Volume 1 Introduction to OS

What is an Operating System?

Operating System is a Resource Manager.

Handles multiple computer resources: CPU, Internal/External memory,
Processes, Tasks, Applications, Users, etc
Manages and allocates resources to multiple users or multiple jobs
running at the same time (e.g., processor time, memory space, I/O
devices)
Arranges to use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
(maximize throughput, minimize response time) and in a fair manner.

It is a Control Program.
Manages all the components of a complex computer system in an
integrated manner.
Controls the execution of user programs and I/O devices to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer resources.
Looks over and protects the computer.

It is an extended/virtual machine
An interface between the user and hardware that hides the details of
the hardware (e.g., I/O).
Constructs higher-level (virtual) resources out of lower-level (physical)
resources (e.g., files).
Definition: Is a collection of software enhancements, executed on the
bare hardware, culminating in a high-level virtual machine that serves
as an advanced programming environment

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.1

Why Operating System?

Computer hardware is developed to execute user programs and make solving

user problems easier.

An operating system makes a computer more convenient to use.

It acts as an interface between user and computer hardware. Therefore,
the end-users are not particularly concerned with the computers
architecture, and they view the computer system in terms of an
application.
To programmers, it provides some basic utilities to assist him in
creating programs, the management of files, and the control of I/O
devices.

Operating System Objectives

Convenience
Makes the computer more convenient to use
Efficiency
Allows computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner
Ability to evolve
Permit effective development, testing, and introduction of new system
functions without interfering with service

Services Provided by Operating Systems

Facilities for program creation

Editors, compilers, linkers, debuggers, etc.

Program execution
Loading in memory, I/O and file initialization.

Access to I/O and files

Deals with the specifics of I/O and file formats.

System access
Resolves conflicts for resource contention.
Protection in access to resources and data.

Error detection and response

internal and external hardware errors
memory error
device failure
software errors
arithmetic overflow
access forbidden memory locations
operating system cannot grant request of application

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.2

Accounting
collect statistics
monitor performance
used to anticipate future enhancements
used for billing users

Computer System Components

A computer system can be divided in to four components.

The Hardware: Provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O
devices).
The Operating System: Controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the various
users.
The Application Programs: Define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
(compilers, database systems, video games, business programs).
The Users: Users (people, machines, other computers).

These components can be viewed as layers, where each layer uses the
services provided by the layer beneath it.

A Static View of System Components

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.3

Dynamic View of System Components

End
User
Programmer

Application
Programs
Utilities

OperatingSystem
Designer

Operating-System
Computer Hardware
Another view of computer system components
History of Operating Systems

Lets see how operating systems evolve over time.

This will help us to identify some common features of operating systems and
how and why these systems have been developed as they are.

Evolution of Operating Systems

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.4

Early Systems (1950)

Simple Batch Systems (1960)
Multiprogrammed Batch Systems (1970)
Time-Sharing and Real-Time Systems (1970)
Personal/Desktop Systems (1980)
Multiprocessor Systems (1980)
Networked/Distributed Systems (1980)
Handheld Systems (1990)

Early Systems

Structure
Single user system.
Large machines run from console.
Programmer/User as operator.
Paper Tape or Punched cards.
No tapes/disks in computer.

Early software: Assemblers, Libraries of common

subroutines, Device Drivers, Compilers, Linkers.
Significant amount of setup time.
Low CPU utilization.
But very secure.

Simple Batch Systems

Mainframe machines. Input devices were card readers. Output devices were
line printer, tape drives, and card punch.
A job (a single program+ associated data + control information) usually on the
punch cards submitted to the operator.
The output consisted of the results of the program or memory dump in case of
error.
The operator used to batch together similar programs and run as a group to
reduce setup time.
No user interaction while the job is executing.
Current examples include .bat files under Dos Windows and shell files under
Unix/Linux.

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.5

Example of card deck of a job

The operating systems (called resident monitor) manages the execution of

each program in the batch.
Monitor utilities are loaded when needed.
Resident monitor is always in main memory and available for execution.
The resident monitor usually has the following part.
Control card interpreter responsible for reading and carrying
out instructions on the cards.
Loader loads systems programs and applications programs
into memory.

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.6

Device drivers know special characteristics and properties for

each of the systems I/O devices.
In batch systems:
Initial control is in monitor.
Load next program and transfer control to it.
When a job completes, the control transfers back to monitor.
Automatically transfer control from one job to another (Automatic job
sequencing).

Problems

Slow Performance I/O and CPU could not overlap; card reader very slow.
CPU was often idle.

Solutions
1. Off-line Operation
Speed up computation by loading jobs into memory from tapes while
card reading and line printing is done off-line using smaller machines.

2. Use spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On Line).

Cards are read directly from the card reader onto a disk and location of
card images are kept in a table by the operating system.
The output is sent to the disk and when the job is completed then the
output was actually printed.
I/O and computations were overlapped. While executing one job, the
OS:
Reads next job from card reader into a storage area on the disk
(job queue).
Outputs printout of previous job from disk to printer.

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.7

Uniprogramming Until Now

I/O operations are exceedingly slow (compared to instruction execution).

A program containing even a very small number of I/O operations will spend
most of its time waiting for them.
Hence: poor CPU usage when only one program is present in memory.

Memory Layout of Uniprogramming

Memory layout of a simple batch processing system

Multiprogrammed Batch Systems

Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the CPU is
multiplexed among them.

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.8

If memory can hold several programs, then CPU can switch to another one
whenever a program is waiting for an I/O to complete This is
multiprogramming.

OS Features Needed for Multiprogramming

I/O routine supplied by the system.

Memory management the system must allocate the memory to several jobs.
CPU scheduling the system must choose among several jobs ready to run.
Allocation of devices.

Time Sharing Systems (Interactive Systems)

TSS extends Batch multiprogramming to handle multiple interactive jobs Its

Interactive Multiprogramming.
Multiple users simultaneously access the system through terminals.
Processors time is shared among multiple users, that is, the CPU is
multiplexed among several jobs that are kept in memory and on disk (the CPU
is allocated to a job only if the job is in memory).

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.9

On-line communication between the user and the system is provided; when
the operating system finishes the execution of one command, it seeks the next
control statement from the users keyboard.
TS system provides each user with her/her own virtual machine.

Multitasking

TS eventually supports multitasking.

A time share system that supports multiple processes (program in execution)
per user is called a multitasking system.

Why Does Time Sharing Work?

Because of slow human reaction time, a typical user needs 2 seconds of

processing time per minute.
Then many users should be able to share the same system without noticeable
delay in the computer reaction time.

Batch Multiprogramming
Vs. Time Sharing
Principle obj.
Source of inst. To OS

Batch Multi-Prog.
Max. Processor use
JCL provided with the job

Time Sharing
Min. response time
Commands entered at the
terminal

OS Features Needed for Time Sharing Systems

On-line file system must be available for users to access data and code.
Should do memory management

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.10

Should do CPU scheduling

Should do job synchronization and have communication facilities.
Should ensure that dead lock and indefinite waiting does not occur.
Should allow sharing of computer resources.

Personal Computer Systems

Personal computers computer system dedicated to a single user.
Have a wide variety of I/O devices keyboards, mice, display screens, small
printers.
User convenience and responsiveness are of prime importance.
Can adopt technology developed for larger operating system.
Often individuals have sole use of computer and do not need advanced CPU
utilization of protection features.
May run several different types of operating systems (Windows, MacOS,
UNIX, Linux)
Two Categories of Computer Systems

Single Instruction Single Data (SISD)

Single processor executes a single instruction sequence to operate on
data stored in a single memory.
This is a Uniprocessor.

Multiple Instruction Multiple Data (MIMD)

A set of processors simultaneously execute different instruction
sequences on different data sets.
This is a Multiprocessor.

Multiprocessor Systems

Multiprocessor systems have more than one CPU in close communication.

Tightly coupled system processors share memory and a clock;
communication usually takes place through the shared memory.
Advantages of parallel system:
Increased throughput
Economical
Increased reliability
Graceful degradation

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.11

Multiprocessor architecture
Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)

Each processor runs an identical copy of the operating system.

Each processor can perform the same functions and share same main
memory and I/O facilities (symmetric).
The OS schedules processes/threads across all the processors (real
parallelism).
Existence of multiple processors is transparent to the user.
Incremental growth: just add another CPU!
Robustness: a single CPU failure does not halt the system, only the
performance is reduced.
Many processes can run at once without performance deterioration.
Most modern operating systems support SMP

Asymmetric multiprocessing

Each processor is assigned a specific task; master processor schedules and

allocated work to slave processors.
More common in extremely large systems

Distributed Systems

Distribute the computation among several physically separated processors.

Loosely coupled system each processor has its own local memory;
processors communicate with one another through various
communications lines, such as high-speed buses or telephone lines.
Advantages of distributed systems.
Resources Sharing
Computation speed up load sharing
Reliability and fault tolerance
Communications
Requires networking infrastructure - Local area networks (LAN) or Wide area
networks (WAN)
May be either client-server or peer-to-peer systems.

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.12

General structure of client-server

Peer-to-peer systems
Network Operating System

Provides file sharing

Provides communication scheme
Runs independently from other computers on the network

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.13

Distributed Operating System

Less autonomy between computers

Gives the impression there is a single operating system controlling the
network.

Clustered Systems

Clustering allows two or more systems to share external storage and balance
CPU load.
Asymmetric clustering: one server runs the application while other servers
standby.
Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are running the application.

Real-Time Systems

Note that not all Operating Systems are general-purpose systems.

Real-Time (RT) systems are dedicated systems that need to adhere to
deadlines, i.e., time constraints.
Correctness of the computation depends not only on the logical result but also
on the time at which the results are produced.
Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as controlling
scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
and some display systems.
Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-time.

Hard Real-Time System

Must meet its deadline.

Conflicts with time-sharing systems, not supported by general-purpose
operating systems.
Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as industrial
control and robotics

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.14

Secondary storage limited or absent, data stored in short term memory, or

read-only memory (ROM).

Soft Real-Time System

A critical real-time task gets priority over the other tasks (Deadline desirable
but not mandatory).
Limited utility in industrial control of robotics
Useful in applications (multimedia, virtual reality) requiring advanced
operating-system features.

Hand Held Systems

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

Cellular telephones
Issues:
Limited memory
Slow processors
Small display screens.

Migration of Operating-System Concepts and Features

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.15

Prepared by Sujoy Bhowmick, AP(IT)

1.16