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Tutorial
I. I NTRODUCTION
The MTI radar uses the Doppler effect to separate the targets
of interest from clutter (land, sea water, rain, etc.). To do
this, the radar sends a pulse sequence with pulse width
and interpulse period PRI = 1/PRF, where PRF identifies the
pulse repetition frequency. Any moving object will generate
a Doppler frequency shift of the radar central frequency
fo according to its speed (dR/dt), where R(t) designates the
time-varying distance from the target to the radar. The spectral
signature of each object repeats in the spectrum periodically
with a period given by the PRF, which obviously sets the limit
on determining an unambiguous Doppler shift.
Thus, focusing on a spectral region from fo to fo + PRF
is enough to get all the information regarding moving targets
and clutter, and what is required after signal detection is a
signal processing stage to carry out the filtering of clutter
and noise (the unwanted signals) from the target(s). This is
usually performed as shown in the upper part of Fig. 2 by using
a digital notch filter placed after frequency down-conversion
to baseband and using analog to digital conversion (ADC).
In order to distinguish the small echo from the target and
the large echo from the fixed objects, high-performance (14to 18-bit resolution) ADCs are required, which represents a
major bottleneck in the system. If the clutter can be removed
before down-conversion, then the high-resolution requirements
on the ADCs can be relaxed. For example, with a 30-dB clutter
attenuation, the required ADC resolution is reduced by 5 bits.
This operation is difficult and costly in the microwave domain
but is simple if the RF signal is modulated into an optical carrier
and the whole signal is processed directly in the optical domain
by means of a photonic filter as shown in the lower part of
Fig. 2.
The former example illustrates the general concept behind
microwave photonic filters [1][5], which is to replace the
traditional approach toward RF signal processing shown in the
upper part of Fig. 3, where an RF signal originating at an RF
source or coming from an antenna is fed to an RF circuit that
performs the signal processing tasks (usually at an intermediate
frequency band after a down-conversion operation) by a novel
technique. In this approach, which is shown in the lower part
of Fig. 3, the RF signal that was priorly made to modulate an
optical carrier is directly processed in the optical domain by a
photonic filter based on fiber and integrated photonic devices
and circuits.
Adding extra photonic components implies increased filter
complexity on one hand but brings on the other several advantages as pointed out in most of the published literature
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202
Fig. 2. (Above) Typical signal processing configuration in an MTI radar system. (Below) Modified version including a microwave photonic filter prior to
down-conversion.
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203
Fig. 3. General concept behind microwave photonic filters. The upper part shows the traditional configuration. The lower part shows the replacement of the RF
filter by a microwave photonic filter.
Fig. 4.
General reference layout of a microwave photonic filter showing the relevant electrical and optical signals.
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204
so (t) =
r=N
h(t) =
N
ar (t rT ) =
r=N
N
h(n)(t nT ). (2)
h(n)z n
n=
H() =
c1 so (t T ) cN so (t N T )
M
So (z)
=
H(z) =
Si (z)
N (z)
=
D(z)
bM z
m=0
N
1+
cN z n
n=1
M
z N M
N
(4)
(z zM )
m=1
(5)
(z pN )
n=1
n=N
so (t nT ) = bo si (t) + b1 si (t T ) + + bM si (t M T )
(1)
The operation of a microwave photonic filter can alternatively be described in terms of a system difference equation and
its corresponding system function
n=
h(n)ejnT .
(3)
Q=
FSR
.
FWHM
(6)
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Fig. 5.
205
Typical periodic spectrum of a microwave photonic filter showing the relevant parameters.
B. SSMPFs [6][15]
SSMPFs are characterized, as its name indicates, by the
use of only one optical
source to feed the filter. The source
output electric field Ii ej(wo t+(t)) (where Ii represents the
optical intensity, wo the source central frequency, and (t)
the source phase fluctuations) is modulated by the RF input
signal si (t) and the different filter samples are implemented by
means of delayed and windowed replicas of the RF-modulated
optical carrier. In Fig. 6(a) and (b), we show two possible
implementations of an FIR and an IIR SSMPF, respectively. In
the first case, a transversal filter is shown where the electric field
of the input RF-modulated optical signal is evenly divided into
the N outputs of a 1 N coupler. Output port j, for instance,
is connected to an attenuator, providing a field attenuation
E0 (t) =
1
N
1
Ii
[ar si (t rT )] 2 ej(w0 (trT )+(trT )) . (7)
r=0
The upper number in the sum is N for the FIR case and N
for the IIR case. The output current from the photodiode is
N
1
[|ar |si (t rT )]
r=0
+ Ii
1
N
1 N
ar as si (t rT )si (t sT )
r=0 s=r
((r s)T ) .
(8)
((r s)T ) e
|(rs)T |
coh
(9)
coh = 1/ is the source coherence time, which is inversely proportional to the source linewidth in the absence
of modulation (i.e., under CW operation). A crucial aspect that
is connected with the filter operation is that of the optical source
coherence, as we shall now discuss.
In principle, filter linearity is only guaranteed in the optical
fields (due to the linearity of Maxwell equations) but not as far
as optical powers are concerned. However, this last magnitude
is related to the input and output currents or voltages of the
RF signals since there is a linear relationship between the
output optical power and the input current/voltage at the source
and between the input optical power and the output electrical
current/voltage at the optical receiver.
As shown in (8), the general shape of the output current is
composed of two terms, an incoherent term where the output
current/voltage is linearly related to the input RF signal and a
coherent term that depends on the source degree of coherence
and destroys, in principle, power linearity.
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206
N
1
[|ar |si (t rT )] .
(10)
r=0
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207
((s r)T ) = e
so (t) = Ii
E0 (t) =
+ Ii
(14)
[|ar |si (t rT )]
r=0
1
N
1 N
N
1
r=0
(11)
=
[|ar |si (t rT )]
r=0
r=0 s=r
(12)
N
1
+
1
N
1 N
ar as si (t rT )si (t sT )
r=0 s=r
e
=
N
1
[|ar |si (t rT )] .
(15)
r=0
The second term in the above expression is zero since the output
phase variations from different optical sources can be assumed
to be always uncorrelated. Thus, a linear relationship between
the input and output RF/microwave signal is obtained.
C. MSMPFs [16][31]
ES (t) =
N
1
(13)
r=0
where Ir , wr , and r (t) represent, respectively, the optical intensity, the source central frequency, and the phase fluctuations
of the rth component of the array. Each source implements a
filter sample that is selectively delayed usually by employing
a dispersive (i.e., wavelength selective) delay line implemented
either by a fiber coil or by a linearly chirped fiber Bragg grating
(LCFBG). The dispersive delay element is chosen such that the
differential group delay experienced by adjacent wavelengths
of the source array is T . Sample windowing can be achieved
using different techniques. If the MSMPF is based on an array
of independent sources, then the simplest way is to control the
output powers of the different sources. If a sliced source is employed, then the wavelength components must be wavelengthdemultiplexed, attenuated, or amplified on an individual basis
and then multiplexed prior to RF modulation. Fig. 7(a) and
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208
Fig. 7. (a) Layout of an FIR MSMPF using a laser array. (b) Layout of an FIR MSMPF using a sliced broadband source.
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209
Fig. 8. RoF access network (upper). Potential application of microwave photonic filters at the head-end on the centralized station (lower) replacing the RF filter
of standard configuration (intermediate).
Fig. 9. Photonic beamsteering system based on a laser array feeding an LCFBG. The configuration is equivalent to that of a microwave photonic transversal
filter (see Fig. 19).
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210
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Fig. 10. General MWP filter structure including electrooptical conversion, alloptical process, and optical detection. Definition of the optical span and RF gain
reference planes.
Popt Z0
= 2 (10 log10 (Topt )) + 20 log10
2V
= 2Gopt (dBo) + GEO&OE (dBe).
(17)
211
The total RF gain can then be divided into two separate parts
as shown in (17). The first term is the contribution of the pure
optical gain or losses to the RF gain, and the second term is
the contribution of the EO and OE conversion. Notice that the
EOOE process can be divided also into two conversion slope
efficiency parameters, the detector responsivity [A/W ] and
seom = Popt Z0 /2V [W/A] for the EOM. Expressed in that
way, the slope efficiency for the EOM can be directly substituted by the equivalent parameter if direct IM is employed,
i.e., sIM = dP0 /dI, which represents the slope of generated
optical power versus the injected current when I > Ith , and it
is proportional to the known differential quantum efficiency.
It is interesting to point out that sIM is independent of the
mean optical power delivered by the laser (I > Ith ) and that it
only depends of the slope of the P I curve. This is in contrast
with seom that depends linearly with the CW power applied
to the EOM, and therefore TRF depends quadratically. This,
in principle, allows the EOM-based systems to compensate
for their own EOM losses or even compensate optical insertion losses of the remaining optical processor if Popt can be
increased.
As an example of RF gain calculus: Popt = 10 mW, EOM:
V = 6 V. Z0 = 50 , and Gopt = 10 dBo (including EOM,
passive optical circuits like optical couplers, FBGs, circulators, optical delay lines, etc.). In that case, GEO&OE (dBe) =
16 dBe, and the total gain GRF (dBe) = 36 dBe. This total
negative gain can be compensated up to 0 dB by different
ways: 1) by 36 dBe of electrical amplification (before, after,
or at both places the MWP), 2) by pure optical gain (in that
case the required gain will be half of the electrical gain, i.e.,
18 dBo), or 3) a combination of electrical and optical amplification (for example, 12 dBo + 12 dBe). All these possibilities
have important implications in terms of noise figure and distortion behavior of the MWP filter as it will be shown later.
The total RF gain has been calculated without any reference
to the particular frequency response of the MWP structure
because it has to be considered as the absolute value to be added
to the normalized filter response independent of the number of
taps or particular optical process. In that sense, it has to be
pointed out that Popt inside (16) and (17) should include the
total optical power applied to the MWP structure by the set of
sources when the MWP filter is of the multiple-source type as
discussed in Section II-C.
2) Noise Figure: The noise figure of the microwave photonic filter can be defined as the ratio between the total noise
power spectral density at the device output Nout and the noise
power due to only the thermal noise spectral density applied to
the input at the reference temperature and affected by the device
gain. More specifically, in our case
N F (dB)
= 10 log
Nout
4kT0 TRF
R
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(18)
212
Fig. 11. EOM-based general MWP filter basic structure. Optical amplification can be included after or before optical processing. Noise sources are represented.
(a) Optical intensity noise. (b) Shot noise. (c) ASE noise. (d) Thermal noise.
Ip = Popt Topt
Nsig-ASE = 4qnsp Ip (GOA 1)T2 A2 /Hz
(20)
(21)
(19)
F0 =
(GOA 1)
1
2nsp +
.
GOA
GOA
(22)
Notice also that (2) includes the term T2 that embraces the
optical transmission between the OA and the detector. In this
way, the expression can be applied to cover any location of
the OA along the optical processing chain, leaving Topt =
T1 G0A T2 , where T1 is the optical transmission before the
OA (just between the source output up to the OA input). To
include the noise effect of more that one amplifier along the
optical process, we can use the equivalent OA gain (GOA,Eq )
and OA noise factor (FO,Eq ) of a chain of {GOA1 , FO1 } +
intermediate losses (TINT ) + {GOA2 , FO2 } being
GOA,Eq = GOA1 TINT GOA2
FO,Eq = FO1 +
FO2
.
GOA1 TINT
(23)
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213
Fig. 12. (a) SFDR schematic definition and its relation with the system requirements. (b) IMD3 and C versus input RF power. Linearly extrapolated cross point
and its relation with SFDR.
2
4kT0
A /Hz .
(F + TRF )
R
(24)
F (dB) + LRF (dB), with LRF (dB) = GRF (dB). In the opposite case, if TRF 1, then NF(dB) 0 dB, but this will
be very difficult to reach in practice because high TRF 1
involves high optical power and therefore increase of RIN and
shot noise or optical gain with added ASE.
3) Harmonic and Intermodulation Distortion: Harmonic
and intermodulation distortion (IMD) features are the other
great constraint that should be addressed for a real application
of an MWP filter. The main source of signal distortion is normally the E/O conversion stage. If we consider direct IM lasers,
both static distortion produced by the P I curve and dynamic
distortion produced by the laser couple rate equation dynamics
are produced. EM is dominated by the static distortion and
depends on the E/O device employed (EOM or EAM) and if
a linearization technique was employed. Extensive compilation
of all these possibilities can be found in [68] and [69]. Whatever
the E/O approach is finally used, the distortion will translate
into harmonic distorsion (HD) terms and IMD terms. From all
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214
Fig. 13. RF notch filter based on a fiber optic MachZehnder and a linearly chirped FBG [8].
SFDR =
2
10 log
3
IP3
Nout R
2
dBHz 3
(25)
SFDR
4Ip2
2
2
3
dBHz
.
= 10 log
3
RINIp2 + 2qIp + NsigASE + Nth
(26)
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215
Fig. 14. RF photonic filter architecture based on an EDF active cavity and two linearly chirped FBGs [9]. (Inset) Tunable bandpass frequency response.
Fig. 15. (a) Cascaded passive MachZehnder filters to select a desired frequency. (b) Filter frequency response of the hybrid structure based on an active
fiber grating pair cavity and the passive section [10].
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216
Fig. 16. RF photonic transversal filter structure using four fiber grating arrays and doubling the number of coefficients using a MachZehnder stage [13].
Fig. 18. FIR tunable RF filter architecture based on a fiber grating array [13].
Fig. 17. (a) Eight-tap filter response just after the circulator in Fig. 4.
(b) Eight-tap filter response just after tap multiplexing stage in dashed box
(Fig. 4). (c) Filter tunability.
the intermediate peaks and to select the multiple that corresponds to the desired filter frequency. Although this hybrid
structure can only be implemented with uniform fiber gratings,
and therefore, tunability has not been demonstrated, experimental results in [10] show a filter centered at a fundamental
frequency of 1.1 GHz, exhibiting a Q factor of 801, as depicted
in Fig. 15(b), and increased up to 983 when a third section is
included, comprising a small-FSR long delay line difference
passive filter [11].
Another complex filter composed of a single tunable laser
and eight fiber grating arrays was proposed in [12]. The system
configuration, shown in Fig. 16, uses a 1 8 splitter, and each
of the grating arrays is connected via an adjustable attenuator to provide the tap weighting (windowing of the impulse
response) and, therefore, different bandpass spectral profiles.
Each of the eight grating arrays, corresponding to eight taps
of the microwave photonics signal, has four gratings. Each of
these four sets of Bragg gratings, selected by changing the
optical carrier wavelength, has a different spacing increment
of distance, providing different tunabilities of the bandpass
responses. However, the number of taps in this structure can be
increased by adding a MachZehnder section, as depicted in the
dashed box in Fig. 16 [13]. One beam passes through directly
and the other is reflected at a grating with the same wavelength,
and so placed that the optical path difference between these
two arms is exactly eight times that of the unit delay time,
which is related to the spacing between the adjacent two taps.
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217
Fig. 19. (Top) Tunable and reconfigurable RF photonic filter architecture based on a laser array and a linearly chirped FBG [16]. (Bottom) Experimental results
for a five-tap filter. (Left) Reconfigurability (reduction of sidelobes level). (Right) Tunability (different bandpass central frequency).
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218
Fig. 20. (Top) Architecture for a tunable RF photonic filter based on fixed optical sources and a tunable dispersive element [17]. (Top inset) Nonuniform magnetic
field inside the electrical coil. (Bottom inset) Grating time delay response when chirp is induced: spectral location of the optical taps. (Bottom) Three-tap tunable
transversal filter response by using the filter architecture described in the upper part. Bandpass filter centered at (a) 6 GHz and (b) 9 GHz.
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219
Fig. 22. (Top left) UMTS filter layout based on a broadband slice source followed by a switched dispersive delay line. (Top right) Filter prototype developed
within the IST-LABELS project. (Bottom) Filter response based on a fiber grating array [22] showing the tunability of the filter.
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220
Fig. 23. Architecture of the tunable stretched UFBG-based RF filter [24]. (Inset) FSR tunability dependence on the optical wavelength spacing of the optical
carriers.
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221
Fig. 24. (Left) RF photonic filter architecture using a broadband optical source sliced by an SFBG [26]. (Right) Response of the RF photonic filter implemented
from different spectral SFBG responses. (a) Asymmetric double sigmoidal. (b) Voigt function. (c) Lognormal function.
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222
Fig. 25. Forty-sample reconfigurable transversal filter using a two-stage 1 40 AWG configuration and a 40-SLM free space array [29].
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223
Fig. 27. Transversal filter architecture based on a Bragg-grating-based acoustooptic superlattice modulator [30]. (Insets, a and b) Spectra of the optical signal
generated by 0.755- and 1.444-MHz frequency, respectively. (c) and (d) Corresponding filter response.
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224
Fig. 28. (Top) Implementation of the RF single bandpass filter based on a broadband source and an MZI [32]. (Bottom) Tunability of the filter.
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225
Fig. 29. Two-tap RF filter implementing a negative coefficient using the RF signal inversion in XGMSOA-based wavelength conversion. (Inset) Spectrum of
the notch filter [40].
Fig. 30. RF photonic filter with negative taps based on a broadband ASE
spectrum transmitted through UFBGs. (Inset) Filter response with the detail
of the optical taps employed in this implementation [42].
and VBIAS
, respectively. The
at different bias voltages VBIAS
same RF modulation signal applied to the modulator at each
of the former bias points will produce an optical-modulated
output signal with the same average power but where the modulating signals are shifted or have different signs (positive
and negative taps). Although, in principle, two modulators are
+
and VBIAS
,
required in the transmitter, each one biased at VBIAS
to implement positive and negative taps, respectively, whose
outputs are combined and sent to a dispersive element that
implements the constant differential time delay between the
filter samples, in practice, the setup can be simplified to only
one modulator if this device is provided with two input ports
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226
Fig. 31.
RF signal inversion in a dual-input EOM for the implementation of negative coefficients [43]. (Inset) RF signal inversion principle in the EOM response.
Fig. 32. Transfer function of an eight-coefficient filter with four negative coefficients and flat-top resonance shape: Theoretical (solid line) and experimental
(dotted line) results.
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227
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228
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