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st
f (t ) L1[ F ( s )]
1
2j
0 j
F ( s )e st ds
(3)
[ f (t ) g (t )]e dt f (t )e dt g (t )e dt F ( s ) G ( s )
(It is shown that because integration is a linear operator, the Laplace
transform is also a linear operator).
Thus, the Laplace transform of the sum of two functions is the sum of
the individual transforms of the functions:
L[f(t)+g(t)]=F(s)+G(s)
2. The Laplace Transform of a Funtion Multiplied with a Constant
L[ f (t ) g (t )]
st
st
st
st
st
k 1
k 1
L[ Ck f k (t )] Ck L[ f k (t )]
L[
d
f (t )]e st dt
dt
d
[ f (t )]dt ; du s e st dt ; v f (t ) in:
dt
u dv u v /
gives:
0
L[
vdu
d
f (t )] f (t ) e st / 0 s f (t )e st dt
0
dt
or:
L[
d
f (t )] sF ( s ) f (0)
dt
(*)
L[ f (t )] sF ( s ) f (0)
Thus:
( n 1)
(0)
L[ f (t ) dt ]
a
f ( z ) dz e st dt
gives:
T
L[ f (t ) dt ]
a
1 st t
1
e f ( z ) dz /
f (t )e st dt
0
a
0
s
s
L[ f (t ) dt ]
a
1
1 0
F ( s ) f (t )dt
s
s a
f (t )dt f (t )dt / t 0
The flux set up around an inductor during the tie interval 0<t<0- is
the value (0) which derives from Faradays law(or from the induction
law):
0
vc (0) uc (0)
q (0 ) 1
vdt / t 0
C
C
5.Shifting Theorem
h(t )
is (for t 0):
F ( s ) L[ h(t )] k e st e ( s ) t k e ( s ) t / s
k
s
et e st d
e ( s ) t
s
e ( s ) t
1
s
,for
Re{s}>Re{ }
3) The Laplace transformation of Diracs impulse. The Dirac impulse
is defined through a passing-to-limit process, starting from the rectangular
impulse of unitary area:
1
,0 t
(t) lim .
0 ,0 t 0 or t
Thus:
1
1 st
e dt lim
e st dt
0
0
F ( s ) L[ (t )] (t ) e st
0
1 1
e st
0
s
lim
t 0
1
e st 1
(e s 1) lim
1
0 ( st )
s
lim
0
1
s2
e t
1
s
t e t
1
(s ) 2
sin t
cos t
s 2 2
s
s 2
2
s 2
s
2
s 2
1
s sin cos
2
s 2
1
s cos sin
2
s 2
2 s
(s 2 2 ) 2
2
sht
cht
sin(t )
cos(t )
t sin t
t cos t
s2 2
(s 2 2 ) 2
(s ) 2 2
s
(s ) 2 2
(s ) 2 2
s
(s ) 2 2
e t sin t
e t cos t
e t sht
e t cht
df
] s L[ f (t )] f (0 )
dt
df
] s L[ f (t )]
dt
dn f
] s n L[ f (t )] s n1 f (0) s n2 f (0) ... f ( n1) (0)
dt n
1
F (s)
L[ f (t )]
s
s
of f(t)
4. The Delay Theorem
If F(s) is the Laplace transformed of f(t) and we define function g(t):
g (t ) f (t )
then:
L[ g (t )] e s L[ f (t )] e s F ( s )
L[ f ( ) g (t ) d ] L[ f (t ) g (t ) d ] F ( s )G ( s )
s 0
M ( s)
N ( s)
N(s)
M(s) and N(s) are polynomials with real or complex coefficients.
3.1 The first Heavisides Formula(With simple poles)
If sk (k=1,2,,n) are the roots(different between them) of the
equation: N(s)=0,(or the simple poles of F(s)) then F(s) can be
decomposed in simple fractions:
F (s)
k 1
n
Ck
M ( sk )
1
s sk k 1 N ( sk ) s sk
f (t )
k 1
M ( sk ) sk t
e
N ( sk )
The previous relation is called also the first form of the development
theorem or the first Heavisides theorem.
3.2 The second Heavisides Theorem
If one of the denominators roots is zero ( sn =0), so we have a
pole in the origin, the polynomial N(s) = s R(s), in this case:
f (t )
M (0) n1 M ( sk )
e sk t
N (0) k 1 sk R( sk )
F ( s)
lim ( nk 1)
l
s sk ds
N (s)
k 1 l 1 ( nk 1)!
( s sk )
from where:
r nk
d ( nk 1) ( s sk ) nk M ( s) l 1 sk t
1
t e
F ( s)
lim
ssk ds ( nk 1)
(
l
1
)!
(
n
1
)!
N
(
s
)
k 1 l 1
k
diL
dt
I L (s)
iL
uL
sL
U L (s)
(a)
eL L i L ( 0 )
(b)
Fig 9
Applying the derivation theorem (paragraph 9) to the previous
relation, we find, in the Laplace transformation domain:
U L L s I L ( s ) iL (0) s L I L ( s ) eL
(9.)
or:
U L eL s L I L (s )
(9.*)
where:
(fig 9b)) eL L iL (0 )
(9.**)
The supplementary source which appears, eL , given by (9.**) is due
to the initial current through coil and has its orientation. It is series
connected with the coil (rel.(9.*)).
In the relation (9) if initially the coil is not pierced by an electric
current ( i L (0 ) 0 ), it means that the supplementary source, eL from the
operational scheme vanishes ( eL 0 ) and so, from (9)the relation between
voltage and current is (in Laplace transformations domain):
U L ( s) ( s L) I L ( s)
(9)
Under these circumstances we can define the coil operational
impedance:
ZL
U L (s)
sL
I L (s)
(9)
(9)
or:
U1 ( s ) L1 i1 (0 ) M 12 i2 (0 ) sL1 I1 ( s ) sM 12 I 2 ( s )
U1 ( s ) eL1 eM12 sL1 I1 ( s ) sM 12 I 2 ( s )
12
(9...)
(9)
(9)
(9)
1 (0 ) L (0 ) M (0 ) L1 i1 (0 ) M 12 i2 (0 )
(9)
then in series with the coil will appear a source of electromotive voltage
equal to the initial total flow of the first coil (previously to the beginning of
the transient process).
In the absence of the initial currents from the 2 coils (i 1(0-)=0), the
relation (9) because:
U1 ( s ) sL I1 ( s ) sM 12 I 2 ( s )
(9)
We can define the own operational impedances, respectively the
impedances of mutual coupling as follows:
- the own operational impedance of mutual coupling between the
first and the second coil:
1
Z L1 ( s )
U1 ( s )
I1 ( s )
12
sL1
I 2 ( s ) 0
(9)
U1 ( s)
I 2 ( s)
sM 12
(9)
I1 ( s ) 0
whence:
U 2 ( s ) L2 i2 (0 ) M 21 i1 (0 ) sL2 I 2 ( s ) sM 21 I1 ( s )
(9)
21
2 (0 ) L2 i2 (0 ) M 21 i1 (0 )
(9)
the operational impedances when 2 (0 ) 0 are obtained from:
U 2 ( s ) sL2 i2 (0 ) sM 21 i`1 (0 )
(9)
and are:
-the own operational impedance of the second coil:
Z L2 ( s )
U 2 ( s)
I 2 ( s)
sL2
I1( s ) 0
(9)
-the impedance of mutual coupling between the second coil and the
first coil:
Z M 21 ( s )
U 2 (s)
I1 ( s )
sM 12
(9)
I1 ( s ) 0
M 12 = M 21 = M
Z M12 ( s ) Z M 21 ( s ) sM 12 sM 21
and then:
1
iC dt uC (0 )
C
(9)
.
fig. 9
Applying the theorem of the linear combinations and the
theorem of integration to the relation (9) , we find:
U C ( s)
1 I C ( s ) uC ( 0 )
1
u (0 )
I C (s) C
C
s
s
sC
s
U C (s)
uC (0 )
1
I C (s)
s
sC
(9)
or:
(9)
eC (0)
uC ( 0 )
s
U C ( s)
1
I C ( s ) sC
(9)
Z C (s)
1
sC
Observation
We can symbolize the initial sources from coils, respectively
from capacitors, using the functions (t ) and h(t) (in time-domain)
E L L iL (0 ) (t )
EC uC (0 ) h(t )
(9)
U R ( s)
I R (s)
(9)
k( na )
(t ) ja (t )
na 1,2,..., n
(9)
K( na )
(s) J a (s)
na 1,2,..., n
(9)
K( na )
( s) 0
na 1,2,..., n
(9)
p
di
di
1
j
K(O ) Rkik Lk dtk j1 LKj dt C iK dt uCK (0 ) KO eK
k
p
p
j K
Op 1,2,..., n
(9)
To pass the relation (9) in the operational domain, we shall
use the theorem of linear combinations, the derivation theorem, the
integration theorem () obtaining:
K( O p )
uC ( 0 )
1
I K ( s) K
] EK
sCk
s
KO p
O p 1,2,..., n
K( O p )
[( RK sLK
j K
sL
j 1
j K
p
1
) I K ( s ) sLKj I j ( s )] [ E K ( s ) LK iK (0 )
sCk
j 1
KO p
Kj
i j (0 )
u CK ( 0 )
s
[E
KOp
(9)
j 1
j K
O p 1,2,..., n
u CK (0 )
s
E LKJ ( s ) LKj i j (0 )
Exemplification
Determine how will vary the voltage between terminals represented in
the figure at the breaker K closing when t=0 (fig. 9)
.
Fig 9.
Solution
Before the k- breaker closing, because the supplying is made from a
source of continuous voltage with parameters U 0 , R0 and the regime
U0
R0
R
2
U0
R 2 R0
U0
R 2 R0
U0
S
sL I 2 R I1 L (0 )
R0 I 2 RI1
whence:
U0
R L (0 ) R0 2 R
S
I2
R R0 sL R0 2 R
The voltage
U2
is in this case:
U 2 ( s) sM I 2 M M (0 ) M R
U 0 R0 i1 (0 )
R R0 sL ( R0 2 R )
M
R R R0
u2 (t ) U 0
e
L R 2 R0 R0 2 R
t
s1
1
L R0 2 R
R R0
R R0
L R0 2 R
(9)
(9)
whence:
itr (0 ) i (0 ) i p (0 )
(9)
The relation (9) reveals that the operational source owed to the coil
initial flow is obtained (to determined only the current transient
Solution
After the opening of k, a damped transient regime is established,
which under circuit steady operating regime conditions turn into a
permanently sinusoidal one, after a certain time. We search for the current
through the circuit using the above mentioned algorithm.
For this aim we use the relation:
i (t ) itr (t ) i p (t )
(9)
i p (t ) being the component of permanent (sinusoidal) regime, is determined
using the calculus in complex. Thus the circuit equation (is after the opening
of k):
Ri
Ldi 1
idt u (t )
dt
C
(9)
or, in complex:
R I j L I
1
I U
j C
(9)
with:
(9)
U U e j
whence we get:
I
or:
U
1
R j L
(9)
i (t ) 2
R 2 L
sin(t arctg
1
C ) 2 I sin(t )
R
(9)
with the RMS value of the (sinusoidal) permanent current:
U
I 2
1
R L
(9)
1
C
R
(9)
U
R L
2
where:
arctg
I1 2
sin(t 1 )
(9)
L
;
R
U
R L
2
(9)
At t=0 we get
i (0 ) iL (0 ) 2 I L sin( 1 ) 2
U
R 2 L
sin arctg
(9...)
In these circumstances, with (9),(9) and (9) we get:
itr (0 ) iL (0 ) iP (0 ) 2
R 2 L
sin arctg
sin arctg
R
1
C
R
(9)
R 2 L
because iP (0 ) is obtained
R L
L 2
sin arctg
R
1
R L
sin arctg
L 2U I1 sin( 1 ) I sin( )
1
C
R
(9)
R sL
eL
1
I tr
sC
s
(9)
whence:
eLtr
s
sC
R sL
eLtr
Ls 2 Rs
(9)
1
C
Symbolizing by:
R
(we call is damping constant)
2L
1
0
(resonance throb of the circuit
LC
2 0
RLC)
L ( s ) 2 2
eLtr
(9)
t
But Le sht ( s ) 2 2
(9)
then:
itr (t )
eLtr
e t sht
(9)
Then, the total current after the opening of k is (with (9) and (9))
i (t ) itr (t ) i p (t )
eLtr
e t sht
U
0
R 1
1
L
C
sin t arctg
R
(9)
R2
L
C
RC 2
L
C
0 involving:
eLtr
t e t
then:
i (t )
eLtr
eLtr
L
0
t e t 2 L sin(t )
(9)
In this case
0 and
then:
2 0 j 0 2 j
2
(9)
U 0 t
U 0 t
U
e sh j t
e j sh t 0 e t j sh t
j L
j L
L
(9)
whence, with (9) we get i(t):
i (t )
U 0 t
e j sh t 2 I sin( t )
L
(9)
In the regime from fig 9 a the currents and voltages have values
identical to those of the circuit from figure 9 a, irrespective of the position
k (open or closed) because its terminals have identical potentials. Also , the
regime from figure 9c is identical to that from figure 9b, because the
effect of the opposite sources is compensated, the initial conditions are
identical and the electromotive voltages have identical values, because the
quantities with the index are zero.
Then, if we should know the quantities u m (t ) of the permanent regime
of k before closing, then the quantities u m (t ) and im (t ) of the transient
regime performed at closing of the contact k can be determined adding to
(t ) and to im
(t ) the quantities u m
(t ) and i"m (t ) um
corresponding to the auxiliary regime for the scheme from figure 9 b:
u m (t ) u m (t ) um (t )
(9)
im (t ) im (t ) im (t )
(9)
Thus the problem of transient regime is reduced to the calculus of the
regime from figure 9b. the analyses of this transient regime assume then
the pasivising of the circuit sources ( eP (t ) 0 ) and the cancellation of the
initial values of the currents intensities ( im (0 ) 0 ) and of the voltages of
sides terminals ( u m (0 ) 0 ) and in series with the breaker k (which closes at
t=0) we introduce an idle source of electromotive voltage e0 equal to the
voltage u k (t ) at the breaker ends when this one closes(then the value of the
potential difference between the breaker contacts before the commutation
performing).
.9The Transient Regime Following to a Breaker k Opening
A judgment similar to those from the previous paragraph shows that at
a breaker k opening appears a regime in which the quantities have the same
expressions (9) and (9) if the quantities symbolized by correspond to
the regime when the breaker k is closed(before the commutation
performing), and the quantities u m (t ) and im (t ) correspond to the auxiliary
regime performed through the circuit passvisation, the considerations of
some zero initial conditions and the introduction in parallel with the contact
k (which was opened) of an idle source of current, I sk .
The current of this source is equal and of contrary sense to the current
ik (t ) which flows through the contact k before the switching (when k opens).
This algorithm is presented in figure 9a,b,c.
9Network Functions
fig 9...
For a dipolar circuit without internal independent sources and in zero
initial conditions, we can define the next input quantities (figure 9.):
a) the input operational impedance:
Z kk Z kk ( s )
U k ( s)
I k (s)
(9)
I k (s)
U k (s)
(9)
The input impedance and admittance are also called input operational
imittances, being kinked through the relation:
Ykk ( s )
(ii)
1
Z kk ( s )
(9)
U j (s)
I h ( s)
(9)
I j (s)
U h (s)
(9)
A jh
U j ( s)
U h (s)
(9)
All these quantities defined within this paragraph are also called
functions of circuit or network functions. The functions of circuit are also
called system functions or transfer functions, which in a wider sense are
defined as a ratio between the Laplace transformation of the output
quantity and the Laplace transformation of the input quantity:
.
Fig. 9.
H (s)
M e ( s)
M i (s)
(9)
Usually, H(s) is presented under the form of the ratio between two
polynomials:
H ( s)
M ( s)
N ( s)
(9)