TheBrakeSystem

Whatdobrakesdo?
Thesimpleanswer:theyslowyoudown.
Thecomplexanswer:brakesaredesignedtoslowdownyourvehiclebutprobablynotbythemeans
thatyouthink.Thecommonmisconceptionisthatbrakessqueezeagainstadrumordisc,andthe
pressureofthesqueezingactioniswhatslowsyoudown.Thisinfactisonlypartoftheequation.
Brakesareessentiallyamechanismtochangeenergytypes.Whenyou'retravellingatspeed,your
vehiclehaskineticenergy.Whenyouapplythebrakes,thepadsorshoesthatpressagainstthebrake
drumorrotorconvertthatenergyintothermalenergyviafriction.Thecoolingofthebrakesdissipates
theheatandthevehicleslowsdown.It'stheFirstLawofThermodynamics,sometimesknownasthe
lawofconservationofenergy.Thisstatesthatenergycannotbecreatednordestroyed,itcanonlybe
convertedfromoneformtoanother.Inthecaseofbrakes,itisconvertedfromkineticenergyto
thermalenergy.
Angularforce.Becauseoftheconfigurationofthebrakepadsandrotorinadiscbrake,thelocation
ofthepointofcontactwherethefrictionisgeneratedalsoprovidesamechanicalmomenttoresistthe
turningmotionoftherotor.

Thermodynamics,brakefadeanddrilledrotors.
Picturecredit:Formula1.com

Ifyourideamotorbikeordrivearacecar,you'reprobablyfamiliarwiththetermbrakefade,usedto
describewhathappenstobrakeswhentheygettoohot.Agoodexampleiscomingdownamountain
passusingyourbrakesratherthanyourenginetoslowyoudown.Asyoustarttocomedownthepass,
thebrakesonyourvehicleheatup,slowingyoudown.Butifyoukeepusingthem,therotorsor
drumsstayhotandgetnochancetocooloff.Atsomepointtheycan'tabsorbanymoreheatsothe
brakepadsheatupinstead.Ineverybrakepadthereisthefrictionmaterialthatisheldtogetherwith
somesortofresinandoncethisstartstogettoohot,theresinstartstovapourise,formingagas.
Becausethegascan'tstaybetweenthepadandtherotor,itformsathinlayerbetweenthetwowhilst
tryingtoescape.Thepadslosecontactwiththerotor,reducingtheamountoffrictionandvoila.
Completebrakefade.
Thetypicalremedyforthiswouldbetogetthevehicletoastopandwaitforafewminutes.Asthe
brakecomponentscooldown,theirabilitytoabsorbheatreturnsandthenexttimeyouusethebrakes,
theyseemtoworkjustfine.Thistypeofbrakefadewasmorecommoninoldervehicles.Newer

vehiclestendtohavelessoutgassingfromthebrakepadcompoundsbuttheystillsufferbrakefade.
Sowhy?It'sstilltodowiththepadsgettingtoohot.Withnewerbrakepadcompounds,thepads
transferheatintothecalipersoncetherotorsaretoohot,andthebrakefluidstartstoboilforming
bubblesinit.Becauseairiscompressible(brakefluidisn't)whenyousteponthebrakes,theair
bubblescompressinsteadofthefluidtransferringthemotiontothebrakecalipers.Voila.Modern
brakefade.
Sohowdotheengineersdesignbrakestoreduceoreliminatebrakefade?Foroldervehicles,yougive
thatvapourisedgassomewheretogo.Fornewervehicles,youfindsomewaytocooltherotorsoff
moreeffectively.Eitherwayyouendupwithcrossdrilledorgroovedbrakerotors.Whilegrooving
thesurfacemayreducethespecificheatcapacityoftherotor,itseffectisnegligibleinthegrand
schemeofthings.However,underheavybrakingonceeverythingishotandtheresinisvapourising,
thegroovesgivethegassomewheretogo,sothepadcancontinuetocontacttherotor,allowingyou
tostop.
Thewholeunderstandingoftheconversionofenergyiscriticalinunderstandinghowandwhybrakes
dowhattheydo,andwhytheyaredesignedthewaytheyare.Ifyou'veeverwatchedFormula1
racing,you'llseethefrontwheelshavehugescoopsinsidethewheelpointingtothefront(seethe
pictureabove).ThisistoductairtothebrakecomponentstohelpthemcooloffbecauseinF1racing,
thebrakesareusedviciouslyeveryfewsecondsandspendalotoftheirtimetryingtostayhot.
Withoutsomeformofcoolingassistance,thebrakeswouldbefineforthefirstfewcornersbutthen
wouldfadeandbecomenearuselessbyhalfwayaroundthetrack.

Rotortechnology.
Ifabrakerotorwasasinglecastchunkofsteel,itwouldhaveterribleheatdissipationpropertiesand
leavenowhereforthevapourisedgastogo.Becauseofthis,brakerotorsaretypicallymodifiedwith
allmannerofextradesignfeaturestohelpthemcooldownasquicklyaspossibleaswellasdissapate
anygasfrombetweenthepadsandrotors.Thediagramhereshowssomeexamplesofrotortypeswith
thevariousmodificationthatcanbedonetothemtohelpthemcreatemorefriction,dispersemore
heatmorequickly,andventilategas.Fromlefttoright.

1:Basicbrakerotor.2:Groovedrotorthegroovesgivemorebiteandthusmorefrictionastheypass
betweenthebrakepadsTheyalsoallowgastoventfrombetweenthepadsandtherotor.3:Grooved,
drilledrotorthedrilledholesagaingivemorebite,butalsoallowaircurrents(eddies)toblow
throughthebrakedisctoassistcoolingandventilatinggas.4:Dualventilatedrotorssameasbefore
butnowwithtworotorsinsteadofone,andwithvanesinbetweenthemtogenerateavortexwhich
willcooltherotorsevenfurtherwhilsttryingtoactually'suck'anygasawayfromthepads.
Animportantnoteaboutdrilledrotors:Drilledrotorsaretypicallyonlyfound(andtobeusedon)race
cars.Thedrillingweakenstherotorsandtypicallyresultsinmicrofracturestotherotor.Onracecars
thisisn'taproblemthebrakesarechangedaftereachraceorweekend.Butonaroadcar,thiscan
eventuallyleadtobrakerotorfailurenotwhatyouwant.Ionlymentionthisbecauseofalotof
performancesupplierswillsupplyyouwithdrilledrotorsforstreetcarswithoutmentioningthislittle
fact.
Certaincarsrequiremoreupgradingforbrakesthanothers.Mustangshappentobeoneofthose

vehicles.AmericanMuscledoesagreatjobexplainingtheMustangbrakingsystemandhowtogo
aboutupgradingfromthestockform.

Bigrotors.
Howdoesallthisapplytobiggerbrakerotorsacommonsportscarupgrade?Sportscarsandrace
bikestypicallyhavemuchbiggerdiscsorrotorsthanyouraveragefamilycar.Abiggerrotorhasmore
materialinitsoitcanabsorbmoreheat.Morematerialalsomeansalargersurfaceareaforthepadsto
generatefrictionwith,andbetterheatdissipation.Largerrotorsalsoputthepointofcontactwiththe
padsfurtherawayfromtheaxleofrotation.Thisprovidesalargermechanicaladvantagetoresistthe
turningoftherotoritself.Tobestillustratehowthisworks,imagineaspinningsteeldisconanaxlein
frontofyou.Ifyouclampedyourthumbseithersideofthediscclosetothemiddle,yourthumbs
wouldheatupveryquicklyandyou'dneedtopushprettyhardtogeneratethefrictionrequiredtoslow
thediscdown.Nowimaginedoingthesamethingbutclampingyourthumbstogetherclosetothe
outerrimofthedisc.Thediscwillstopspinningmuchmorequicklyandyourthumbswon'tgetas
hot.That,inanutshellexplainsthewholeprinciplebehindwhybiggerrotors=betterstoppingpower.

Thedifferenttypesofbrake.
Allbrakesworkbyfriction.Frictioncausesheatwhichispartofthekineticenergyconversion
process.Howtheycreatefrictionisdowntothevariousdesigns.

Bicyclewheelbrakes

IthoughtI'dcoverthesebecausethey'reaboutthemostbasictypeoffunctioningbrakethatyoucan
see,watchworking,andunderstand.Theconstructionisverysimpleandoutintheopen.Apairof
rubberblocksareattachedtoapairofcaliperswhicharepivotedontheframe.Whenyoupullthe
brakecable,thepadsarepressedagainstthesideorinneredgeofthebicyclewheelrim.Therubber
createsfriction,whichcreatesheat,whichisthetransferofkineticenergythatslowsyoudown.
There'sonlyreallytwotypesofbicyclebrakethoseonwhicheachbrakeshoesharesthesamepivot
point,andthosewithtwopivotpoints.Ifyoucanlookatabicyclebrakeandnotunderstandwhat's
goingon,therestofthispageisgoingtocauseyouabitofaheadache.

Drumbrakessingleleadingedge
Thenext,morecomplicatedtypeofbrakeisadrumbrake.Theconcepthereissimple.Two
semicircularbrakeshoessitinsideaspinningdrumwhichisattachedtothewheel.Whenyouapply
thebrakes,theshoesareexpandedoutwardstopressagainsttheinsideofthedrum.Thiscreates
friction,whichcreatesheat,whichtransferskineticenergy,whichslowsyoudown.Theexample
belowshowsasimplemodel.Theactuatorinthiscaseistheblueellipticalobject.Asthatistwisted,it

forcesagainstthebrakeshoesandinturnforcesthemtoexpandoutwards.Thereturnspringiswhat
pullstheshoesbackawayfromthesurfaceofthebrakedrumwhenthebrakesarereleased.Seethe
latersectionformoreinformationonactuatortypes.

The"singleleadingedge"referstothenumberofpartsofthebrakeshoewhichactuallycontactthe
spinningdrum.Becausethebrakeshoepivotsatoneend,simplegeometrymeansthattheentirebrake
padcannotcontactthebrakedrum.Theleadingedgeisthetermgiventothepartofthebrakepad
whichdoescontactthedrum,andinthecaseofasingleleadingedgesystem,it'sthepartofthepad
closesttotheactuator.Thisdiagram(right)showswhathappensasthebrakesareapplied.Theshoes
arepressedoutwardsandthepartofthebrakepadwhichfirstcontactsthedrumistheleadingedge.
Theactionofthedrumspinningactuallyhelpstodrawthebrakepadoutwardsbecauseoffriction,
whichcausesthebrakesto"bite".Thetrailingedgeofthebrakeshoemakesvirtuallynocontactwith
thedrumatall.Thissimplegeometryexplainswhyit'sreallydifficulttostopavehiclerolling
backwardsifit'sequippedonlywithsingleleadingedgedrumbrakes.Asthedrumspinsbackwards,
theleadingedgeoftheshoebecomesthetrailingedgeandthusdoesn'tbite.

Drumbrakesdoubleleadingedge

Thedrawbacksofthesingleleadingedgestyleofdrumbrakecanbeeliminatedbyaddingasecond
returnspringandturningthepivotpointintoasecondactuator.Nowwhenthebrakesareapplied,the
shoesarepressedoutwardsattwopoints.Soeachbrakepadnowhasoneleadingandonetrailing
edge.Becausetherearetwobrakeshoes,therearetwobrakepads,whichmeanstherearetwoleading
edges.Hencethenamedoubleleadingedge.

Discbrakes
Somebackground.Discbrakeswereinventedin1902andpatentedbyBirminghamcarmaker
FrederickWilliamLanchester.Hisoriginaldesignhadtwodiscswhichpressedagainsteachotherto
generatefrictionandslowhiscardown.Itwasn'tuntil1949thatdiscbrakesappearedonaproduction
carthough.TheobscureAmericancarbuilderCrosleymadeavehiclecalledtheHotshotwhichused
themorefamiliarbrakerotorandcalipersthatweallknowandlovetoday.Hisoriginaldesignwasa
bitcrapthoughthebrakeslastedlessthanayeareach.Finallyin1954Citronlaunchedtheway

aheadofitstimeDSwhichhadthefirstmodernincarnationofdiscbrakesalongwithotherniftystuff
likeselflevellingsuspension,semiautomaticgearbox,activeheadlightsandcompositebodypanels.
(allthingswhichwerereintroducedas"new"bycarmakersinthe90's).
Discbrakesareanorderofmagnitudebetteratstoppingvehiclesthandrumbrakes,whichiswhy
you'llfinddiscbrakesonthefrontofalmosteverycarandmotorbikebuilttoday.Sportiervehicles
withhigherspeedsneedbetterbrakestoslowthemdown,soyou'lllikelyseediscbrakesontherear
ofthosetoo.

Discbrakesareagainatwopartsystem.Insteadofthedrum,youhaveadiscorrotor,andinsteadof
thebrakeshoes,younowhavebrakecaliperassemblies.Thecaliperassembliescontainoneormore
hydraulicpistonswhichpushagainstthebackofthebrakepads,clampingthemtogetheraroundthe
spinningrotor.Thehardertheyclamptogether,themorefrictionisgenerated,whichmeansmore
heat,whichmeansmorekineticenergytransfer,whichslowsyoudown.Yougettheideabynow.
Visithttp://www.carid.com/brakes.htmltofindmorebrakesforyourvehicle.
Standarddiscbrakeshaveoneortwocylindersinthemalsoknowasoneortwopotcalipers.Where
moreforceisrequired,three,ormorecylinderscanbeused.Sportsbikeshave4or6potcalipers
arrangedinpairs.Thedisadvantageofdiscbrakesisthattheyareextremelyintolerantoffaulty
workmanshiporbadmachining.Ifyouhavearegularcardiscrotorwhichisoffbysomuchas
0.07mm(3/1000inch)itwillbeHellwhenyousteponthebrakes.Thateversoslightwarpor
misalignmentisgoingtospinthroughtheclampedcalipersatsomeungodlyspeedandtheresulting
vibrationwillmakeyouwonderifyou'redrivingdownstairs.Tocombatthisproblem,whichis
particularlycriticalonmotorbikes,floatingrotorswereinvented.

Thefloatingrotor.

Standardbrakerotorsarecastinasinglepiecewhichboltsdirectlytothewheelordriveplate.Ifthe
mountingsurfaceofyourwheelordriveplateisn'tperfectlyflat,you'llgetvibrationatspeed.Floating
rotorsaretypicallycastintwopiecestherotorandthecarrier.Thecarrierisboltedtothewheeland
therotorisattachedtothecarrierusingfloatbuttons.Theothermethodoffloatingabrakerotoristo
havetherotorbolteddirectlytothewheelitselfwithoutacarrier,buttheboltshavefloatbuttonsbuilt
intothem.
Thesebuttonsallowthebrakerotorsomefreedomtomovelaterally,butrestricttheangularand

rotationalmovementasiftheywerebolteddirectlytothewheel.Thisslightlateralmotion(whichcan
belessthan0.03mm)isjustenoughtopreventvibrationinthebrakesystem.Asthecalipersare
mountedsolidly,anywarpingormisalignmentinthewheelorbrakerotormountingfacecanbe
compensatedforbecausetherotorwill"float"laterallyonthefloatbuttons.Thissidetosidevibration
isseparatedfromthecarrierbythefloatbuttonsthemselves,sononeoftheresultingmotionis
transferredintothesuspensionorsteering.Clevereh?Therenderingtotherightshowsanextreme
closeupofthebrakediscshownabove.I'verenderedthecomponentsslightlytransparentsoyoucan
seewhat'sgoingon.

Radialcalipers/radialbrakes.
Around2003,motorbikesstartedtohittheshowroomswithanewfeatureradialbrakes.The
magazinesandtesterswillalltellyouthatradialbrakesmakethebikestopquicker.Nottruethey
havenothingtodowithstoppingpowerandeverythingtodowiththedesignofthefrontforksofthe
bike.Moreandmorebikesarecomingoutwithupsidedownforks.ie.insteadofthefatcanisterpart
oftheforkbeingatthebottomoftheassembly,it'satthetop.Thismeansthattheforkpistonsare
nowthepartofthesuspensionwiththewheelattachedtothem.Italsomeansthatit'simpossibleto
putastiffeningforkbracedowntherenowbecausethebracewouldneedtomovewiththewheel,and
thelengthoftheforkpistonsprecludesthat.

Thestiffnessofthefrontendisnowentirelydependentonthesizeofthefrontaxle.Biggeraxle=
stifferfrontend.Asideeffectofthisdesignwasthattraditionallymountedbrakecaliperscouldcause
alotofvibrationinthesteeringbecauseofflexbetweenthewheel(withthebrakediscboltedtoit),
andtheforkleg(withthecaliper).Theslighttoleranceallowedbyfloatingbrakerotorscouldn't
compensatefortheamountofflexingintheforks.Toreducethebrakeinducedforkvibration,the
brakecalipersweremovedaroundtherotorsslightlysothattheyfellintothefrontrearalignmentof
thewheelaxle.There'slesslateralflexatthatpoint,whichmeanslessornovibration.Thecaliper
mountswerechangedtoo.Traditionalcalipersboltontotheforkswithboltsgoingthroughthemat
90tothefaceofthebrakerotor.Withradialcalipers,theboltsarealignedparalleltothebrakerotor
effectivelyalsointhefrontrearalignmentofthewheel.Thisdesignisatrickledowntechnology
fromsuperbikeracingwherearadialcalipermountallowstheracingteamstousedifferentdiameters
ofbrakerotorbysimplyaddingspacersbetweenthecaliperandthemountingbracket.
Theimagehereshowsthedifferencebetweentraditionalandradiallymountedbrakecalipers.

FullcontactDiscbrakes.
Thereisaquietbutmajorrevolutionhappeningintheworldofbrakes,anditwasbeingbroughtabout
byaCanadiancompanycalledNewTech.Isay'was'becausewhilstthereisstillreferencetothem
spottedabouttheinternet,theirmainsiteandcontactsseemtohavevanished.Anywayratherthan
thepiecemealimprovementswe'veseenoverthelastfewyears,withslightdesignchanges,and
materialsimprovements,thenewsystemisaradicalredesignfromthegroundup.NewTechdesigned
adiscbrakesystemcalled"fullcontactdiscbrakes".Theylookedattraditionalpadandrotordesign
andfiguredthatthepadsonlycontactabout15%oftherotorsurfaceatanyonetime.Withachange
ofdesign,NewTechwerebeenabletoadd5morepadstothesystemsothat75%ofthebrakerotoris

incontactwiththepadsatanyonetime.

Withtraditionalpadsandrotors,thebrakerotorisclampedbetweenthepad.WiththeNewTech
design,thebrakerotoritselfbecomesafloatingrotor,similartothosefoundonmotorbikes.Itis
coveredwitha'spider'(theredstructureinmyrenderings)thathas6brakepadsontheinsideofit.
Thehydraulicsystemactsonfullycircularelastomercompositediaphragmbehindthebrakedisc,
mountedintheblackstructureintherenderings.Thisalsohas6padsonitwhichpushtheentiredisc
outagainstthe6padsinsidethespider.Thisprovidesanevenforceacrosstheentiredischelpingitto
makeevencontactwithall12pads.
Toensurethebrakesremaincool,thesystemiscoveredincoolingfinsconnectedtotheouterpadsto
dissipateheat.Theinnerpadsarefittedwithamouldedthermalbarriermadeofacompositematerial.
Specialinsertsmadeofavarietyoffrictionalmaterialsaredistributedevenlyontheentiresurfaceof
thepad.Therangeofmaterialsisusedtoensureperformanceunderdiverseconditions.
NewTechbelievedthatthesystemhadconsiderableadvantagesoverconventionalbrakeswithbetter
cooling,higherstrengthandreducednoiseandvibration.
NewTechsoldtruckandbusversionsofthesebrakesintothehaulageandpublictransportindustry,
butnowRenaultisconsideringintroducingthissystemonitscarsinconjunctionwithanewbrake
bywiresystem.Newtech'sfirstOEMcustomerwastobeSaleenwhoweregoingtoputthesystemon
theirS7supercar,butintheendwentwithconventionalsixpistonmonoblockcalipersinstead.
NewTech'swebsitewentofflinein2009andhasyettoberesurrected.
It'sworthnotingthatthisisn'tactuallythefirsttimethishasbeentriedincars.Bugattiexperimented
withasystemlikethisinthelate80'sforinclusionontheir1991EB110supercaritwasgoingtobe
availableasanoptionforthecar.Peoplewhohadexperiencedthebrakessaidtheywerejust
otherworldy,thatthebrakingpowerwaswaybeyondthecapabilitiesoftheaveragedriver.They
camefromAerospatiale,theFrenchaerospacecompany,whoalsodesignedthechassisfortheEB110
(thistypeofbrakewasbeingusedinaircraftatthetime).Bugattidroppedtheideabecausethebrakes
wouldhavecostmorethantherestoftheEB110,whichat$350,000wasbynomeansacheapcar.

TheSiemensVDOElectricWedgeBrake.
SiemensVDOinGermanyaretryingtobringaprototypeelectricwedgebrake(EWB)tothemarket.
Asmuchasitsoundslikeahighschoolprankinvolvingunderwear,it'sactuallythelatestattemptto
removehydraulicsfromthebrakingcircuitinacar.TheEWBisaninnovativeideabasedon
technologydevelopedbyacompanycalledeStop.SiemensacquiredeStopearlyin2005andhave
beencontinuingtheirworkonthewedgesystemeversince.Theprincipleisbothsimpleandclever.
Thebrakepadispressedagainstthebrakerotorbymeansofawedgeshapedthrustplate.Themore
thebrakerotorturns,thehardertheslopeofthewedgeforcesthepadsagainstit.Becauseoftheshape
ofthewedgebearingsandthrustplateandtherotationofthebrakerotor,thepadisactuallyforced
againsttherotorharderthefastertherotorisspinning.Ineffect,alotofbrakingforceforverylittle
input.
Thesystemrunsoffanormal12vvehicleelectricalsystemwhichmeansnomorehydraulics.Italso
allowsthesystemtoeliminatealltheplumbingassociatedwithABSastheEWBisentirely
electronicallycontrolled.Thefinaladvantage,ifyoucouldcallitthat,isthatitallowsthefirsttrue

allelectronicbrakebywiresystem.Currentbrakebywiresystemsuseelectronicsbehindthebrake
pedaltosendsignalstoactuatorsinthehydraulicsystem.WiththeEWBthereisnohydraulicsystem
sotheonlylinkfromthebrakepedaltothebrakecaliperisa12velectricalfeedandsignalactuation
wire.
Theoperationofthewedgesystemisbasedonseveralrollerbearingsandawedgeshapedthrustplate
connectedtoapairof12velectricmotors.Asthebrakepedalisdepressed,thesignalissenttothe
motorstostartmovingthethrustplate.Becauseofitsshapeandthedesignoftherollerbearings,as
thethrustplatemoves,itforcesthebrakepadtopressagainstthebrakerotor.Thereactiontimeofthe
electricmotorscanbemeasuredinmillisecondsfarquickerthananyhydraulicsystemcouldreact,
sointheory,whenconnectedtoafullcomputermonitoredbrakebywiresystem,theEWBoughtto
beabletoshavemillisecondsoffbrakereactiontime.Doesn'tsoundlikemuchbutifitmeansafew
lessmetresinstoppingdistance,thatcanonlybeagoodthing.
Thebrakecaliperunititselfhasanintelligentwheelbrakingmodulebuiltintoit.Aswellasthe
motors,bearingsandwedges,themodulealsohasasensorsystemformonitoringmovementand
forcebasicallythisiswhatreplacesthetraditionalABSitemssoeachbrakecaliperbecomesaself
governingABSunit.Becausethere'snophysicallinkbacktothebrakepedalanymore,theABS
doesn'tforcethebrakepedaltojudderwhenitactivateswhichwillmakeitfarmoreacceptablefora
lotmoredrivers.Finally,becausethesystemistotallyelectronic,thetraditionalcablepulled
handbrakecanalsobeeliminatedandreplacedwithaparkingswitchthatsimplyactivatesallfour
EWBmodules.

Ofcoursethereareprosandconstoanynewsystemlikethis.Obviouslyreducingtheweightand
complexityofthebrakingsystemisagoodthing,andbecauseofthedesignoftheEWB,there'salot
lessspacetakenupintheenginebay,freeingupmoreroomforthecardesignerstoworkwith.Butby
removingthehydrauliclines,ABSactuatorsandsensors,andmasterandslavebrakecylinders,the
EWBconceptbecomesentirelyreliantonthe12velectricalsystemandthevagariesofacomputer.
Knowinghowoftenasingledodgyearthconnectionsinacarcantotallyscrewuptheelectrics,I've
gottowonderwhatwouldhappenifagroundingstrapcamelooseandtheelectronicbrakesystem
startedplayingup.Willthesebrakeshaveafailsafeorbackupsystemlikethedoublehydraulic
circuitsweusenow,orwillyousailoffintosomesolidobjectbecauseyou'vegotnobrakesleft?
Siemensaren'tclearonthismatter.
UntilIgetthechancetorenderupsomeillustrationsofmyowntobettershowhowthesystemworks,
theoneyouseehereisfromtheSiemenspresspack.Ifyouwanttoseeavideodemonstratingthe
EWB,SiemensVDOhaveoneavailablehere(27.8Mbmpeg).
Picturecredit:Siemenspresskit

Brakepadcompounds.
Justaquickwordonbrakepadcompounds.Mostpadsusedtouseasbestosbutweallknowwhatthat
stuffislike.Todaytheyuseallmannerofcombinationsofmaterials.
Thepadsthemselvesaremadeupofafrictionmaterialbondedtothebackingplate.Thebrakecaliper
pistonpushesagainstthebackingplateandthefrictionmaterialispushedagainstthebrakerotor.The
materialcombinationstypicallyfallintothefollowingbroadcategoriesnow.

Organic
Thesepadsarewellsuitedforstreetdrivingbecausetheywearwell,areeasyontheears,don't
chewuptherotorsanddon'tspewdusteverywhere.They'refavouredforyouraveragefamily
saloonbecausetheyworkwellwhenthey'recold.Ofcoursethedrawbackisthattheydon't
worksowellwhentheygethot.
Semimetallic/sintered
Thisisagoodcompromisebetweenstreetandtrack.Theseseemtobethepadofchoicefor
sportiervehiclessuchastheSubaruImprezaWRX.Theywon'tworkaswellasorganicpads
whentheyarecold,soyouneedtobeabitwaryofthefirstcoupleofstops.Converselytheydo
workwellwhenhot.Occasionallytheweaklinkinsemimetallicpadsisthebondingmaterial
thatholdsthefrictionpadtothebackingplate.Therehavebeenoccasionswherethefriction
materialhascomeawaycompletely.That'sinfrequentthough.
Metallic
Thesepadsaretypicallyreservedforracingortheextremelyrich.Theysquealanddustlike
crazy,arehardonrotorsanddon'tworkwellwhencold.
Ceramic
Ceramicpadsstillhavemetalfibres(about15%vs.about40%forsemimetallic)buttheyare
copperinsteadofsteelandthereforecauselesswearandtransferheatbetter.Theydon'tfadeas
easilyasotherpads,coolfaster,lastlonger,andareeffectivelysilent,asthesoundthey
genereateisoutsideofthehumanrangeofhearing.Dogswillgocrazythough.Thedustcreated
byceramicpadsisalsoverylightincolorsoyourwheelslookcleaner.

Brakesqueal.
Squealingbrakesareasignofoneoftwothings:thefrictionmaterialisallgoneandyou'rejamming
thebackingplateagainstthebrakerotor,orthefitofthebrakepadagainstthecaliperpistonisn'tas
snugasitcouldbe.Eitherway,thesquealingistheresultofanextremelyhighfrequencyvibration
betweenthepad,thecaliperpistonandthebrakerotor.Somevehicleshaveproblemswithsquealy
brakesrightfromthefactory.Inthosecases,simplychangingbrakepadmanufacturercanoftencure
theproblemasthedifferentpadswillhaveaslightlydifferentharmonicfrequency,whichisharderto
attain.AclassicexamplewasoneoftheBMWR1100touringbikes.Fromthefactory,they'dsqueal
likecrazy,andBMWredesignedthebrakecalipersandrotorsacoupleoftimesuntiltheyfinallyjust
switchedtoadifferentbrandofpadsandtheproblemvanished.

Solvingbrakesqueal.

Ifyouareareasonablycompetenthomemechanic,thenagoodwaytosolvebrakesquealistoput
somecopperbasedgreaseonthebackofyourbrakepads.That'sveryimportantsoI'llsayitagainin
CAPS:THEBACK.Coppergreaseisextremelyresistanttopressureandheatandifyougetanyon
thefrontofyourpads,you'llneednewpadsandrotorsordiscs.(Thepicturehereshowsacutawayof
adiscbrakeassembly.Theredcaliperhousingontherightismissingtoshowthetwosilverbrake
pistons.)Theideaisthatitcreatesasmallpocketofstickylubricationbetweenthefrontsideofthe
brakepistonsandthebacksideofthebrakepads.Thisisusuallyenoughtopreventthehigh
frequencysqueal.Ifyou'renothappydoingthisyourself(workingonasafetycriticalpartofyourcar

likethebrakesisn'tsomethingjusteverybodyshouldbedoing)thenaskyourfriendlygreasemonkey
todoitforyou.

There'safewproductsonthemarketthatI'veheardofand/orusedinthepast.Noisefreeisoneof
themCRCDiscBrakeQuietisanotherandthenthere'sCopaslip.I'veusedCopasliponmyvehicles
beforewithnoproblems.I'vehadpositivereviewsoftheCRCproductfrompeopleusingit
motorbikesandcars.Noisefreeisanewplayersoifyou'veusedtheirproductandhaveany
comments,dropmealine.AllthreeareavailableinAmerica,butIthinkifyou'reinEuropeyou're
limitedtoCopaslip.Ortheinternetofcourse.

Coppergreaseandrubber
WhilstcoppergreasesuchasCopaslipworkswellintheshorttermtosolvebrakesqueal,longterm,
ithasanadverseaffectontherubberdustsealsofthecaliperpistons.Thiscanleadtotheseal
deterioratingorfailingcompletely.Ifthathappens,itleavesthepistonandit'ssurfaceexposedtothe
veryelementsfromwhichitshouldbeprotected.Justsoyouknow.

Theothersolutiontobrakesqueal
Whilsttheultrahighfrequencyvibrationisonecauseofbrakesqueal,theotherbiggieisrelatedto
suspensionalignment.Drivingonbadlymaintainedroads,mountaineeringthroughpotholesor
kerbingyourwheelsallmakethesuspensionmovearoundinwaysitwasneverreallydesignedto
copewith,andthisinturnleadstothesuspensionbushesbecomingstressed.Normally,realigning
thewheelsonavehicleiscorrectedbymechanicaladjustmentonly.Ifthemountingrubbersarenot
destressedfirst,thenitleadstothetransferofthesoundgeneratedduringbrakingintothechassisand
bodywhichthenamplifiesittowherewecanhearit.Sortoflikeagiantrecordplayerwiththe
suspensionasthepickupneedleandtheentirecarasthespeaker.Ifyouhavesquealingbrakesthat
coppergreasedoesn'tsolve,lookintoapropersuspensionrealignmentandpossiblynewsuspension
bushes.

TheeBayproblem
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Brakeactuators.
Brakesareallwellandgood,butyouneedsomemethodofapplyingtheminorderforthemtowork.
Themethodbywhichtheforcefromyourhandorfootreachesthebrakeitselfisalltodowiththe
brakeactuatorsystem.

Cableoperated
Thisisaboutasbasicasyouget.Acableisconnectedtoaleverateachend.Youpressononelever
withyourfootorsqueezeitwithyourhand,anditpullstheleverattheotherend.Onthebackofthe
brakeendleverthere'sanellipticalcamwhichrotatesinsideacircularcupinthebrakeshoe.Asthe
longaxisoftheellipserotates,itforcesthebrakeshoestomoveapart.Inthecaseofabicyclebrake,
thebrakeendofthecablejustpullsthetwocaliperstogether.

Solidbarconnection
Onestepup,andfoundontherearbrakeofoldermotorbikes,thesolidbarconnection.Thisallows
theuseofmechanicaladvantage(seebelow)toamplifyyourforceonthepedalorleverbeforeitgets
tothebrakesthemselves.Typicallythesesystemsareusedondrumbrakeswiththeellipticalactuator
describedabove.Thedisadvantageofthissystemisthatitneedshingeandpivotpointsthatmatchthe
positionofthesuspensioncomponents.Ifthey'renotpresent,goingoverabumpcouldputthebrakes
onasthesuspensionmovesrelativetothelever.

Singlecircuithydraulic
Anotherstepupandwegettothetypeofbrakesystemusedonmostcarsandmotorbikestoday.Gone
arethecablesandbars,replacedinsteadwithasystemofplungers,reservoirsandhydraulicfluid.
Singlecircuithydraulicsystemshavethreebasiccomponentsthemastercylinder,theslavecylinder
andthereservoir.They'rejoinedtogetherwithhydraulichoseandfilledwithanoncompressible
hydraulicfluid(seebrakefluidbelow).Whenyoupressyourfootonthebrake,orsqueezethebrake
lever,youcompressasmallpistonassemblyinthemastercylinder.Becausethebrakefluiddoesnot
compress,thatpressureisinstantaneouslytransferredthroughthehydraulicbrakelinetotheslave
cylinderwhereitactsonanotherpistonassembly,pushingitout.Thatslaveassemblyiseither
connectedtoalevertoactivatethebrakes,ormorecommonly,isthebrakecaliperitself,withthe
slavecylinderbeingthepistonthatactsdirectlyonthebrakepads.Becauseofthearrangementofthe

slavecylinder,heatfromthebrakescanbetransferredbackintothebrakefluid.

Dualcircuithydraulic
Dualcircuithydraulicsystemsareavailableonhighendluxuryvehiclesandnewermotorbikes,in
particularBMWbikes.Thesehavetwoseparatecircuits.Oneisthecommandcircuitthat'stheone
youactonwithyourhandorfoot.Thesecondisaseparatecircuitcontrolledbyanonboardcomputer,
andthat'stheonewhichisactuallyconnectedtothebrakes.Asyouapplythebrakes,you'resendinga
pressuresignalviathecommandcircuittothebrakecomputer.Itmeasurestheamountofforceyou're
applying,andusingaservo/pumpsystem,appliesthesameforcetothesecondarycircuittoactivate
thebrakes.Ifyoudosomethingstupidliketryingtoslamonthebrakesat100mph,thecomputerwill
realisethatthiswouldresultinaskidorspin,andwillnotsendthefullpressuredownthesecondary
circuit,insteaddecidingtouseit'sspeedandABSsensorstodeterminetheoptimalbrakepressureto
maintaincontrolofthevehicle.Theadvantageofadualcircuitsystemisthatthecommandcircuit
nevergetsheattransferredintoitbecauseitistotallyseparatedfromthebrakesthemselves.The
disadvantageofcourseisthatyounowhavetwohydrauliccircuitstomaintain.

Brakebywire

Themostadvancedsystemofbrakestodatearebrakebywire.Theseareadirectcopyofsomestyles
ofracingbrakesandareverysimilartothedualcircuithydraulicsystemdescribedabove,butinstead
ofthecommandcircuitbeinghydraulic,it'sreplacedwithelectronics.Thebrakepedalorleveris
connectedtoahypersensitiverheostat(measureselectricalresistance).Themoreyoupushit,the
greatertheelectricalsignalsenttothebrakecomputer.Fromthereon,itperformsjustlikethe
secondarycircuitdescribedabove.Theadvantagetothissystemisthatthebrakepedalorlevercanbe
placedjustaboutanywhereyoulikeasitnolongerisencumberedbytheplumbingthatgoeswitha
hydrauliccircuit.Tocombatdrivercomplaintsof"lackoffeel"inthebrakes,mostbrakebywire
systemshaveareversefeedbackloopbuiltin.Thismeasuresthepressurebeingappliedtothebrakes
onthesecondarycircuit,andactuatesanelectricalresistorinthepedalorleverassemblytoprovide
resistance.Thisisneededbecausethereisnophysicalconnectiontoanypartofthebrakesystemat
all.

Mechanicaladvantage
(orwhyyoucanstopa2toncarwithonefoot).
Ifyoudidanysortofphysicsclasseswhenyouwerebackinschool,youmightremembersomething
calledmechanicaladvantage.Initsmostbasicform,mechanicaladvantageistheratioofforceinto
forceoutinamechanicalsystem.MechanicalAdvantage=EffortTorque/LoadTorque.
Forexamplea20kgweight1metrefromapivotcanlifta40kgweight0.5mfromthepivotonthe
otherside.TheefforttorqueandloadtorquecalculationsaretodowithforceinNewtonsanddistance
frompivotpoint.HencetorqueismeasuredinNewtonmetres,orNm.ANewtonistheamountof
forcerequiredtoaccelerateamassofonekilogrambyonemetrepersecond.OnEarth,where
accelerationduetogravityis9.8m/s,theforceexerteduponamassof1kgis9.8N(usuallyrounded
upto10N).Anotherpopularnotationislbf.ftpoundforcefeet,commonlyreferredtoasfoot
pounds.1Newtonmetreisequivalentto0.737footpounds.
Thediagrambelowshowsasimpleleversystemonapivot.Theloadtorqueis200Nm,andtheeffort
torqueisalso200Nm.Mechanicaladvantage=effort/load,whichinthiscaseis200/200,whichis
1.ie.thesystemisbalanced.

Nowimagineincreasingtheweightontheeffortsideto30kginsteadof20kg,butleavingeverything
elsethesame.Theloadtorqueisstill200Nm,buttheefforttorqueisnow300Nm.Mechanical
advantage=effort/load,whichis300/200,whichis1.5.Anymechanicaladvantagevaluelarger
than1.0meansthattheefforthastheadvantage.Inthiscase,a30kgweightwhichislighterthanthe
40kgload,isabletoliftitofftheground.

Ifyounowtakeyournewfound/rememberedknowledgeaboutphysicsandlookatthesimplelever
brakesystem,you'llrealisehowit'spossibletogenerateenoughforceusingyourfoottostopacaror
motorbike.Lookatthisdiagramoftheleveroperatedcambrake.

Thissystemhas4leversinit.Themiddletwohavenomechanicaladvantageastheleversare

connectedthesamedistancefromthepivotineachcase.However,lookatthepedal.ThevaluesI've
putinarearbitrarybuttheyservethepurpose.Onthepedalwehavesomeamountofforce20cmfrom
thepivot,buttheotherendoftheleverisonly5cmfromthepivot.Thisgivesusamechanical
advantageof4onthebrakelever(20cm/5cm).
Attheotherend,theleverattachedtothecamisstillaleversystemit'sjustbent.Theinputleveris
10cmlongbutthecamisonly4cmacrossor2cmtothetipfromthepivot.Soatthebrakecamwe
haveamechanicaladvantageof5.(10cm/2cm).Soacrossthisentiresystem,wehaveatotal
mechanicaladvantageof204fromthebrakepedaland5fromtheleverandcam.Applyforceto
thislittlesystemandbeamazed.Theunitsofforceusedareirrelevantthey'remultipliedjustthe
same.Touseeasiertocomprehendvalues,let'simaginethatwhenyou'rebraking,yourfootis
pushingonthebrakepedalwithabout60poundsofforce27Kg.Throughthebrakepedal,thatis
amplified4timesto240pounds,andthroughtheleverandcamitsamplifiedafurther5timesfrom
240poundsto1200pounds.Youpushedthepedalwith60poundsofforce,butthecaminsidethedrum
brakeisbeingforcedoutagainstthebrakedrumwith1200poundsofforceabout544Kg.Sweet.

Mechanicaladvantageasappliedtohydraulics.

Mostbrakingsystemsnowusehydraulics.Thisisaslightchangeintheequationbuttheconceptof
mechanicaladvantagestillexists,thistimebytheuseofpressureequations.Pressure=force/area.If
youapply20Newtonsofpressureto1m,it'sthesameasapplying200Newtonsto10m.Why?
Because20Newtonsofforcedividedby1mofareagenerates20Pascalsofpressure.Similarly,
200N/10misalso20Pa.
Ifyounowthinkofthatintermsofahydraulicbrakingsystem,itbecomesclearhowmechanical
advantageworksforyou.Brakefluidisincompressibleithastobe.Thisisgoodbecauseitmakes
calculationforhydraulicbrakesystemsquiteeasyyoucaneliminatetheinternalpressurefromthe
equation.
Splitthesystemintotwopartsinputandoutputthebrakepedalandthebrakecaliperpiston.
Foreachpart,Pressure=Force/Area.ThePressureisthesameatallpointsinthesystem,sosome
basicalgebragivesasimpleformula:

Usingourpreviousexample,weapply60pounds(27Kg)ofinputforcetothebrakepedal.Thisis
attachedtoamasterpistonwhich(forexample)is1.25cmacrossie.ithasasurfaceareaof
0.000491m(rememberyourmaths?area=PIxr).Attheotherendofthesystemisthecaliper
piston,whichforexampleis2cmacrossie.ithasasurfaceareaof0.001257m.Usingoursparkly
newformula,theoutputforcefromthecaliperpistonis
60x(0.001257m/0.000491m)Getyourcalculatoroutandthatcomesoutto154pounds(69.8Kg)
morethandoubletheforceatthebrakepedal.Theratioofoutputareatoinputareaissometimes
referredtoastheareadifferential.
Sothat,myfriend,iswhyyoucanstopaspeedingvehiclewithasinglefoot.

Wheretogetbrakepartreplacements.
Thisseemslikeasopportuneaplaceasanytomentionthatthereareplentyofplacesontheinternet
andlocallythatwilldoyouproudforbrakepartsandcomponentsifyoudecidetodoityourself.If
you'relookingforagoodplacetostartshoppingonline,thebrakelines,brakepadsandbrakerotors
sectionsatAutoAnythingseemasgoodaplacetostartasany.Imentionthemonlybecausetheysell
thesameGoodridgekitsItalkaboutonthefollowingpage,andIwaswellchuffedwithwhatthatkit
didtomyAudi.Oneotherthing:ifyou'regoingtobedoingityourself,agoodshopmanualisan
absolutenecessitybecauseifthere'sonesystemonyourcaryoudon'twanttobecockingup,it'sthe
brakes.