Course overview

DISC 202 References and Information Services

(3 CREDITS)

Course Purpose
The course is designed to provide the rationale, knowledge and skills needed to form a foundation of
reference and information services. Students will be exposed to the various methods of referencing and
methods of identifying information needs.
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the student should be able to;
1. Analyze and identify the information needs of clients.
2. Identify appropriate sources of information to meet their clients' needs.
3. Make effective use of a variety of information sources.
Course Content
An introduction to reference and information services and resources. Includes history and varieties of
reference services, user populations, instruction, ethics, access issues, the reference interview, search
strategies, evaluation of services, and the organization, selection, evaluation, and use of major information
resources.
Mode of delivery

Lectures

Tutorials

Class discussions/ presentations

Instructional Materials and / or Equipment

White board

LCD projector

PowerPoint

Course Assessment

CATs

End of trimester examination

REFERENCES
Core Reading Materials for the Course

Gorman, M. (1990). Technical Services Today and Tomorrow. Englewood,

CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Kovacs, B. (1990). The Decision-Making Process for Library Collections.

Case Studies in Four Types of Libraries. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Magrill, R. M., & Corbin, J. (1989). Acquisitions Management and Collection

Development in Libraries. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: American Library
Association.

Recommended Reference Materials

Evans, G. Edward. (1995). Developing Library and Information Center Collections.
3rd ed., Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited

COURSE OUTLINE
There are six units
Unit 1: Introduction to Reference and Information Services
1.1

Introduction to Reference and Information Services

1.2

Factors influencing reference service quality

1.3

Reference Staff Responsibilities

1.4

Evaluation of Information Services

Unit 2: Standard Reference Sources

2.1 Introduction to Reference Sources
2.2 Formats and types of information resources
2.3 Typical reference sources
Unit 3: Working with Electronic Information Sources
3.1 Electronic reference sources
3.2 Evaluating Electronic Information Sources
3.3Searching Electronic Information Sources
3.4 The Internet as a Reference Tool

Unit 4: Resource Sharing

4.1 Introduction to Resource Sharing
4.2Interlibrary Loan (ILL) Services

4.3 Information and Referral

Unit 5: The Reference Interview
5.1 The Reference Interview
5.2 Elements of the Reference Interview
5.3 Typical patron problems
5.4 Variables affecting the reference Interview
Unit 6: Use of library 2.0 in the provision of library services
6.1 The changing nature of reference services
6.2 Use of web 2.0 in reference services

COURSE OBJECTIVES
TOPICS IN WEEKS
WEEK 1: Topic 1- Introduction to Reference and Information Services
Topic2- Types of information services
Topic 3- Factors influencing reference service quality
WEEK2: Topic 4- Reference Staff Responsibilities
Topic 5- Evaluation of Information Services
Week3: Topic 6 - Introduction to Reference Sources
Topic 7- Formats and types of information resources
Topic 8- Characteristics of reference sources
WEEK4:

Topic 9- Typical reference sources

WEEK5: Topic 10 - Electronic reference sources

Topic 11- Evaluating Electronic Information Sources
WEEK6: Topic 12- Searching Electronic Information Sources
Topic 13- The Internet as a Reference Tool
WEEK7:

Topic 14- Introduction to Resource Sharing

Topic 15- Interlibrary Loan (ILL) Services
Topic 16- Information and Referral

WEEK 8: Topic 17- The Reference Interview

Topic 18- Elements of the Reference Interview

WEEK9: Topic 19- Typical patron problems

Topic 20- Variables affecting the reference Interview
WEEK 10: Topic 21- The changing nature of reference services
Topic 22- Use of web 2.0 in reference services
WEEK11: Developing User profile sheets.
WEEK 12: Revision

UNIT 1: Introduction to reference and information services

By completing this unit you will be able to:

define reference/ information services

describe typical duties of staff responsible for reference and information
services

outline methods of evaluating information services

discuss the factors influencing reference service quality

Historical Background
In this first decade of the twenty-first century reference and information services are a vital yet
changing part of the function and mission of the library institution. While the continually
expanding availability of electronic resources and digitized materials has changed the nature of
reference, the essential service remains central. Indeed, far from minimizing the need for
reference services, the rise of the Internet, and with it the availability of a tremendous number of
subscription and free online resources, makes this aspect of library service all the more crucial.
Librarians and their users are constantly bombarded with a wide range of information choices
that must be evaluated for authenticity and accuracy. Whether at home on their computers or
wandering through the stacks, many people feel as though they are drowning in a sea of
information.
New media and technologies are like tributaries leading to this great new body of knowledge,
and each stream makes the waters deeper and more perilous.
Reference services are at once a life raft, map, and compass to those who feel adrift. In providing
them with a combination of personalized service in a timely manner, libraries reaffirm their
centrality as twenty-first century public institutions par excellence.
For all its contemporary relevance, the concept of reference service is more than a century old. In
1876, Samuel Green, librarian of the Worcester Free Public Library in Massachusetts, developed
the idea of having librarians assist the user in the selection of books to suit their needs.

This served a dual function, increasing the use of his librarys collection and thereby
demonstrating the need for the library. Green saw the role of the public library as one of
welcoming users by having a pleasant and cultivated female staff (Genz, 1998). Some forty years
later, in 1915 at the thirty-seventh meeting of the American Library Association, a paper on
reference work was delivered by W.W. Bishop, the superintendent of the Reading Room of the
Library of Congress. Bishop defined reference work as the service rendered by a librarian in aid
of some sort of study holding that it was an organized effort on the part of libraries in aid of
the most expeditious and fruitful use of their books. (Genz, 1998)
The idea of reference service was further developed by Charles Williamson in his 1923 report,
Training for Library Service: A Report Prepared for the Carnegie Corporation of New York,
Definition of terms
Information service, in the most general sense, is the process of assisting library users to
identify sources of information in response to a particular question, interest, assignment, or
problem. Sometimes referred to as reference service, the Reference and User Services
Association (RUSA) of the American Library Association defines reference transactions as
information consultations in which library staff recommend, interpret, evaluate, and/or use
information resources to help others to meet particular information needs
(www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/rusa/resources/guidelines/definitionsreference.cfm). These
reference transactions can take place in person or via the telephone, e-mail, or virtual reference
technologies. Librarians are also creating Web sites, answer archives, and links to answers to
frequently asked questions all designed to anticipate user questions and help people find
information independently.
Traditional reference desk service continues to be highly valued by library users in many
settings, but the newer forms continue to grow in popularity.
Consequently, it is all the more important that librarians understand the range of inquiries that
can be expected, allowing them to provide a full and ready answer, regardless of the form in
which the query arises.
Kinds of Information Service
Bopp and Bunge categorized the practices of reference services into three groups:

1. Information services that take the forms of ready reference questions, bibliographic
verication, interlibrary loan and document delivery, information and referral services, research
questions and fee-based services and information brokering;
2. Guidance, including readers advisory services, bibliotherapy, term-paper counseling, selective
dissemination of information (SDI, also called current awareness service);
3. One-to-one or group instruction
The following reference services are discussed here:
Answering Reference Questions
In light of the immense diversity and range of possible questions, being approached by a patron
with a reference need can seem like a daunting prospect. Indeed, much of the difficulty of
information services arises from uncertainty about the kind of service or breadth of information
called for by a given question. Categorizing reference questions by type is a useful way to make
sense of such concerns.
Three common types of information service are ready reference questions, research questions,
and bibliographic verification.
Ready reference questions such as Where was Abraham Lincoln born? Who won the 1992
World Series? What is the capital of Nicaragua? or Where can I find a copy of the United
States Declaration of Independence? can be readily answered using one or two general
reference sources. The librarian may be tempted to tell the user the answer to simple ready
reference questions. Yet here the old saying that giving a man a fish feeds him for a day while
teaching him to fish feeds him for a lifetime is proven true. No matter how simple they seem
initially, ready reference questions provide the possibility of teachable moments. Whenever
possible, librarians should lead users through the process of looking up the information rather
than simply providing the solution.
Librarians who assist users with ready reference inquiries on a regular basis sometimes choose to
create a ready reference section of the most commonly used resources either in print or on the
librarys Web site to answer quick questions. Typically, such sections include a general allpurpose encyclopedia, dictionaries, almanacs, and handbooks. Care must be taken to keep the
sources up-to-date and to avoid depending so heavily on this subset of the collection that other
sources are overlooked by library users and librarians. Librarians may find that ready reference
questions have diminished due to the ease of answering basic questions through online

information portals such as Google. Nevertheless, ready reference remains a cornerstone of

information services, and librarians should be primed to provide it at any time.
Research questions are more complex, may take much longer to answer, and typically require
multiple sources of information. These questions often require the user to consider a variety of
sources and viewpoints and to subsequently draw conclusions. Sometimes questions that initially
seem like ready reference questions are far more complex as previously hidden facets of the
users inquiry are revealed. Here, the variety of possible sources increases with the complexity of
users questions. Librarians should, for example, guide the user in the use of bibliographic
sources, citations, and the back-of-the-book bibliographies.
Likewise, users with complex questions may need to be taught how to find or request the full text
of articles for which only citations are given in a search of electronic databases, allowing them to
move beyond cursory surveys of the literature.
Research questions, especially if the user is unable to fully articulate the nature of his or her
query, require librarians to ask questions of their own, trying to get at the nature of the request
before setting out to help the patron answer it. The librarian may, for example, have to determine
how much information is needed, what level of information is needed, and what other sources
have already been consulted. Information services call for mutual engagement, especially with
more complex questions.
Reference librarians should never be passive participants, pointing the way to an answer. Instead,
they should play the part of dynamic guides, joining users on their journeys to knowledge.
Naturally, the extent of such engagement may vary from one circumstance to another. Different
types of libraries tend to have their own standards for how long librarians should spend with
users on research questions. Many public libraries recommend that users be given five or ten
minutes of personal assistance and then asked to return if more help is needed. A university
library may have a similar standard, or depending on the institution, may be able to invite the
user to make an appointment for more in-depth research assistance.
Some libraries may suggest that users call or e-mail ahead of their visit so the librarian can be
prepared to offer the best possible assistance. Other libraries, including special libraries, may
only be able to provide a basic level of help during the first visit. Libraries may refer users to

other libraries with more specialized materials in the area of the users research or may offer to
call back if additional information is found.
Finally a library user may seek bibliographic verification when he or she has already obtained
the information needed but must verify the sources. Sometimes this service is a matter of fact
checking, whereas on other occasions users may have completed their research but lack full
citation information. As users increasingly depend on electronic databases for information,
compiling and formatting bibliographic citations becomes easier. Verifying and citing material
found on Web pages is more difficult since the information needed for the citation is not always
easy to find.
Readers Advisory Service
Readers advisory service, sometimes considered a type of information service, is the quest to
put the right book in the hands of the right reader. Readers advisory is the process of matching
readers with books and books to readers. Librarians are increasingly expected to provide an
answer to the dreaded question, Can you help me find a good book? Fortunately, as demand
has increased, so too has the ease of providing this service. Although there is no substitute for
ones own knowledge or experience, many new technologies serve to make the readers advisory
far easier than it was in the past. Many online databases, for example, have functions that
automatically recommend other books for those who like a given title. Others have searchable
lists of works by genre, helping readers match their favorite books to others like them. As
always, however, remember that readers advisory, like other reference work, is predicated on the
interaction between librarian and library user. Asking directed questions, listening carefully to
the users responses, and tailoring assistance accordingly is the basis of excellent, truly helpful
service.
The readers advisory service is generally associated with public libraries and tends to be
employed primarily by those looking for fiction. In academic libraries, it is far less common as
users rarely come in searching for a mystery to read. Even so, readers advisory may be needed
to help lay researchers looking to deepen their knowledge of a particular field. A patron who has
read and enjoyed Stephen Ambroses Undaunted Courage, but is troubled by allegations about
Ambroses questionable accuracy and academic honesty, may want to know the titles of books
about the Lewis and Clark expedition that are both reputable and engaging. Successful readers

10

advisory librarians are skilled at asking users questions that enable them to assess users reading
level, language, or educational background. They must know a great deal about various genres of
fiction and nonfiction and be intimately familiar with their librarys collection.
Information Literacy
User instruction, which is now usually referred to as information literacy, may range from
showing an individual how to use the librarys online catalog and basic print reference sources to
formal classroom sessions about conducting research in the library. The basic component of
information literacy includes demonstrating how, when, and why to use various reference
sources in an integrated way that will capture the users attention at the teachable moment.
In todays educational settings, the ease of using electronic resources often results in a failure to
teach more traditional research strategies. While finding superficial information has grown
easier, in-depth information has become increasingly obscure for many students. In the library
too, approaches to instruction may vary and librarians often question whether to simply answer
questions posed by users or to teach users how to employ the available resources. This may be
contingent on the mission or purpose of the library.
Academic institutions may call on their librarians to help students understand how to engage
effectively and independently in the research and information evaluation process. Public
librarians, by contrast, may try to teach users about reference sources in a more informal manner
as they lead users to the answers they seek. Thus, while instruction is always an important part of
reference work, the degree to which they go about providing it is highly contingent on the
circumstances.
In any case, all reference librarians must be skilled at helping users find information and answers
quickly and be ready to teach users how to use the reference sources that are available. The best
reference librarians develop an intuition for when to be information providers and when to be
bibliographic instructors. In some libraries, only specific, designated librarians are charged with
conducting library instruction courses. Nevertheless, an increasing number of librarians are
required to participate in their libraries bibliographic instruction program, and library school
graduates are expected to be capable of teaching basic classes on the use of library resources. As
should be clear, even those librarians not charged with providing formal instruction have the
opportunity to teach those they serve.

11

Reference Staff Responsibilities

The librarian who staffs the reference desk can usually do the following by virtue of their
professional training and experience:

The librarian can look up a brief, factual answer to a specific question.

The librarian can use the catalogue to find out whether the library owns an item with a
particular title or author, or that contains a short story, chapter, song, or poem with a
particular title, or to compile a list of books by a particular author or on a particular
subject.

The librarian can briefly teach the user how to use the catalogue and how to use its
advanced features, or recommend the proper subject words or terms that are used in the
catalogue for the topic the user has in mind.

The librarian can often take the library user directly to the shelves with books on a certain
topic without using the catalogue.

12

The librarian is familiar with the contents of hundreds of reference books, and can
recommend books that might contain the answer to a particular question.

The librarian can teach the library user to use online databases such as magazine and
newspaper articles, and recommend words and search strategies for the topic the user has
in mind.

The librarian can recommend reliable web sites, give advice on searching the Internet for
information, and evaluate the reliability of the information on web sites.

If the library doesn't have information on a given topic, or if the library user wants more
information, the librarian can refer the library user to another library or to an organization
that can be contacted by phone or mail.

EVALUATING INFORMATION SOURCES

Relevancy
Is the information provided on target for your specific information needs?
Is the content appropriate for a college-level paper?
Authority
What information is provided about the authors credentials?
Is the author qualified in the subject covered?
Is the author affiliated with a reputable institution or scholarly publisher?
What are the goals/values of the sponsoring institution?
Is the author mentioned in or linked from another trustworthy source?
Format and Presentation
Is the information easy to get?

Does the source contain a table of contents and/or an index to facilitate the use or to find the
specific information one needs?

Is the arrangement of links uncluttered?

If graphical images are included, what is the quality of these graphical images?

Do these images enhance the understanding of the resource or distract from the content?

13

Accuracy
Could the information be verified in other sources?
Is there a bibliography that indicates the authors sources of information?
Is the authors methodology presented?
Is the information original or reprinted/excerpted from another source?
If you are using multiple sources, how does the source compare with others on the topic?
Currency
Is there a date listed for the information?
When was the information last revised?
How up-to-date are the links in a Web site or the citations in a bibliography?
Does the topic require very current information?
Is an edition listed?
Point of View/Objectivity
Who is providing the information or sponsoring the site?
Can you independently confirm that this is a legitimate, reputable organization?
What does the Web address tell you about the site? (commercial, educational, government,
organizations, personal?)
Whats the objective of the site? (to inform, persuade/promote a point of view, or sell
something?)
Is the language objective and neutral or exaggerated and inflammatory?
Does the information seem based in fact or is it someones opinion?
Breadth, Depth, and Omission
Is the topic covered comprehensively?
Are there aspects of the topic or opposing opinions which are omitted?
Are there additional sources that you should examine to cover the topic more broadly or
deeply

14

UNIT 2: Standard Reference Sources

By completing this unit you will be able to:

describe the characteristics and uses of the standard types of reference

sources
evaluate and compare reference sources
answer reference questions using standard print and non-print information
sources

Introduction to Reference Sources

What Is a Reference Collection?
Libraries maintain numerous and varied collections of materials. For example, many libraries
keep videotapes, slides, and sound recordings in a separate collection often known as the Media
Collection. Libraries will also usually have a separate Government Documents Collection that
houses publications of the federal, state, and local governments. While not every library may
have a government documents collection or a media collection, nearly all do maintain reference
collections.
A library's Reference Collection is used to gather together in one convenient location standard
references like encyclopedias, handbooks, and dictionaries that will provide answers to questions
on any topic in any field of research. It is called a Reference Collection because its use is limited
to in-library reference and because it is used heavily by the library's Reference Department to
answer library patrons' questions quickly. Ideally, a library's Reference Collection should provide
resources that will quickly answer any question posed by a library patron or that will at least
direct the patron to a source that will answer the question.
Specialized libraries may maintain specialized Reference Collections. For example, a library that
focuses on music, may maintain a Reference Collection that consists primarily of dictionaries,
encyclopedias, and handbooks of use in researching musical topics. A medical library may limit
its reference materials to those sources that are particularly useful to medical research.
Comprehensive libraries, like UNF's library, will try to collect reference materials suitable to any
subject.

15

Formats and Types of Information Resources

There are various formats of information resources. The most general formats are: print (books,
periodicals and microforms), multimedia (videotapes, audiocassettes, slides, and other image and
audio formats) and electronic (CD, DVD, and databases).
Types of information sources are often discussed in four general groups (there is some overlap).
Each of the following is a link to details about the information type:
General-specific
Scholarly-popular
Primary-secondary
Free-fee
General-Specific Information Types
When searching for information, it is recommended that a student use background information
sources to gain an initial understanding of the topic. First, explore general information sources to
increase familiarity with the topic and to gain an overview, and to review ideas concerning the
topic's terminology. A general encyclopedia, such as the Encyclopedia Britannica, is often a good
place to start looking for information. Most articles are written by experts in the subject, and can
be used as a brief overview of your topic.
Then, use more specific information sources as your understanding of the topic deepens, such as
subject encyclopedias and books.
Subject-based or specialized encyclopedias, handbooks and directories provide more
comprehensive topic information than found in general encyclopedias. Examples include
almanacs and yearbooks, atlases and gazetteers and biographical encyclopedias.
Books provide in-depth information on a topic; most are indexed to facilitate searching, and
include bibliographies useful for identifying additional information sources. Books, also known
as monographs, have been carefully selected by librarians and faculty for inclusion in the
library's collection because of their reliability.
Scholarly-Popular Information Types
There are different types of periodicals, such as journals, magazines and trade publications.
The scholarship of an article is important. The highest level of scholarship is a journal article
from a refereed serial. An authority (a scholar) in the discipline has written the article and the

16

articles content has been reviewed (often called peer reviewed or refereed) by other discipline
scholars. A journal article from a "scholarly" or "academic" publication may be acceptable for
use in undergraduate research papers. The difference between a "refereed serial" and a
"Scholarly publication" is that an article in a scholarly publication might not be refereed.
Although all refereed serials are scholarly publications, not all scholarly publications are refereed
serials.
Primary-Secondary Information Types
Primary sources mean that it is original article or book created by an individual or sometimes a
group of people. What types of primary sources are available? It might be surprising to know that
a novel is a primary source. Other types of primary sources are paintings created by the artist. If
it were a photocopy of the painting, then it would be a secondary source. Some other primary
sources are letters, films, short stories, plays, poems, photographs, court cases, journal articles,
newspaper events, and speeches. For instance, a speech by President Bush would be a primary
source.
In simple terms primary sources come firsthand from the source or person. Diaries would be a
primary source because it is written directly by the individual writing in the diary. Interviews are
great primary sources because the individual talks about the topic directly from what he/she
knows about the topic. Primary sources are usually firsthand information about something such
as diaries, court records, and interviews, research studies about experiments, and information that
has been stated but not interpreted by others.
Some examples of primary sources are e-mails and letters. They are directly written about one
person. If this letter was written during World War II and analyzed by another person then it
would be a secondary source. Debates, community meetings, surveys, and observations are some
different primary sources.
Secondary sources are sources that are written about primary sources. Secondary sources
analyze, interpret, and discuss information about the primary source. If a magazine writer wrote
about the speech President Bush gave on September 11th, it would be a secondary source. The
information is not original, but it is an analysis of the speech.

17

In simple terms, a secondary source writes or talks about something that is a primary source. For
instance, if a person were to write about a painting hanging in the art gallery, this would be a
secondary source discussing the original art.
Secondary Sources include journal articles, books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, reviews,
newspaper articles, specific essays, etc. Most research papers are based on secondary sources as
they build on the research or studies others have done.
Other types of secondary sources are reference materials, books, and CD Rom, magazines,
videotapes, and television shows. Most secondary sources analyze the material or restate the
works of others. Many secondary sources are used to argue someone's thesis or main points
about a topic. For instance, a secondary source would use debates between the presidential
candidates in their magazine article and show how one president feels about a topic the writer is
discussing.
Sometimes a source can be a primary source in one journal article and a secondary source in
another journal article. It depends upon the relationship the writer has in the journal article. If he
has been an active part of the research and he custom-writes about it then this is a primary
source. If the writer writes about research done by others then this writing will be a secondary
source.
Primary Sources are directly taken from an individual or group of individuals, while secondary
sources take information from an individual or group and analyzes the topic. Remembering this
information helps in deciding whether it is a primary or secondary source.
Information sources can be regarded as primary or secondary depending on their:

originality

Proximity to the source or event.

Primary sources come directly from the source or person. They are original materials, which
have not been filtered through interpretation.
For example:
18

statistics, interviews and surveys

autobiographies/memoirs, diaries and original writing

journal articles (when discussing original ideas or reporting original research)

books (when discussing original ideas or reporting original research)

newspaper articles (when written at the time of an event)

artifacts such as furniture, buildings, tools and clothes

photographs, music and art work

maps

patents or standards

statutes and law reports

Records of proceedings of meetings, committees etc.

Secondary sources analyze, interpret and comment on primary information.

For example:

biographies

journal articles (when they report or summarize the findings of others)

books (when the material is drawn from other work and intended as a topic overview or
summary)

newspaper articles (when offering commentary or opinions)

literature reviews

encyclopedias

Dictionaries.

19

General encyclopedias

CHARACTERISTICS OF REFERENCE SOURCES

These form a special category of documents meant for consultation or reference and not
for consecutive reading.

These are secondary or tertiary sources based on primary or secondary sources of

information.

Usually these are compiled works for which information is gathered from a large number
of sources. These sources do not contain new knowledge, but contain the knowledge
which is already available somewhere.

In such sources information is organized according to some definite artificial plan of

arrangement which can provide fast access to information in the most convenient manner.

These sources have disjointed entries, having no line by line or para by para relationship
as is there in other sources. So they have no continuity of thought contents as a result,
these cannot be read para by para or page by page.

Such sources are comprehensive in coverage (scope) and condensed in treatment.

These are not 100% reliable for the data or information provided therein.

Typical Reference Sources

Although there are many more types of sources in a Reference Collection than is practical to
cover here, following are some of the most commonly collected types of reference books.
Almanacs
Usually published annually, almanacs provide a miscellany of facts. Almost
encyclopedic in coverage, they are particularly good sources for finding current statistics on
nearly any topic. A couple of well-known almanacs are the Time Almanac (formerly the
Information Please Almanac) and Whitaker's Almanac. Both of these sources are available in the
UNF Library's Reference Collection.
Atlases

20

Although people usually think of atlases as being collections of maps and as being
devoted solely to geography, atlases can also focus on specific subjects, such as history or art or
literature. Unless a library has a separate atlas collection, atlases are typically kept in a library's
Reference Collection. UNF Library keeps atlases in Reference if they will fit on the shelves
without making special adjustments. Those that are very large are typically housed in a separate
Map/Atlas Collection located on the second floor of the library behind the Government
Documents Collection. Examples of specialized atlases include the Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf
States and the Rand McNally Bible Atlas, both housed in the library's Reference Collection.
Bibliographies
Bibliographies identify books, articles, and other resources available to researchers.
Usually bibliographies focus on a particular subject area, like literature or sociology or
psychology, and can be used to find classic studies in a field. Examples of bibliographies kept in
UNF Library's Reference Collection are the Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature and
Social Science Reference Sources: a Practical Guide. Bibliographies might also be housed in
other library collections, depending on their focus. A search of the library's catalog will identify
where in the library a particular bibliography is shelved.
Biographies
Biographical works are very common components of any Reference Collection. Although full
length biographies may be written on major figures in any field, not every important person will
be profiled in his or her own full-length biography and the full-length biographies are typically
not kept in a reference collection. The most comprehensive sources for biographical information
are collections of biographies like Current Biography and Grove's Dictionary of Music and
Musicians. These specialized sources provide concise biographical sketches for important figures
and frequently provide references to additional biographical materials. An excellent index to
hundreds of biographical sources can be found in the library's print Reference Collection and in
its online collections. The Biography and Genealogy Master Index provides historical coverage
of hundreds of standard biographical works, thus making it easy for a researcher to quickly
identify which biographical source to use. The library also maintains, online, an excellent full-

21

text database called the Biography Resource Center. If this were a print publication, it would
likely be shelved in the library's Reference Collection.
Chronologies
A chronology documents events over a period of time, frequently in time-line fashion. If,
for example, you are interested in researching scientific progress during the 19th century, a
chronology of science will give you a year-by-year, and possibly day-by-day, overview of the
major scientific events for the 19th and other centuries. Some chronologies, such as the People's
Chronology: a Year-by-Year Record of Human Events from Prehistory to the Present, cover
important events regardless of area. Others may focus on a specific subject, like the
Chronological Outline of American Literature.
Dictionaries
Most people think of Webster when they hear the word dictionary. But dictionaries of the
English language or of foreign languages are not the only types of dictionaries available in a
Reference Collection. For nearly any subject area, a specialized dictionary of terms is available.
Some typical examples in UNF Library include the Cambridge Dictionary of Astronomy and the
Computer Glossary: the Complete Illustrated Dictionary. Rather than just give definitions, many
specialized dictionaries are actually mini-encyclopedias, providing concise reference articles on
major and minor concepts within a field.

Digests
A digest is an organized collection of summaries of longer documents in an area. For example,
court decisions are frequently made more accessible through the use of digests. A court digest
will summarize the main points of the court decisions included and will provide access by key
word or subject. One example of a case digest is the Supreme Court Digest, a compilation by
subject of all decisions heard by the United States Supreme Court. Digests aren't limited just to
court decisions. One of the most notable and frequently used digests kept in a library is the Book

22

Review Digest, which provides year-by-year summaries of book reviews published in a variety
of sources. The Book Review Digest is housed in UNF's Index/Abstract Collection located on
the 3rd floor of the library. Many libraries will include their indexes and abstracts directly in the
Reference Collection. The UNF Library does not.

23

Directories
Directories typically provide contact information for people and organizations, but may
also provide additional background information as well. One of the most frequently used
directories for information on the United States Government; the Federal Regulatory Directory
provides information about federal agencies and their staff, including the scope of the agency's
responsibilities and contact information for all key figures. The Reference Collection will have
directories for many different disciplines and areas of interest.
Encyclopedias
Nearly everyone has heard of the Encyclopedia Britannica and understands that it gathers
together research length articles on nearly any subject that a person might want to explore. In
addition to such comprehensive, general encyclopedias, researchers can likely find specialized
encyclopedias that focus on narrower fields of knowledge in a library's Reference Collection. For
example, a researcher trying to find out more information on the "Underground Railroad" might
find the African American Encyclopedia an invaluable starting point. A researcher looking into
cultural influences on American popular music might find the Encyclopedia of American
Cultural & Intellectual History a useful resource for identifying ideas and further resources.
Gazetteers
A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary that includes brief descriptive, geographical,
historical, and/or statistical information on specific places. For example, the Columbia Gazetteer
of North America provides brief description and location information for places throughout
North America. Library Reference Collections typically have numerous gazetteers covering the
entire world or regions of the world. Occasionally, a gazetteer may focus on a specific subject
area, such as is the case with the reference work, Susan B. Anthony Slept Here: a Guide to
American Women's Landmarks.

24

Handbooks
Also frequently referred to as manuals, handbooks are typically practitioners' guides to
specific fields. For example, a chemist or physicist will be familiar with the CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics, a standard reference for the chemical and physical sciences. An educator
will likely be familiar with the Fourth Handbook of Research on Teaching. Handbooks will also
be available in the library's general collection, but the Reference Collection is typically the home
for the most recent editions of specialized handbooks for various fields of research.
Indexes
Indexes are usually thought of as guides to articles in periodicals and newspapers. While
this is generally true, there are other types of indexes as well. For example, the UNF Library's
Reference Collection houses nearly 500 reference works that are described as indexes; only a
portion of these are actually indexes to periodicals and newspapers. Columbia Granger's Index to
Poetry in Anthologies is a prime example of an index that doesn't cover periodicals. The
Columbia Granger's indexes books of poetry, thus making it easier for a researcher to track down
a specific poem in a collection. This is just one example of the many types of indexes typically
found in a library's Reference Collection.
Books
Monographs often provide broad overviews of topics. These overviews are frequently much
more comprehensive than anything you can find in an encyclopedia and will often save you
time by providing a great deal of information in one place.

Pictorial Works
Certain subjects can be explained better if they are illustrated. Pictorial works use
photographs, drawings, or other types of illustration to help develop clearer understandings of
various topics. Some examples of typical pictorial works in the UNF Library's Reference
25

Collection are the Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms, the Visual Food
Encyclopedia, and the World Atlas of Birds. Many specialized encyclopedias and dictionaries
will include illustrative materials, but those that are profusely illustrated may be described as
"pictorial works" in the catalog.
Statistical Works
Reference Collections are particularly strong in their offerings of statistical works.
Researchers looking for data on nearly any subject can likely find ample statistical data in a
library's Reference Collection. Sources like Key Indicators of County Growth and Sourcebook of
Zip Code Demographics are excellent sources for demographic information. Books like Global
Report on Crime and Justice provide current figures related to criminal justice. While books like
Americans at Play: Demographics of Outdoor Recreation & Travel provide data on how
Americans spend their leisure time. Regardless of subject, a library's Reference Collection
should have a source that provides statistical data specific to the subject.
Yearbooks
Yearbooks can provide statistical data as well as topical articles updating information in a
variety of areas. The most commonly thought of yearbooks are encyclopedia yearbooks. These
yearly publications are used to update the information contained in a set of encyclopedias in
between revisions. An encyclopedia may not be revised on a yearly basis, so the yearbooks
provide the means for keeping the articles up to date without publishing a whole new edition.
Yearbooks may also be issued to update knowledge in a particular field. Examples of yearbooks
in the the UNF Library's Reference Collection include the Broadway Yearbook, which provides a
recap of the year's theatrical events, and the Europa World Yearbook, which annually updates
information on every country of the world.

26

Unit 3: Working with Electronic Information Sources

By completing this unit you will be able to:

discuss characteristics of electronic reference sources

outline criteria related to the evaluation of electronic sources

use search techniques appropriate to this format of information

Develop a quick reference guide to the use of an electronic information

source.

The field of reference service is very vast and dynamic. The basic purpose of any library
however small or big it may be, remains the same i.e., to collect; organize and disseminate the
information to meet the information requirements of its users.
Technological developments particularly with the introduction of computer technology,
communication technology, printing technology, reprography, etc., have added new dimensions
to the role of librarians in the dissemination of information.
With the introduction of IT, advances have been made not only in the format of reference sources
but also in the manner of providing reference service. One can have direct access to
computerized databases via terminals or the needed information can be made available to the
client through internet in no time, irrespective of where the information is available. Today the
emphasis in the libraries is shifting from 'acquisition of documents' to 'access 1to information'
thereby increases the scope of reference service to, no limit extent'. Libraries are passing through
a revolutionary phase which has changed the way of working of professionals in the libraries.
Under the changing scenario, library professionals are expected to be well acquainted with all
these developments which would help to meet the challenges of today.
One should know how to use computer for providing reference service, what the various forms
available of electronic reference sources are, how to access them, and how to select the best of
these sources. Today any reference librarian can provide a wealth of information by acquiring
non-print form of documents such as CD-ROMs and online databases.
Electronic resources refer to electronic versions of reference sources, primarily handbooks, and
specifically web-based versions.

27

EXAMPLES OF E-SOURCES
Now a good number of reference sources are available on internet and CD-ROMs, some
important ones are given below:
CD-ROM databases
CD-ROM is an acronym for compact disc read-only memory and is defined as a computer
based information storage and retrieval medium based on laser technology and a strong, highly
resistant 4.75 inch- diameter disk (Jasc, 1997)
CD-ROM databases were introduced into libraries in the mid 80s (Tenopir, 1989: 50). There are
two types of CD-ROM databases, namely, textual CD-ROMs and multimedia CD-ROMs.
Initially, the databases available were mostly bibliographic or bibliographic with abstracts
(Tenopir, 1989: 51). Encyclopedias and dictionaries have now been incorporated in the range of
products available on CD-ROMs in libraries.
The most widely used CD-ROM databases are bibliographic and bibliographic with abstract
and/or full text databases.
When the CD-ROM database was introduced initially, it provided a huge improvement in
searching as opposed to manual searching in printed publications.
Another improvement on the manual search was that CD-ROM allows for selecting and printing
of the relevant references, and allows the organization of the selected set according to the
preferences of the user, e.g. by date, journal title. Most recently links have been made in the CDROM database records that connect the user to a remote site via the Internet.
Online subscription databases
Online databases
Involve the use of a computer terminal or microcomputer to interact with a remote database, or
an organized collection of information in machine readable form, through a telecommunications
line or enhanced phone connection (Maloney, 1986
There are two categories of databases, namely, bibliographic databases in which citations may be
found, and full text databases in which the source documents itself can be found
The Internet and the World Wide Web
The Internet, or its precursor, ARPAnet, was created in 1969 by the United States government
(Chamberlain, 1997). During the 70s and 80's ARPAnet evolved into what is known as the

28

Internet. During this time the government and scientific community in the United States were
the primary users. During the early 90's the Internet became publicly known and its use
expanded rapidly with the development of the Web.
The Web is searched with the use of search engines. Search engines are essentially indexing or
directory services (Sherman, 1999: 54). Most search engines index a representative portion of the
entire content of the Web. A search engine is composed of three parts: a spider that reads every
page on a Web site that wants to be searchable, a program that creates an index of the pages and
a program that receives the request of the search engine user, searches the index and return the
results.
Advantages of e-resources

Speed of searching. Often many years of an index can be searched in one look up.

More access points. Paper files must be arranged in one logical order (for example,
alphabetically), with separate indexes for each additional way of looking up something.
This limits the ways you can search. An electronic database on businesses, for example,
may have dozens of different ways to find the information: telephone number, date of
incorporation, size of business, etc.

Ability to combine terms. It's possible to search under multiple access points all at once.
Such searching would be extremely time consuming to do manually.

Ability to get information not otherwise available. More and more information now exists
only in electronic format.

Disadvantages

You must be familiar with online searching, and search procedures vary widely among
the various databases.

The chances of finding clues through serendipity are eliminated.

An error in spelling can mean no results at all.

Some search costs may be passed on to the patron.

Searching Electronic Resources

29

30

Online Searching Techniques

Boolean Operators
Boolean operators allow you to join terms together, widen a search or exclude terms from
your search results. This means you can be more precise in locating your information.
AND

OR

NOT

31

 Phrase Searching
It narrows your search down by searching for an exact phrase or sentence. It is particularly
useful when searching for a title or a quotation. Usually quotation marks are used to connect
the words together.
For example
Towards a healthier Scotland
Truncation / Wildcard Searching
These search techniques retrieve information on similar words by replacing part of the word
with a symbol usually a * or?. However, different databases use different symbols, so check
what is used.
i.

In truncation the end of the word is replaced.

For example physiother* will retrieve physiotherapy, physiotherapeutic,
physiotherapist and so on.

ii.

In wildcard searching, letters from inside the word are replaced.

For example wom*n will retrieve the terms woman and women.

Proximity Searching
It looks for documents where two or more separately matching term occurrences are within a
specified distance, where distance is the number of intermediate words or characters
For example
i.

Term A NEAR Term B

ii.

Term A ADJ Term B

Focusing / Limiting a Search

There are many ways to focus your search and all search tools offer different ways of doing
this. Some of the ways of limiting your search are as follows:
i.

Date

ii.

Language

iii.

Place

iv.

Publication type

v.

Age groups

vi.

Type of material e.g. you could just need to find case studies
32

General Search Engines

A general search engine is a search engine that covers the overall Web, using its
own spider to collect Web pages for its own index. When to use a general search
engine;

When you have a well-defined topic or idea to research

When your topic is obscure

When you are looking for a specific site

When you want to search the full text of millions of Web pages

When you want to retrieve a large number of Web sites on your topic

When you want to search for particular types of documents, sites, file types,
languages, date last modified, geographical location, etc.

Examples include:
Google
Yahoo
AltaVista
FAST Search
MSN Search
Lycos
Excite

33

Scholarly Search Engines

These help one to search for academic information. Examples include:
Google Scholar
Infomine
Librarians Internet Index
Intute
Pinakes
Business Research
ISI Web of Science

34

Subject Directories
Also called Information Gateways and Virtual Libraries.
Subject directory is a catalog of sites collected and organized by humans. Subject directories are
often called subject "trees" because they start with a few main categories and then branch out
into subcategories, topics, and subtopics.
Directories are also useful for finding information on a topic when you don't have a precise idea
of what you need. Many large directories include a keyword search option which usually
eliminates the need to work through numerous levels of topics and subtopics.
Because directories cover only a small fraction of the pages available on the Web, they are most
effective for finding general information on popular or scholarly subjects. If you are looking for
something specific, use a search engine.
Examples include:
Yahoo Directory
Google Directory
Librarians Internet Index
About.com
Infomine

35

 The WWW Virtual Library

Specialized Subject Directories
Abi Logic
Solid Crawler
Academic Info
SOSIG - Social Science Information Gateway

Criteria for Evaluating Internet Information Resource

Scope
What items are included in the resource? Is the scope only implied, or is it stated through
metainformation such as an introduction? Does the actual scope of the resource match
expectations? Aspects of the scope include:

Breadth: What aspects of the subject are covered? Is the resource focused on a narrow
area or does it include related topics?

Depth: What is the level of detail provided about the subject? This is related to the level
of audience for which the resource has been designed, mentioned below.

Time: Is the information in the resource limited to certain time periods?

Format: A resource that provides links may restrict its scope to certain classes of
resources. For example, Telnet, Gopher, or FTP (File Transfer Protocol) resources may be
excluded from a WWW-oriented site.

Content
Is the information fact or opinion? Does the site contain original information or simply links?
Sites can be useful both as information resources in themselves and as links to other information.
However, users can be frustrated by lists of resources which look promising, but turn out to
simply contain more links.
36

Does the resource stand alone, or has it been abstracted from another source, perhaps losing
meaning or links in the process?
Specific factors related to the content include the accuracy, authority, currency, and uniqueness
of a resource.
Accuracy
Is the information in the resource accurate? A resource may be checked against other resources
or against information that the evaluator has.
Are there political, ideological, or other biases? The Internet has become a prime marketing and
advertising tool, and it is advisable to ask what motivation the author has for placing this
information on the Net. Frequently, the answer is that the information is placed to advertise, or to
support a particular point of view.
Authority
Does the resource have some reputable organization or expert behind it? Does the author have
standing in the field? Are sources of information stated? Is the information verifiable? Can the
author be contacted for clarification or to be informed of new information?
Currency
Is the resource updated or static? If it is updated, how frequently does this occur? Are dates of
update stated, and do these correspond to the information in the resource? Does the organization
or person hosting the resource appear to have a commitment to its ongoing maintenance and
stability?
The date stamping of files, which can be determined by many browsers, indicates the date of
change in the physical file; this may not reflect the currency of the information.
Uniqueness
Is the content of the resource available in other forms (at other sites, on a Gopher, in print, on
CD-ROM)? What advantages does this particular resource have? If the resource is derived from
another format, does it have all the features of the original? Have extra features been added?
Does it complement another resource, for example, by providing updates to a printed source?
On the Internet, a resource may be available from a number of different sources. For example,
the World Fact Book is available widely at various locations, in different editions, and in FTP,
Gopher, and HTML formats. This kind of redundancy may be valuable--a particular site may not
be available when required, and an alternative or mirror site may have to be used. Some users

37

may not be able to access certain types of resources, for example Telnet or image-based Web
sites, so the availability of alternative formats may be useful.
Links Made to Other Resources
If the value of the site lies in its links to other resources, are the links kept up to date, and made
to appropriate resources? Are the links made in such a way that it is clear that an external site is
being referred to? There are potential copyright issues with sites that, for instance, enclose an
external link in frames so that the source of the information is unclear.
Quality of Writing
Is the text well written? While hypertext linking and multimedia are important elements of the
Web, the bulk of the information content on the Web still lies in text, and quality of writing is
important for the content to be communicated clearly.
Graphic and Multimedia Design
Is the resource interesting to look at? Do the visual effects enhance the resource, distract from the
content, or substitute for content? If audio, video, virtual reality modeling, or other effects are
used, are they appropriate to the purpose of the source?
A related criterion is navigational design, mentioned below in the context of browsability and
organization.
Purpose and Audience
What is the purpose of the resource? Is it clearly stated? Does the resource fulfill the stated
purpose? The purpose needs to fit the intended audience for the resource.
Who are the intended users of this resource? At what level is the resource pitched: toward a
subject expert, a layperson, or a student? Will the resource satisfy the needs of the intended
users? Does the user group at which the site is aimed have the connectivity to access the
resource?
Reviews
What do reviewing services say about the site? The use of reviewing journals has been a
mainstay of the development of printed collections; librarians in the Internet environment will
need to become familiar with the strengths and weaknesses of the tools reviewing Internet
resources.

38

Workability
Is the resource convenient, and can it be used effectively? This is the area where criteria for
Internet resources differ most from print sources.
An issue in providing access to electronic documents is whether a library should provide links to
the originating site or "acquire" the publication for local access. Poor workability may indicate
that the library should store the data locally, if intellectual property considerations allow this.
Aspects of workability fall into a variety of areas.
User Friendliness
Is the resource easy to use? Are any necessary special commands clear? Is help information
available? Have user interface issues been addressed, such as menu design and readability of
screens?
Required Computing Environment
Can the resource be accessed with standard equipment and software, or are there special
software, password, or network requirements?
Has the resource been designed to work well with one software and user interface (for example,
the latest Netscape release on a T1 connection)? Is it difficult to use with others (for example,
Lynx at 2400 bits per second)? It is useful to test resources with a variety of browsers and
connections. Telnet resources may pose problems to users who have not installed a Telnet client.
Images and other multimedia may create problems if users have not installed the correct helper
application.
While the extent to which older browsers are currently used is a source of argument, there are
still Lynx-only, frames-challenged, and visually impaired users, and sites should attempt to meet
their needs. This criterion is less important where users are in a defined computing environment,
such as that provided by workstations in a particular library.
Searching
How effectively can information be retrieved from the resource? Is a useful search engine
provided? What operators and ranking features are available? Is use of the search engine
interface intuitive? Does the search engine index the whole resource?

39

Brows ability and Organization

Is the resource organized in a logical manner to facilitate the location of information? Is the
organizational scheme appropriate (e.g., chronological for a historical source or geographical for
a regional resource)?
Interactivity
Where interactive features such as forms and CGI (Common Gateway Interface) scripts are
provided, do they work? Do they add value to the site?
Connectivity
Can the resource be accessed reliably, or is it frequently overloaded or offline? Is the connection
one of limited bandwidth, so that pages take a long time to load or keystrokes a long time to
echo? Is a local mirror site available, or do international traffic charges have to be incurred?
Cost
Currently, Internet information resources are perceived as being free. However, costs do exist,
and they are likely to become more important. Costs can be divided into: (1) costs of connecting
to the resource, and (2) costs associated with the use of the intellectual property contained in the
resource.
Internet users paying traffic charges already have to consider the costs of connection, and they
may want include this in criteria for selection. For example, they may favor text-based rather
than image-intensive sites, if the information content is the same.
Increasingly, there will be sites where a charge is made for the intellectual content of the site.
Libraries have been dealing with pay-per-use online services such as Dialog for many years, but
the Internet has created an opportunity to make services available to end users for a fee. Libraries
have a role in negotiating subscriptions and site licenses for organizational access to services that
charge.
If online transactions are used to pay for information, the security of these transactions at a site
may become important. Services that have a version that costs money may be available with
limited functionality, for trial periods, or for free. Librarians will need to decide whether to
provide the enhanced or the limited version.

40

Unit 4: RESOURCE SHARING

By completing this unit you will be able to:

list and describe methods that libraries use to share information sources
Trace the evolution of the exchange of ideas and information on the Internet
from freenets to online communities and social networks.

give examples of local and non-local agencies that libraries may refer
questions and/or clients to

No library, however big it may be, is able to satisfy all the needs of its clientele due to various
constraints. It is because of this phenomenon that the concept of resource sharing has developed.
Initially the term used for resource sharing activities was library cooperation.
Definition of resource sharing in the Libraries Regulation: means making available to other
libraries the library resources owned by a board, the information contained in those resources
and the staff expertise required to locate and make available the information or the library
resources.
In its broadest sense, resource sharing is the common use by two or more libraries of each others
assets, whether they are, equipment, staff knowledge and expertise, materials, facilities, and/or
information resources. Libraries have formed resource sharing networks such as the consortia
DEVELOPMENT OF CONSORTIA
The term consortium literally means temporary cooperation of several powers or large
interests to effect some common purpose. A library consortium is a community (a cooperative)
of two or more information agencies which have formally agreed to coordinate, cooperate in, or
consolidate certain functions to achieve mutual objectives.
Types of Consortia
Consortia of multi-type libraries: In this type of consortium participating libraries are of different
types, such as public, academic and special
Consortia of same type of libraries: The members of such a consortium are of same type, such as
consortium of public libraries, consortium of academic libraries, etc. CSIR E-Journals
consortium is such a consortium
From the point of view of geographical region of coverage, the consortia may be of following
types:

41

Local level consortia: This consists of libraries situated in a particular city, town of district, e.g.
BOSLA (Bombay Science Librarians Association), which was possibly the first library
consortium of the country.
State level consortia: In such a consortium libraries of one particular state participate. There is
perhaps no such consortium in the country at present.
National level consortia: Libraries belonging to a country are its members. INDEST is a national
level consortium, but covering only libraries of scientific and technical institutions.
Regional level consortia: In such a consortium libraries of a particular region participate.
International level consortia: In this consortium libraries belonging to different countries
participate. This may be formed either by individual libraries, such as OCLC, or by bringing
different national consortia under one umbrella. Such federation of consortia is known as Meta
Consortia, such as International Coalition of Library Consortia, which comprises of nearly 150
library consortia from around the world.
From the point of view of subject or area of coverage there can be two types of consortia:
Single discipline oriented consortia: In such a consortium organizations dealing with same or
similar disciplines join hand, such as FORSA (Forum for Resource Sharing in Astronomy and
Astrophysics).
Multi-discipline oriented consortia: Such a consortium deals with resources in multiple
disciplines. UGC sponsored INFONET is such a consortium, which deals with multiple subjects.
FUNCTIONS OF CONSORTIA
It is obvious that the existing consortia are basically serving as buying clubs than consortia in the
real sense. But with little initiatives these can be developed into platforms for sharing valuable
resources available in different libraries of the country, both in print and non-print media. Not
only so, these consortia can also take up several other activities for the mutual benefit of the
participating libraries.
Information Resource Sharing
A consortium can undertake the following activities for promoting information resource sharing:
Cooperative collection development among the member libraries
Cooperative processing of information resources acquired through the consortium

42

 Creation of virtual digital library covering all the e-information resources available in member
libraries by networking of those libraries
Compilation of bibliographical and/or full-text database of the holdings of the member
libraries, both print and non-print
Sharing of information resources, both traditional and digital, of member libraries through
network or document delivery service as the case may be
Allowing reciprocal borrowing by the members of all libraries of the consortium
Digitization of valuable and rare collections of member libraries available in printed format and
providing access to such materials to the members of all the libraries of the consortium
Supporting member libraries for setting up institutional repositories, e-print archives, electronic
theses collection, etc.
Developing common interface to catalogues, databases and e-collection by creating portals
Creating interoperability among the member systems, databases and services
Other Resource Sharing
A consortium may also share other resources in the following manner for their mutual benefit of
the participating libraries [3]:
Sharing the storage facilities, thereby minimizing expenditure on space
Sharing of human resources at local, regional and national levels
Pooling of expert manpower and promoting professional development
Assist member libraries in creating information technology infrastructure
Facilitating joint preservation and archiving activities for print and digital materials
Initiating and supporting research projects of common interest
Collectively promoting, marketing and publicizing the library services
INTERLIBRARY LOAN
Interlibrary loan (Abbreviated ILL, and sometimes called interloan, document delivery or
document supply) is a service whereby a user of one library can borrow books or receive
photocopies of documents that are owned by another library. The user makes a request with their
local library, which, acting as an intermediary, identifies owners of the desired item, places the
request, receives the item, makes it available to the user, and arranges for its return.
Useful information for interlibrary loan users

43

Interlibrary loan policies vary from country to country and library to library.

New releases or high-demand titles are not always immediately available through ILL
because most libraries need to satisfy local demand first. Similar limitations apply to
textbooks.

The patron requesting the item does not need to identify a library who owns it. Librarians
offer this as a service for their patrons.

If an item is not available from libraries in your own country, it is possible, although
sometimes difficult, to get it from another country. Neighboring countries should be
tapped first for faster turnaround time. Insurance and shipping charges may be an issue.
Check with your local interlibrary loan staff regarding questions on these charges and
whether any costs will be passed on to you.

A rare book may be hard to obtain, but some libraries are willing to lend books that may
be considered rare in other places. Rare items are almost always restricted to on-site use,
meaning that the patron must use the book on library premises and will not be allowed to
take it home. The alternatives are to look for a reprint or newer edition, search for the
item at full-text or digitized book websites such as the Gutenberg Project or Google
Books, and if necessary, pay to have a microfilm copy made.

Journals are not usually loaned; rather, a photocopy is made of the needed article. Some
sources charge a copyright fee, which may be anywhere from $3 to $35 and sometimes
higher. Policies vary about whether these fees are passed on to the patron.

INFORMATION AND REFERRAL SERVICES

Thomas Childers defined information and referral (I&R) services as the facilitating the link
between a person with a need and the service, activity, information or advice outside the library
which can meet the need.
How to Maintain an Effective Information and Referral Service
First, it is essential to engage in collaborative planning, information sharing, and direct public
service (including charitable functions) with the local community. These steps are done by
attending networking meetings; email communication; resource fairs; or my favorite is taking a
tour of a local non-profit organization, which altogether will increase the public's awareness of
available resources. By partaking in the opportunities local organizations offer and networking

44

with those organizations, an Information and Referral service is enabled to more effectively meet
the needs of the diverse public which it serves.
Secondly and the most important components is maintaining a current database of information.
In the Information and Referral services field, the database is the most vital asset. Many
individuals depend upon the accuracy of information and availability of the resources that can
assist them. Maintaining an updated database is achieved through implementing regular
standards and practices.
Unit 5: The Reference Interview
By completing this unit you will be able to:

outline the components of an effective reference interview

develop procedures for conducting effective reference interviews

make recommendations for improving reference collections & services at your library

Bopp & Smith (1995) defines the reference interview as the "conversation between a member of
the library reference staff and a library user for the purpose of clarifying the users needs and
aiding the user in meeting those needs"
According to ODLIS, the reference interview is "the interpersonal communication that occurs
between a reference librarian and a library user to determine the person's specific information
need(s), which may turn out to be different from the reference question as initially posed...A
reference interview may occur in person, by telephone, or electronically (usually via e-mail) at
the request of the user, but a well-trained reference librarian will sometimes initiate
communication if a hesitant user appears to need assistance"

45

ELEMENTS IN A REFERENCE INTERVIEW

The Steps of the Reference Interview
Following the steps of the Reference Interview can help library customers articulate what
information they really need.
1. Approachability
Everyone who lives and works in your community needs information. Discovering the
needs of each individual who comes into the library calls for people skills. Sometimes the
first question a patron asks is really just trying to find out if you are approachable and
friendly. These questions may range from Do you work here? to Where are the dog
books? So your job is to go from that initial contact with the patron to actually finding out
their needs.

Smiles

Establishes eye contact

Gives a friendly greeting; Sometimes patrons are really just trying to find out if you
are an approachable, friendly person. Sometimes the first question they ask sounds
like a question, but they are just feeling you out. For example Where is the section
on dogs?

2. Interest

Maintain eye contact

Makes attentive comments

Gives full attention

Speaks in comfortable, relaxed tone

Confidential place to ask a question.

3. Listening (Characteristics of a good listener)

46

A good listener gives patrons a chance to tell you what they want. Listening to a patron
without interrupting or jumping to conclusions is a necessary skill for successful reference
service. You need to discover what the patron really wants. There may be reasons why a
patron is hesitant to ask the real question they need the answer for.
What are the patrons real information needs?
A good listener does not interupt.
Paraphrase in your own words to demonstrate understanding (You repeat back what the
patron said in their own words without adding any thoughts or questions of your own.
Paraphrasing can help with a patron who keeps repeating their request over and over.)
Ask clarifying questions if not sure about request (Clarifying can be used to make sure you
have all the details you need. Such as Do you need black and white photos or color
photos?)

4. Interviewing (Discovering what the client really wants)

Open ended questions are an effective way to give your patrons the freedom to express the
information needs in their own words. Open ended questions can not be answered with yes
or no. Verifying a question gives you one last opportunity to make sure you have the
patrons real quesiton.
Ask open questions to probe. (The open ended questions also give patrons a change to
express information needs in their own words. You dont have to know about a subject with
open ended questions. Let the patron tell you.) Closed ended questions just dont get you
much closer to the real information need.
Verify specific question by paraphrasing and using a closed question to confirm request.
Verifying avoids jumping to conclusions.
5. Searching
Keep customer informed of progress

47

Offer referrals
This may be an opportunity for information literacy by searching with the patron.
6. Answering
Speak clearly and distinctly
Cite the source
Check with customer to be sure the information is understood

7. Follow-up
Ask the patron if they have everything they need improves your success rate. You know you
have found the information the patron really wanted.
Use appropriate follow-up questions or statement
This is the only way to make sure the patron has what they need is to ask.

Typical Patron Problems

Unrealistic Expectations
Many library users, for a variety of reasons, fail to ask for help. Typically, only a minority of
users will ask for help. Many are unaware of the services available. Others are fearful of loss of
face if they ask for help. Often, user expectations are embarrassingly low. In some cases, they
may not ask for help because they assume that no one can help.
Expectations may also be impossibly high. Some users may assume that the information
professional can answer any question quickly and easily. Another common assumption is that
any query can be quickly and fully answered via a WWW search engine.
Assumptions
The reference interview literature mentions several assumptions sometimes made by reference
staff. A few of these are mentioned below. Each diserves reflection, analysis and discussion.

48

WANTS = NEEDS
Some major studies and some reference librarians suggest that most reference encounters do not
require an interview because the client's wants are appropriate. No interview or mediation is
necessary. The contrary view is that many users do not have a clear sense of what is needed and
require help. If most users can be successful with "self-service," then reference staff might
become a clerical, para-professional activity involving mostly directional help.

TEACH
Information professionals should teach clients how to do their own information work. This is
common in both academic and public libraries. Since many users prefer not to ask for help and
reference staff may not be available when help is needed, it is important to teach users how to
analyze information wants/needs, identify likely resources, retrieve resources, and evaluate their
utility. As more library users prefer to do their own reference work via the WWW from home,
teaching is likely to become more important as traffic in the reference room declines.
PROVIDE ANSWERS
The notion that information professionals should provide clients with the answers is most often
encountered in special libraries and information centers. It makes little sense of a research biochemist to do online or WWW searching when a library reference staff member can do it better
(and much less expensively).
LITTLE TIME
There is enough evidence to make this a well-supported generalization. Still, evidence is growing
that many reference departments experience declining business as more users turn to the WWW
for their information wants. It may be that there will be more time available for each client in the
future because there will be fewer clients. In the past, information professionals have had limited
time to spend with each client. This means that the reference encounter is often quick and may be
incomplete.
CONVENIENCE
Information professionals and clients select resources that are easily available rather than those
that are most helpful. The most used resources may not be the best but simply the easiest to
access. There is also some evidence that staff use older standard sources that they are familiar

49

with even when newer, better sources are available. It may take some time and effort to become
familiar with the newer sources and place them on the ready reference shelves.
EASE OF USE
Library staff and clients select resources that are easiest to use event though those might not
provide the best information. Useful sources that require some effort to understand and use
effectively will require considerable "handselling" by the reference staff.

AGREEMENT
Clients find resources credible and accurate when information found agrees with their
expectations, knowledge and views. This is particularly troublesome with students who may be
most comfortable with unsupported information found in the mass media or on the WWW.
Without evaluation skills, almost any information source may appear to be authoritative.
SATURATION
I suspect that there is enough evidence on this to move it out of the assumptions class. Most
clients quickly become overwhelmed with information. Thy can only digest small amounts of
information at a time. The eager reference librarian who supplies several sources and search
strategies may be disappointed to discover that the user will only examine one or two resources.
This is a problem if the user does not come back and ask for addition help when these few
resources prove inadequate.
SAME PATH
Information professionals often follow the same path in answering a question even if the
particulars make a different path more useful to the client. This is likely to be the case when the
staff is overwhelmed and little time can be given to individuals or when the staff member is tired
and fails to listen with care.
Information professionals may also answer a question by redefining the question to match a
familiar strategy or resource. This result in giving a good answer to a question that the user did
not ask.

50

IGNORANCE OR ANXIETY
In some cases, the client does not know what she wants or needs. Students, for example, may not
understand the assignment expectations. The reference interview becomes especially important
here because without it the user is likely to be wholly unsuccessful.
Some clients may disguise the real question with a generality because they are anxious about the
subject, especially if it is controversial. They generally know what they want, but don't want to
be connected with the topic.
The reference encounter
The reference encounter, like that between physician and patient, is a one to one relationship
with the information professional in command. However, it may be better to see this as a shared
responsibility with both the user and the professional contributing toward success.
Evidence strongly suggests that most reference encounters do not include a reference interview.
Perhaps, there is no need for an interview or there may be not time for one. Still, the thoughtful,
full reference interview is not common. Can we afford the interview? There may be too few
professionals and too many customers. Why not take questions at face value?

Variables That Affect the Interview

Client Variables
COLLECTION KNOWLEDGE
The more that the client knows about local holdings, the less likely that she will limite herself to
one or two highly visible sources. Users often ask for resources that have used in the past. Users
with more and better library experience will have more realistic expectations and perhaps expect
more.
The more that the client knows about resources on the topic, the more likely that she will be
aware of possibilities. She may have exhausted the obvious local resources, and need to go
beyond them. In some situations, the client may be aware of resources available in distant
collections, but need help in identifying and retrieving those.
VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE
Nearly all academic disciplines, professions, and leisure-time activities have their own jargon or
vocabulary. Often, the most important benefit of completing undergraduate survey courses is to

51

become familiar with the nomenclature. The more familiar the user is with this specialized
vocabulary, the easier it will be for them to use specialized indexing and abstracting services and
other subject bibliographies.
COMFORT LEVEL
Many are uncomfortable in using the library. Many library users are uncomfortable in asking for
help. This is a substantial and continuing barrier that prevents many users from benefitting from
reference service. Those users who are comfortable in asking for help are more likely to be
successful. Those users who are also willing to indicate why the information is needed or what
they hope to do with it are most likely to be successful.

KNOWING WHAT IS NEEDED

Being able to identify the problem that the information will solve makes an enormous difference.
Consider the difference between the student who clearly understands what the professor wants
and the student who doesn't. The client who knows what she needs and how the information will
be used is much more likely to have a successful experience.
PATIENCE
The client who wants a quick, simple answer may not get a good one. The client who is patient
and willing to deal with sources that require more effort and thought is likely to be successful.
Some queries cannot be handled in only a minute or two.
CLIENT LOCATION
The WWW has encouraged users to believe that almost any reference question can be answered
at home with just a few strokes of the keyboard. Convenience has become more important that
the quality or the utility of the information found. Those who are willing to go to the library and
work directly [face to face] with reference staff are more likely to be successful.
Professional Variables
SERVICE ATTITUDE
The successful reference professional cares about clients [empathy] and enjoys face to face
interactions. She is not judgmental and cheerful serves all regardless of their appearance or
status. Her style and manner keep clients at ease. She is careful to insure that users do not lose
face. Working the desk is something that is a reward rather than a punishment. She really enjoys

52

helping people to solve problems. She is never too busy too help and walks the floor when the
press of business allows.
In working with the client, she encourages interaction and participation. She keeps the client
informed of what she is doing and why. In particular, she avoids premature recommendations.
The reference librarian is able to explain what has been done, and why. If possible, the librarian
contacts users to see if their needs were met and if they were successful. Each encounter with a
user ends with proper closure. In particular, it is important for the professional and the client to
know what will happen next.
In all of the above, body language is extremely important. Success in public service requires:

Warmth

Eye contact

Smiles

Friendly voice

Cheerful face

Customers see and hear a variety of cues that tell them if you are genuinely interested or not. It is
hard to hide disinterest or boredom.
LISTENING SKILL
Above all, the reference librarian must be a good listener. Active listening is a skill that can be
learned and sharpened. It requires focused attention on the user regardless of the circumstances.
QUESTIONING SKILL
Putting the user at ease and good listening are preconditions for interview success. Still, being
able to ask the right question in the right manner makes all the difference in the world. To
understand the need, you must ask a question about the situation that generated it [why do you
need information?]. Users may not wish to reveal the situation because of privacy and loss of
face issues. In a few cases, users may reveal more than the professional wishes to hear.
To understand the need, you must understand how the client is going to use the information
sought [ "I could help you better if I knew how you will be using this information"]. Again,
privacy issues can be a concern. The skillful questioner will be able to establish rapport and ask
questions in a natural, non-threatening way.

53

To help the client, you must know what she has already done (prior search history). This question
needs to be handled in such a way that the user does not lose face or feels inadequate. Without
some skill, this type of question can be seen as a put-down by the user.
As mentioned above, it is important to be able to acknowledge and restate the question quickly
and naturally. Paraphrasing the question is often useful. It also demonstrates to the user that the
librarian is focused and paying attention.
COMPETENCE
The successful reference professional is familiar with a broad range of reference sources in
different formats. Her knowledge of local and some distant collections is substantial. She has an
active current awareness program to keep up with new resources. In addition to her general
knowledge, she is more than familiar with some subject areas likely to interest community
members. She is able to match resources to queries and knows how to use these resources
effectively.
Competence also includes her knowledge of the reference interview and an ability to discover
what information is needed.
IDENTIFY CONSTRAINTS
The successful reference librarian is able to identify constraints that need to be considered. The
amount of time available is one example. Patron attributes likely to affect information use is
another? Gaps in the local collection could be another.
The thoughtful professional needs to know what can reasonably be done. Often, limits will need
to be placed on the search. Only a few searches can be comprehensive. That doesn't mean that
the librarian can give up whenever a difficult question appears. Working with the user, and being
aware of constraints, the librarian is aware of realistic expectations and shares those with the
client.
As much as possible, potential problems are anticipated. Too little information available and too
much available information are typical problems that will be anticipated by the experienced
librarian.
Environment
The environment where the interaction occurs plays a substantial role in success. A friendly,
attractive environment will attract users and more questions. A dark, unfriendly environment may

54

limit use to the hard core user. Limited hours discourage use. Longer hours, especially for
evenings and weekends, should increase use.
SIGNAGE
Ideally, when someone enters the library, they should find it quite simple and straight forward to
locate the reference department. More than adequate signage is essential.
ARRANGEMENT
A logical, highly visible arrangement should make it easy to find help and particular items in
collections. Service points should be well marked and highly visible. Friendly, approachable staff
should be seen from throughout the area.
ATTITUDE
Reference staff should be walking the floor or scanning the floor if they are at the desk. When
reference staff work at the desk and eye contact is minimal, customers feel that the staff are "too
busy" to bother.
POLICIES/PROCEDURES
Policies and procedures provide reference staff with rules about such things as how much time to
spend with a client or if the telephone call is more important than the patron at the desk.
Orientation, on-the-job training, and continuing education opportunities should be reflected in
appropriate policies. Measures of success should also be highly visible in mission, goals, and
objectives and in the regular evaluation of reference staff.
STAFF
One of the notable trends in library staffing in the past few decades has been the replacement of
professionals by para-professionals. While this has been most visible in the technical services, it
is likely to impact reference service too. The proper mix of paraprofessionals and professionals
can yield considerable success.
The Changing Nature of Reference Services
As the form of the library has evolved in the years since Samuel Greens seminal
pronouncements in 1876, so too has the nature of reference services. Today it stretches far
beyond the walls of the library and strives to far loftier ends than welcoming users to the library
with a cultivated female staff. Academic libraries in particular have already seen a slowing of

55

traffic to the physical library and the increasing use of the librarys online resources. Users can
ask questions 24/7 through virtual reference and expect an immediate response.
Likewise, they can access electronic resources that the library provides through its Web site.
Virtual reference is growing quickly; the appeal of instant messaging and like services point to a
generational paradigm shift ahead. These online reference services have the advantage of being
convenient and necessary in our fast-paced world.
In numerous forms and fashions, technology continues to change reference services. Libraries
must be ready to learn new technology and adapt to the needs of users unable to imagine a world
without technology. Like few other professionals, librarians must be willing to ride the waves of
such change, adapting to meet the needs of their users. Whether it is the cell phone, the Palm
Pilot, the MP3 player, or the iPod, users will want to receive and read their information on this
new technology.
New models of reference are also developing to meet different user needs.
Libraries are adding more points of service. For example, an information desk near the front of
the library, a reference service point combined with other library services or an in-depth
reference center where a user can sit down with a librarian and work out a plan for researching a
paper have all been instituted to positive effect at libraries around the world. In other situations,
librarians rove the reference area to help users who do not approach the reference desk.
These and other new strategies are changing the way information services are offered. As we
look ahead, we must be aware that reference work will no doubt be based increasingly on
electronic means of communication. It will at the same time continue to be a personal service
although not necessarily face to face. There will be more emphasis on electronic materials while
some older materials will still need to be consulted in print format. Even so, the way we find
information and convey it is as fundamental today as it ever was. In the chapters ahead, we
explore the cutting edge of contemporary reference, demonstrating how to keep this crucial
service central to the modern library.

56

Unit 6: Use of library 2.0 in the provision of library services

By completing this unit you should be able to:

Discuss the current trends of reference services in libraries

Library 2.0 as the application of interactive, collaborative, and multi-media web-based

technologies to web-based library services and collections, and suggests this definition be
adopted by the library science community.
Library 2.0 could be understood to have these four essential elements:

It is user-centered. Users participate in the creation of the content and services they view
within the library's web-presence, OPAC, etc. The consumption and creation of content is
dynamic, and thus the roles of librarian and user are not always clear.

It provides a multi-media experience. Both the collections and services of Library 2.0
contain video and audio components. While this is not often cited as a function of Library
2.0, it is here suggested that it should be.

It is socially rich. The library's web-presence includes users' presences. There are both
synchronous (e.g. IM) and asynchronous (e.g. wikis) ways for users to communicate with
one another and with librarians.

It is communally innovative. This is perhaps the single most important aspect of Library
2.0. It rests on the foundation of libraries as a community service, but understands that as
communities change, libraries must not only change with them, they must allow users to
change the library. It seeks to continually change its services, to find new ways to allow
communities, not just individuals to seek, find, and utilize information.

Synchronous Messaging
This technology has already been embraced quite rapidly by the library community. More widely known
as instant messaging (IM), it allows real-time text communication between individuals. Libraries have
begun employing it to provide "chat reference" services, where patrons can synchronously communicate
with librarians much as they would in a face-to-face reference context.
Many might consider IM a Web 1.0 technology, as its inception predates the technology market crash and
it often requires the downloading of software, whereas most 2.0 applications are wholly web-based. It is
here considered 2.0 as it is consistent with the tenets of Library 2.0: it allows a user presence within the

57

library web-presence; it allows collaboration between patrons and librarians; and it allows a more
dynamic experience than the fundamentally static, created-then-consume nature of 1.0 services. It is also
considered 2.0 as it is becoming a more web-based application, and the software used by chat reference
services is usually much more robust that the simplistic IM applications that are so popular (they often
allow co-browsing, file-sharing, screen-capturing, and data sharing and mining of previous transcripts).
The future of these technologies in the library arena is interesting. By providing this interactive Web
service, libraries have positioned themselves to adopt its successors quickly and expertly. Already the
text-based nature of IM applications is changing into a more multi-media experience, where audio and
video messaging is becoming more common. Even as they provide more multi-sensory experiences, they
will become ubiquitous, available throughout the library's web-presence. Already libraries are placing
links to their chat reference services within resources themselves, such as at the article level in
subscription databases. Much as a patron in a physical library is almost by definition never far from a
librarian, chat reference becoming more pervasive could provide a similar circumstance in the world of
the Web. The time is perhaps not far away when chat reference can take place within the framework of the
library network, providing a more seamless experience.
Further, it is conceivable that should a user allow such a service, these chat reference services can be
prompted when certain user seeking behaviors are detected. For instance, as a user browses through
certain resources, repeating steps and moving cyclically through a classification scheme or series of
resources, a synchronous messaging service could be prompted to offer assistance. The physical
counterpart to this is of course a patron wandering in book stacks, and a librarian, sensing their
aimlessness, offering help. Library 2.0 will know when users are lost, and will offer immediate, real-time
assistance.
Libraries may do well to continue adopting this technology as it evolves, as it allows reference services in
an online media to closely approximate the more traditional services of the physical library. The time will
almost certainly soon come when Web reference is nearly indistinguishable from face-to-face reference;
librarians and patrons will see and hear each other, and will share screens and files. In addition, the
transcripts these sessions already provide will serve library science in ways that face-to-face reference
never did. For the first time in the history of libraries, there will be a continuously collected transcription
of the reference transaction, always awaiting evaluation, analysis, cataloging, and retrieval for future
reference.

58

Streaming Media
The streaming of video and audio media is another application that many might consider Web
1.0, as it also predates Web 2.0 thinking and was widely employed before many of the following
technologies had even been invented. But for reasons similar to synchronous messaging, it is
here considered 2.0. Certainly, for libraries to begin maximizing streaming media's usefulness for
their patrons, 2.0 thinking will be necessary.
As mentioned, library instruction delivered online has begun incorporating more interactive,
media-rich facets. The static, text-based explanation coupled with a handout to be downloaded is
being supplanted by more experiential tutorials. The Association of College and Research
Libraries' Instruction Section provides a database of tutorials, many of which are Web 2.0 in their
nature, called Peer Reviewed Instructional Materials Online (PRIMO).
Many of these tutorials use Flash programming, screen-cast software, or streaming audio or
video, and couple the media presentation with interactive quizzing; users respond to questions
and the system responds in kind. These tutorials are perhaps the first of library services to
migrate into more the more socially rich Web 2.0. Most, if not all, however, do not generally
provide a means by which users can interact with one another, nor directly with librarians. This
fact marks a possible potential for the continued development of these tutorials. These could take
the form of multi-media chat rooms or wikis, and users will interact with one another and the
learning object at hand, much as they would in a classroom or instruction lab.
Another implication of streaming media for libraries is more along the lines of collections
instead of services. As media is created, libraries will inevitably be the institutions responsible
for archiving and providing access to them. It will not be enough to simply create hardcopies of these objects and allow users to access them within the confines of the library's
physical space, however. Media created by the Web on the Web belongs on the Web, and libraries
are already beginning to explore providing such through digital repository applications and
digital asset management technologies. Yet these applications are generally separate from the
library's catalog, and this fracture will need to be mended. Library 2.0 will show no distinction
between or among formats and the points at which they may be accessed.

59

Blogs and Wikis

Blogs and wikis are fundamentally 2.0, and their global proliferation has enormous implications
for libraries. Blogs may indeed be an even greater milestone in the history of publishing than
web-pages. They enable the rapid production and consumption of Web-based publications. In
some ways, the copying of printed material is to web-pages as the printing press is to blogs.
Blogs are HTML for the masses.
The most obvious implication of blogs for libraries is that they are another form of publication
and need to be treated as such. They lack editorial governance and the security this provides, but
many are nonetheless integral productions in a body of knowledge, and the absence of them in a
library collection could soon become unthinkable. This will, of course, greatly complicate
collection development processes, and the librarian will need to exercise a great deal of expertise
and fastidiousness when adding a blog to a collection (or, perhaps, an automated blog-collection
development system). Or, perhaps the very notions of "reliable" and "authoritative", so important
to collection development, will need to be rethought in the wake of this innovation.
Wikis are essentially open web-pages, where anyone registered with the wiki can publish to it,
amend it, and change it. Much as blogs, they are not of the same reliability as traditional
resources, as the frequent discussions of Wikipedia (an online encyclopedia where any registered
user can write, amend or otherwise edit articles) in the library world well note; but this of course
does not eliminate their value, it merely changes librarianship, complicates collection
development and information literacy instruction. The lack of peer review and editorship is a
challenge to librarians, not in that users should avoid wikis, but only in that they should
understand and be critical in depending on them. Wikis as items in a collection, and the
associated instruction of users in the evaluation of them, are almost certainly part of the future of
libraries.
In addition, a library wiki as a service can enable social interaction among librarians and patrons,
essentially moving the study group room online. As users share information and ask questions,
answer questions, and librarians do the same within a wiki, a record of these transactions is
archived perhaps for perpetuity. And these transcripts are in turn resources for the library to
provide as reference. Furthermore, wikis and blogs will almost certainly evolve into a more
multi-media environment as well, where both synchronous and asynchronous audio and video

60

collaborations will take place. Blogs are new forms of publication, and wikis are new forms of
group study rooms.
Ultimately, blogs and wikis are relatively quick solutions for moving library collections and
services into Web 2.0. This beginning of Library 2.0 makes collections and services more
interactive and user-centered, enable information consumers to contact information producers
and become co-producers themselves. It could be that Library 2.0 blurs the line between librarian
and patron, creator and consumer, authority and novice. The potential for this dramatic change is
very real and immediate, a fact that places an incredible amount of importance on information
literacy. In a world where no information is inherently authoritative and valid, the critical
thinking skills of information literacy are paramount to all other forms of learning.
Social Networks
Social networks are perhaps the most promising and embracing technology discussed here. They
enable messaging, blogging, streaming media, and tagging, discussed later. MySpace, FaceBook,
Del.icio.us, Frappr, and Flickr are networks that have enjoyed massive popularity in Web 2.0.
While MySpace and FaceBook enable users to share themselves with one another (detailed
profiles of users' lives and personalities), Del.icio.us enables users to share Web resources and
Flickr enables the sharing of pictures. Frappr is a bit of a blended network, using maps, chat
rooms, and pictures to connect individuals.
Other social networks are noteworthy as well. LibraryThing enables users to catalog their books
and view what other users share those books. The implications of this site on how librarians
recommend reading to users are apparent. LibraryThing enables users, thousands of them
potentially, to recommend books to one another simply by viewing one another's collections. It
also enables them to communicate asynchronously, blog, and tag their books.
It does not require much imagination to begin seeing a library as a social network itself. In fact,
much of libraries' role throughout history has been as a communal gathering place, one of shared
identity, communication, and action. Social networking could enable librarians and patrons not
only to interact, but to share and change resources dynamically in an electronic medium. Users
can create accounts with the library network, see what other users have in common to their
information needs, recommend resources to one another, and the network recommends resources
to users, based on similar profiles, demographics, previously-accessed sources, and a host of data
that users provide. And, of course, these networks would enable users to choose what is public

61

and what is not, a notion that could help circumvent the privacy issues Library 2.0 raises and
which Litwin (2006) well enumerates.
Of all the social aspects of Web 2.0, it could be that the social network and its successors most
greatly mirror that of the traditional library. Social networks, in some sense, are Library 2.0. The
face of the library's web-presence in the future may look very much like a social network
interface.
Tagging
Tagging essentially enables users to create subject headings for the object at hand. As Shanhi
(2006) describes, tagging is essentially Web 2.0 because it allows users to add and change not
only content (data), but content describing content (metadata). In Flicker, users tag pictures. In
Library Thing, they tag books. In Library 2.0, users could tag the library's collection and thereby
participate in the cataloging process.
Tagging simply makes lateral searching easier. The often-cited example of the U.S. Library of
Congress's Subject Heading cookery, which no English speaker would use when referring to
cookbooks, illustrates the problem of standardized classification. Tagging would turn the
useless cookery to the useful cookbooks instantaneously, and lateral searching would
be greatly facilitated.
Of course, tags and standardized subjects are not mutually exclusive. The catalog of Library 2.0
would enable users to follow both standardized and user-tagged subjects; whichever makes most
sense to them. In turn, they can add tags to resources. The user responds to the system, the
system to the user. This tagged catalog is an open catalog, a customized, user-centered catalog. It
is library science at its best.
RSS Feeds
RSS feeds and other related technologies provide users a way to syndicate and republish content
on the Web. Users republish content from other sites or blogs on their sites or blogs, aggregate
content on other sites in a single place, and ostensibly distill the Web for their personal use. Such
syndication of content is another Web 2.0 application that is already having an impact on
libraries, and could continue to do so in remarkable ways.
Already libraries are creating RSS feeds for users to subscribe to, including updates on new
items in a collection, new services, and new content in subscription databases. They are also

62

republishing content on their sites. Varnum (2006) provides a blog that details how libraries use
RSS feeds for patron use.
But libraries have yet to explore ways of using RSS more pervasively. A new product from a
company called BlogBridge, BlogBridge: Library (BBL), "is a piece of software that you can
install on your own server, inside your firewall. It's not the content of the library (the books), it's
the software to organize the library (the building)." While BBL's potential for libraries has yet to
be determine due to its being brand new, it is conceivable that this syndication will replace
browsing and searching through library websites for content. BBL and similar RSS aggregator
applications, installed in a library's system and coupled with the social network of the library,
will enable users to have a single, customized, personal library page that syndicates all the
library content of interest to them and their research, eliminating irrelevant information. And
users will, of course, control that page and that content.
Mashups
Mashups are perhaps the single conceptual underpinning to all the technologies discussed above.
They are ostensibly hybrid applications, where two or more technologies or services are
conflated into a completely new, novel service. Users search for images by sketching images. In
some ways, many of the technologies discussed above are mashups in their very nature. Another
example is WikiBios, a site where users create online biographies of one another, essentially
blending blogs with social networks.
Library 2.0 is a mashup. It is a hybrid of blogs, wikis, streaming media, content aggregators,
instant messaging, and social networks. Library 2.0 remembers a user when they log in. It allows
the user to edit OPAC data and metadata, saves the user's tags, IM conversations with librarians,
wiki entries with other users (and catalogs all of these for others to use), and the user is able to
make all or part of their profile public; users can see what other users have similar items
checked-out, borrow and lend tags, and a giant user-driven catalog is created and mashed with
the traditional catalog.
Library 2.0 is completely user-centered and user-driven. It is a mashup of traditional library
services and innovative Web 2.0 services. It is a library for the 21st century, rich in content,
interactivity, and social activity.

63

Conclusion
All together, the use of these Web 2.0 technologies and applications, along with others not here
mentioned and others not yet invented, will constitute a meaningful and substantive change in
the history of libraries. The library's collection will change, becoming more interactive and fully
accessible. The library's services will change, focusing more on the facilitation of information
transfer and information literacy rather than providing controlled access to it. The best
conception of Library 2.0 at this point in time would be a social network interface that the user
designs. It is a personalized OPAC that includes access to IM, RSS feeds, blogs, wikis, tags, and
public and private profiles within the library's network. It is virtual reality of the library, a place
where one can not only search for books and journals, but interact with a community, a librarian,
and share knowledge and understanding with them. Library 1.0 moved collections and sparse
services into the online environment, and Library 2.0 will move the full suite of library services
into this electronic medium. The library has had a web-presence for many years, and with
Library 2.0, its patrons will be joining it.
While Library 2.0 is a change, it is of a nature close to the tradition and mission of libraries. It
enables the access to information across society, the sharing of that information, and the
utilization of it for the progress of the society. Library 2.0, really, is merely a description of the
latest instance of a long-standing and time-tested institution in a democratic society. Web 2.0 and
libraries are well suited for marriage, and many librarians have recognized so.
Despite this change fitting so well with the history of libraries and their mission, it is still a major
paradigmatic shift for librarianship to open not just access to their catalogs and collections, but
access to their control. Library 2.0 demands libraries focus less on secured inventory systems and
more on collaborative discovery systems. There is perhaps a great synchronicity between
librarianship and Web 2.0, but viewed holistically, Library 2.0 will revolutionize the profession.
Rather than creating systems and services for patrons, librarians will enable users to create them
for themselves. A profession steeped in decades of a culture of control and predictability will
need to continue moving toward embracing facilitation and ambiguity. This shift corresponds to
similar changes in library history, including the opening of book stacks and the inclusion of
fiction and paperbacks in the early 20th century.

64

Library 2.0 is not about searching, but finding; not about access, but sharing. Library 2.0
recognizes that human beings do not seek and utilize information as individuals, but as
communities. Some examples of the move from Library 1.0 to Library 2.0 include:

Email reference/Q&A pages ---> Chat reference

Text-based tutorials ---> Streaming media tutorials with interactive databases

Email mailing lists, webmasters ---> Blogs, wikis, RSS feeds

Controlled classification schemes ---> Tagging coupled with controlled schemes

OPAC ---> Personalized social network interface

Catalog of largely reliable print and electronic holdings ---> Catalog of reliable and
suspect holdings, web-pages, blogs, wikis, etc.

65