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Practice Test 7
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Periodic Table
Answer Sheet
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Physical Sciences
Time: 100 minutes
Questions: 1-77
Most questions in the Physical Sciences test are organized into groups, each containing a descriptive passage.
After studying the passage, select the one best answer to each question in the group. Some questions are not
based on a descriptive passage and are also independent of each other. If you are not certain of an answer,
eliminate the alternatives that you know to be incorrect and then select an answer from the remaining
alternatives. Indicate your selected answer by marking the corresponding answer on your answer sheet. A
periodic table is provided for your use. You may consult it whenever you wish.
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for the MCAT hold the copyrights to the content of this Practice Test. Therefore, there can be no sharing or
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any questions about the use of the material in the Practice Test, please contact the MCAT Information Line
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He
4.0
10
1.0
3
Li
Be
Ne
6.9
9.0
10.8
12.0
14.0
16.0
19.0
20.2
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
23.0
24.3
27.0
28.1
31.0
32.1
35.5
39.9
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
39.1
37
40.1
38
45.0
39
47.9
40
50.9
41
52.0
42
54.9
43
55.8
44
58.9
45
58.7
46
63.5
47
65.4
48
69.7
49
72.6
50
74.9
51
79.0
52
79.9
53
83.8
54
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
85.5
55
87.6
56
88.9
57
91.2
72
92.9
73
95.9
74
(98)
75
101.1
76
102.9
77
106.4
78
107.9
79
112.4
80
114.8
81
118.7
82
121.8
83
127.6
84
126.9
85
131.3
86
Cs
Ba
La*
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
132.9
87
137.3
88
138.9
89
178.5
104
180.9
105
183.9
106
186.2
107
190.2
108
192.2
109
195.1
197.0
200.6
204.4
207.2
209.0
(209)
(210)
(222)
Fr
Ra
Ac
Unq
Unp
Unh
(223)
(226)
(227)
(261)
(262)
58
(263)
59
(262)
60
(265)
61
(267)
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
140.1
90
140.9
91
144.2
92
(145)
93
150.4
94
152.0
95
157.3
96
158.9
97
162.5
98
164.9
99
167.3
100
168.9
101
173.0
102
175.0
103
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
232.0
(231)
238.0
(237)
(244)
(243)
(247)
(247)
(251)
(252)
(257)
(258)
(259)
(260)
Th
Passage I
Thousands of tons of hydrazine (N2H4) are
produced each year for commercial uses, including
the production of agricultural chemicals. At room
temperature, hydrazine is a volatile liquid that exists
in hydrogen-bonded networks similar to those found
in liquid water. Hydrazine may be prepared by the
Raschig process, the reaction of ammonia with
sodium hypochlorite, as shown in Equation 1.
2NH3(g) + NaOCl(aq) N2H4(aq) + NaCl(aq) +
H2O()
Equation 1
Hydrazine usually is shipped as the hydrate (N2H4
H2O) because it is easier to handle and can be easily
dehydrated to form the anhydrous compound.
Hydrazine and its chemical derivatives are good
rocket propellants. For example, hydrazine reacts
with dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) to produce gaseous
nitrogen and water. Equation 2 shows the reaction
and the enthalpy change.
2 N2H4() + N2O4() 3 N2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
H = -1040 kJ mol-1
B)
C)
Equation 2
Some thermochemical data for hydrazine and
dinitrogen tetroxide are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of Hydrazine and Dinitrogen
Tetroxide at 298 K
Property
N2H4()
N2O4(g)
Hf (kJ mol-1)
50.6
9.2
-1
Gf (kJ mol )
149.2
97.9
-1
-1
S (J K mol )
121.2
304.3
D)
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Passage II
A gas of electrically charged and neutral particles is
called a plasma. Plasma physics is a broad term
applicable to such diverse areas as space physics,
gas lasers, gaseous electronics, and controlled
thermonuclear fusion.
A plasma has the ability to oscillate and propagate
waves. These waves can be excited by applying an
oscillating electric field to the plasma. The simplest
oscillation is a high-frequency oscillation of the
plasma electrons. Consider a plasma that is
electrically neutral, consisting of positive ions
immersed in a sea of electrons. If the electron
sea is slightly displaced from the ionic background,
electric fields act to restore the electrons to their
original equilibrium positions. The electron sea
subsequently moves toward the equilibrium
position, overshoots, and oscillates back and forth.
These oscillations are so rapid that the positive ions
seem to be fixed in the background (see Figure 1).
The frequency f at which these oscillations occur for
a given number density, n (electrons per cubic
meter), is
2
1/2
f = [kne /(m)]
1/2
9.0n
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A) 9 x 1018 Hz.
B) 9 x 1012 Hz.
C) 9 x 109 Hz.
D) 9 x 106 Hz.
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10
Passage III
Silicon, the second most abundant element in the
earths crust, is found combined with oxygen in a
variety of silicate minerals. The most common is
silica (SiO2), which is a network solid.
Silicon cannot be purified by electrolytic
techniques. When elemental potassium became
available in the nineteenth century, it was used in a
silicon purification procedure. Today, silicon is
produced commercially by the reaction of silica
with carbon or calcium carbide in an electric
furnace at 2000C (Equation 1). The product is
about 98% pure, with impurities of iron, oxygen,
aluminum, and other elements. Further purification
is achieved by halogenating the silicon, purifying
the resulting gas by fractional distillation, and then
reducing the halogenated silicon compound
(Equations 2-3).
SiO2(s) + 2 C(s) Si() + 2 CO(g)
Equation 1
Si(s) + 3 HCl(g) SiCl3H(g) + H2(g)
Equation 2
SiCl3H(g) + H2(g) Si(s) + 3 HCl(g)
3p __
3p _
3p __ _
3p
A) Ionic forces
B) Covalent bonds
C) Hydrogen bonds
D) van der Waals forces
A) is a rare element.
B) is too reactive to isolate easily.
C) exists in minerals that do not decompose easily.
D) does not crystallize.
Equation 3
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11
Passage IV
The production of electrical power via nuclear
fission reactions often provokes heated discussions
about nuclear waste disposal. In a typical uranium
fission, a uranium nucleus absorbs a neutron and
undergoes fission, as illustrated in the reaction
.
The superscript denotes the atomic mass and the
subscript the atomic number. The nucleus U-236
(i.e., 236U) decays immediately into two fission
fragments X and Y, along with the release of two or
three neutrons. Energy is produced in the fission
process by the conversion of nuclear mass into
energy. This conversion is described by Einsteins
famous relation E = mc2, where c is the speed of
light 3 x108 m/s, m is the mass that is converted,
and E the resulting energy released. An analysis of
the reaction shown reveals that about 1/1000 of the
original starting mass of U-235 is missing after the
reaction. This missing mass accounts for the energy
produced in the reaction. The fission fragments X
and Y constitute the radioactive waste from
uranium fission. These fragments then undergo
beta and/or gamma decay. The resulting fragments
themselves may be radioactive, resulting in further
decays until a stable isotope is reached. Hundreds
of years must pass before these radioactive
fragments decay to nonradioactive nuclei.
A) A1 + A2 = 92
B) A1 + A2 = 232
C) A1 + A2 = 233
D) A1 + A2 = 236
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12
Eo= +0.34 V
2 H2O O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e-
Eo = -1.23 V
A) Exactly 0.020 L
B) Somewhat more than 0.02 L because of the
space occupied by the individual gas molecules
C) Somewhat more than 0.02 L because of the
repulsions between the individual gas molecules
D) Somewhat more than 0.02 L because of the
increased number of collisions with the sides of
the container
26. If there is no air resistance, how far will a 2-kg
object fall from rest in 10 sec? (Note: Use g =
10 m/s2.)
A) 100 m
B) 250 m
C) 300 m
D) 500 m
27. When a light wave and a sound wave pass from
air to glass, what changes occur in their speeds?
A) Both speed up.
B) Both slow down.
C) Light speeds up; sound slows down.
D) Light slows down; sound speeds up.
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13
Passage V
When aqueous solutions of bromine and acetone are
mixed, the reaction shown by Equation 1 occurs.
Equation 1
Exprmnt
Number
[acetone]
M
[H+]
M
[Br2]
M
1.60
0.403
4.14 103
0.101
3.96 10
3.69 10
4.26 10
4.38 10
4.28 10
1 1
+ c
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3
4
5
6
0.80
0.40
0.80
1.60
0.80
0.202
0.403
0.202
0.202
5
[Br2]/t
M s1
rate
constant
k 105
28.0 106
4.35
2.85 10
3.52
2.94 10
3.65
12.9 10
4.00
12.7 10
3.93
5.99 10
3.70
14
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15
Passage VI
Cellular phones are commonly used by people who
are traveling away from home or on business. The
development of these phones combines many recent
innovations in technology. Simply described,
cellular phones behave like two-way radios with the
incoming voice data transmitted at one carrier
frequency and the outgoing voice data transmitted
at another frequency. This capability to send and
receive voice data on these two separate frequency
channels allows the person to hear and speak on the
phone at the same time. The information in these
channels is transmitted on radio-frequency
electromagnetic carrier waves, which travel well
through the air.
Cell-phone channels operate at frequencies ranging
between 824 MHz and 894 MHz. Each channel
requires a finite amount of frequency space, called
the bandwidth of the channel, and is set at 30 kHz.
Most cellular phones can transmit their signal with
between 0.6 watts and 3 watts of power. The cell
phone scans all of its channels when it is on to find
the channel with the highest signal intensity. The
phone communicates with a base station, which
typically covers an area of 10 square miles, called a
cell. A cellular city has many cells within it,
which have phone base stations to transmit and
receive cell-phone data. Because the size of a cell
is relatively small, it allows efficient
communication with relatively low power phones.
When a phone moves from cell to cell, its calls are
handled by a central switching office.
33. What is the total frequency range available for
cellular phone communications?
A) 30 kHz
B) 894 MHz
C) 70 MHz
D) 894.03 MHz
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16
Passage VII
A capacitor is a device that stores charge. The
voltage V across a capacitor and the charge q on the
capacitor are related by q = CV, where C is the
capacitance measured in farads, F (1.0 F = 1.0
coulomb per volt).
A student sets out to measure the capacitance using
the circuit of Figure 1.
Capacitors
Resistors
Batteries
A) I only
B) I and II only
C) I and III only
D) II and III only
42. The resistance of the variable resistor, R, at the
beginning of the discharge process is:
A) 2000 .
B) 3000 .
C) 4000 .
D) 6000 .
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17
Passage VIII
Many reactions of oxyanions (negative ions that
contain oxygen) involve the transfer of oxygen
atoms from one ion or molecule to another.
Reaction 1 shows an oxygen atom transfer that is
typical of an oxyanion reaction.
NO2- + OCl-
NO3- + Cl-
Keq = 1068
Reaction 1
Despite the favorable equilibrium constant, this
reaction is extremely slow. The reaction rate can be
increased by adding acid to the reaction solution.
When added, acid reacts with OCl-, forming HOCl.
HOCl allows the oxygen transfer to take place more
quickly because the hydrogen atom reduces the
charge on the oxygen atom, facilitating the breaking
of the O-Cl bond. The rate of this reaction,
Reaction 2, is first order in both NO2- and HOCl.
NO2- + HOCl
NO3- + Cl- + H+
Keq = 1043
Reaction 2
Other oxyanion reactions also take place more
quickly in acidic solutions. For example, no
observable reaction occurs between ClO3- and Br- in
basic solution, but when an acidic solution is used,
Reaction 3 occurs rapidly.
ClO3- + 6 Br- + 6 H+ Cl- + 3 Br2 + 3 H2O
Reaction 3
The rate law for Reaction 3 is k[ClO3-][Br-][H+]2,
and the initial sequences of the reaction mechanism
are shown below.
Sequence I
Sequence II
Sequence III
2 H+ + ClO3Br- + H2OClO2+
Br- + BrClO2
H2OClO2+
BrClO2 + H2O
Br2 + ClO2-
(fast)
(slow)
(fast)
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Sequence I
Sequence II
Sequence III
2 H+ + SO42H2SO4
SO3 + H218O
H2SO4
SO3 + H2O
2 H+ + SO318O2-
(fast)
(slow)
(fast)
18
B)
C)
C)
D)
D)
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19
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20
Passage IX
Generalizations such as like dissolves like and
the solubility of a solute doubles for every tendegree rise in temperature are useful in certain
situations but are not universally applicable to
solution chemistry. Instead, several different
relationships describe solution dynamics. Thus,
depending on the problem, a chemist must use
various concentration units.
For example, molarity (M) is best for most
stoichiometry problems, molality (m) for freezingpoint depression problems, mole fraction for
Raoult-law problems, and osmolality for osmotic
pressure problems.
A) Pb(NO3)2(aq) by threefold
B) Pb(NO3)2(aq) by twofold
C) C2H6O2(aq) by twofold
D) C2H6O2(aq) by threefold
Property
Formula weight
Specific gravity
Solubility in
water at 0C at
20C
C2H6O2
62.1 g/mol
1.116
Pb(NO3)2
331 g/mol
4.53
37.7 g/100mL
56.5 g/100mL
II = MRT
Equation 1
Note: R = 0.082 L atm K-1 mol-1, and the molal
freezing-point depression and boiling-point
elevation constants for water are Kf = -1.86C/m
and Kb = 0.52C/m, respectively.
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21
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22
Passage X
Cars are subjected to many forces as they move: air
drag, tire-road friction, engine motive force, gravity,
and other factors. Unfortunately, collisions
occasionally occur. During such accidents, a
(potentially large) fraction of the kinetic energy is
rapidly and irreversibly converted to thermal energy
and deformation of the car structure. Test crashes
with dummy drivers and passengers and other
experiments help designers develop safer vehicles.
In one test, two 1000-kg cars, A and B, are initially
100 m apart. They are traveling on a highway in the
same direction: car A at 30 m/s, car B at 20 m/s
with car B ahead of car A. Eventually they collide.
In one case the collision is cushioned by a spring
(with constant k = 105 N/m) on the front of car A.
In a second case there is no spring and the body
deformation of the two cars absorbs the collision
energy. (Assume g = 10 m/s2 when needed.)
61. Consider the difference in crash deceleration on
a test dummy in two test cases.
A) 0.25
B) 0.40
C) 2.5
D) 4.0
A) 2 s
B) 3.33 s
C) 5 s
D) 10 s
66. What is the post-collision speed of cars A and
B after the no-spring inelastic collision?
A) 0 m/s
B) 20 m/s
C) 25 m/s
D) 50 m/s
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23
Passage XI
Worldwide, about 20 damaging earthquakes occur
daily. A major quake in the Mojave Desert (near
Landers) in 1992 demonstrated that large quakes
sometimes trigger distant smaller ones. Of the
many seismographs installed throughout the West in
the 1980s, 14 recorded local quakes after the
Landers event, making coincidence an unlikely
explanation.
The Landers quake produced measurable lasting
deformations over a length L = 74 km. L is called
the source length of the initiating quake. Allied
quakes, aftershocks, occur within a distance of 2L
from the primary event. However, triggered quakes
were as far away as 17L.
The mechanism of the triggering is a puzzle. It is
useful to categorize seismic waves into two kinds:
deeply propagating body waves, which dissipate
rapidly with distance, and surface waves, which
dissipate at a lesser rate. Lasting deformations from
a quake are produced by the body waves, with
deformation size falling off as (L/d)3, where d is
distance from the quake center. At d = 4L these
deformations are generally reduced to less than the
daily periodic distortions due to tidal forces. On the
other hand, surface waves are associated with
elastic oscillations in the crust of about 10-s
periodicity and cause little lasting deformation.
Some of the time delays between the Landers quake
and those it triggered were too great to be ascribed
to seismic wave-transit times.
One explanation of the aftershock trigger
mechanism involves underground fluids, water or
molten rock. Fluid seals between isolated volumes
of rock at different pressures may leak, thus
increasing transverse frictional forces. Also, fluid
may flow into rock fractures, thus lubricating them.
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24
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25
A) a photon is emitted.
B) an electron is emitted.
C) an electron is absorbed.
D) the energy of the atom is increased.
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26
Verbal Reasoning
Time: 85 minutes
Questions: 78-137
There are nine passages in the complete Verbal Reasoning test. Each passage is followed by several questions.
After reading a passage, select the one best answer to each question. If you are not certain of an answer,
eliminate the alternatives that you know to be incorrect and then select an answer from the remaining
alternatives. Indicate your selected answer by marking the corresponding answer on your answer sheet.
This document has been encoded to link this download to your member account. The AAMC and its Section
for the MCAT hold the copyrights to the content of this Practice Test. Therefore, there can be no sharing or
reproduction of materials from the Practice Test in any form (electronic, voice, or other means). If there are
any questions about the use of the material in the Practice Test, please contact the MCAT Information Line
(202-828-0690)
Passage I
Students of evolution have shown that species
death, or extinction, is going on all the time and that
it is an essential feature of life history. What alarms
so many life historians is not that extinctions are
occurring but that they appear to be occurring at a
greater rate than they have at all but a few times in
the past, raising the specter of the sort of wholesale
die-offs that ended the reign of the dinosaurs. A
new word has been coined to define the value most
threatened by these overheated rates: biodiversity.
Since extinction is a particularly final and
comprehensive form of death, species preservation
and its corollary, habitat protection, are now seen as
the most important means available to stem the
erosion of biodiversity, but I wonder if these ideas,
which emphasize diversity at the species level, give
an adequate picture of recent biological history. If
we believe that all life shares a certain quality of
sensitivity, or self-awareness, then Homo sapiens
was an astonishing and wholly unpredictable leap
forward in this respect, because human beings
manifested an idea of personhood never before
achieved.
Consciousness. Mind. Insight. Here are qualities
that, if not exclusively human, seem appallingly
rudimentary elsewhere. Plainly, our planet
contained vast opportunities for creatures willing to
shape it consciously toward their ends. The way
was clear; we know of no other species that has
divined what weve been up to or has a mind to
object. What seems simple to us is far beyond
them; its almost as if we move so fast that we are
invisible, and they are still trying to pretend that the
world is the same as it was before we arrived.
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28
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29
Passage II
There is no doubt that what we call the modern
movement in art begins with the single-minded
determination of a French painter to see the world
objectively. There need be no mystery about this
word: what Czanne wished to see was the world,
or that part of it he was contemplating, as an object,
without any intervention either of the tidy mind or
the untidy emotions. His immediate predecessors,
the Impressionists, had seen the world
subjectivelythat is to say, as it presented itself to
their senses in various lights, or from various points
of view. Each occasion made a different and
distinct impression on their senses, and for each
occasion there must necessarily be a separate work
of art. But Czanne wished to exclude this
shimmering and ambiguous surface of things and
penetrate to the reality that did not change, that was
present beneath the bright but deceptive picture
presented by the kaleidoscope of the senses.
Great revolutionary leaders are people with a single
and a simple idea, and it is the very persistency with
which they pursue this idea that endows it with
power. But let us ask why, in the long history of
art, it had never previously happened that an artist
should wish to see the world objectively. We know,
for example, that at various stages in the history of
art there have been attempts to make art imitative;
and not only Greek and Roman art, but the
Renaissance of Classical art in Europe, were periods
of art possessed by a desire to represent the world
as it really is. But there always intervened
between the visual event and the act of realizing the
vision an activity which we can only call
interpretative. This intervention seemed to be made
necessary by the very nature of perception, which
does not present to the senses a flat twodimensional picture with precise boundaries but a
central focus with a periphery of vaguely
apprehended and seemingly distorted objects. The
artist might focus on a single object, say a human
figure or even a human face; but even then there
were problems such as that of representing the
solidity of the object, its place in space.
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30
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31
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32
Passage III
When I saw it first, it was a green and sleeping bud,
raising itself toward the sun. Ants gathered aphids
and sap around the unopened bloom. A few days
later, it was a tender young flower with a pale green
center, a troop of silver-gray insects climbing up
and down its stalk. Over the summer this sunflower
became incredibly beautiful, subtly turning its face
daily, always toward the sun, its black center alive
with a deep blue light, as if flint had sparked an
elemental fire there, in community with rain,
mineral, mountain air, and sand.
As summer changed from green to yellow, new
visitors came daily: lace-winged flies, bees with
legs fat with pollen, grasshoppers with clattering
wings and desperate hunger, and other lives too
small or hidden for me to see. This plant was a
society undergoing constant change, great and
diverse, depending on light and moisture.
Changes also occurred in the greater world of the
plant. One day, rounding a bend in the road, I
encountered the disturbing sight of a dead horse,
black against a hillside, eyes rolled back. Another
day I was nearly lifted by a sandstorm so fierce and
hot that I had to wait for it to pass before I could
return home. It swept away the faded dried petals
of the sunflower. Then the birds arrived to carry the
seeds to the future.
In one plant in one season a drama of need and
survival was enacted. Hungers were filled; insects
coupled; there was escape, exhaustion, and death.
An outsider, I never learned the sunflowers golden
language. An old voice from gene or cell taught the
plant to oppose the pull of gravity and find its way
upward, to open. A certain knowinginstinct,
intuition, necessitydirected the seed-bearing birds
to ancestral homelands they had never seen.
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Passage IV
Atonality originates in an attempt to liberate the
twelve notes of the chromatic scale from the
diatonic functional associations they still retain in
chromatic musicto dissociate, so to speak, the
chromatic scale from chromaticism. The
expanded harmonic vocabulary of late nineteenthcentury music had extended the range of tonal
relationships to the point at which the traditional
articulative procedures were no longer adequate.
The final step in this development was taken by
Arnold Schenberg in a radical stylistic departure
based upon a rejection of any general principles
regulating simultaneity and progression. In the
compositions Schenberg wrote between 1908 and
1923, the period of free atonality, he disclosed
that this ultimate expansion of possible relations to
include the whole range of combinations contained
in the semitonal scale demands a revaluation of
every aspect of the musical language.
The composer working within the diatonic tonal
system may take for granted the existence of
specific properties of that system: a seven-tone
scale, triadic harmonic structure, a key center, and
so forth. The atonal composer, however, can take
for granted nothing except the existence of a given
limiting sound world, the semitonal scale. Aside
from this assumption, it is impossible to state the
fundamental conditions of atonality in general,
except in a negative way, merely stipulating the
absence of a priori functional connections among
the twelve notes of the semitonal scale. Musical
coherence requires additional limiting factors, but
these are not reducible to a set of foundational
assumptions in terms of which the compositions
that are collectively designated by the expression
atonal music can be said to represent a system
of composition.
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Passage V
Both employers and workers are challenged by
technological innovations, international trade,
deregulation, and changes in the nature and
structure of work. Their responses to these
challenges indicate their choice of three roads to the
new economy. The low road follows the historic
path of mass production, emphasizing downsizing,
outsourcing, and low-skill employees as ways to cut
labor costs. Eventually, this approach, if the norm,
must limit a nation's economic competitiveness,
living standard, and income equity.
The high road acknowledges the growing value of
investment in highly skilled employees who can
react quickly to changing technologies and markets.
It presupposes shared power and long-term goals.
Only dominant firms can afford to commit
resources to training and keeping employees by
providing full benefits with high wages. Such firms
tend to be protected from domestic or international
competitors by technological advantages, largescale production, or government regulations.
Currently, high-road firms account for perhaps 20
percent of employees in the United States.
About 40 percent of U.S. workers receive no formal
training beyond a high-school education. They must
submit to the contingencies of low-road
employment, remaining at the periphery of the new
economy. The remaining 40 percent of the
workforce slog along the muddy middle road,
getting some advanced education or job-related
training but unlikely to enter the dynamic high-road
labor market and attract employers who would train
them thoroughly to join their core workers.
The high road is not an easy course for employers to
take. Today's global customers and suppliers are
linked by a web of standards that affect not only
prices but extend to the quality and variety of
products, company organization, customer service
and its timeliness, and constant innovations.
Employers who meet these complex requirements
use computer-based methods, which raise the level
of skill needed by nonsupervisory personnel. For
example, instead of checking the quality of the final
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Passage VI
The residents of Sun City, Leisure World, and
retirement communities across the United States
live on a frontiernot a geographical but a
chronological frontier. Old age is hardly new, but
for an entire generation to reach old age with its
membership almost intact is new. Until relatively
recently, death had no more relation to old age than
to any other period of lifein fact, it had less.
A quarter of the people born in seventeenth-century
France died during their first year, another quarter
died before the age of twenty, and a third quarter
died by age forty-five; only 10 percent reached
sixty. From the seventeenth century to the
nineteenth, the percentage of the French population
over sixty remained constant at 8.8 percent.
In the last hundred years, the demographics of
mortality have changed more than in the six
previous centuries. In 1900, the average life
expectancy for U.S. children was 47.3 years. In
1980, it was 73.6 years. This startling increase was
due mainly to success in reducing infant, childhood,
and maternal mortality. In additionalso because
of medical advanceslongevity increased. In
1900, white males of sixty could expect 14.4 more
years of life. In 1978, they could expect to live 17.2
more years. As a result of these and other changes,
the number of Americans over sixty-five increased
both absolutely and relative to the entire
population. In 1900, 4 percent of the population
was over sixty-five. In 1980, 25.5 million
Americans, or 11.3 percent, were in this age group.
Before World War II, there were no age-segregated
communities and there was no such concept as
retirement living. In the early 60s, when credit
and housing materials were relatively cheap,
developers began to construct complete towns for
the retired. Lured by glossy advertisements
depicting a life of warm friendships and endless
pleasures, many retirees welcomed these complexes
as a new adventure. In the mid-70s, while housing
costs doubled and trebled, the developers grew leery
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40
A) 10 percent
B) 25 percent
C) 50 percent
D) 75 percent
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41
Passage VII
No matter how noble the effort, the burden of proof
always lies with the reformer. Many empirically
sound proposals to increase the effectiveness of
elementary schools in the United States have been
dismissed with the response, If it is so necessary,
why has the need not been recognized before? To
counter this response, a reformer should make clear
that a problem has been identified.
If the condition addressed has not been completely
and clearly established as a problem, those
concerned should ensure that it is accurately
measured. The appropriate instrument for
measuring educational effectiveness is a test noted
for its reliability and validity. If the researchers
believe that no existing test is adequate, they should
develop their own test. Since the burden of proof
for their methods is then focused on their
instrument, sincere reformers will be very serious
about establishing its credentials.
When a proposed intervention is not justified in the
most minimal fashion, the public has to wonder
why not. It is thus reasonable to be suspicious of
the promoters of the Generalized School Readiness
Program. What is their motivation? Are they
agents of an unfriendly power bent on dumbing
down U.S. education? Are educational
entrepreneurs trying cynically to profit from the
general dissatisfaction with the nations schools?
Such speculations may appear to border on the
absurd; however, stranger motivations have been
discovered. It is more useful, however, to assume
that the promoters, wishing to keep their business
financially solvent, have opted not to address
school-based problems from the viewpoint of
children, or parents, or even teachers. They are
merely following the usual practice at the
professional level of education of treating learning
as an abstraction that has little to do with the
learner. This outlook is one that Jean Piaget, John
Dewey, and A. L. Geselltheoreticians with
empirical evidence about childrens intellectual
developmentall worked to counter.
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42
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43
Passage VIII
In a fundamental sense, every person is morally
responsible for deciding what is right and what is
wrong and acting accordingly. This responsibility
is often an uncomfortable burden, and you may
wish to be rid of it, to pass it on to someone else.
But responsibility for your actions is not
transferable. To say I hereby promise to obey
Fred, no matter what he commands, right or wrong
is an immoral attempt to forfeit your autonomy.
After all, to say that you had, in fact, made someone
else responsible for your actions would mean that
you had, somehow, enslaved your will to someone
elses will, had made yourself figuratively a
puppet. Fortunately, it is not possible. Having
made a promise to obey, one is still in fact free to
obey or disobey, to keep or break that promise.
Now although it may seem rather bizarre to talk
about obeying Fred no matter what, it does follow
that for exactly the same reasons, you may not say,
I will obey the government even if it tells me to do
the wrong thing. You cannot hand over your
autonomy willy-nilly to Fred or the government or
anyone else. If you are told to do something, you
must examine it to see if it is right or wrong before
deciding whether to obey it or not.
Therefore, if the government requires a moral
person to act in a particular fashion and that person
complies, it is because the person believes it to be
the right thing to do, not simply because the
government requires it. That the government does
require a particular behavior may be an important
factor to be taken into account, but the final arbiter
is the individual.
No government, no body of people, no position, no
individual can have moral authority over any other
individual.
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44
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45
Passage IX
Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire (1776-1781) instructs us that human nature
never changes and that humanitys predilection for
factionalism, augmented by environmental and
cultural differences, is the determinant of history.
In this belief, Gibbon was influenced by the Baron
de Montesquieu, who saw history not as mere
politics and ideas but as a complex of cultural,
social, and climatic forces.
The brilliance of the Decline and Fall lies more in
Gibbons ability to construct a coherent narrative
from the particular agents and surprises of history
than in an attempt to dramatize his material. For
example, in the story of the Empires restoration in
the third century under the able rule of Claudius,
Aurelian, Probus, and Diocletian, the sheer
accumulation and repetition of events over centuries
ultimately robs many effective emperors, each with
a distinct personality early in the story, of identity in
the readers mind. And as the initially successful
restoration flows into the larger movement of
decline, only patterns, rather than individuals,
endure at the end of the three volumes.
For Gibbon, the real changes were not so much the
newsworthy events as the insidious
transformations: Rome moving from democracy, to
the trappings of democracy, to military rule; Milan
in Italy and Nicomedia in Asia Minor functioning as
capital cities decades before the formal division of
the Empire into western and eastern halves and
almost two centuries before Rome officially ceased
to be the imperial capital; the fact that the first
fifteen Christian bishops of Jerusalem were
circumcised Jews subscribing to a not yet
formalized religion.
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46
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47
Writing Sample
Time: 60 minutes
2 Prompts, separately timed:
30 minutes each
This is a test of your writing skills. The test consists of two parts. You will have 30 minutes to complete each
part. Use your time efficiently. Before you begin writing each of your responses, read the assignment carefully
to understand exactly what you are being asked to do. Because this is a test of your writing skills, your
response to each part should be an essay of complete sentences and paragraphs, as well organized and clearly
written as you can make it in the time allotted.
This document has been encoded to link this download to your member account. The AAMC and its Section
for the MCAT hold the copyrights to the content of this Practice Test. Therefore, there can be no sharing or
reproduction of materials from the Practice Test in any form (electronic, voice, or other means). If there are
any questions about the use of the material in the Practice Test, please contact the MCAT Information Line
(202-828-0690).
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49
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50
Biological Sciences
Time: 100 minutes
Questions: 140 - 216
Most questions in the Biological Sciences test are organized into groups, each containing a descriptive passage.
After studying the passage, select the one best answer to each question in the group. Some questions are not
based on a descriptive passage and are also independent of each other. If you are not certain of an answer,
eliminate the alternatives that you know to be incorrect and then select an answer from the remaining
alternatives. Indicate your selected answer by marking the corresponding answer on your answer sheet. A
periodic table is provided for your use. You may consult it whenever you wish.
This document has been encoded to link this download to your member account. The AAMC and its Section
for the MCAT hold the copyrights to the content of this Practice Test. Therefore, there can be no sharing or
reproduction of materials from the Practice Test in any form (electronic, voice, or other means). If there are
any questions about the use of the material in the Practice Test, please contact the MCAT Information Line
(202-828-0690).
He
4.0
10
1.0
3
Li
Be
Ne
6.9
9.0
10.8
12.0
14.0
16.0
19.0
20.2
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
23.0
24.3
27.0
28.1
31.0
32.1
35.5
39.9
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
39.1
37
40.1
38
45.0
39
47.9
40
50.9
41
52.0
42
54.9
43
55.8
44
58.9
45
58.7
46
63.5
47
65.4
48
69.7
49
72.6
50
74.9
51
79.0
52
79.9
53
83.8
54
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
85.5
55
87.6
56
88.9
57
91.2
72
92.9
73
95.9
74
(98)
75
101.1
76
102.9
77
106.4
78
107.9
79
112.4
80
114.8
81
118.7
82
121.8
83
127.6
84
126.9
85
131.3
86
Cs
Ba
La*
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
132.9
87
137.3
88
138.9
89
178.5
104
180.9
105
183.9
106
186.2
107
190.2
108
192.2
109
195.1
197.0
200.6
204.4
207.2
209.0
(209)
(210)
(222)
Fr
Ra
Ac
Unq
Unp
Unh
(223)
(226)
(227)
(261)
(262)
58
(263)
59
(262)
60
(265)
61
(267)
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
140.1
90
140.9
91
144.2
92
(145)
93
150.4
94
152.0
95
157.3
96
158.9
97
162.5
98
164.9
99
167.3
100
168.9
101
173.0
102
175.0
103
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
232.0
(231)
238.0
(237)
(244)
(243)
(247)
(247)
(251)
(252)
(257)
(258)
(259)
(260)
Th
Passage I
Two major theories have been advanced to explain
why organisms age and die.
Theory I
The Genetic or Programmed Theory of Aging states
that aging is triggered by hormones and is an
orderly consequence of the genetically programmed
processes of growth, development, and
differentiation. Life spans of individuals in each
species are finite, species-specific, and vary little.
Aging is thought to improve the ability of the
species to adapt to its environment.
Evidence for Theory I: The difference in longevity
between fraternal twins is much greater than the
difference between identical twins. Also, cultured
cells of human embryonic connective tissue
normally double approximately 50 times before
they die. For example, when frozen at the 10th
doubling and thawed years later, the cells undergo
40 more doublings before death.
B)
Theory II
The Damage-Accumulation Theory of Aging states
that aging is nonadaptive and not genetically
programmed. Instead, aging results from random,
accumulated damage (to DNA, RNA, and proteins)
that is caused by free radical production within the
cells. This damage in turn leads to cellular changes
resulting in aging and death.
Evidence for Theory II: Metabolic rates of
mammals are directly proportional to the rate of
generation of free radicals. Dietary restriction,
which decreases metabolic rate, also increases the
maximum life span of rats from 125 to 185 weeks.
The addition of vitamins E and C (which react with
free radicals and render them harmless) to the feed
of mice increases the mices average life span.
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C)
D)
53
B)
C)
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D)
54
Passage II
Sarah, a scientist from New Orleans, takes twoweek vacations to different locations every year to
experience new sports.
One year she went to the Caribbean Sea to learn
skin diving. Although she was in excellent physical
condition from daily swimming in the ocean, she
noticed that the first time she went diving, she
experienced an elevated pulse and ventilation rate.
By the third time she went diving, her heart and
breathing rate were no longer elevated. By the end
of the two weeks, her skin had become darker.
Another year she went skiing on snow in the
mountains of Colorado. Again, she noticed that the
first time she went skiing, her heart and ventilation
rate were faster than usual. Although it was not as
elevated by the end of the first week, her heart and
breathing rates were still higher than usual. She
also noticed that her appetite and caloric intake
were considerably greater during her skiing
vacation compared with her diving vacation.
However, she noticed that her body weight did not
change significantly.
Sarah calculated the actual work that she performed
skiing and diving. There was not enough difference
in the work performed to account for the observed
difference in appetite; although the physical work of
diving and skiing was approximately equal and she
ate more calories during the skiing trip, she did not
gain any weight.
On a third vacation, Sarah had a serious accident
while playing sports.
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55
Broken bone
Damaged muscle
Damaged kidney
A) I only
B) III only
C) I and III only
D) II and III only
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56
Passage III
The axanes are a family of compounds that contain
a perhydroindan ring system; Figure 1 shows the
structures of two axanes, compounds 1 and 2.
Figure 1 Axanes
A multistep synthesis leading to the axanes begins
with the conversion of Compound 3 into Compound
8, which can be further functionalized to the target
axanes. Figure 2 shows the synthesis of Compound
8.
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57
A) a
B) b
C) c
D) d
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58
Passgage IV
An AIDS infection is especially dangerous because
the AIDS virus attacks the cells of the immune
system. A primary target of the virus is the CD4
lymphocyte (helper T cell). Helper T cells produce
substances that trigger the maturation of B
lymphocytes and CD8 lymphocytes (killer T cells).
During the infection of a helper T cell, gp120
proteins of the viral coat first bind to the CD4
antigens on the cell membrane. The viral coat then
fuses with the cell membrane, and the RNAcontaining core of the virus is dumped into the cell.
Viral RNA is used as a template to produce DNA
with the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase,
several copies of which are also contained in the
viral core. The viral DNA is then incorporated into
the chromosomes of the helper T cell. At a later
time, the viral DNA will be activated and used to
make new viral particles, resulting in the destruction
of the helper T cell.
One approach to the treatment of AIDS infections is
to interfere with the binding of the virus to the
helper T cell. This can be done by producing
antibodies that bind to the gp120 protein on the
viral surface. However, there are several
difficulties with this approach. First, because of the
high mutation rate of the gp120 protein, the most
antigenic region of the protein is extremely variable
in structure. Second, the binding region of gp120
does not readily stimulate antibody production
because the region is well shielded by sugar
molecules. Third, the gp120 protein has a very
strong affinity for the CD4 antigen that must be
overcome by any antibody produced against gp120.
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59
A) mitochondria.
B) endoplasmic reticulum.
C) nucleus.
D) ribosomes.
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60
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61
Passage V
Taxol (1) is a naturally occurring compound that
has been adopted as a drug for the treatment of a
variety of cancers. A need exists for an efficient
synthesis of taxol because it is found only in small
quantities in a rare tree.
Taxol (1)
62
A)
A)
B)
B)
C)
C)
D)
D)
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63
Passage VI
Crohns disease and ulcerative colitis are two forms
of inflammatory bowel disease, which differ in
several respects. Crohns disease may occur in any
part of the gastrointestinal tract while ulcerative
colitis is confined to the colon (large intestine).
Crohns disease may involve all layers of the tract
while ulcerative colitis affects only the mucosa, the
inner lining of the colon. Abdominal pain and
diarrhea following a meal are signs of Crohns
disease, but a progressive loosening of a bloody
stool is the first symptom of ulcerative colitis.
Management of inflammatory bowel disease is
achieved by drug therapy to suppress the
inflammation which leads to diarrhea, but there is
no known cure. The cause of inflammatory bowel
disease is controversial. Genetic, pathogenic, and
immunogenic theories have all been advanced.
Inflammatory bowel disease tends to run in
families, with 20% of patients having a relative with
the disorder. But if inflammatory bowel disease is
genetic, it is not inherited in a simple Mendelian
way.
Some research suggests that inflammatory bowel
disease is an autoimmune disease. An antigen in the
body, perhaps in the digestive tract, is recognized as
foreign by the immune system. This antigen may
then stimulate the bodys defenses to produce an
inflammatory response that continues without
control.
A) Digestion
B) Absorption of nutrients
C) Absorption of water
D) Secretion of digestive enzymes
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64
Passage VII
Fats are known to affect blood flow. Research was
conducted to examine the effects of a 20-carbon
polyunsaturated fatty acid on blood flow through
the skin. Skin was chosen because blood flow
could be measured easily and without discomfort to
the subjects.
Male college students ranging from 18-28 years of
age were randomly divided into 4 treatment groups
of 10 subjects each. Prior to participation in the
study, subjects were screened for health conditions,
medications, and/or dietary practices that would
bias the collected data. Subjects were instructed not
to alter their habits or lifestyles during the
experiment.
Each treatment group was given 1 of 4 dietary
supplements (Table 1).
Table 1 Dietary Supplements
placebo
placebo + vitamin E
fatty acid
fatty acid + vitamin E
Vitamin E, an effective anti-oxidant, was given to 2
groups to reduce in vivo oxidation of the ingested
fatty acids. Both the fatty acid and the placebo
were given at 2 g/10 kg body weight/day; vitamin E
was given at 100 mg/10 kg body weight/day. The
supplements were packaged in identical gelatin
capsules and taken before meals. Subjects were
unaware of which supplement they were ingesting.
Blood flow through the skin of each subjects arm
was measured twice; immediately before and
immediately after 60 days of dietary
supplementation. Each blood-flow measurement
was taken at the same time of day and at a skin
temperature of 32oC. Subjects were required to fast
for 12 hours and rest quietly in the laboratory for 30
minutes before skin blood flow was measured. The
results are shown in Figure 1.
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66
Passage VIII
Organic carbocations may be generated from
alcohols in the presence of strong acids or from
alkenes by the addition of a proton. Carbocations
are stabilized through the inductive effect and
through resonance. Alkyl groups bonded to the
cation center also may add stability through the
partial overlap of filled orbitals with an empty
orbital, a concept often referred to as
hyperconjugation. Such alkyl groups have one
filled orbital aligned with the empty orbital of the
cation. The overlap of these orbitals allows the pair
of electrons in the filled orbital to reduce the
electron deficiency of the cation center.
In an early research study designed to examine the
properties of carbocations, an ethyl carbocation was
produced from the reaction of ethyl fluoride with
SbF5, as shown in Reaction I (unbalanced).
Reaction I
The products of Reaction I were quenched with
water, then separated by gas chromatography, and
identified by 1H NMR. The resulting mixture of
products consisted primarily of molecules with four
carbon atoms. The proton NMR spectrum of the
major product is shown below in Figure 1.
B)
C)
D)
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67
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68
A ) CH2OC(O)R
|
CHOC(O)R
|
CH2OC(O)R
B) CH2OC(O)R
|
CHOC(O)R
|
CH2OC(O)R
C) CH2OC(O)R
|
CHOC(O)R
|
CH2OC(O)R
D) CH2OC(O)R
|
CHOC(O)R
|
CH2OC(O)R
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69
Passage IX
Until recently, conventional medical wisdom
attributed stomach ulcers to an excess of acid, and
the treatment for ulcers consisted primarily of
antacids and dietary modification. However, a
pathogenic bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, is now
implicated in most cases of stomach ulcers. Current
treatment employs antibiotics directed against these
bacteria and often is successful in eradicating
persistent infections.
Several important questions about H. pylori remain
unanswered. It is unclear why this bacterium
causes chronic infections in some individuals but
not in others; many infected persons do not develop
ulcers. The mode of transmission is also unknown,
although people in developing countries are more
frequently infected with H. pylori than are people in
developed countries with good sanitation.
There is a relationship between H. pylori infection
and cancer. Infected individuals have a two-fold
increased risk of gastric cancer, although >75% of
patients with active infections do not develop
cancer. Genetic studies of H. pylori have identified
genes that are expressed in different strains of this
bacterium. One gene, vacA, encodes a toxin.
Expression of another gene, cagA, leads to
inflammation and may be related to the genesis of
gastric cancer. Although many individuals develop
antibodies against H. pylori antigens, these
antibodies rarely eradicate the infection; evidently,
this pathogen has developed effective ways to elude
host defenses.
193. H. pylori infection may cause increased
proliferation of mucosal cells in the stomach.
This may lead to gastric cancer if:
A) genetic mutations occur in proliferating germ
cells.
B) genetic mutations occur in proliferating somatic
cells.
C) the immune system fails to recognize bacterial
antigens.
D) crowded mucosal cells are likely to remain in
interphase.
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70
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71
Passage X
Experiment 2
Experiment 1
To investigate the role of cell-to-cell
communication, researchers separated the cells of a
two-cell embryo and cultured them independently.
The cultured AB cells produced neurons and skin,
but no muscle, whereas the cultured P1 cells gave
rise to all of the tissues produced by P1 cells of an
intact embryo.
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Experiment 3
To investigate specification of the gut, which was
thought to result from the segregation of
cytoplasmic contents during early cell divisions,
cells were isolated at various intervals (as indicated
on the time lines of Figure 2) during the 15-minute
four-cell stage, cultured individually or recombined
in pairs, and allowed to develop. If gut
differentiation occurred, proteases were released
into the culture medium. The results are shown in
Figure 2.
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Figure 1 Early development, showing one-, two-, and four-cell stages (left), and segregation of fate (right) in
the nematode. The blastomeres and tissues formed by the founder cells are shown.
Figure 2 Results of Experiment 3. At right center are shown the cell recombinations, and the time lines at far
right indicate when the cells were separated and recombined, as well as the results.
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73
A) P2 and EMS.
B) AB1 and EMS.
C) P1 and AB1.
D) AB1 and AB2.
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74
Passage XI
An example of the Claisen rearrangement is shown
in Equation 1. Heating Compound 1 yields
Compound 2. Two chemists propose alternative
mechanisms for this reaction.
Equation 1
Chemist 1
The rearrangement proceeds through a concerted,
cyclic transition state in which a new carbon-carbon
bond is formed between carbon-3 of the side chain
and the ortho-carbon of the aromatic ring, while the
oxygenC-1 bond is broken. The intermediate
ketone enolizes to the observed product, as shown
in Equation 2.
Equation 2
Chemist 2
The oxygenC-1 bond undergoes a heterolytic
cleavage to form a resonance-stabilized
intermediate carbocation and a phenolate anion.
The intermediate carbocation attacks the orthocarbon of the aromatic ring, to give a ketone which
enolizes to the observed product as shown in
Equation 3.
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Equation 3
Independent experiments reveal that no cross
products are obtained when a mixture of Compound
1 and an analog with a different aryl group and a
substituted side chain undergo rearrangement in the
same solution.
Chemist 3 performs the Claisen rearrangement on
Compound 1 in which C-1 is labeled with
radioactive carbon-14. The rearranged product
containing the label is degraded by treatment with
osmium tetroxide (OsO4), followed by oxidation
with periodic (HIO4) acid. The degradation
products are monitored for radioactivity.
207. Which of the following compounds will be
produced from heating the compound shown
below if it reacts in the same way as
Compound 1?
CH2=CH-O-CH2CH=CH2
A) CH3CH2CH2CH2CHO
B) CH2 = CHCH2CH2CHO
C) CH2 = CHCH2OCH2CH3
O
D)
||
CH2 = CHCCH2CH3
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76
(CH3CH2)2CH2
Compound II
A) Compound I
B) Compound II
C) They are about equally soluble.
D) Neither has appreciable water solubility.
215. In humans, cholesterol is a precursor to:
A) insulin.
B) glycogen.
C) testosterone.
D) DNA.
Which of the following is the most likely pattern
of inheritance for this disease in these
individuals?
A) The mother carried a sex-linked dominant allele for
the disease.
B) The mother carried a sex-linked recessive allele for
the disease.
C) Each father carried an autosomal recessive allele for
the disease.
D) Each father carried a sex-linked recessive allele for
the disease.
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(D)
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Verbal Reasoning
78 (A) (B) (C) (D)
79 (A) (B) (C) (D)
80 (A) (B) (C) (D)
81 (A) (B) (C) (D)
82 (A) (B) (C) (D)
83 (A) (B) (C) (D)
84 (A) (B) (C) (D)
85 (A) (B) (C) (D)
86 (A) (B) (C) (D)
87 (A) (B) (C) (D)
88 (A) (B) (C) (D)
89 (A) (B) (C) (D)
90 (A) (B) (C) (D)
91 (A) (B) (C) (D)
92 (A) (B) (C) (D)
93 (A) (B) (C) (D)
94 (A) (B) (C) (D)
95 (A) (B) (C) (D)
96 (A) (B) (C) (D)
97 (A) (B) (C) (D)
98 (A) (B) (C) (D)
99 (A) (B) (C) (D)
100 (A) (B) (C) (D)
101 (A) (B) (C) (D)
102 (A) (B) (C) (D)
103 (A) (B) (C) (D)
104 (A) (B) (C) (D)
105 (A) (B) (C) (D)
106 (A) (B) (C) (D)
107 (A) (B) (C) (D)
108 (A) (B) (C) (D)
109 (A) (B) (C) (D)
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Writing Sample
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139
Biological Sciences
140 (A) (B) (C) (D)
141 (A) (B) (C) (D)
142 (A) (B) (C) (D)
143 (A) (B) (C) (D)
144 (A) (B) (C) (D)
145 (A) (B) (C) (D)
146 (A) (B) (C) (D)
147 (A) (B) (C) (D)
148 (A) (B) (C) (D)
149 (A) (B) (C) (D)
150 (A) (B) (C) (D)
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152 (A) (B) (C) (D)
153 (A) (B) (C) (D)
154 (A) (B) (C) (D)
155 (A) (B) (C) (D)
156 (A) (B) (C) (D)
157 (A) (B) (C) (D)
158 (A) (B) (C) (D)
159 (A) (B) (C) (D)
160 (A) (B) (C) (D)
161 (A) (B) (C) (D)
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