same operations on the rows of A.

Thus, if A is a matrix of order n×m, and I is an identity (or unit) matrix of order
m×m

A=ajin × Im=10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙
m=a11a12∙∙a1i∙a1ma21a22∙∙a2i∙a2m⋮⋮⋮ ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙1
⋮an1an2∙∙ani∙anm, ∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1,

such that AIm=A, then the elementary matrices MR(a), MR(b), and MR(c) corresponding
to the elementary column operations specified in (a), (b), and (c) respectively, are
determined by the following relations:

AMR(a)=a11a12∙∙a1i∙a1ma21a22∙∙a2i∙a2m⋮⋮⋮⋮an1an2∙∙ani∙anm10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙
∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙k∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1=a11a12∙∙ka1i∙a1ma21a22∙∙ka2i∙a2m⋮⋮⋮⋮an1an2∙∙kani∙an
m,

AMR(b)=a11a12∙∙a1i∙a1ma21a22∙∙a2i∙a2m⋮⋮⋮⋮an1an2∙∙ani∙anm10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙
∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙1∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙-K∙1=a11a12∙∙a1i-Ka1m∙a1ma21a22∙∙a2i-
Ka2m∙a2m⋮⋮⋮⋮an1an2∙∙ani-Kanm∙anm,

AMR(c)=a11a12∙∙a1i∙a1ma21a22∙∙a2i∙a2m⋮⋮⋮⋮an1an2∙∙ani∙anm10∙∙0∙001∙∙0∙0∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙
∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙0∙1∙∙∙∙∙∙∙00∙∙1∙0=a11a12∙∙a1m∙a1ia21a22∙∙a2m∙a2i⋮⋮⋮⋮an1an2∙∙anm∙ani.

EXERCISE 3.2.6

3
For part (a), we let A be the general 2×2 matrix

A=abcd

where a, b, c, and d are real or complex numbers.

If the square of A is zero, then A multiplied to itself must result to a null matrix

A2=AA=abcdabcd=0000.

By definition of matrix multiplication,

abcdabcd=a2+bcab+bdac+cdbc+d2=0000,

which implies that

i a2+bc=0, ii ab+bd=0, iii ac+cd=0, iv bc+d2=0.

Now using equations i and ii, we can actually express c and d in terms of a and b:

a2+bc=0 ab+bd=0
a2=-bc ab=-bd
c=-a2b, b≠0 d=-abb=-a, b≠0.

It follows that A can be equivalently expressed in terms of a and b alone

A=abcd=ab-a2b-a.

Furthermore, if we perform the elementary row operation of multiplying the second

row of A by a nonzero scalar b, we obtain a new matrix equivalent to A but devoid
of any fractions

A=ab-a2-ab.

For part (b), it would be interesting to consider the following three cases:
(1) A=B=I,
(2) both A and B are diagonal matrices, but A≠B,
(3) both A and B are general square matrices of order 2.

CASE 1:
Suppose A and B are both equal to the identity matrix of order five

4
A=B=I5=1000001000001000001000001.

If C=A+B, then applying the rule of matrix addition

C=1+1000001+1000001+1000001+1000001+1=2000002000002000002000002,

and so,
detC=2000002000002000002000002=2∙2∙2∙2∙2=25=32.

But on the other hand,

det A=det B=1000001000001000001000001=1∙1∙1∙1∙1=15=1.

Therefore,
detA+detB=1+1=2

which proves that

detC≠detA+detB.

CASE 2:
Suppose we let A and B be the diagonal matrices given below:

A=1000020000300004, B=6000070000800009.

Then the sum of the determinants of A and B is

detA+detB=1000020000300004+6000070000800009=1∙2∙3∙4+6∙7∙8∙9=24+3024=3048.

Now if C=A+B, then

C=1+600002+700003+800004+9=700009000011000013,
and
detC=700009000011000013=7∙9∙11∙13=9009.

Since 3048≠9009, therefore detC≠detA+detB.

CASE 3:
Suppose A and B are both general square matrices of order 2

A=a11a12a21a22, B=b11b12b21b22.

then
det A=a11a22-a12a21 , det B=b11b22-b12b21.

Accordingly,
detA+detB=a11a22-a12a21+b11b22-b12b21.

Now using the rule of matrix addition, the sum C=A+B is given by

C=a11+b11a12+b12a21+b21a22+b22,

and so the corresponding determinant is

detC=a11+b11a12+b12a21+b21a22+b22=a11+b11a22+b22-a12+b12a22+b22
=a11a22+a11b22+a22b11+b11b22-a12a22+a12b22+a22b12+b12b22
=a11a22+b22-a12a22+b22+b11a22+b22-b12a22+b22.

5
Comparing the results, we see that
detC=detA+detB
if and only if
a22+b22=a22 ⟹ b22=0;

a22+b22=a21 ⟹ a22=a21 ⟹ 0=a21;

a22+b22=b22 ⟹ a22=0;

a22+b22=b21 ⟹ 0=b21.

In other words,
detC=detA+detB
if and only if both A and B are null matrices
A=B=0000.
Otherwise, the inequality
detC≠detA+detB
holds.
EXERCISE 3.2.31

To prove that the inverse of a matrix, if it exists, is unique, we need to show that

AB=I and AC=I

implies
B=C .

This can be established as follows. Since AC=I, by definition C=A-1. Consequently,

CA=AC=I.

Multiplying this equation from the right by B, we obtain

CAB=IB=B.

But matrix multiplication is associative, so

CAB=CAB=CI=C.

It is now clear from the last two equations that

B=C.

6
EXERCISE 3.2.32

Let A be a nonsingular square matrix of order 3

A=aij=a11a12a13a21a22a23a31a32a33.

To determine the elements of A-1 using the equation

A-1ij=aij-1=CjiA ,

we may proceed in three steps:

(1) obtain the cofactor of every element of the matrix A and write the matrix Cij
of cofactors in the form
Cij=C11C12C13C21C22C23C31C32C33;

(2) transpose the matrix Cij of cofactors to obtain

Cji=C11C21C31C12C22C32C13C23C33;

(3) divide Cji by det A to obtain the inverse of A

A-1ij=CjiA=C11C21C31C12C22C32C13C23C33a11a12a13a21a22a23a31a32a33 .

STEP 1:
By definition, the nine cofactors of A are
7
 C11=(-1)1+1a22a23a32a33=a22a33-a23a32,

C12=(-1)1+2a21a23a31a33=-a21a33-a23a31,

C13=(-1)1+3a21a22a31a32=a21a32-a22a31,

C21=(-1)2+1a12a13a32a33=-a12a33-a13a32,

C22=(-1)2+2a11a13a31a33=a11a33-a13a31,

C23=(-1)2+3a11a12a31a32=-a11a32-a12a31,

C31=(-1)3+1a12a13a22a23=a12a23-a13a22,

C32=(-1)3+2a11a13a21a23=-a11a23-a13a21,

C33=(-1)3+3a11a12a21a22=a11a22-a12a21.

Thus, the matrix of cofactors Cij is

Cij=(a22a33-a23a32)-(a21a33-a23a31)(a21a32-a22a31)-(a12a33-a13a32)(a11a33-a13a31)-(a11a32-

a12a31)(a12a23-a13a22)-(a11a23-a13a21)(a11a22-a12a21) ,

which when transposed becomes

Cji=(a22a33-a23a32)-(a12a33-a13a32)(a12a23-a13a22)-(a21a33-a23a31)(a11a33-a13a31)-(a11a23-

a13a21)(a21a32-a22a31)-(a11a32-a12a31)(a11a22-a12a21) .

The determinant of A can be evaluated by Laplace expansion along any row or

column. For instance, along the first column

A=-11+1∙a11C11+-12+1∙a21C21+-13+1∙a31C31

=a11a22a23a32a33-a21a12a13a32a33+a31a12a13a22a23

=a11a22a33-a23a32-a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22.

Combining the above results, we obtain

A-1ij=CjiA=(a22a33-a23a32)-(a12a33-a13a32)(a12a23-a13a22)-(a21a33-a23a31)(a11a33-a13a31)-
(a11a23-a13a21)(a21a32-a22a31)-(a11a32-a12a31)(a11a22-a12a21)a11a22a33-a23a32-a21a12a33-
a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22 .

Now, we are left to prove that A-1=Cjidet A is indeed an inverse of A . To do that, we

form the product A-1A and equate it to the 3×3 identity matrix. That is,

(a22a33-a23a32)A-(a12a33-a13a32)A(a12a23-a13a22)A-(a21a33-a23a31)A(a11a33-a13a31)A-
(a11a23-a13a21)A(a21a32-a22a31)A-(a11a32-a12a31)A(a11a22-
a12a21)Aa11a12a13a21a22a23a31a32a33=100010001.

Now by definition of matrix multiplication and matrix addition, we can write nine
equations corresponding to every element of the identity matrix:
a11(a22a33-a23a32)A-a21(a12a33-a13a32)A+a31(a12a23-a13a22)A=1 (1)
a11(a22a33-a23a32)-a21(a12a33-a13a32)+a31(a12a23-a13a22)a11a22a33-a23a32-
a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22=1

8
 1=1

a12(a22a33-a23a32)A-a22(a12a33-a13a32)A+a32(a12a23-a13a22)A=0 (2)
(a12a22a33-a12a23a32-a22a12a33+a22a13a32+a32a12a23-a32a13a22)A=0

0=0

a13(a22a33-a23a32)A-a23(a12a33-a13a32)A+a33(a12a23-a13a22)A=0 (3)
(a13a22a33-a13a23a32-a23a12a33+a23a13a32+a33a12a23-a33a13a22)A=0

0=0

-a11(a21a33-a23a31)A+a21(a11a33-a13a31)A-a31(a11a23-a13a21)A=0 (4)

(-a11a21a33+a11a23a31+a21a11a33-a21a13a31-a31a11a23+a31a13a21)A=0

0=0

-a12(a21a33-a23a31)A+a22(a11a33-a13a31)A-a32(a11a23-a13a21)A=1 (5)
-a12a21a33+a12a23a31+a22a11a33-a22a13a31-a32a11a23+a32a13a21a11a22a33-
a23a32-a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22=1

-a12a21a33+a12a23a31+a22a11a33-a22a13a31-a32a11a23+a32a13a21a11a22a33-
a23a32-a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22=1

-a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22+a11a22a33-a23a32a11a22a33-a23a32-
a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22=1

1=1

-a13(a21a33-a23a31)A+a23(a11a33-a13a31)A-a33(a11a23-a13a21)A=0 (6)
(-a13a21a33+a13a23a31+a23a11a33-a23a13a31-a33a11a23+a33a13a21)A=0

0=0

a11(a21a32-a22a31)A-a21(a11a32-a12a31)A+a31(a11a22-a12a21)A=0 (7)
(a11a21a32-a11a22a31-a21a11a32+a21a12a31+a31a11a22-a31a12a21)A=0

0=0

a12(a21a32-a22a31)A-a22(a11a32-a12a31)A+a32(a11a22-a12a21)A=0 (8)

(a12a21a32-a12a22a31-a22a11a32+a22a12a31+a32a11a22-a32a12a21)A=0

0=0

a13(a21a32-a22a31)A-a23(a11a32-a12a31)A+a33(a11a22-a12a21)A=1 (9)

a13a21a32-a13a22a31-a23a11a32+a23a12a31+a33a11a22-a33a12a21a11a22a33-
a23a32-a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22=1

-a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22+a11a22a33-a23a32a11a22a33-a23a32-

9
a21a12a33-a13a32+a31a12a23-a13a22=1

1=1

By evaluating all nine equations, we have shown that the product A-1A reduces to
the identity (unit) matrix. Hence by definition, A-1 is the inverse of matrix A. This
procedure is not limited to the general 3×3 matrix but can be extended to any
nonsingular square matrix of order n . Thus,

A-1A=AA-1=I

as long as the determinant of A does not vanish

A≠0.
Otherwise, the quotient
CjiA
becomes indeterminate.

10