EXPERIMENT 3a

HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

CONTENT:
1. Aim
2. Objective
3. Introduction
4. Theory/Background
5. Apparatus
6. Experimental Procedure
7. Precautions
8. Calculations
9. Uncertainty and Error analysis
10. Result & Discussion
11. References
12. Data Sheet
Note:
1. At least one complete calculation process with equation must be shown in
the beginning of result and discussion part.
2. Students are requested to write their own conclusion in the lab report.
3. Lab report should be submitted within given time.

HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM: To determine the natural convection heat transfer coefficient for the vertical cylindrical
tube which is exposed to the atmospheric air and losing heat by natural convection.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this experiment is to study experimentally the natural convection
pipe flows at different heating level.
INTRODUCTION:
There are certain situations in which the fluid motion is produced due to change in density
resulting from temperature gradients, which is the heat transfer mechanism called as free or
natural convection. Natural convection is the principal mode of heat transfer from pipes,
refrigerating coils, hot radiators etc. The movement of fluid in free convection is due to the fact
that the fluid particles in the immediate vicinity of the hot object become warmer than the
surrounding fluid resulting in a local change of density. The warmer fluid would be replaced by
the colder fluid creating convection currents. These currents originate when a body force
(gravitational, centrifugal, electrostatic etc.) acts on a fluid in which there are density gradients.
The force which induces these convection currents is called a buoyancy force which is due to the
presence of a density gradient within the fluid and a body force. Grashoff number (Gr) plays a
very important role in natural convection.
In contrast to the forced convection, natural convection phenomenon is due to the
temperature dierence between the surface and the uid is not created by any external agency.
Natural convection ow pattern for some commonly observed situations is given in Figure 1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Heated vertical plate

Cooled vertical plate
Upper surface of a heated horizontal plate
Lower surface of a heated horizontal plate
Figure 1 Natural convection flow patterns

The test section is a vertical, open ended cylindrical pipe dissipating heat from the internal
surface. The test section is electrically heated imposing the circumferentially and axially constant
wall heat flux. As a result of the heat transfer to air from the internal surface of the pipe, the
temperature of the air increases. The resulting density non-uniformity causes the air in the pipe to
rise. The present experimental setup is designed and fabricated to study the natural convection
phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of the variation of the local heat transfer
coecient and its comparison with the value which is obtained by using an appropriate
correlation.
THEORY/BACKGROUND:

When a hot body is kept in a still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the surrounding uid by
natural convection. The uid layer in contact with the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the
decrease in its density and the cold surrounding uid rushes in to take its place. The process is
continuous and heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold particles.
The heat transfer coecient is given by:
q
h=
(1)
As (Ts Ta )
Here,
h = Average surface heat transfer coecient.
q = Heat transfer rate.
A s = Area of heat transferring surface
T s = Average surface temperature (C),
where,
T +T +T +T +T +T +T
(2)
Ts = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
T a = Ambient temperature in the duct (C) = T 8
The surface heat transfer coecient of a system transferring heat by natural convection
depends on the shape, dimensions and orientation of the body, the temperature dierence
between the hot body and the surrounding uid and uid properties like , , etc. The
dependence of h on all the above mentioned parameters is generally expressed in terms of nondimensional groups, as follows:
gL3 T C p
hL
= A

2
k
k

Here,
hL
is called the Nusselt Number (Nu),
k

(3)

gL3 T

is called the Grashoff Number (Gr) and,

C p

is called the Prandtl Number

k
A and n are constants depending on the shape and orientation of the heat transferring surface.
L is a characteristic dimension of the surface,
is the thermal conductivity of the uid,
is the kinematic viscosity of the uid,
is the dynamic viscosity of the uid,
C p is the specic heat of the uid,
is the coecient of volumetric expansion of the uid,
g is the acceleration due to gravity at the place of experiment,
T = T s -T a
For gases, =

1
K 1
T f + 273

Ts + Ta
2
For a vertical cylinder losing heat by natural convection, the constants A and n of
equation (3) have been determined and the following empirical correlations have been obtained:
0.25
4
9
h L
(4)
Nu = th = 0.59(Gr.P r) , for10 < Gr.P r < 10
k

where,

T f = mean film temperature =

Nu =

1/3
9
12
hth L
= 0.59(Gr.P r) , for10 < Gr.P r < 10
k

(5)

Here L is the length of cylinder and h th is theoretical heat transfer coefficient.

All the properties of the uid are evaluated at the mean lm temperature (T f )
APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a stainless steel tube tted in a rectangular duct in a vertical fashion.
The control panel for the natural convection apparatus is shown in figure 2. The heat input to the
heater is measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter and is varied by a dimmerstat. The
temperatures of the vertical tube are measured by seven thermocouples (1 to 7) and are marked
on the Temperature Indicator Switch of the instrument panel as shown in Figure 2. One more
thermocouple is used to measure ambient temperature. The schematic of the natural convection
apparatus is shown in figure 3.

Figure 2 Control panel for natural convection apparatus

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of natural convection apparatus

The duct is open at the top and the bottom forms an enclosure which serves the purpose of
undisturbed surroundings. One side of the duct is made up of perspex for visualization. An
electric heating element is kept in the vertical tube which internally heats the tube surface. The
heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. The vertical cylinder with
the thermocouple positions is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Thermocouple positions in the vertical cylinder

.
While the possible ow pattern and the expected variation of local heat transfer
coecient are shown in Figure 3. The tube has been polished to minimize the radiation losses.

Figure 5. Variation of the heat transfer coefficient along the height of the tube in free air
flow and dependence of this variation on the nature of flow

Specifications:
1. Outer Diameter of the tube (d) = 38 mm
2. Length of the tube (L) = 500 mm
3. Duct size = 20cm 20cm 1m length
4. Number of the thermocouples = 8
5. Thermocouple number 8 reads the Ambient Temperature and is kept in the duct.
o

6. Temperature Indicator 0-300 C. Multi-channel type calibrated from iron constantan

o

thermocouples with compensation of ambient from 0-50 C.

7. Ammeter
8. Voltmeter
9. Dimmerstat
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required heat input (say 40
W, 60 W, 70 W).
2. Monitor the temperature T 1 to T 8 every ve minutes till steady state is reached.
3. Wait till the steady state is reached. This is conrmed from temperature readings (T 1 to

T 7 ). If they remain steady and do not register a change of more than 1 C per hour.
4. Measure the surface temperature at various points (T 1 to T 7 ).
5. Note the ambient temperature, T 8 .
6. Repeat the experiment for dierent heat inputs (say 40 W, 60 W, 70 W) by varying
dimmerstat position.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Switch o the ceiling fan before giving supply to set-up. This is to ensure the natural
convection heat transfer environment.
2. Adjust the temperature indicator to ambient level by using compensation screw before
starting the experiment (if needed).
3. Keep dimmerstat to zero volt position and increase it slowly.
4. Use proper range of Ammeter and Voltmeter.
5. Operate the change over switch of temperature indicator gently from one position to
other, i.e. from position 1 to 8 position.
6. Never exceed 80 W power.
CALCULATIONS:
1. Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coecient neglecting radiation losses
by experimental method.
q
Average heat transfer coefficient, havg =
As (Ts Ta )
where,
q = rate of heating = V I (watts)
A s = surface area of vertical cylinder rod = d l (m2)
T +T +T +T +T +T +T
T s = Average surface temperature = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (C)
7
T a = ambient temperature = T 8 (C)
2. Calculate and plot (Figure 4) the variation of the local heat transfer coecient along the
height of the tube using temperature T = T 1 to T 7 and equation (1).
3. Compare the experimentally obtained values with the theoretically predictions of the correlations (4) and (5). All the fluid properties are to be evaluated at mean film temperature.
UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR ANALYSIS:
The uncertainty analysis is a long and iterative process that takes the errors in the measured
quantities to determine the uncertainty in the computed quantities. For this experiment all the
temperatures represent the measured values. The thermocouples had a resolution of 0.1 C.

These quantities are used to calculate the uncertainties related to these experiments. To obtain
the uncertainty from the accuracy of the instruments a mathematical formula is used to calculate
how these individual errors compound to give the net error in a calculation. The equation used
for this purpose is,
2

F
F

=
( F ) ( x1 ) + ( x2 ) + ...... + ( xi )
x1
x2

xi

(6)

where F is the calculated quantity, is the absolute error and x 1 , x 2 , etc are the measured
variables.
Also, this experiment is based on the lumped capacitance assumption. The experiment has
been designed such that the resistance to heat conduction inside each specimen is much smaller
than the external convective resistance. So, the internal temperature variation inside the solid test
specimen will be small. Let T i represent the instantaneous temperature of the specimen at
timet. Then, the instantaneous heat transfer rate from the specimen can be expressed as:
.
.
.

dT
(7)
Q total =
Q conv + Q=
mC p i =
h
A (Ti Ta ) + A (Ti 4 Ta 4 )
rad
dt
where m is the mass of the specimen, C p is the specific heat of stainless steel, A is the surface
area of the specimen. The specimen cools by convection and radiation. Thus, in Eq. (7) the total
heat transfer rate from the specimen is set equal to the sum of the convective and radiative heat
transfer rates at the surface. Equation (7) can be solved for the average convective heat transfer
coefficient, h :

dTi
A (Ti 4 Ta 4 )
dt
(8)
h=
A (Ti Ta )
Over each time interval, the cylinder cools from temperature T i to temperature T i+1 . Using the
measured temperature at these time intervals, the cooling rate can be approximated as:
mC p

dTi Ti +1 Ti
(9)
=
dt
t
Over this time interval, the average specimen temperature is taken to be T=
(Ti + Ti +1 ) 2 . Using
i
this average temperature and the cooling rate from Eq. (6), the actual average convective heat
transfer coefficient can be calculated using Eq. (5) as:

T T
mC p i +1 i A Ti 4 Ta 4
t
h=
A Ti Ta

(10)

where, T=
(Ti + Ti +1 ) 2 is the average surface temperature of the time interval.
i
Equation (10) gives the value of measured heat transfer coefficient including radiatiative heat
transfer coefficient. The error can be calculated by taking difference of measured values and the
predicted or theoretical calculated values.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Some typical experimental results are shown in Figure 4 for two dierent heater inputs.

Figure 6. Some typical experimental results

The heat transfer coecient is having a maximum value at the bottom of the vertical cylinder as
expected because of the just starting of the building of the boundary layer and it decreases as
expected in the upward direction due to thickening of the boundary layer which is a laminar one.
This trend is maintained up to half the height of the cylinder and beyond that there is little
variation in the value of the local heat transfer coecient because of the formation of transition
and turbulent boundary layers. The last point shows somewhat increase in the value of h which
is attributed to end-loss causing a temperature drop.
The comparison of average heat transfer coefficient is also made with predicted values by
using correlation (4) and (5). It is found that the predicted values are somewhat less than the
experimental values due to heat loss by radiation.
Transfer of energy can occur by three dierent modes: conduction, convection and
radiation. Furthermore, there are two subtypes of convection: forced and natural convection.
Forced convection refers to convection in a system with bulk ow while natural convection
describes a system where the motion of the uid arises primarily from naturally occurring
density gradients. The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and the uid in convection is
given by the Newtons rate equation:
q conv = h A ((T heater T a )
(11)

where q conv is the rate of convective heat transfer, A is the area normal to direction of
heat ow, h is the convective heat transfer coecient. Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of
heat by electromagnetic radiation. Radiant heat transfer diers from conduction and convection
in that no medium is required for its propagation. Energy transfer by radiation is at a maximum
when the two surfaces exchanging energy are separated by a vacuum. The basic equation for heat
transfer by radiation is:
q rad = A T

(12)
where q rad is the rate of radiant heat transfer, A is the area of the radiant body, is
8

the Stefan-Boltzmann constant which is 5.67610 W/m K, is the emissivity, and T is the
temperature of the heat absorbing body.
When thermal radiation falls upon a body, part is absorbed by the body in the form of
heat, part is reected back into space, and part may be transmitted through the body. A black
body is dened as an object that absorbs all radiant energy and reects none. The ratio of the
emissive power of a surface to that of a black body is called emissivity and for black body,
=1.0. A radiation heat transfer coecient, h r is analogous to the convective heat transfer
coecient, is given as:
q rad = h 1 A 1 (T 1 T 2 )
(13)
where q rad is the rate of heat transfer by radiation,A 1 is the surface area of the radiant
body, T 1 is the temperature of the radiant body and T 2 is the temperature of the heat
absorbing body. To obtain an expression for h r we equate equations, and obtain the following
equation:
hr =

(T14 T2 4 )

(14)

T1 T2

q = q conv + q rad

(15)
2

The convective heat transfer coecient is generally between 0-25 W/m K and for forced
2

convection 25-500 W/m K. In calculating the convective heat transfer coecient, the average
temperature was used, but the air temperature varies in the tube. As a result, the convective heat
transfer coecient calculated is articially too low. A better approach would be to take the logmean temperature r to integrate along the length of the tube to nd the convective heat transfer
coecient.
REFERENCES:
1. Sukhatme, Dr. S.P., A textbook of Heat Transfer, Universities Press
2. Holman, J.P., Heat transfer, McGraw Hill publication
3. Cengel, Y.A., Heat transfer a practical approach, McGraw Hill publication

4. Incropera, F.P., and Dewitt., D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.

DATA SHEET

OBSERVATIONS:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Outer diameter of the cylinder (d) = 38 mm.

Length of the cylinder (l) = 500 mm.
Voltage = V = (Volts), Current = I = (Amperes)
Input to the heater (q) = V I

Date of Experiment:
Name and Roll no. of students:
Set#1
V=

I=

q=
Surface Temperature (C)

Time(min)
T1

T2

T3

Set#2
V=

I=

q=

T4

T5

T6

T7

Ambient
Temp (C)
T8

Surface Temperature (C)

T7

Ambient
Temp (C)
T8

T7

Ambient
Temp (C)
T8

Time(min)
T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

Set#3
V=

I=

q=
Surface Temperature (C)

Time(min)
T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

Summary of results:
Time
step

Measured Average
Heat Transfer Coeff.

Predicted Average Heat

Transfer Coeff.

Difference between
measured & predicted h

h (W/m2K)

h (W/m2K)

(%)

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

EXPERIMENT 3B
Objective
To observe unsteady state conduction of heat to the centre of a solid shape when a
step change is applied to the temperature at the surface of the shape.
Method
Solid shapes of different size, form and material of construction are allowed to
stabilize at room temperature then dropped into a bath of hot water. The change in
temperature at the centre of each shape is continuously logged using a PC
connected to the HT10X / HT10XC.
Equipment Required
HT17 Unsteady State Heat Transfer Accessory
TM
PC running Windows 98 or later with available USB socket
HT10X Heat Transfer Service Unit with IFD5 option
or
HT10XC Computer Compatible Heat Transfer Service Unit
Optional Equipment
Laboratory stands with clamps.
Equipment Set-up
Before proceedings with the exercise ensure that the equipment has been prepared as
follows:
Locate the hot water bath of the HT17 Unsteady State Heat Transfer accessory
alongside the HT10X/HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit on a suitable bench.
Ensure that the lid of the hot water bath is fitted and the inlet at the base of the
flow duct is connected to the outlet of the circulating pump using flexible tubing.
Ensure that the drain valve on the water bath is closed then fill the bath with
clean water until the level is coincident with the centre of the holes in the
vertical flow duct as shown in the diagram below.
Connect thermocouple T1 from the flow duct inside the water bath (lead exits via
a grommet in the lid of the water bath) to socket T1 on the front of the
HT10X/HT10XC service unit.
Connect thermocouple T2 on the shape holder to socket T2 on the front of the
HT10X/HT10XC service unit.
Connect thermocouple T3 inside the large brass shape to socket T3 on the front
of the HT10X/HT10XC service unit.
Set the VOLTAGE CONTROL potentiometer to minimum (anticlockwise) and
the selector switch to MANUAL then connect the power lead from the circulating
pump alongside the water heating tank to the socket marked Output 2 at the rear
of the service unit.

A-1

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Note: The voltage control potentiometer is used to set the speed of the circulating
pump on this equipment NOT the power to the heating element.
Connect the power lead from the water bath (terminated at the connection box
alongside the heating tank) to an electrical supply.
Ensure that the service unit is connected to an electrical supply.
Connect the HT10X/HT10XC service unit to the PC using the USB cable provided,
and run the HT17 software. Select Exercise A.
Click on the Sample menu from the top toolbar, and select Configure
In the Sample Configuration menu that appears, check that Sampling Operation is
set to Automatic with a Sample Interval of 1 secs and Continuous duration. Change
the settings if required. Close the Sample Configuration window by selecting OK.
Place the various shapes in a suitable location where the metal bodies can stabilize
at room temperature. If laboratory stands/clamps are available then the shapes can
be suspended from the stands via the insulated rod attached to each shape.
Always pick up the metal shapes via the insulated rod. Heat transferred to the
shape by holding in the hand will delay the stabilization of the shape at a uniform
temperature.
Note: Since the water bath will take approximately 40 minute to heat to the
required temperature it is suggested that this is switched on immediately as
described in the Procedure section.

A-2

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Theory/Background
This exercise is qualitative only and intended to show the transient/time-dependent
behaviour of a system where temperature varies with time and position. This
condition, referred to as unsteady-state, exists when a solid shape is immersed in the
hot water and continues until the whole of the shape reaches equilibrium with the
temperature of the water.
When the step change is applied a temperature gradient exists between the surface of
the shape at the water temperature and the centre of the shape which is at ambient
temperature. Heat flows by conduction through the shape until the whole of the shape
is at the same temperature as the water.
Note: The plots of temperature versus time obtained in this exercise can be used in later
exercises to perform a quantitative analysis of the unsteady state heat transfer related
to the size, form and conductivity of the solid shape.
Procedure
Refer to the Operation section if you need details of the instrumentation and how to
operate it.
Switch on the front Mains switch (if the panel meters do not illuminate check the
RCD and any other circuit breakers at the rear of the service unit, all switches at the
rear should be up).
Check that the water heater is filled with water then switch on the electrical supply to
the water heater (switch on the RCD which is located on the connection box adjacent
to the water heater).
Ensure that the red light is illuminated on the water heater, indicating that electrical
power is connected to the unit.
Adjust the thermostat on the water heater to setting '4' and check that the red light is
illuminated indicating that power is connected to the heating element.
Set the voltage to the circulating pump to 12 Volts, using the control box on the mimic
diagram software screen.
Allow the temperature of the water to stabilize (monitor the changing temperature T1
on the software screen).
o

The water must be in the range 80 - 90 C for satisfactory operation. If outside this
range adjust the thermostat and monitor T1 until the temperature is satisfactory.
Attach the large brass cylinder to the shape holder (insert the insulated rod into the
holder and secure using the transverse pin) but do not hold the metal shape or subject
it to a change in temperature. Check that the thermocouple attached to the shape is
connected to T3 on the HT10X/HT10XC. Check that the thermocouple wire is located
in the slot at the top of the shape holder.
Check that the temperature of the shape has stabilized (same as air temperature T2).
Switch off the electrical supply to the water bath (switch off the RCD on the
connection box) to minimize fluctuations in temperature if the thermostat switches
on/off.

A-3

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Start continuous data logging by selecting the

icon on the software toolbar.

Allow the temperature of the shape to stabilise at the hot water temperature
(monitor the changing temperature T3 on the mimic diagram software screen).
When temperature T3 has stabilized, select the
Select the

icon to end data logging.

icon to create a new results sheet.

Switch on the electrical supply to the water bath to allow the thermostat to maintain
the water temperature.
Remove the large brass cylinder from the shape holder then fit the stainless steel
cylinder.
Repeat the above procedure to obtain the transient response for the stainless steel
cylinder. Remember to create a new results sheet at the end, ready for the next set of
results.
Remove the stainless steel cylinder from the shape holder then fit the small brass
cylinder. Remember to create a new results sheet at the end, ready for the next set of
results.
Repeat the above procedure to obtain the transient response for the small brass
cylinder. Remember to create a new results sheet at the end, ready for the next set of
results.
If time permits the response of the other shapes can be determined using the same
procedure as above.
Results and Calculations
The transient behavior of the various shapes is best analysed graphically using graphs
of temperature versus time which you have obtained.
Graphs can be plotted from the Graph screen of the software. Select the graph screen
using the
icon, then select the
icon to open the graph configuration screen.
The available results are listed on the left. Highlight the first required series (the
temperature T3 for the large brass cylinder) and use the red arrow button to transfer
it to Series on Primary Axis, then select OK. The graph may be printed to a
printer (if one is available) by selecting the icon . To print the graph from the next
set of results, first highlight the first set and use the red arrow button to transfer it
back to Available Series before selecting the next set as before.
You should observe the following features on the graphs obtained:
The instantaneous change in temperature T3 corresponds to the instant at which the
shape is immersed in the hot water and can be taken as time = 0 seconds for each
shape.
Using the large brass cylinder as a reference, the small brass cylinder stabilizes faster
because the distance between the centre and the surface of the cylinder is
considerably reduced.

A-4

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Because the stainless steel cylinder has a lower conductivity and lower diffusivity than
the brass cylinder it takes much longer to stabilize than the brass cylinder of equivalent
size.
These findings are repeated if the spheres or slabs of different material are compared.
Conclusion
You have observed how, in a solid shape, temperature changes with time and position
while heat flows from the hot boundary to heat the cooler material inside of the shape.
This condition of unsteady-state heat transfer exists until the temperature is constant
throughout the shape; no temperature gradient exists within the shape when a
condition of steady-state is achieved. The time taken for the temperature to stabilise at
the centre of the shape depends on the size, form and the material of the solid shape.

A-5

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Objective
Using analytical transient-temperature/heat flow charts to determine the conductivity
of a solid cylinder from the measurements taken on a similar cylinder but having a
different conductivity.
Method
Cylinders of the same size but different material are allowed to stabilise at room
temperature then dropped into a bath of hot water. The change in temperature at the
centre of one cylinder is used to determine the heat transfer coefficient for both of the
cylinders. This result may then be used to determine the conductivity of the second
cylinder.
Note: If results are available from Exercise A then this exercise can be completed using
those results. Refer to the Theory section of this exercise followed by the Results and
Calculations.
Equipment Required
HT17 Unsteady State Heat Transfer Accessory
PC running Windows

TM

98 or later with available USB socket

HT10X Heat Transfer Service Unit with IFD5 option

or
HT10XC Computer Compatible Heat Transfer Service Unit
Optional Equipment
Laboratory stands with clamps.
Equipment Setup
Before proceedings with the exercise ensure that the equipment has been prepared as follows:
Locate the hot water bath of the HT17 Unsteady State Heat Transfer accessory
alongside the HT10X/HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit on a suitable bench.
Ensure that the lid of the hot water bath is fitted and the inlet at the base of the
flow duct is connected to the outlet of the circulating pump using flexible tubing.
Ensure that the drain valve on the water bath is closed then fill the bath with clean
water until the level is coincident with the centre of the holes in the vertical flow
duct as shown in the diagram below.
Connect thermocouple T1 from the flow duct inside the water bath (lead exits via
a grommet in the lid of the water bath) to socket T1 on the front of the
HT10X/HT10XC service unit.

B-1

Connect thermocouple T2 on the shape holder to socket T2 on the front of the

HT10X/HT10XC service unit.
Connect thermocouple T3 inside the large brass shape to socket T3 on the front
of the HT10X/HT10XC service unit.
Set the VOLTAGE CONTROL potentiometer to minimum (anticlockwise) and
the selector switch to MANUAL then connect the power lead from the
circulating pump alongside the water heating tank to the socket marked Output 2
at the rear of the service unit.
Note: The voltage control potentiometer is used to set the speed of the circulating pump
on this equipment NOT the power to the heating element.
Connect the power lead from the water bath (terminated at the connection box
alongside the heating tank) to an electrical supply.
Ensure that the service unit is connected to an electrical supply.
Connect the HT10XC service unit to the PC using the USB cable provided, and
run the HT17 software. Select Exercise B.
Click on the Sample menu from the top toolbar, and select Configure
In the Sample Configuration menu that appears, check that Sampling Operation is
set to Automatic with a Sample Interval of 1 secs and Continuous duration. Change
the settings if required. Close the Sample Configuration window by selecting OK.

B-2

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Place the various shapes in a suitable location where the metal bodies can stabilise
at room temperature. If laboratory stands/clamps are available then the shapes can
be suspended from the stands via the insulated rod attached to each shape.
Always pick up the metal shapes via the insulated rod. Heat transferred to the
shape by holding in the hand will delay the stabilisation of the shape at a uniform
temperature.
Note: Since the water bath will take approximately 40 minute to heat to the required
temperature it is suggested that this is switched on immediately as described in the
Procedure.
Theory/Background
Analytical solutions are available for temperature distribution and heat flow as a
function of time and position for simple solid shapes which are suddenly subjected
to convection with a fluid at a constant temperature. A typical chart is included
below which is constructed for a long cylinder of radius b where the whole of the
surface is suddenly subjected to a change in temperature (the effect of the end faces
is considered to be negligible).
To use the charts it is necessary to evaluate appropriate dimensionless parameters as
follows:

T ( r , t ) T
= dimensionless temperature
Ti T

Bi =

hb
= Biot number
k

t
b2

= dimensionless time or Fourier number

Where
2 -1

= Thermal diffusivity of the cylinder (m s )

h = Heat transfer coefficient (Wm

-2 o -1

C )
-1 o -1

k = Thermal conductivity of the cylinder (Wm C )

t = Time since step change (seconds)
o
T(0,t) = Temperature at centre of cylinder (=T3 at time t) ( C)
o
Ti = Initial temperature of cylinder (T3 at t=0) ( C)
o

T = Temperature of water bath (T1) ( C)

b = Radius of cylinder (m)
r = Radial position within the cylinder (at axis r = 0) (m)

Since the flow of water vertically upwards through the duct is constant for all of the
measurements, the heat transfer coefficient h will remain constant for each shape.

B-3

Chart for Long Cylinder

B-4

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Procedure
Refer to the Operation section in the HT17 instruction manual if you need details of
the instrumentation and how to operate it.
Switch on the front Mains switch (if the panel meters do not illuminate check the RCD
and any other circuit breakers at the rear of the service unit, all switches at the rear
should be up).
Check that the water heater is filled with water then switch on the electrical supply to
the water heater (switch on the RCD which is located on the connection box adjacent
to the water heater).
Ensure that the red light is illuminated on the water heater indicating that electrical
power is connected to the unit.
Adjust the thermostat on the water heater to setting '4' and check that the red light is
illuminated indicating that power is connected to the heating element.
Set the voltage to the circulating pump to 12 Volts using the voltage control box on the
mimic diagram software display.
Allow the temperature of the water to stabilise (monitor the changing temperature T1).
o

The water must be in the range 80 - 90 C for satisfactory operation. If outside this
range adjust the thermostat and monitor T1 until the temperature is satisfactory.
Attach the large brass shape to the holder (insert the insulated rod into the holder and
secure using the transverse pin) but do not hold the metal shape or subject it to a
change in temperature. Check that the thermocouple attached to the shape is connected
to T3 on the HT10X/HT10XC. Check that the thermocouple wire is located in the slot
at the top of the shape holder.
Check that the temperature of the shape has stabilised (same as air temperature T2).
Switch off the electrical supply to the water bath (switch off the RCD on the connection
box) to minimise fluctuations in temperature if the thermostat switches on/off).
Start continuous data logging by selecting the

icon on the software toolbar.

Allow the temperature of the shape to stabilise at the hot water temperature (monitor the
changing temperature T3 on the mimic diagram software screen).
When temperature T3 has stabilised, select the
Select the

icon to end data logging.

icon to create a new results sheet.

Switch on the electrical supply to the water bath to allow the thermostat to maintain the
water temperature.
Remove the large brass cylinder from the shape holder then fit the stainless steel cylinder.

B-5

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Repeat the above procedure to obtain the transient response for the stainless steel cylinder.
Remember to create a new results sheet afterwards ready for the next set of results.
Remove the stainless steel cylinder from the shape holder then fit the small brass cylinder.
Repeat the above procedure to obtain the transient response for the small brass cylinder.
If time permits the response of the other shapes can be determined using the same
procedure as above. These additional results can be used in exercise HT17C.
Results and Calculations
Determine the value for h using the result obtained for the brass cylinder as follows:
Plot the first graph using the Graph screen of the software. Select the graph screen using
the

icon, then select the icon to open the graph configuration screen. The available

results are listed on the left. Highlight the first required series (the temperatures T2 and
T3 for the large brass cylinder) and use the red arrow button to transfer them to Series
on Primary Axis, then select OK. The graph may be printed to a printer (if available)
by selecting the icon.
Establish where t = 0 (i.e. T2 step changes from room temperature to T
Choose a point on the temperature/time plot for the brass cylinder and measure the
corresponding values of temperature T3 and time t. (the point should be close to the final
temperature e.g. 2 or 3 degrees away from the final temperature).
Calculate knowing Ti (T3 at t=0), T , and T3 ie. T(r=0, t)
-5

2 -1

Calculate knowing , t and b (assume = 3.7 x 10 m s for brass)

Read value for 1/Bi on chart using the calculated values for and
-1 o -1

Calculate h knowing Bi, b and k (assume k = 121 Wm

C for brass)

This value of h will be the same for the stainless steel cylinder since the size, shape,
surface finish and water velocity are constant.
Plot the graph for the stainless steel cylinder: first highlight the results for the brass
cylinder and use the red arrow button to transfer them back to Available Series. Then
select the results for the stainless steel cylinder from the available series, and transfer
them to the primary Y-axis. Select OK, then print the graph (if a printer is available).
Choose a point on the temperature/time plot for the stainless steel cylinder and measure
the corresponding values of temperature T at time t. (the point should be close to the final
temperature e.g. 2 or 3 degrees away from he final temperature).
Calculate knowing Ti (T3 at t=0), T , and T3 i.e. T(r=0, t)
-5

2 -1

Calculate knowing , t and b (assume = 0.6 x 10 m s for stainless steel)

Read value for 1/Bi on chart using the calculated values for and

B-6

UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

Calculate k knowing Bi, b and h (use the calculated value for h obtained using results
-1 o -1

from the brass cylinder. The typical value of k for stainless steel is 25Wm

C )

Conclusion
You have experienced the use of analytical transient-temperature/heat flow charts to
analyse the temperature changes between the surface and the centre of a solid cylinder.
Relevant dimensionless parameters are used to effect the analysis.
Note:

The use of charts, as demonstrated in this exercise, is restricted to simple regular shapes
with constant thermal properties. Where bodies have an irregular shape or the surface is not
maintained at a uniform temperature then the problems must be solved using a numerical
approach such as finite-difference or finite element methods.

B-7